Ministry of Education

Sharkya stem school

Earth science
by
Hatem Ayman Abd-Elkarim

2021

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Table of contents:

ES.1.01-Branchrs of Geology…………….3

ES.1.02-Minerals…………………………10

ES.1.03-Building Materials………………23

ES.1.04-Igneous rocks……………………31

ES.1.05-Sedimentary rocks………………40

ES.1.06-Metamorphic rocks……………..48

ES.1.07-Rock Cycle………………………53

Advice:
Study with this order:
ES.1.01…ES.1.02…ES.1.07…ES.1.04…ES.1.05
…ES.1.06…ES.1.03

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 ES.1.01-Branches of Geology
Prelude
Science is the study of the natural world. Earth is a very large,
complex system or set of systems, so most Earth scientists
specialize in studying one aspect of the planet. Earth scientists
seek to understand the beautiful sphere we are living on under
what is known as Earth Science.
Earth science: It is the science that involves the study of the
fields/natural sciences that are related to Earth Planet and the
universe around it.
Earth science is an experimental science like any other science
such as physics and chemistry Because it assumes that natural
events and phenomena can be explained through careful
observation and experimentation.
Earth science covers 5 main branches(disciplines) and they are:
Geology, Meteorology and Climatology, Oceanography,
Astronomy and Environmental science.
Metrology: It is the science that study the atmosphere and
weather patterns (a pattern is when the weather stays the same
for a period of time such as hot or cold, seasons and dry or wet.),
clouds, hurricanes and temperature in a short-time period.
Meteorologists use satellites, radars and other technologies to
study the atmospheric changes that produce the weather. Some
meteorologists work as observers for the weather factors such
as wind, temperature, rainfalls and pressure to make weather
maps and others use these maps, satellites images and
computer models to make weather forecasts.) ‫(تنبؤات الطقس‬
Climatology: It is the science that study the climate and
atmosphere helping people to know why and how climate
changes over a long-time period.

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Oceanography: It is science that study everything in the ocean
environment, which covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface.
Some oceanographers study the sea water itself, others study
the tides and waves.
Recent technology has allowed people to venture to the deepest
parts of the ocean, but much of the ocean information remains
unexplored.
Astronomy: It is the science that study the universe beyond the
Earth.
Astronomers use telescopes to see things far beyond what the
human eye can see. And they help to design spacecraft that
travel into space and send back information about faraway
places or satellites.
Rovers and probes are robotic spacecrafts that provide the
astronomers with information about the universe.
Rovers are exploration devices designed to move on the
planets and planetary masses celestial bodies and probes are
like satellites but don’t orbit around Earth but instead, explores
further into outer space.
Environmental science: It the science that study the effects
people have on their environment.
Climate changes may be included in the study of the
climatology or environmental science.

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Geology: The word Geology is composed of two parts
1- Geo: means Earth 2- logy (logus): means Science
so, geology is the science that the study the earth.

Geology: It is the science that study earth, its components,

origin, history, processes acting within it that create its
structures and its resources like petrol and minerals. It also
addresses practical problems such as how to keep pollution out
of groundwater, how to find oil and minerals, and how to avoid
landslides.
Branches of Geology
1-Physical Geology: It is the branch that deals with the physical
forces and internal and external processes that affects the rocks
and structures of the earth crust and also affects the earth
surface on account of their existence and action.
2-Geophysics: It is the branch that deals with the exploration of
oil traps, ore deposits and ground water using physical sensitive
sets.
Ore: It is a rock or a sediment that contains a one valuable
mineral or more like iron and minerals.
3-Petrology: It is the branch that deals with the study of rocks. It
is further subdivided into igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic petrology depending upon the rock group studied.
4-Structural Geology: It is the branch that deals with the
deformation of the rocks in the lithosphere layer that resulted
from the effect of both external and internal forces that
continually work with variable degrees of forces on Earth’s crust.
Deformation: Different structures, which exist on rocks.
Lithosphere: Earth’s crust and top of upper mantle and it is the
coolest and most rigid part of the earth.
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5-Sedimentology: It is the branch that deals with the study of
sediments, their formation, transportation and deposition.
6-Stratigraphy: It is the branch that deals with the rules and
conditions that govern the formation of the layers and the sites
of deposition of the sediments after weathering and
transportation by different natural factors. (Sedimentary rocks
only)
Weathering (‫)التجوية او التعرية‬: It is the breakdown or dissolving of
rocks and minerals by air or water.
7-Palentology: It is the branch that deals with the study of the
fossils and the remains of living organisms, vertebrates,
invertebrates or plants that are preserved in sedimentary rocks,
by which we can determine the geologic age and environmental
conditions for its formation.
8-Historical Geology: It is the branch that deals with the study
of the evolutionary history of the earth in a chronological
manner)‫ (في ترتيب زمني‬. Historical geology is further subdivided
into stratigraphy and paleontology.
9-Minerolgy: It is the branch that deals with the study of
minerals, their formation, analysis, association, physical and
chemical properties and classification.
10- Crystallography: It is the branch that deals with the crystal
systems of minerals. It is derived branch from minerology.
11-Economic Geology: It is the branch of geology that deals with
the study of the earth materials that are used for economic
and/or industrial purposes such as petroleum, coal, ores,
building stones, salt, gemstones (‫)األحجار الكريمة‬.
12-Hydrogeology: It is the branch of geology that deals with the
study of groundwater aquifers, supply and withdrawal and use
of water in agriculture and land reclamation.
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13-Engineering Geology: It is the branch of geology that deals
with the study of mechanical and geometrical properties of rocks
in order to establish the different engineering structures such as
dams, tunnels, giant bridges and skyscrapers and towers and
also deals with application of geology to engineering practices
and solving engineering problems.
14-Geochemistry: It is the branch of geology that deals with the
study of chemical structure of minerals and rocks, distribution of
elements in the Earth’s crust and determines the type and ratio
of mineral ore in the Earth crust.
15-Petroleum Geology: It is the branch of geology that deals
with all processes concerning the formation of oil or gas, their
migration and accumulation in reservoirs rocks.
16-Mining Geology: It is the branch of geology that deals with
the application of geology to mining engineering in such a way
that the selection of suitable sites for quarrying and mines can
be determined.
17-Geomorphology: It is the branch of geology that deals with
the study of landforms (origin, characteristics and development)
and how they formed.
18-Seismology: It is the branch of geology that deals with the
study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and
around the earth.
19-Planetry Geology: It is the branch of geology that deals with
the study of geology of other planets.
20-Lunar Geology: It is the branch of geology that deals with the
study of geology of moon.
21-Astrology: It is the branch of geology that deals with the
study of how movement of celestial bodies affects nature of life
and people such as horoscopes(‫)األبراج‬.
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22- Cryology/Glaciology: It is the branch of geology that deals
with the study of ice and snow.
23-Marine Geology: It is the branch of geology that deals with
the study of geology of sea floor. Marine geologists study the
ocean floor and learn about the rocks and geologic processes of
the ocean basins to obtain clues about the history of Earth or to
locate mineral deposits.
24-Edaphology: It is the branch of geology that deals with the
study of soil formation. It accompanies between Geology and
Biology.
Natural phenomena Explained by Geology
1-Topography of the earth's surface
Earth's surface consists of continents, oceans and seas. The
continents differ from one place to another in some regions, in
some continents we find mountains chains extended in a certain
direction while in others we find valley and plains of different
shapes.
2-Variation in the seas and oceans depth
Some seas are relatively shallow while others are as deep as 11,000 m.

