Nervous System Cells of the Nervous System

1. Neurons
Main Divisions of Nervous System1
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
• receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and
transmit signals to other neurons or effector
organs
neuron (nerve cell) has a:
• Cell body – which contains a single nucleus
• Dendrite – which is a cytoplasmic extension
from the cell body, that usually receives
information from other neurons and transmits
the information to the cell body

• brain and spinal cord • Axon – which is a single long cell process that
leaves the cell body at the axon hillock and
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) conducts sensory signals to the CNS and motor
• All the nervous tissue outside the CNS signals away from the CNS

Sensory division
• Conducts action potentials from sensory
receptors to the CNS
Motor division
• Conducts action potentials to effector organs,
such as muscles and glands
Somatic nervous system
• Transmits action potentials from the CNS to
skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system
• Transmits action potentials from the CNS to
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
Enteric nervous system
• A special nervous system found only in the
digestive tract. TYPES OF NEURONS
Multipolar neurons
-have many dendrites and a single axon.
-Most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly
all motor neurons are multipolar.
Bipolar neurons
-have two processes: one dendrite and one axon.
-Bipolar neurons are located in some sensory Oligodendrocytes
organs, such as in the retina of the eye and in the
-provide myelin to neurons in
nasal cavity.
the CNS.
Pseudo-unipolar neurons
Schwann cells
-have a single process extending from the cell
body, which divides into two processes as short -provide myelin to neurons in the
distance from the cell body.
PNS.
-One process extends to the periphery, and the
Satellite Cells
other extends to the CNS.
-found around the cell bodies of certin neurons in
-The two extensions function as a single axon
the PNS
with small, dendrite-like sensory receptors at the
periphery.

2. Glial cells (neuroglia)

• supportive cells of the CNS and PNS, meaning
these cells do not conduct action potentials. Myelin Sheath
Instead, glial cells carry out different functions
Myelin sheaths
that enhance neuron function and maintain
normal conditions within nervous tissue. - are specialized layers that wrap around the
axons of some neurons, those neurons are
TYPES OF GLIAL CELLS
termed, myelinated.
Astrocytes
-The sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes in
- serve as the major supporting cells in the CNS.
the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS.
---Astrocytes can stimulate or inhibit the signaling
activity of nearby neurons and form the blood- -Myelin is an excellent insulator that prevents
brain barrier.
almost all ion movement across the cell
Ependymal cells
membrane.
-line the cavities in the brain that contains
Nodes of Ranvier
cerebrospinal fluid.
-gaps in the myelin sheath
Microglial cells -occur about every milimeter
- Ion movement can occur at the nodes of
-act in an immune function in the CNS by
Ranvier.
removing bacteria and cell debris.
- Myelination of an axon increases the speed and
efficiency of action potential generation along the
axon.
Multiple sclerosis
- is a disease of the myelin sheath that
causes loss of muscle function.
Unmyelinated Neurons
-Unmyelinated axons lack the myelin sheaths.
-These axons rest in indentations of the
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and the Schwann
cells in the PNS.
-A typical small nerve, which consists of axons of
multiple neurons, usually contains more
unmyelinated axons than myelinated axons.
ORGANIZATION OF Nervous Tissue
Gray matter
-absence of myelin sheath
-consists of groups of neuron cell
bodies and their dendrites, where there is very
little myelin.
Cortex – surface of the brain
Nuclei -clusters of gray matter located
deeper within the brain
Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell bodies
in the PNS
White matter
-abundance of myelin sheath
- consists of bundles of parallel axons with their
myelin sheaths, which are whitish in color.
- white matter of the CNS forms nerve tracts
-white matter in the PNS consists of bundles of
axon and associated connective tissue that
forms nerves.
Membrane Potentials
-Resting membrane potentials and action
potentialsoccur in neurons.
-These potentials are mainly due to differences in
concentrations of ions across the membrane,
membrane channels, and the sodium-potassium
pump.
Leak Membrane Channels
-are always open are and ions can “leak” across
the membrane down their concentration
gradient.
Gated Membrane Channels
-are closed until opened by specific signals.
Chemically gated channels
-are opened by neurotransmitters or other
chemicals, whereas voltage-gated channels are
opened by a change in membrane potential.
Polarized -uneven charge distribution
across the cell membrane
Sodium-Potassium Pump
The sodium-potassium pump compensates for
the constant leakage of ions through leak
channels.
The sodium-potassium pump is required to
maintain the greater concentration of Na+
outside the cell membrane and K+ inside.
The pump actively transports K+ into the cell and
Na+ out of the cell.
It is estimated that the sodium-potassium pump
consumes 25% of all the ATP in a typical cell and
70% of the ATP in a neuron.
Depolarization
– sodium goes inside
Repolarization
– potassium goes outside
 Hyperpolarization
-the charge on the cell
membrane briefly becomes more negative
than the
resting membrane potential;
All or none fashion
-if threshold is reached, an action
potential occurs; if the threshold
is not reached, no action potential occurs.
Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axon Action
Potentials
-Action potentials are conducted slowly in Reflex

