Introduction to Chemistry 4th Edition

Bauer Solutions Manual

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Chapter 7 – Electron Structure of the Atom
7.1 (a) electromagnetic radiation; (b) frequency; (c) ionization energy; (d) Hund’s rule; (e) electron
configuration; (f) core electron; (g) orbital; (h) continuous spectrum; (i) isoelectronic

7.2 (a) wavelength; (b) photon; (c) atomic radius; (d) Pauli exclusion principle; (e) valence electron; (f) ground
state; (g) sublevel; (h) line spectrum; (i) quantized

7.3 Refer to Figure 7.6. Radio frequency, microwave, and infrared radiation all have longer wavelengths than
visible light.

7.4 Refer to Figure 7.6. Gamma ray, x-ray, and ultraviolet radiation all have higher frequencies than visible
light.

7.5 If the frequency of one wave is twice the frequency of the other, its wavelength will be half as long as the
wavelength of the wave with the lower frequency. This means that for every cycle of the wave of the lower
frequency, you should see two cycles of the wave of the higher frequency.

Lower frequency ()

Higher frequency (- - - -)

7.6 If the wavelength of one wave is three times as long as the wavelength of the other, its frequency will be
one-third as high. This means that for every peak of the wave with the longer wavelength, you should see
three peaks of the wave with the shorter wavelength.

Longer wavelength ()

Shorter wavelength (- - - -)

7.7 The order is blue, yellow, orange, and red (use Figure 7.6 or the mnemonic ROYGBIV). ROYGBIV (Red,
Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet) lists the colors of the visible portion of the spectrum
according to increasing energy or decreasing wavelength.

7.8 The order is orange, yellow, green, and violet. (Use Figure 7.6 or the mnemonic ROYGBIV). ROYGBIV
(Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet) lists the colors of the visible portion of the spectrum
according to increasing frequency.

7.9 An inverse proportionality between two variables means that as the value of one variable increases, the
value of the other decreases. With respect to the wavelength and frequency of a wave, this means that a

71
 wave with a longer wavelength has a lower frequency than a wave with a shorter wavelength. Similarly, a
wave with a smaller, or shorter, wavelength has a higher frequency than a wave with a longer wavelength.

7.10 Two variables are directly proportional to one another when an increase in the value of one variable
produces (or results in) an increase in the value of the other variable. If the energy of a photon increases
then its frequency would also increase.

7.11 infrared radiation (Figure 7.6) (the prefix infra means below or beneath)

7.12 ultraviolet radiation (Figure 7.6) (the prefix ultra means beyond)

7.13 Gamma photons have the highest energy and the highest frequency. Radio frequency waves have the
longest wavelengths.

7.14 Red is the color of light in the visible region of the spectrum that has the lowest energy photons and the
lowest frequencies. Violet is the color which has the highest frequency and the highest energy (energy and
frequency are proportional to each other).

7.15 To calculate the frequency of light from its wavelength we use the relationship:
c = ν
where c is the speed of light (3.00  108 m/s),  is the frequency in Hz, and  is the wavelength in meters.
We are trying to determine frequency so we solve the equation for  .
c
=

Because we are given the wavelength in nanometers we must convert the units to meters before we solve
the equation for frequency. The relationship between meters and nanometers is:
1 m = 109 nm
As a conversion factor we can write this expression in two different ways:

1m 109 nm
or
109 nm 1m

To convert 75.0 nm to meters we must cancel units of nm and be left with units of m.
1m
Wavelength in m = 7.50 nm  9
= 7.50  108 m
10 nm
Now that we have the appropriate units we can calculate the frequency.

c 3.00  108 m / s
 =  = 4.00  1015/s or 4.00  1015 Hz
 7.50  108 m

A photon with a frequency of 4.00  1015 Hz is in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum (see Figure 7.6).

7.16 To calculate the wavelength of light from its frequency we use the relationship:
c = 
where c is the speed of light (3.00  108 m/s),  is the frequency in Hz, and  is the wavelength in meters.

72
 We are trying to determine wavelength so we solve the equation for  .
c
=

The frequency 5.00  1014 s1 can also be expressed as 5.00  1014/s (which shows the unit cancellation
better):

c 3.00  108 m / s
=  = 6.00  107 m
 5.00  1014 / s
This wavelength falls in the visible region of the spectrum and would appear orange.

7.17 When we know the wavelength, , of light we can calculate its energy using the equation:
hc
Ephoton 
λ
where h = 6.626  10–34 J·s, c = 3.00  108 m/s, and  is the wavelength in meters.
Because we are given the wavelength in nanometers, we must convert the wavelength to units of meters
before we calculate frequency. The relationship between meters and nanometers is:
1 m = 109 nm
As a conversion factor we can write this expression two different ways:

1m 109 nm
or
109 nm 1m

To convert 465 nm to meters we must cancel units of nm and be left with units of m.
1m
Wavelength in m = 465 nm  = 4.65  107 m
109 nm
Now that we have the appropriate units, we can calculate the energy.