3- Occurrence of volcanoes and earthquakes

We notice that volcanoes happen in certain regions some of
them become inactive then suddenly start its activity, magma
released from it or earthquake causing damage for villages and
cities completely.
4-The extraction of minerals, ores, petroleum and underground water
Some of them extracted from deep areas and others near the earth's
surface

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The importance of Geology in our life
1-Prospection for mineral ores as gold, iron, silver and others.
2-Discovering the different energy resources as coal, oil, natural
gas and radioactive minerals.
3-Searching about building materials as limestone, shale,
marble, gypsum and others.
4-Projects planning as building new cities, dams, tunnels and
establishment of safe districts from the dangers and disasters.
5-Search of raw materials used in many chemical industries as
sodium, Sulphur, chlorine that used in manufactures of
fertilizers, insecticides and drugs.
6-Exploration of sources of groundwater for the new reclaimed
areas.
7-Military operations as geology plays an important role in the
success of military operations.

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 ES.1.02-Minerals
Minerals: They are inorganic solid homogenous earth materials
and naturally occurring collections of crystals in an orderly
repeating pattern, each of them has its own chemical
composition.
They are the main building units of rocks.
Crystal: It is a solid in which the atoms are arranged in a
regular, repeating pattern.
They are the main building units of minerals.
To be considered a mineral, five criteria must be met:
1-Minerals are solid, not gas or liquid.
2- Minerals are inorganic. That means they are not alive and
never have been.
Organic substances: They are the carbon-based compounds made by
living creatures and include proteins, carbohydrates, and oils.
Inorganic substances: They substances that have a structure that is not
characteristic of living bodies.

3- Minerals occur naturally. They are not manufactured.

Minerals are made by natural processes, those that occur in or on Earth.
A diamond created deep in Earth’s crust is a mineral, but a diamond
made in a laboratory by humans is not.

4- Minerals have definite chemical compositions. These can be

expressed as chemical formulas, such as SiO2, Ag, or Fe2O3.
Nearly all (98.5%) of Earth’s crust is made up of only eight elements:
oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and
magnesium –and these are the elements that make up most minerals.
Some minerals, called native-element minerals, consist of only one
element. A good example is gold (Au), which is often found as nuggets or
pieces of pure gold not combined with any other element. Copper (Cu),

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iron (Fe), and silver (Ag) are other native elements. Iron is a native
element that is contained in other minerals such as hematite (Fe2O3) and
magnetite (Fe3O4). However, most minerals are combinations of
elements. For example, quartz (SiO2) is made of silicon and oxygen. Calcite
(CaCO3) is made of calcium, carbon, and oxygen.

5- Minerals have a regular three-dimensional arrangement of

atoms. This is called a crystal structure.
Atoms forms crystals and crystals forms minerals forms rocks.
Rocks: They are naturally occurring collections or aggregates of
mineral grains. Some rocks consist of only one mineral
(monomineralic rocks). However, most contain several different
kinds of minerals (polymineralic rocks).
Ores: Rocks that contain valuable minerals
Sometimes you can see the mineral grains, and other times they
are too small to see without being magnified. Granite consists
mostly of large crystals of feldspar, quartz, and mica. Basalt
consists mostly of tiny crystals of feldspar and pyroxene.
The chemistry and structure of Minerals
Minerals can be very different from one another because each
mineral has a specific chemical makeup.
Minerals consist of atoms of one or more chemical elements.
Atoms are the smallest unit of a chemical element that has all
the element’s properties. Each chemical element has different
chemical and physical properties. The atoms in minerals are
arranged in a regular three-dimensional arrangement. The
atoms in almost all minerals are in the form of ions. Ions are
atoms that have an electric charge. This charge is due to
electrons being added to or removed from the atom. Electrons
are particles that orbit around the nucleus of the atom. They
have a negative charge. The ions in a mineral are packed

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together in a way that brings the ions as close together as
possible. As a result, positively charged ions are in close contact
with negatively charged ions. Objects with unlike electric
charges are attracted to each other. These forces of attraction
hold the mineral together as a solid.
Mineral groups
Minerals are divided into groups based on chemical composition.
Most minerals fit into one of seven mineral groups.
1-Silicate Minerals
They are the largest mineral group. They are 1000 rock forming
minerals. The roughly 1,000 silicate minerals make up over 90%
of Earth's crust.
Silica tetrahedron (SiO4), made up of silicon and oxygen, bond
with other cations to form silicate minerals.
Feldspar and quartz are the two most common silicate minerals.
EX: quartz, feldspar, mica,amphiboles pyroxene, and olivine.
2-Carbonates
Carbonate radical (CO3), made of carbon and 3 oxygen atoms,
bond with other cations to form carbonate minerals.
Ex: calcite (CaCO3)
3-Halides
Halide minerals are salts that form when salt water evaporates.
The chemical elements known as the halogens (fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, or iodine) bond with various metallic atoms
to make halide minerals.
All halides are minerals formed from ionic bonding, which
means that they are typically soluble in water.
Ex: Halite, table salt, (NaCl)

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3- Oxides
One or two metals bond with oxygen to form oxides.
Ex: Many important metal ores are oxides such as Hematite
(Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4)
4-Phosphates
As a mineral group they aren't particularly common or important
rock-forming minerals, but they are important for you and I such
as extracting phosphorus to use in industry and apatite
Ca5(PO4)3. (OH, F, Cl) which one of the major components of bone
marrow.
Like silicates, Phosphate tetrahedron (PO4), made up of
phosphorus and oxygen, bonds with other cations to form
phosphates.
5- Sulfates
Like silicates and phosphates, sulphate tetrahedron (SiO4), made
up of Sulphur and oxygen, bond with other cations to form
sulfates.
Like halides, they form where salt water evaporates.
The most common sulfate mineral is probably gypsum
CaSO4(OH)2
6-Sulphides
Sulfides are formed when metallic elements combine with sulfur
in the absence of oxygen.
Pyrite (FeS2) is a common sulfide mineral colloquially known as
"fool’s gold" because it has a golden metallic looking mineral.
There are three easy ways to discriminate real gold from fool's
gold: real gold is extremely dense, real gold does not grow into

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perfect cubes, as pyrite commonly does, and pyrite smells like
rotten eggs (because of the sulfur).
7-Native elements
Native elements contain atoms of only one type of element. Only
a small number of minerals are found in this category. Some of
them are valuable such as gold.
Uses of minerals over ages
1-Early humans
Paleolithic man used red hematite (Fe2O3), yellow limonite and black
manganese oxide (MnO2) to make cave paintings.
Paleolithic man used chert to make knives and spears to kill animals to
feed on them and to defend himself.
Ancient Egyptians have also used colored minerals and stone for
ornamentation, such as those of amethyst, Malachite, emeralds and
turquoise.

2- Stone Age: People made tools out of hard, fine-grained rocks.

3- Bronze Age: People discovered how to combine copper (Cu) and tin
(Sn) from minerals into a metallic mixture (alloy) called bronze.

4- Iron Age: people made tools of iron (Fe).