unmyelinated axons and more rapidly in -A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to

myelinated axons.
-Action potentials along unmyelinated axons
occur along the entire membrane.
-Action potentials on myelinated axons occur in a
jumping pattern at the nodes of Ranvier. This
type of action potential conduction is called
saltatory conduction.
a stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS.
-Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli more
quickly than is possible if conscious thought is
involved.
-Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or
brainstem rather than in the higher brain centers.
Reflex Arc

SYNAPSE (neuronal synapse) -is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs
and has five basic components.
-a junction where the axon of one neuron
interacts with another neuron. 1. A sensory receptor

-There are many neurotransmitters, with the 2. A sensory neuron

best-known being acetylcholine and
3. Interneurons, which are neurons located
norepinephrine. An enzyme called
between and communicating with two other
acetylcholinesterase breaks down the
neurons
acetylcholine.
4. A motor neuron
Presynaptic terminal
-the end of axons forms presynaptic 5. An effector organ (muscles or glands).
terminal
Postsynaptic Terminal
-membrane of the dendrite or effector cell
Synaptic Cleft
-between presynaptic and post synaptic
terminal
Neurotransmitters
-chemical substance
-act as theses chemical signals
-are stored in synaptic vesicles in the
presynaptic terminal
Neuronal Pathway – Diencephalon
-The CNS has simple to complex neuronal
pathways.
Converging pathway
-is a simple pathway in which two or more
neurons synapse with the same postsynaptic
neuron.
Diverging pathway
-is a simple pathway in which
Cerebrum/ Cerebral Hemisphere
an axon from one neuron divides and synapses
-Largest and most superior part
with more than one other postsynaptic neuron.
Gyri- elevated ridges of tissue
-This allows information transmitted in one Sulci- shallow grooves
Fissures- deep grooves
neuronal pathway to diverge into two or more
-The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum
pathways.
into left and right hemispheres
-The corpus callosum connects the cerebral
hemisphere
LOBES
1. Frontal lobes 2.Parietal lobes
2. Occipital lobes 3.Temporal lobes

BRAIN
• Pinkish Gray Tissue
• Wrinkled like a wall nut
• Texture: Cold Oatmeal
• Weight: 3 lbs
-Contained in the cranial cavity
-Is the control center for many of the body’s
functions
-Consists of the:
– Cerebrum
– Brainstem
– Cerebellum
Cerebrum functions: understood, and sentence formation may
be inhibited or non- sensical.
 Speech
 Memory CEREBRUM
 Logic
-Gray matter forms the cortex and nuclei of
 Emotional response
 Consciousness the cerebrum
 Interpretation of sensation -White matter forms the cerebral medulla,
 Consciousness
which consists of three types of tracts
FRONTAL LOBE PARIETAL LOBE
 Comprehension  sensory input,  Association fibers connect areas of the
& reasoning such as touch, cortex within the same hemisphere
 voluntary pain,temperature,  Commissural fibers connect the cerebral
motor function balance, and taste hemispheres
 motivation  Proprioception  Projection fibers connect the cerebrum to
 Aggression other parts of the brain and the spinal
 sense of smell
cord
 mood

OCCIPITAL LOBE TEMPORAL LOBE

 Visual centers  smell and hearing
input
 involved in
memory,
abstractthought,
and judgment
Frontal Lobe - Cortical Regions
•Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus)
– Cortical siteinvolved with controlling Basal Nuclei – Important in controlling motor
movements of the body. functions

• Broca’s Area (Motor Speech Neuron)

– Controls facial neurons, speech, and language
comprehension. Located on Left Frontal Lobe.
Broca’s Aphasia
– Results in the ability to comprehend
speech, but the decreased motor ability
(or inability) to speak and form words.
Limbic System – Involved in the emotional
Temporal Lobe – Cortical Regions interpretation of sensory input and emotions in

• Wernicke’s Area – Language comprehension.