6.626  1034 J  s  3.00  108 m / s

Ephoton  7
= 4.27  1019 J
4.65  10 m
A photon with a wavelength of 465 nm is in the visible region of the spectrum and would appear blue.

7.18 The energy of a photon of light and its frequency are related by the equation:
E  h

where E is the energy in joules, h = 6.626  10.34 J·s, and  is the frequency in Hz (or 1/s).

E 1.99  1025 J
ν  = 3.00  108 Hz
h 6.626  1034 J  s

The light has a frequency of 3.00  108 Hz and is in the radio frequency portion of the spectrum
(Figure 7.6).

7.19 White light gives a continuous spectrum.

7.20 Ionic compounds produce line spectra. Many ionic compounds are used to produce the brilliant colors we
see during a fireworks display. Because the light they produce is colored we know that they are producing
line spectra, not a continuous spectra.

73
7.21 No. Atoms of different elements emit different line spectra because their atomic energy levels are different.

7.22 The line spectra of neon atoms are always the same and can be used to identify neon in a mixture of
substances.

7.23 No. Bohr’s model had fixed orbit radii to account for the fact that hydrogen atoms produce a line spectrum
and not a continuous spectrum. If electrons could exist between orbits then elements would emit
continuous light (i.e. all wavelengths of light) and we would not observe line spectra.

7.24 No. Bohr’s model was based on there being a lowest energy level where the electron resides in its ground
state.

7.25 In the Bohr model, the electron would have to absorb energy to move from a lower-energy orbit to a
higher-energy orbit. To move from a higher-energy orbit to a lower-energy orbit, the electron would have
to release energy.

7.26 Light is a form of energy. When an electron moves from a higher-energy orbit to a lower-energy orbit, it
emits light energy.

7.27 In the Bohr model, when an electron moves between two orbits, all the energy is released as a single
photon. The wavelength of the photon will depend on the energy difference between the two orbits.

7.28 Each time an electron moves from a higher energy level orbit to a lower energy level orbit a photon is
released. When an electron moves from n = 5 to n = 3, and then from n = 3 to n = 2, two photons are
released.

7.29 Because both electrons end up at the n = 3 level, the electron that falls from the highest energy level will
release the highest-energy photon (Figure 7.12). The electron falling from n = 6 to n = 3 releases the
highest-energy photon.

7.30 A close examination of Figure 7.12 shows that the energy difference between the n = 3 and n = 2 levels is
larger than the energy difference between the n = 4 and n = 3 levels. This means that an electron going
from n = 3 to n = 2 will release the largest amount of energy and, therefore, the highest-energy photon.

7.31 The electron that releases light with the longest wavelength will be the electron that releases the smallest
amount of energy. Since both electrons end up in the n = 3 level, the electron that falls the shortest distance
will release the lowest-energy photon (Figure 7.12). The n = 5 to n = 3 transition gives the lowest-energy
photon and, therefore, the longest wavelength.

7.32 The electron that releases light with the longest wavelength will be the electron that releases the smallest
amount of energy. A close examination of Figure 7.12 shows that the difference in energy of the n = 4 and
n = 3 levels is smaller than the difference in energy of the n = 3 and n = 2 levels. This means that an
electron falling from n = 4 to n = 3 will release less energy and therefore produce a longer wavelength of
light than the electron falling from n = 3 to n = 2.

7.33 See Figure 7.10. The four lines are a result of four different transitions in the hydrogen atom. These
transitions are:
n = 6 to n = 2 violet (highest energy)
n = 5 to n = 2 blue
n = 4 to n = 2 green
n = 3 to n = 2 red (lowest energy)

74
 Because electrons making each of these four transitions produce photons with a different amount of energy,
and the energy released from each transition is in the visible region of the spectrum, we observe four
different colors in the visible spectrum of hydrogen.

7.34 See Figure 7.10. The four lines are a result of four different transitions in the hydrogen atom. These
transitions are:
n = 6 to n = 2 violet (highest energy)
n = 5 to n = 2 blue
n = 4 to n = 2 green
n = 3 to n = 2 red (lowest energy)

7.35 When we know the wavelength we can calculate the photon energy using the equation:
hc
Ephoton 
λ
where h = 6.626  10–34 J·s, c = 3.00  108 m/s, and  is the wavelength in meters.
We are given the wavelength in nanometers, so we must convert the wavelength to units of meters before
we calculate frequency. The relationship between meters and nanometers is:
1 m = 109 nm
As a conversion factor, we can write this expression in two different ways:

1m 109 nm
or
109 nm 1m

To convert 434.1 nm to meters we must cancel units of nm and be left with units of m.
1m
Wavelength in m = 434.1 nm  9
= 4.341  107 m
10 nm
Now that we have the appropriate units, we can calculate the photon energy:

6.626  1034 J  s  3.00  108 m / s

Ephoton  = 4.58  1019 J
4.341  107 m

7.36 The difference in energy between n = 6 and n = 2 is equal to the energy of the photon emitted when the
electron makes this transition. When we know the wavelength we can calculate the photon energy using
the equation:
hc
Ephoton 
λ
where h = 6.626  10-34 J·s, c = 3.00  108 m/s, and  is the wavelength in meters.