5- Today: minerals are used in thousands of ways.
Feldspar is used to make porcelain.
Calcite (CaCO3) is used to make cement.
Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), together with small amounts of several
other metals (cobalt, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum) are used
to make steel that is used to make buildings, trains, cars, and many
other things.
Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) is used to make plaster and wallboard.
Quartz is used in glass industries

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Identifying minerals
To identify a mineral, mineralogist can use a high-powered
microscope to identify some minerals or even techniques like
x-ray diffraction.
x-ray diffraction: It is a technique that involves shining an X-ray
light on a sample and observing how the light exiting the sample
is bent.
The atoms in a mineral affect the color, shape, hardness, and
other properties of the mineral. The way the atoms are arranged
also affects the properties so crystal form controls the shape of
mineral and their physical properties as color, hardness,
cleavage and fracture but also in its chemical properties.
Geologists use a variety of tests to describe, compare, and
identify minerals. Some of these tests are simple. These include
hardness, luster, streak, and color. They can be done with simple
equipment. Other tests require special, expensive equipment.
These include specific gravity, crystal shape, electrical
conductivity, and reaction to acid.
Physical properties of minerals are:
a) Optical.
1-color. 2-Luster. 3-Transaprency. 4-Play of color 5-Streak.
6-crystal shape.
b) Cohesive.
7-Hardness. 8-Cleavage. 9-Fracture.
10-Mallibelity and ductility.
c) Others
11-Specific Gravity. 12-Magnetism. 13-Taste. 14-Smell.
15-Fluorescense. 16-Phophorecence 17-Radioactivity.
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1-color
The color of a mineral depends of the length of light waves
reflected from its surface.
Color is usually the first thing you notice about a mineral.
However, it is the least reliable property in identifying a mineral
because
1-Many minerals have different colors depending on what impurities
are present. Corundum, rubies, (Al2O3) is sometimes tinted red by
small amounts of chromium. A sapphire is the same mineral, rubies,
tinted blue by small amounts of titanium. Quartz is usually
transparent. However, it can be many other colors, depending on
what impurities are present.
2-Some minerals tarnish or change color when their surfaces are
exposed to air due to chemical reaction.
3-Many minerals have the same color as others for example, many
prospectors in the gold rush days were fooled by pyrite. Pyrite is
known as fool’s gold. It has a metallic luster and a color similar to
gold. However, it has a lower specific gravity than gold. It is also
brittle (gold is malleable), and leaves a black streak on a white
porcelain tile (gold has a gold-colored streak).
2-Luster: The reflection of light from the surface of a mineral,
described by its quality and intensity.
It describes the way a mineral reflects light. Luster is either
metallic or nonmetallic.
Minerals with metallic luster look like polished metal. Nonmetallic lusters
are often described as Adamantine, vitreous =glassy, pearly, waxy and
earthy = dull.
Pyrite and galena have metallic luster.
Quartz and calcite have a vitreous (glassy) to greasy luster.
Feldspar has a pearly luster.

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3-Transparency: It is the ability of light to penetrate through a
mineral.
Minerals are transparent, semi-transparent and opaque.
4-Play of color: It is the ability of mineral to reflect light into red
light or purple light or any color degree between them.
Diamond has a play of color.
5-Streak: It is the original and constant color of a mineral.
Streak is the color of the powdered mineral that we get it by
scratching mineral on a piece of unpolished porcelain.
To determine the streak of a mineral, scratch it across a piece of
unglazed porcelain tile (a streak plate=steel file)
Many minerals have a distinctive streak color. Streak color may
be different from the color of the mineral sample. For example,
hematite is often dark gray in color, but it always has a red
streak.

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 6-Crystal shape
When minerals grow in unconfined spaces, they usually have a
regular crystal shape.
Quartz crystals grow as six-sided (hexagonal) columns with
pointed tops.
Garnets often grow in regular twelve-sided shapes. These shapes
are called dodecahedra.

7-Hardness: It is the resistance of a mineral to scratching.

Mineralogists use a relative scale of hardness. It is called the
Mohs scale and is given below.
Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
(pink feldspar)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Each mineral in the scale scratches minerals earlier in the scale
and is scratched by minerals later in the scale. Diamond (with a
hardness of 10) is the hardest natural substance known. The
mineral talc (with a hardness of 1) is one of the softest.
The way to test the hardness of an unknown mineral is to scratch
it with a material of known hardness. If the mineral is scratched,
it is not as hard. If the unknown mineral scratches the known
material, then it is harder.
From the tools used to test hardness is hardness pens.

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Here are the hardnesses on the Mohs scale of some common
materials:
fingernail: about 2.5
iron nail: about 4.5
knife blade: a little more than 5
window glass, masonry nail: 5.5
steel file: 6.5
8-Cleavage: It is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain
planes to make smooth surfaces thus reflect crystal structure.
It is the breaking of a mineral along regularly oriented planes of
weakness, thus reflecting crystal structure.
Many minerals have cleavage. This means that when they break, they
tend to break along regularly oriented planes of weakness. Cleavage
planes form along planes of weak atomic bonds in the mineral. For
example, mica splits easily into sheets because there are very weak
atomic bonds between the layers of atoms in mica.
Galena and halite break in cubes because they have cleavage in three
directions, all at right angles to one another.
Feldspar has cleavage in two directions, at nearly right angles. However,
it breaks irregularly in other directions.
Magnetite forms octahedrons.
One reason that gemstones are beautiful is that the cleavage planes make
an attractive crystal shape with smooth faces.
Some minerals, such as quartz, have no cleavage. Quartz breaks into
irregular shapes. This is known as conchoidal fracture.

Conchoidal fracture: It is a type of mineral fracture that gives a

smoothly curved surface
9-Fracture: It is the shape of the mineral surface in breaking.

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10- Malleability and ductility
Malleability: It is the tendency of mineral to pressure.
Ductility: It is the tendency of mineral to be stretched.
Metals have properties that make them useful in machinery.
Most metals are malleable. This means that under pressure they
can be changed in shape without breaking. Also, metals are very
useful in the production and distribution of power. Metals tend
to be good conductors of electricity. Most are also ductile. This
means that they can be stretched into wire.
11-Specific Gravity: It is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to
the weight of an equal volume of water.
It is the ratio of density of mineral to density of water.
Water has a specific gravity of 1. Galena is a mineral that
contains lead. It has a specific gravity of about 7.5. That means it
is about 7.5 times as dense as water. Most nonmetallic minerals
have specific gravities less than 3. These include minerals such
as quartz, feldspar, and calcite.
12-Magnetism: It is the tendency a mineral to attract to a magnet.
Some minerals are magnetic. Magnetite is an important ore of
iron. It is magnetic
13-Taste
Some minerals have a tasty taste like Halite.
14-Smell
Some minerals have a taste like Sulphur that has a smell of rotten
eggs.

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15-Fluorescence: Mineral glows under ultraviolet rays
Some minerals are fluorescent. They change ultraviolet light to
other wavelengths. Fluorite is one example.
16-Phosphorecence
A few minerals are phosphorescent. They store light energy.
Then they slowly release it.
17-Radioactivitey: Mineral give off radiation.
A few minerals are radioactive. The atoms of radioactive
materials are not stable. They release subatomic particles and
radiation as they decay. Uranium minerals are radioactive. They
can be detected with a Geiger counter.
Chemical properties are
a) Chemical composition.
b) Reactivity to acids.
Some minerals have a chemical reaction to acids. Carbonate
minerals are an example. They fizz when a drop of weak
hydrochloric acid is applied. Acid breaks down the chemical
bonds in the carbonate. The fizz is CO2 gas being released. Acid
is a good test to identify the calcium carbonate mineral calcite.
Important Chemical Formulas
Mineral Formula Mineral Formula
Gold Au Hematite Fe2O3
Silver Ag Magnetite Fe3O4
Iron Fe Halite NaCl
Copper Cu Quartz SiO2
Sulphur S Calcite CaCO3

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Minerals Identification Key

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 ES.1.03-Building materials
Building material: It is any material which is used for a
construction purpose.
Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood
and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct
buildings.
Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made
products are in use, some more and some less synthetic.
The manufacture of building materials is an established industry
in many countries and the use of these materials is typically
segmented into specific specialty trades, such as carpentry,
plumbing, roofing and insulation work.
They provide the make-up of habitats and structures including
homes.
Types of building materials.
Naturally available materials such as
-Soil, thatch, clay, wood
-Fine aggregates, limestone, rock
Manufactured materials such as
-Plastic, stone, mortar, cement, concrete.
-Foam, ceramic, glass, bricks
Types of stones:
Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks, Metamorphic Rocks.
Stratified, Unstratified, Foliated.
Siliceous, Argillaceous, Calcareous.