Located on the Left Temporal Lobe.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
– Language comprehension is inhibited.
Words and sentences are not clearly

general
BRAINSTEM MIDBRAIN
-Size of a thumb in diameter and approximately  Corpora quadrigemina – vision and
3” (7.5cm) hearing
 Cerebral peduncles - are the major
-Pathway
descending motor pathway
- Autonomic behaviors necessary for survival  Cerebral aqueduct- tiny canal that travels
through the midbrain that connects the 3rd
-Consist of the:
ventricle to the diencephalon to the 4th
– Medulla oblongata ventricle
– Pons
– Midbrain
-Connects the spinal cord and cerebellum to the
remainder of the brain
-Ten of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves arise from it
-Damage to small areas of the brainstem can
cause death, whereas damage to relatively large
areas of the cerebrum or cerebellum do not
MEDULLA OBLONGATA CEREBELLUM
– Continuous with the spinal cord and - Large, cauliflower like that project dorsally from
contains ascending and descending under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.

tracts -Provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle

activity and controls balance.
– Most inferior part of the brain stem
- Body movements are smooth and coordinated
– Medullary nuclei
The cerebellum has three parts:
 regulate the heart, blood vessels,
 breathing 1. Flocculonodular lobe controls balance
 swallowing and eye Movements
 vomiting 2. Vermis and medial part of the lateral
 coughing hemispheres control posture, locomotion,
 sneezing and fine motor coordination
 hiccupping 3. lateral hemispheres are involved with the
planning, practice, and learning of
 balance and coordination
complex movements
PONS
– Superior to the medulla just below the midbrain
– Ascending and Descending tracts pass through
the pons
– Connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum
– Pontine nuclei regulate breathing, swallowing,
balance, chewing, and salivation
DIACEPHALON/INTERBRAIN – Mammillary bodies are reflex
centers for olfaction
-Located between the brainstem and the
Limbic System
cerebrum
- “emotional visceral brain”
• Consists of the - center of drives and
emotions
– Thalamus
Pituitary Gland
– Epithalamus
- endocrine organ
– Hypothalamus
Mamillary bodies
THALAMUS - reflex center for olfaction
(sense of smell)
– Consists of two lobes connected by the
interthalamic adhesion
– Functions as an integration center
– All sensory input that reaches the cerebrum,
except for the sense of smell, synapses in the
thalamus
– Interacts with other parts of the brain to control
motor activity
– Involved in emotions and pain Perception
EPITHALAMUS
–Superior and posterior to the thalamus
–Forms the roof of the 3rd ventricle
– Consists of the
• Pineal body, which may play a role
in the onset of puberty and the
sleep-wake cycle
•
• Choroid Plexus, knots of capillaries
that the cerebrospinal fluid
HYPOTHALAMUS
-Main visceral control center of the body and is
vitally important to overall body homeostasis.
– Autonomic control center (heart
rate, blood pressure, etc.) – Center
for emotional response/behavior
– Body temperature regulation
– Regulation of food intake
– Regulation of water balance
– Control of endocrine system PROTECTION FOR THE CNS:
functioning
1. 1.Meninges
 2. Cerebrospinal Fluid • The central canal of the spinal cord is connected
3. Blood brain barrier to the fourth ventricle
MENINGES • The fourth ventricle is connected to the
subarachnoid space by median and lateral
-A three connective tissue membranes
apertures
covering and protecting the CNS
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
structures
-Produced from the blood in the choroid plexus
LAYERS: of each ventricle by ependymal cells

1.Dura mater Choroid plexuses- are clusters of

capillaries hanging from the roof in each
- Double layer
of the brains ventricle (lateral, third, and
- Outermost layer that surrounds the brain 4th ventricles)

Periosteal Layer- forms the -CSF production and flow maintains the normal
periosteum
pressure (70-100 mmH2O and normal volume
Meningeal Layer- outermost
( 100-160 ml )
covering of the brain and spinal
cord Major solutes of the CSF:

2.Arachnoid mater 1. glucose

2. proteins
- Middle layer
3. NaCl
Sub arachnoid mater- filled with CSF
CIRCULATION OF CSF
3.Pia mater
- Inner most layer that tightly clings to the surface
of the brain and spinal cord

Spinal (lumbar) tap or puncture

Ventricles
• The lateral ventricles in the cerebrum are
connected to the third ventricle in the
diencephalon by the interventricular foramina
-CSF sample for testing taken usually between L3
& L4 into subarachnoid space
-Causes a decrease in CSF fluid pressure
-Patient must lie down for 6-12 hrs to prevent
spinal headache