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1-Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).
Uses of limestone:
It holds a great position because it is widely available and suitable for
a greater diversity of uses than any other type of rock.
1- Limestone can be used to make cement.
2- It is the primary ingredient of concrete.
3- It is used as a base material for highways, rural roads, buildings,
and railroad construction.
4- It is used to make agricultural lime and for acid neutralization in
the chemical industry.
5- There are many products made from or using limestone that
consume a small volume of material. These include poultry grit,
terrazzo, glass, air pollution sorbents, mine safety dust, animal food
supplements, cosmetics, dietary supplements, and blast furnace flux,
among others.
5- It is used in the manufacture of glass, refractory, sand lime bricks
and paints.
6- It is used as a lime mortar for masonry work of buildings.
7- It is used for plastering and white washing of buildings
8- It is used as a lime concrete to make water proof structures.
2- Crushed stones
Crushed stone or angular rock is a form of construction aggregates,
typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the
removed rock down to the desired size using crushers.
It is distinct from gravel which is produced by natural processes of
weathering and erosion, and typically has a more rounded shape.

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Crushed stone is one of the most accessible natural resources, and is
a major basic raw material used by construction, agriculture, and
other industries.
Despite the low value of its basic products, the crushed stone
industry is a major contributor to and an indicator of the economic
well-being of a nation.
The demand for crushed stone is determined mostly by the level of
construction activity, and, therefore, the demand for construction
materials.
Types of rock used to make crushed stone:
Limestone, granite, trap rock, sandstone, quartzite, dolomite,
marble, slate, Shell and calcareous.
3-Granite and Trap Rock
Granite is the layman's name used for any light-colored igneous rock
that is used in construction. Granite, granodiorite, diorite, and
rhyolite are a few of many light-colored igneous rocks that are called
"granite" in the construction industry.
Trap rock is a layman's name used for any dark-colored igneous rock
that is used in construction. Basalt, peridotite, diabase, and gabbro
are examples of trap rock.
Granite and trap rock are the second and third most commonly used
types of rocks for producing crushed stone. They are superior to
limestone when used in acid waters or soils and when subjected to
abrasion. They can substitute for limestone as a concrete aggregate
and when a durable aggregate is needed.
4- Dolomite and Dolomitic Limestone
Dolomite and limestone are very similar rocks. Dolomite is a calcium
magnesium carbonate MgCO3·CaCO3 while limestone is a calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).

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 Limestone is more effective for making cement and for neutralizing
acids. Dolomite has a Mohs hardness of 4 compared to limestone
with a Mohs hardness of 3. This hardness difference makes dolomite
distinctly more durable when the rock is subjected to abrasion.
Dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and limestone have similar
appearances and often occur together in the rock units mined at a
single quarry; however, they are rarely mined as separate products.
Most quarries sell their production as "limestone," which is
acceptable to customers in the construction industry if the chemical
composition of the rock is not important. Customers interested in
rock for chemical, acid neutralization, blast furnace flux or
agricultural purposes will probably demand rock that has the
chemical composition of a very pure limestone or a very pure
dolomite.
5- Sandstone and quartzite
Sandstone and quartzite are composed primarily of quartz, a very
durable mineral, but each has its drawbacks in the construction
industry that limits its use.
Sandstone is generally composed of sand grains cemented together
by calcite, clay, or silicate minerals that have precipitated between
the sand grains. The cement usually does not completely fill all of the
voids between the sand grains, leaving a porosity that typically
ranges between 5 and 30%. This pore space allows the rock to absorb
water. That water will expand in volume by up to 9% every time it
freezes. Over the course of many freeze thaw cycles, the forces of
this expansion have the ability to dislodge grains and break the rock.
This is why sandstone is not popular for long-term use in areas where
freezing temperatures occur.
Quartzite is a sandstone that has been metamorphosed. The process
of metamorphism heats and compresses the rock and often causes
the sand grains to become welded together. This produces an
extremely durable rock that usually does not have the freeze-thaw

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concerns of sandstone. Quartzite can actually be so durable that it is
difficult to mine, handle, and transport to construction sites.
Quartzite has a Mohs hardness of 7. That makes it harder than
crusher jaws, loader buckets, sizing screens, truck beds, and other
equipment used to handle and process the stone. As a result, it can
quickly put very expensive wear and tear on essential equipment.
6-Cement
Requirements of cement
1-Cement should not prosses of alumina which may reduce strength.
2-It should be in fine powder
3-It should be found cool when been touched by hand.
Types of cement
1-Sulphate resisting cement
2-White cement
3-low heat cement
3-blast furnace cement
4-colored cement
5-quick setting cement
6-ordinary Portland cement
7-pozzolana Portland cement
Uses of cement
1-It used in making joints for drains, pipes.
2- It used to construction of building, bridge, tank, dome.
3-It used to prepare cement concrete for various construction works.

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7-Bricks
Requirements of bricks
• The color of the brick should be red or copper and uniform.
• It should be well burnt in kilns.
• The edges should be sharp.
Types of Bricks
1-conventional /traditional bricks; size 23cm *11.4cm*7.6cm
2-standard /modular; size 19cm*9cm* 9cm
Uses of Bricks
1-Bricks are used in wall masonry construction of building
2-Used in brick lintal construction
3-Bats of brick are used in concrete in foundation work.
8-Metals
Requirements of metals
• They should provide sufficient strength to bear the loads coming
on them.
• They should provide resistance to heat and fire.
• They should have good adhesion with cement concrete.
*The bare metal is not weather resistant
Types of metals
a) ferrous metals
• Pig iron
• Cast iron
• Wrought iron
• Steel

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b) non-ferrous metal
• Aluminum
• Copper
• Magnesium
• Nickel
Uses of metals
Used in construction to make it more solid and harder.
9-Sand
Requirement of sand
• It should be clean.
• It should be well graded.
• It should contain sharp, angular grains.
• Maximum permissible clay content is 3 to 4% in sand.
Type of sand
• Natural: is obtained from pits, river beds and sea beds
• Artificial: is formed by decomposition of sandstone due to
various weathering effects.
Uses
Sand is useful in various construction activities like masonry,
plaster, flooring and concrete work.
10-Aggregates
Requirements of aggregates
• Aggregates should be sufficiently strong.
• Aggregates should have good soundness.
• Aggregate should have good adhering with binding material.
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Types
• Fine aggregate
• Coarse aggregates
Uses
• Fine aggregate is used to prepare cement mortar, lime
mortar, cement concrete.
• Coarse aggregate is used to prepare cement concrete
bituminous pavement, rigid pavement.
• They are used in construction of beams, columns.
11-Glass
It is an inorganic translucent (transparent) material.
Types of glass
• Soda lime glass
• Potash lime glass
• Potash lead glass
Properties of glass:
• It can not deform.
• It is hard.
• It has resistance to scratches.
• It is brittle.
• It isn’t affected by air and water and vice versa.
12-Plastic
Properties of plastic
• It is light in weight • It is low in electrical conductivity • It is low in thermal
conductivity • It can absorb shocks • Specific gravity of plastic is 1.4
Uses:
1- To make waterproof doors, bags. 2- To make furniture. 4- To make optical
lenses
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 ES.1.04-Igneous rocks
Rocks: They are heterogeneous mixtures of minerals and (rarely)
other earth materials.
Igneous rocks: They are the rocks that formed from crystallization
of molten rocks (magma or lava) by cooling.
Magma: It is a viscous liquid formed from the eight elements of
silicate minerals in form of ions in addition to some gases and the
most important of them is water vapour.
Magma is located in the upper mantle in the Asthenosphere layer
which characterized by partially molten (elastic)rocks.
These elements remain trapped within this viscous liquid under high
pressure.
Formation of magma depends on:
1-Temperature: Temperature increases with depth, so melting is more
likely to occur at greater depths
2-Pressure: Pressure increases with depth and increased pressure raises
the melting temperature, so melting is more likely to occur at higher
pressures.
3-Water: The addition of water changes the melting point of a rock. As
the amount of water increases, the melting point decreases.
4-Rock composition: Minerals melt at different temperatures, so the
temperature must be high enough to melt at least some minerals in the
rock.
The first mineral to melt from a rock will be quartz (if present) and the last
will be olivine (if present).
As a rock heats up, the minerals that melt at the lowest temperature melt
first.
Partial melting occurs when the temperature on a rock is high
enough to melt only some of the minerals in the rock.

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Fractional crystallization is the opposite of partial melting. This process
describes the crystallization of different minerals as magma cools.
Formation of Igneous rocks and Bowen Reaction Series
Bowen’s Reaction Series indicates the temperatures at which
minerals melt or crystallize.
The scientist Bowen experiments on magma reactions explained
When the temperature of magma decreases, crystallization process
starts.
The first crystallized minerals are those minerals rich in Iron,
Magnesium and Calcium and that means that they can crystallize at
high temperature.
When 50% of magma is crystallized, the molten part loses these
three elements completely and it becomes rich is Sodium and
Potassium and its content increases with silicon (originated from
sodium and potassium) where these elements crystallize in the later
stages of crystallization.

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Note: Magma crystallization stages start from up to down in a
descending order according to temperature.
Olivine is the first mineral to crystallize.
Quartz is the last mineral to crystallize.
The diagram shows two sides:
The right side shows the continuous reaction series in which
Plagioclase feldspar rich in calcium crystallizes then sodium replaces
calcium and plagioclase feldspar rich in calcium and sodium
crystallizes and ends with Plagioclase feldspar rich in sodium.
This side is called the continuous series because it indicates the
formation of one mineral (plagioclase feldspar).
The left side shows the discontinuous reaction Olivine which is the
first mineral crystallizes followed by Pyroxene then Amphibole and
finally Mica Biotite (black mica) at the end.
During the last stage of crystallization and after the most of magma
solidified, crystallization of magma happens in the form of potassium
feldspar (Orthoclase) minerals then white mica (Muscovite Mica)
and finally quartz mineral is the last crystallized of magma minerals.
In the crystallization of magma, six minerals are formed
1-Olivine.
2-Pyroxene.
3-Amphibole.
4-Mica (Biotite - Muscovite)
5-Feldspar (Plagioclase - Orthoclase)
6-Quartz

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Summary
All igneous rocks are made of interlocking crystals of minerals. The
minerals have cooled and crystallize out of magma.
These crystals make the rocks very resistant to physical weathering and
erosion.
Minerals are the building blocks of igneous rocks and all other rocks as
well.
Minerals are usually are made up of several chemical elements. Each
mineral has a specific chemical makeup and crystal structure. Each
mineral has a chemical formula. The chemical formula shows the amount
of the various chemical elements in its makeup.
There are thousands of kinds of minerals in Earth’s crust. However, only
six are common in igneous rocks. They are quartz, feldspars, micas,
pyroxenes, amphiboles, and olivines. These are all called silicate minerals.
Their basic structure is very tightly bonded units made up of silicon and
oxygen (called silica). These units are bonded less strongly to various
other atoms.
Of the six kinds, all but quartz are listed in the plural form. This is because
the details of their chemical makeup can vary widely even though the
basic nature of the mineral is the same. For example, plagioclase and
potassium are two kinds of feldspar. They have slightly different
structures and very different chemical makeups. Muscovite and biotite
are two kinds of mica. Again, both have slightly different structures, but
very different chemical makeups.
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling of magma.
Earth’s temperature initially rises by about 30°C with every kilometer of
depth. This rate of increase slows down at deeper depths. At a depth of
100 to 350 km, the temperature is high enough for large volumes of rock
to melt and form magma at certain times and places.
Nearly all substances expand when they are heated. When rock is melted
into magma, its volume increases by about 10 percent. This makes the
magma less dense than the surrounding rock.

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Principles of classification of igneous rocks:
1-Place of crystallization of rocks which affects the speed of cooling
and texture.
Place of Type of Speed of Texture
crystallization igneous rock cooling
of rock
On Earth Volcanic Fast Fine
surface (Extrusive) glassy
Frothy
Intruded in Intruded Part of it is fast Porphyritic
rocks and the other
is slow
Beneath Earth Plutonic Slow Coarse
surface (Intrusive)
a) Plutonic (intrusive) igneous rocks
Crystallized as a result of the slow cooling beneath the earth surface
in the core of earth that allows a large number of ions to accumulate
at one crystallization center.
Their crystals are large sized can be seen by naked eye and small in
number so, their texture is coarse.
Ex: Granite, Diorite and Gabbro, Peridotite.
2-Intruded igneous rocks
Crystallized when the magma flows to the surface but the
surrounding conditions doesn’t allow it to flow to the surface so it
intruded between the surrounding rocks then cooled down and take
different shapes
Their texture is porphyritic where large crystals are surrounded by
small crystals which have almost the same mineral composition.
Large crystals formed due to slow cooling in deep places and smaller
crystals crystallized at the new place near to earth’s surface where the
cooling is faster.
Ex: Dolerite, Microdiorite and Microgranite
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3-Volcanic (Intrusive) igneous rocks
Crystallized when volcanic lava extruded during volcanic eruptions
on earth surface or near to it where the lava cools very fast so it
doesn’t take enough chance for crystallization.
So, their texture can be
Non-crystalline Glassy texture: Obsidian.
Fine texture micro crystals of large numbers that can not be seen by
naked eye: Rhyolite.
Frothy texture due to the presence of gaseous bubbles during
crystallization: Pumice.
Basalt, Andesite and Komatite have glassy of fine texture.
2- Mineral composition of rocks which depends on the chemical
structure.
P.O.C Ultrabasic Basic igneous Intermediate Acidic igneous
igneous rocks (Mafic) igneous rocks rocks (Felsic)
rocks
(Ultramafic)
Silica Less than 45%-55% 55%-66% More than
Percentage 45% Poor in silica Intermediate in 66%
Poor in silica silica Rich in silica
Mineral Rich in -Olivine -Pyroxene -Orthoclase
composition -Olivine -Pyroxene -Plagioclase -Plagioclase
-Pyroxene -Plagioclase feldspar rich in sodium
-feldspar rich -Amphibole -Mica
in calcium -Mica -Quartz 25%
-Some -Quartz -Amphibole
amphibole -Little
orthoclase
(Potassium
feldspar)
Color Black Black Between dark Light Pink
and light
Crystallization First to be Crystallize at Crystallize at Crystallize at
crystallized high intermediate low
temperature temperatures temperatures
(exceeds (between 800 (Less than 800
1100 Cº and 1100 Cº) Cº)
Cº)

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 Plutonic Peridotite Gabbro Diorite Granite
Intruded Dolerite Microdiorite Microgranite
Volcanic Komatite Basalt Andesite (the Obsidian
most abundant Pumice
intermediate Rhyolite
rock)

Equivalent rocks
They are igneous rocks which have the same chemical and mineral
structure but they differ in place of formation, texture and grains
size example Granite (plutonic), Microgranite (intruded) and
rhyolite (volcanic).
G.R: Felsic igneous rocks have light pink color.
Because they composed of orthoclase, plagioclase rich in sodium
and quartz 25% and they are rich in silica.
G.R: Mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks have dark black color.
Because they composed of minerals rich in iron, magnesium and
calcium like olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase rich in calcium and
they are poor in silica.