• The third ventricle is connected to the fourth Blood Supply to the Brain
ventricle in the pons by the cerebral aqueduct -The brain requires tremendous amounts of
blood to function normally
– High metabolic rate and brain cells cannot store
high-energy molecules
– Only about 2% of body weight, but receives
~15%-20% of the blood pumped by the heart
-The blood-brain barrier is formed by the
endothelial cells of the capillaries in the brain.
– Limits what substances enter brain tissue
SPINAL CORD
-Major communication link between the brain
and the PNS (spinal nerves)
-Participates in the integration of incoming
information and produces responses through
reflex mechanisms
-Gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves
-Cervical and lumbosacral enlargements give rise
to the spinal nerves of the limbs
– Nerves from the end of the spinal cord form the
cauda equina
-Extends from the Foramen magnum to the 1st or
2nd lumbar vertebra
-Protected by meninges
Meninges of the Spinal Cord
• Three meningeal layers surround the spinal
cord. From superficial to deep they are
– Dura mater – Arachnoid mater – Pia mater
• The epidural space is between the
periosteum of the vertebral canal and the
dura mater
• The subarachnoid space is between the
arachnoid mater and the pia mater
Spinal Cord Cross Section
• The spinal cord consists of peripheral white
matter and central gray matter
• White matter is organized into columns
(funiculi), which are subdivided into tracts
(fasciculi or pathways), which consist of
ascending and descending axons
• Gray matter is divided into horns
– The dorsal horns contain sensory
axons that synapse with
interneurons
– The ventral horns contain the
neuron cell bodies ofsomatic
motor neurons
– The lateral horns contain the
neuron cell bodies of autonomic
motor neurons
– The gray and white commissures
connect each half ofthe spinal cord
• Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord in
numerous rootlets
• The rootlets combine to form a ventral root and
a dorsal root
 -Mediated through the ANS and are responsible
for maintaining variables within their normal
ranges
– Blood pressure
– Blood carbon dioxide
– Water Intake
STRUCTURE OF NERVES
-Individual axons are surrounded by the
endoneurium
-Groups of axons (fascicles) are bound together
by the perineurium
-Fascicles form the nerve and are held together
 The dorsal root contains sensory axons by the epineurium
 The ventral root has motor axons
 Spinal nerves have sensory and motor
axons

Reflexes
Stereotypic, unconscious, involuntary responses
to stimuli Maintain homeostasis
Two general types:
1. Somatic reflexes
Spinal Nerves
-Mediated through the somatic motor nervous
system and includes responses that • There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves

-Remove the body from painful stimuli – Eight cervical

– Twelve thoracic
-Keep the body from suddenly falling – Five lumbar
-Cause movement because of external forces – Five sacral
– One coccygeal
2. Autonomic reflexes
• Spinal nerves have specific cutaneous
distributions called dermatomes
 -Axillary, radial, musculocutaneous, ulnar, and
median nerves
– Lumbar (L1-L4)
– Sacral (L4-S4)
– Coccygeal (S5-coccygeal)
• The lumbar and sacral plexuses are often
considered together as the lumbosacral plexus
• Axons from different levels of the spinal cord
intermingle within plexuses and give rise to
nerves that have axons form more than one level
of the spinal cord
Spinal Nerves and Plexuses
CRANIAL NERVES
• Spinal nerves branch to form rami
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves aredesignated by
– The dorsal rami supply the muscles and skin
Roman numerals (I - XII) orspecific names
near the middle of the back
• In numeric order, can be identified with this
– The ventral rami in the thoracic region form
mnemonic
intercostal nerves, which supply the thorax and
upper abdomen I. O- Olfactory
II. O- Optic
– Cervical, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal ventral
III. O- Oculomotor
rami join to form plexuses
IV. TO- Trochlear
– Communicating rami supply sympathetic V. TASTE-Trigeminal
nerves VI. AND- Abducent
VII. FEEL- Facial
VIII. VERY- Vestibulocochlear
IX. GOOD- Glossopharyngeal

Fig. X.
XI.
XII.
VELVET- Vagus
A-Accessory
HAEVEN- Hypoglossal
The two types of general functions are
sensory and motor
– Sensory includes special senses and general
senses
– Motor includes somatic motor and
parasympathetic

Major Spinal Nerve Plexuses Brainstem Reflexes

• The five major plexuses are • Many reflexes are mediated through the brainstem
• The brainstem is considered nonfunctional when
– Cervical (C1-C4) – Reflexes at all levels of the brainstem are
nonfunctional
• Phrenic nerve – There is no spontaneous breathing (mediated
through the medulla oblongata)
– Brachial (C5-T1)