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Summary
The speed at which magma cools determines whether an igneous rock is
intrusive or extrusive.
The cooling speed is reflected in the rock's texture.
Igneous rocks are called intrusive when they cool and solidify beneath
the surface. Intrusive rocks form plutons and so are also called plutonic.
A pluton is an igneous intrusive rock body that has cooled below the
surface.
When magma cools within the Earth, the cooling proceeds slowly.
Slow cooling allows time for large crystals to form, so intrusive igneous
rocks have visible crystals.
Andesite is a form of granite. Granite is the most common intrusive
igneous rock.
Igneous rocks make up most of the rocks on Earth.
Most igneous rocks are buried below the surface and covered with
sedimentary rocks or buried beneath the ocean water.
In some places, geological processes like uplift have brought igneous
rocks to the surface.
Igneous rocks are called extrusive when they cool and solidify above the
surface.
These rocks usually form from a volcano, so they are also called volcanic.
Extrusive igneous rocks cool much more rapidly than intrusive rocks.
There is little time for crystals to form so extrusive igneous rocks have
tiny crystals.
Mafic magmas are low in silica and contain darker magnesium- and iron-
rich mafic minerals, such as olivine and pyroxene.
Felsic magmas are higher in silica and contain lighter colored minerals
such as quartz and orthoclase feldspar.
The higher the amount of silica in the magma, the higher its viscosity.

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Viscosity is a liquid’s resistance to flow.
Felsic magma is viscous and does not flow easily.
Mafic magma is not viscous and will flow easily to the surface.
The crystal size of an igneous rock largely depends on how fast the
magma cools.
The color of an igneous rock is due mainly to its chemical makeup.
Therefore, the color depends on what minerals the rock contains.
Quartz, potassium feldspar, and muscovite mica are light in color.
Igneous rocks with high percentages of these minerals tend to be light in
color. They are the most common minerals in igneous rocks found in the
continental crust.
Pyroxenes, amphiboles, plagioclase feldspar, biotite mica, and olivines
are darker in color. Igneous rocks with high percentages of these
minerals tend to be dark in color.
Igneous rocks that consist mostly of minerals such as quartz, potassium
feldspar, and muscovite mica are lighter in color. This is because these
minerals contain a lot of silica (silicon and oxygen). They contain little
iron and magnesium. Igneous rocks containing these minerals are
usually white, light gray, or pink.
Magmas rich in silica do not flow very easily. They usually cool before
they reach Earth’s surface, forming granite.
Igneous rocks that contain minerals rich in iron and magnesium (olivines,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, and biotite mica) are dark in color. They are
typically black to dark green. One extrusive igneous rock of this kind,
basalt, is the most common rock on Earth’s surface. It is the major rock
found in the oceanic crust.

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 ES.1.05-Sedimentary rocks
Formation:
Sedimentary rocks are formed due to deposition of products of
weathering processes (detritus or clasts), whether they are solid
or soluble that are carried by transportation natural agents to
depositional basins so they are deposited in parallel layers one
over the other.
Accumulated sediments harden into rock by lithification.
Two important steps are needed for sediments to lithify
1- Sediments are squeezed together by the weight of overlying
sediments on top of them. This is called compaction. If organic
material is included, they are bioclastic rocks.
2- Liquids fill in the spaces between the loose particles of
sediment and crystallize to create a rock by cementation.
Cemented non-organic sediments become clastic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks formed by the crystallization of chemical
precipitates are called chemical sedimentary rocks.
Characteristics:
3
1-It covers of earth’s crust but in relatively thin layers so it
4
represents 5% only of rocks of earth’s crust in volume. (Scientific or
geological importance)
2-The types of sedimentary rocks are few relatively to those of
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
3-They can be classified into a very limited number, three of them
are abundant and these are mudstone, sandstone and limestone
which form about 90% of sedimentary rocks.
4-Most of them have economic value as: (Economic importance)
a) limestone, phosphates, coal and iron deposits and also sandstone.

40 | P a g e
 b) Mudstones in which oil, natural gas & kerogen (Unused source of
energy uptill now) are formed.
c) Porous Rocks like sandstone, limestone and sand in which oil,
natural gas and underground water are stored.
Classification of Sedimentary rocks:
Sedimentary rocks are classified according to their way of formation
1-Clastic sedimentary rocks.
2-Chemically originated sedimentary rocks.
3-Organic (Biochemical sedimentary) rocks.
1-Clastic sedimentary rocks
They are classified according to the dominant size of their solid
fragments in their components
P.O.C Gravel Deposits Sand Deposits Mud Deposits
Type of clasts Rounded fragments in size Most of them are from Composed of a mixture
of pebbles and Boulders Quartz clasts. grains of silt and clay size.
(Glamide). Both are usually mixed to
form mud deposits such as
most components of Egypt
agricultural soil.
Diameter of More than 2 mm Ranging from 2 mm to 62 Silt size is 62 to 4 microns)
clasts microns. Clay size is less than 4
microns.
Examples Solidified rocks: 1-Found in the form of Solidified rocks:
1-Conglomerate: results sand deposits in the 1-Mudstones: results from
When gravels are lithified sand dunes in deserts. lithification and
and consolidated by 2-Solidified rock known consolidation of mud
cementing material. as sandstone. deposits.
2-Breccias: results from 2-Shale (Laminated mud):
lithification consolidation that shows the fissility or
of grains that have sharp lamination as a result of
edges and it is commonly compressing their
used in the work of (mudstones) components.
decoration(ornamentation)
of walls.

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2-Chemically originated sedimentary rocks
Chemically originated sedimentary rocks formed due to:
1- Precipitation of the dissolved salts in water due to evaporation of
water and the increase of salts concentration.
2- Due to chemical reactions.
Chemically originated sedimentary rocks are subdivided into:
1- Calcareous rocks
-Limestone that are found in stalactite and stalagmite.
-Dolomite.
2-Silica rocks such as Flint rock (light and dark)
3-Evaporates rocks: Deposited as a result of the evaporation of
water from semi-closed or closed lakes (inland lakes) or in the coastal
sabkhas.
-Rock salt: It is composed of Halite mineral.
Man has used water evaporation in the extraction of table salt from
seawater by industrial evaporation in the salt works.
-Anhydrite (hydrous Calcium Sulphate CaSO4)
-Gypsum (aqueous Calcium Sulphate CaSO4)
4-Iron ores sediments and the most famous example in Egypt is
oolitic iron ores in Aswan, which is composed of red iron oxide
(Hematite).
3-Organic and Biochemical sedimentary rocks
Living organisms participate in their formation such as
1-Organic limestone
Marine organisms build their inner skeleton or outer skeleton (shells)
hard parts of calcium carbonate which they extract from seawater and
after their death, the hard parts accumulate on the bottom of the sea to
from fossiliferous limestone of biogenic origin.
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Examples for these fossils (remained hard parts):
-Vertebrates (fish)
-Invertebrates (Oysters and coral reefs)
- Single-celled (micro) living organisms (Foraminifera)
-Plants (Algae)
2-Biochemical Phosphate rocks
Contain fossilized remains of vertebrate marine animals containing
phosphate in addition to phosphates minerals components which
increase the concentration of phosphate ratio in the biochemical rocks.
3-Organic Coal
Coal forms when plants in swamps with a lot of vegetation die
and are buried by the remains of later plants. The plant material
becomes compacted. Over time, the weight of overlying
sediment turns the vegetation into rock. The first material to
form is called peat. It has not yet been buried deeply. Peat is
used by humans for fuel and for agriculture. With time and
greater compaction, peat is converted to lignite (“brown coal”).
With further compaction, bituminous coal (“soft coal”) forms.
Approximately 35 m of original plant matter is compacted to
form 30 cm of bituminous coal. The most deeply buried coal is
called anthracite (“hard coal”).
Energy resources in sedimentary rocks:
1-Coal: It is economic organic (biogenic) deposits.
Formation: when plants are buried in the bottom of the earth
away from oxygen for long time, so the plant tissues lost their
volatile (water and oxygen) constituents and carbon gets
concentrated forming coal.
Place: This is usually done in the swamps behind river deltas
lands because the conditions are suitable for landfilling (rapid
burial) of plant remains in the absence of air.
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2-Petrol and Natural gas: They are not considered as deposits,
but they have been formed and are stored within sedimentary
rocks.
Formation and nature: They are hydrocarbons (composed of
hydrogen and carbon) which have been formed by the decay of
animal and plant remains of micro marine organisms away
from atmospheric air after being deposited with fine grained
mud stones that known as source rocks where they mature at a
depth of 2-4 km underground at a temperature ranges between
70 to 100°C, and then changed into liquid and gaseous states of
hydrocarbons. After that the hydrocarbons move or migrate and
accumulate to the porous reservoir rocks which are made of the
sands, sandstone and sometimes limestone.
3-Oil shale (Kerogen)
It is a muddy rock rich in hydrocarbons that are mostly of plant origin
found in a waxy solid state known as kerogen which turns to oil
substances on heating the rock to about 480°C.
It is an important source of energy, although it is not currently
exploited (used) because it kept as reserves until natural oil have
been consumed of Earth or when the price of its production is a
competitor to production price of natural oil.
Sedimentary Rocks and Climate
Sedimentary rocks can tell you about past climates. For example,
sandstone that was deposited as desert sand dunes records a
time when the area was dry. Protective vegetation would have
been lacking. Limestones suggest deposition in warm, shallow
oceans. Coal forms in tropical to subtropical climates. Ancient
coal is found in Antarctica. This suggests that the climate has
changed over time in the Antarctic.

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Sedimentary Environments
Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments that are
deposited in various places at Earth’s surface. For example,
limestone is usually deposited in a shallow ocean. Sandstone can
also be deposited in a shallow ocean. However, it can form in a
beach, desert, or river as well. Coal is usually formed in swamps.
A sedimentary rock can therefore tell you something about the
environment in the past. Each rock “tells a story” about the
geologic environment in which it formed. However, it may not
be easy to read that story.
Summary
Sand is small broken pieces of rock that can be moved around.
Sand can also be lithified to become a rock known as sandstone.
Sandstone is one of the common types of sedimentary rocks that form
from sediments.
Sediments may include:
fragments of other rocks that often have been worn down into small
pieces, such as sand, silt, or clay.
organic materials, or the remains of once-living organisms.
chemical precipitates, which are materials that get left behind after the
water evaporates from a solution.
Rocks at the surface undergo mechanical and chemical weathering.
These physical and chemical processes break rock into smaller pieces.
Mechanical weathering simply breaks the rocks apart.
Chemical weathering dissolves the less stable minerals.
Sediments are removed and transported by water, wind, ice, or gravity in
a process called erosion.
Streams carry huge amounts of sediment.
The more energy the water has, the larger the particle it can carry.

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A rushing river on a steep slope might be able to carry boulders.
As this stream slows down, it no longer has the energy to carry large
sediments and will drop them.
A slower moving stream will only carry smaller particles.
Sediments are deposited on beaches and deserts, at the bottom of
oceans, and in lakes, ponds, rivers, marshes, and swamps.
Landslides drop large piles of sediment.
Glaciers leave large piles of sediments, too.
Wind can only transport sand and smaller particles.
The type of sediment that is deposited will determine the type of
sedimentary rock that can form.
Different colors of sedimentary rock are determined by the environment
where they are deposited.
Red rocks form where oxygen is present.
Darker sediments form when the environment is oxygen poor.
Rocks undergo chemical or mechanical weathering to form smaller pieces.
Sediments range in size from tiny bits of silt or clay to enormous boulders.
Sediments are transported by wind, water, ice, or gravity into different
environments.
Earth’s crust is made of solid bedrock except for a thin layer of soil and
very young sediments at Earth’s surface.
Sediments are loose materials that have not been formed into rocks.
The crust consists of a very wide range of rock types. However,
sedimentary rocks are by far the most common type in the upper crust.
about three fourths of it would be sedimentary rock.
Over large areas of the continents, sedimentary rocks form layers, called
strata. Strata (plural of stratum): layers of rock, visually separable from
other layers above and below.
Sedimentary layers may be found near an ocean. This means that the area
was most likely below sea level in the past.
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Sedimentary layers may also be found in the middle of a continent. This
may mean one of two things. The area might have been low relative to
nearby mountain ranges. The sediments to cover the low area came from
the mountains. The other possibility is that the area was covered by a
shallow sea in the past.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are made of fragments, called clasts. The clasts
are eroded from other rocks.
Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, claystone, and shale are
clastic sedimentary rocks.
Clasts are classified according to their size.
The smallest clasts are too small to see without a microscope. They are
called clay. Clasts with sizes between clay and sand are called silt.
Claystone consists of clay-sized particles. Siltstone consists of silt-sized
particles. Mudstone consists of a mixture of silt-sized and clay-sized
particles.
When a claystone or mudstone is compressed, they break into small, flat
chips, it is often called a shale.
Sandstone is made of sand-sized particles. Conglomerate is made of
gravel-sized particles. The size of the particles ranges from small pebbles
to large boulders.
The particle size usually reflects the strength of the medium that carried
the sediment. Pieces of gravel are much larger than tiny clay particles.
Therefore, faster flows of water are needed to move them from where
they originate to where they are deposited.
Sometimes, water cannot hold all of the material that is dissolved in it.
When this occurs, some of the material comes out of the solution as
solids.
This process is called precipitation. It can happen when some or all of the
water evaporates. It can also happen when the water is cooled.
Chemical sedimentary rocks consist of materials that have precipitated
from ocean water or lake water.

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Limestone is the most common chemical sedimentary rock. It consists of
the mineral calcite. This is a calcium carbonate mineral with the formula
CaCO3. Some of the calcium carbonate is precipitated directly out of
seawater. Some is precipitated by marine animals to make their shells.
Dolomite is another common chemical sedimentary rock. It consists of the
mineral dolomite. (The mineral and the rock have the same name.) Its
chemical formula is CaMg(CO3)2
Gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O) and halite (NaCl) are also precipitated out of
solution. They are also called rock salt. They form when solvent
evaporates. The concentration of the solution then increases. At some
point, the concentration is enough for the rock salt to precipitate out of
solution. Areas with arid (dry) climates are where intense evaporation is
most likely to occur.
Organic sedimentary rocks are made of organic materials.
Coal is the best example.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments that are deposited in
various places at Earth’s surface.
Sediments are deposited in many different environments. As a result,
there are many different types of sedimentary rocks.

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 ES.1.06-Metamorphic rocks
Formation:
G.R: Any rock whether it was igneous, sedimentary or even
metamorphic may be metamorphosed when it is subjected to
increase in temperature and pressure.
Because it requires re-equilibrium and re-crystallization to be
adapted the new conditions.
Metamorphism of the rock: It is the change of rocks to new
other state if it is subjected to conditions of increasing
temperature and pressure.
Features (Manifestations) of Metamorphism:
Metamorphism appears by:
1- The change of rock texture where it becomes more crystallized.
2- The change of rock change of its minerals to new minerals,
sometimes.
3- The arrangement of its minerals in perpendicular directions to
the direction of the effect of the applied pressure during its growth.
And these changes occur due to the need of stability under the effect
of heat and pressure.
Reasons and Places of Metamorphism:
Metamorphism usually takes place
1- During mountain building movements (Orogenic Movement)
2-When the rocks are in direct contact or adjacent to the magma of
high temperature
3-To a lesser extent during movement of two blocks of rocks along
faults planes causing friction that causes increase in temperature.

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Types of metamorphic rocks:
1-Massive Metamorphic rocks:
Formation: They are the rocks originated from metamorphism of
rocks under the effect of high temperature when they are in
contact with or adjacent to mass of magma and the effect of
metamorphism decreases gradually as the rocks becomes far from
the area of contact magma. This results an increase in the size of
the crystals forming massive granular texture.
Examples:
1-Quartizite
Resulting from metamorphism of quartz in sandstones when it is
exposed to very high temperature.
2-Marble
Resulting from exposure of limestone to intense temperature
underground where crystals of calcite are cemented and
compacted together so marble becomes more solid and cohesive.
G.R: Marble is harder than limestone
As a result of intense temperature crystals of calcite are cemented
and compacted together so marble becomes more solid and
cohesive.
G.R: Marble is similar to limestone
Because Marble resulted from metamorphism of limestone under
the effect of temperature and both of them are composed of
calcite.
G.R: Marble is considered as decorating stone
Because many types of marble are with attractive colors and
because of impurities which makes using marble as one of the
ornamental stones is desirable.

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2- Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Formation: They are the rocks originated from metamorphism of
rocks under the effect of temperature and pressure where the
crystals grow under effect of temperature in definite directions
in form of sheets or flakes perpendicular to direction of
pressure forming foliated texture.
Examples:
1- Slate rock
Resulted from metamorphism of shale under the effect of high
pressure and relatively low heat (less than 200°C) and it is used
in the construction purposes.
2-Shist rocks
They are different types and the most important type is mica
schist that shows foliation property Due to the arrangement of
mica crystals in the Mudstone after they due to the effect of high
temperature perpendicular to the direction of pressure to
reduce the pressure effect.
Mica schist consists of thin sheets which are similar in mineral
composition, connected and not intermittent.
G.R: Mica shist is the most rock in showing foliation property
Due to the parallel arrangement of mica crystals in one direction.
3-Gneiss rock
Metamorphic rock from Granite when it is exposed to
temperature and pressure.
Their mineral crystals are arranged in parallel rows and
intermitted

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Summary
Any type of rock - igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic - can become a metamorphic
rock.
All that is needed is enough heat and/or pressure to alter the existing rock’s physical
or chemical makeup without melting the rock entirely. This process is known as
metamorphism.
Rocks change during metamorphism because the minerals need to be stable under
the new temperature and pressure conditions.
The changes occur while the rock is still solid. The temperature of the rock is not so
high that part of the rock melts. If the temperature becomes too high, part of the rock
melts to form magma. The magma later cools to form an igneous rock.
The need for stability may cause the structure of minerals to rearrange and form new
minerals sometimes.
Ions may move between minerals to create minerals of different chemical
composition.
Foliated rocks form when rocks being metamorphosed are exposed to pressure in one
direction.
Regional metamorphism: Changes in enormous quantities of rock over a wide area
caused by the extreme pressure from overlying rock or from compression caused by
geologic processes. Deep burial exposes the rock to high temperatures.
Contact metamorphism: Changes in a rock that is in contact with magma. The changes
occur because of the magma’s extreme heat.
Regional metamorphism occurs over a large area but contact metamorphism occurs
when a rock is altered by a nearby magma.
Massive metamorphic rocks have granular texture.
Foliated metamorphic rocks have foliated texture
Quartzite is metamorphized sandstone.
Marble is metamorphized limestone.
Slate is metamorphized shale.
Mica shist is metamorphized mudstone.
Gneiss is metamorphized granite.
The rock from which a metamorphic rock was formed is called the protolith.
Both sedimentary and igneous rocks are protoliths of metamorphic rocks. The
protolith can also be older metamorphic rock.

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 ES.1.07-Rock Cycle
The earth’s crust is the solid outer layer of the earth and it
consists of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks and we
have studied that the mineral is the building unit of the rock.
So, what is the rock?
Rock: It is a natural solid body consist of number of minerals
combined together at different ratios and sometimes consists of
one mineral only.
Each rock is characterized by definite chemical structure so it has
its own physical properties that distinguish it from others.
Types of rocks
Rocks can be classified into three types according to their origin into:
1-Igneous rocks
They are called “Mother of rocks” or “Primary rocks” because
They are the first type of rocks which formed in the earth crust and
from which all other rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic) are
formed due to different geological processes.
They are formed due to cooling and crystallization of molten material
(magma or lava) when its temperature decreases, whether inside
the earth’s layers or on the surface.
Magma: It is the molten material beneath the earth surface.
Lava: It is the magma when it becomes on the earth surface.
Properties:
1-Massive Ex: Granite, Andesite and Basalt.
2-Crystalline.
3-Non-porous.
4-Don’t contain any fossils.

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2-Sedimentary rocks:
They formed due to fragmentation of ancient igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic rocks due to weathering processes then transfer the
fragments by natural transportation factors then deposition and
consolidation of fragments.
Properties:
1- Stratified (found in layers).
2-Rarely crystalline.
3-Porous.
4-Contain fossils.
Ex: Sandstone, Mudstone and Limestone.
3-Metanorphic rocks:
They formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are affected by
intense heat or pressure or both together so it is metamorphosed
into new rock of new properties that doesn’t belong to the other two
original rocks.
Properties:
1- Foliated (in the form of sheets) or Massive.
2-Crystalline.
3-Non-porous.
4-May contain distorted fossils.
Ex: Marble and Mica schist.
Rock cycle
James Hutton, Scotch scientist in 1785, was the first who related
between the three known types of rocks on the earth and the effect
of atmosphere and hydrosphere and their geological processes that
lead to converting rocks from one type to another in one cycle called
the rock cycle, that passes through several steps or stages as follow:

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Stages of rock cycle:
a) Sedimentary rocks formation
1-Weathering process
It is the impact of weather factors such as rains and winds where the
fragmentation and decomposition of igneous rocks into small pieces
of rock detritus are happened.
This process occurs due to the weather factors so it is called
weathering process.
There are two types of this process: a mechanical weathering
(Doesn’t affect the chemical structure) and chemical weathering
( affect the chemical structure).
2-Tranportation process
Detritus is transported to depositional basins in lowland areas such
as oceans and seas by natural transporting factors so new surface is
eroded to activate weathering process.
Natural transporting factors:
1-Wind currents in deserts.
2-Water currents in seas.
3-Rivers or glaciers which are sliding on the mountains surfaces with
the help of gravity.
3-Sedimentation process
When the ability of the transporting agent weakens as a result of
lowering in slope or decreasing in the velocities, the transported
detritus deposits and accumulates in the bottom of the sea or
ocean taking the shape of horizontal layers, which increase in
thickness by the continuous of deposition.

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4-Lithification (solidification - consolidation) process:
The lower layers are affected by the weight of highly upper layers
making its grains closer to each other, adhesive and cohere by
cementing materials to consolidate and then the loose sediments are
changed into hard lithified and consolidated sedimentary rocks.
b) Metamorphic rocks formation
5-Metamorphism process:
The sedimentary rocks or other rocks go slowly down to great depths
in areas where the relative instability of the surface layer of the Earth
is significantly (present) thus exposing to increasing of temperature
and pressure changing those rocks into new rocks called
metamorphic rocks.
The change usually includes minerals types and texture of the rock
so that the appropriate balance of unstable rock occurs with the new
conditions of temperature and pressure.
c) Igneous rocks formation
6-Melting process:
When the metamorphic rocks or any other type subjected to
significant increase in temperature and pressure in great depth their
mineral constitutes melt when they reach melting point.
7-Cooling and crystallization process:
When magma goes out from magma chamber and exposed to low
temperature, it solidifies forming igneous rocks.
The rock cycle started with igneous rocks because they are the first
rocks formed in earth crust.
The cycle starts again from the beginning by the effect of weathering
on surface rocks that are found on the earth surface.

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Rock cycle: It is a cycle relates between the three known types of
rocks on the earth and the effect of atmosphere and hydrosphere
and their geological processes that lead to converting rocks from one
type to another.

The rock cycle illustrated how the three major rock types: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic - convert from one to another.
Arrows connecting the rock types represent the processes that
accomplish these changes.
Rocks change as a result of natural processes that are taking place all
the time. Most changes happen very slowly.
Stages of rock cycle are:
1-Weathering. 5-Metamorphism. 6-Melting.
2-Tranportaion. 7-Crystallization.
3-Sedimentation.
4-Lithification (solidification or consolidation).

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