We are given the wavelength in nanometers, so we must convert the wavelength to units of meters before
we calculate frequency. The relationship between meters and nanometers is:
1 m = 109 nm
As a conversion factor, we can write this expression in two different ways:

1m 109 nm
9
or
10 nm 1m

75
 To convert 410.1 nm to meters we must cancel units of nm and be left with units of m.
1m
Wavelength in m = 410.1 nm  = 4.101  107 m
109 nm
Now that we have the appropriate units, we can calculate the photon energy:

6.626  1034 J  s  3.00  108 m / s

Ephoton  = 4.85  1019 J
4.101  107 m

7.37 Bohr’s orbits were tracks located at fixed distances from the nucleus. The modern concept of atomic
orbitals refers to regions of space surrounding the nucleus where we are most likely to find electrons.

7.38 The n = 1 energy level in the Bohr model is an orbit of fixed radius.

n=1

nucleus
The 1s orbital is more difficult to draw because it represents a volume in which there is a probability of
finding an electron. We show the region where the probability of finding an electron is the highest with
darker shading.

1s

7.39 A p-orbital is shown in B. One distinguishing feature of a p-orbital is that it has one node. We visualize a
node as the point of space where the lobes (the round ends) come together. An s-orbital (D) has no nodes;
the d-orbital shown in A has two (both at the same point); the f-orbital shown in C has three nodes (all at
the same point).

7.40 An s-orbital is shown in D. One distinguishing feature of an s-orbital is that it lacks any nodes. We
visualize a node as the point of space where the lobes (the round ends) come together. Since an s-orbital is
a sphere, it lacks any nodes. The p-orbital (b) has one node; the d-orbital (A) has two; the f-orbital (C) has
three nodes.

7.41 Their primary differences are their relative sizes and their energies. The 3p orbital is larger and higher in
energy than the 2p orbital.

2p 3p

7.42 Their primary differences are their relative sizes and their energies. The 4d orbital is larger and higher in
energy than the 3d orbital.

76
 3d 4d

7.43 The number of orbitals is determined by the sublevel letter.

Sublevel Number of orbitals
s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7

(a) 1; (b) 3; (c) 5; (d) 7; (e) 1; (f) 3

7.44 (a) n = 1: s
(b) n = 2: s and p
(c) n = 3: s, p, and d
(d) n = 4: s, p, d, and f

7.45 For each element, we determine the atomic number and then fill the orbital diagram.
In drawing the ground state orbital diagrams be sure that you follow the following three rules:
Aufbau principle – electrons fill the lowest energy levels first
Pauli exclusion principle – no more than two electrons can occupy an orbital and if there are two electrons
in an orbital they must have opposite spins
Hund’s rule – electrons are distributed in an unfilled sublevel so as to give the maximum number of
unpaired electrons

Si – 14 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Si        

B – 5 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
B   

P – 15 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
P         

7.46 For each element, we determine the atomic number and then fill the orbital diagram.
In drawing the ground state orbital diagrams be sure that you follow the following three rules:

77
 Aufbau principle – electrons fill the lowest energy levels first
Pauli exclusion principle – no more than two electrons can occupy an orbital and if there are two electrons
in an orbital they must have opposite spins
Hund’s rule – electrons are distributed in an unfilled sublevel so as to give the maximum number of
unpaired electrons

Al – 13 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Al       

Cl – 17 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Cl         

S – 16 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
S         

7.47 To obtain the electron configuration, we distribute the electrons into an orbital diagram (Figure 7.18). Next
we group the electrons by sublevel.
(a) Si: 14 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Si        

Ground state electron configuration of Si: 1s22s22p63s23p2

(b) Li: 3 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Li  

Ground state electron configuration of Li: 1s22s1

(c) Mg: 12 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Mg      

Ground state electron configuration of Mg: 1s22s22p63s2

7.48 To obtain the electron configuration, we distribute the electrons into an orbital diagram (Figure 7.18). Next
we group the electrons by sublevel.
(a) Ca: 20 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
Ca          

78
 Ground state electron configuration of Ca: 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
(b) Ne: 10 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Ne     

Ground state electron configuration of Ne: 1s22s22p6

(c) V: 23 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
V             

Ground state electron configuration of V: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d3

7.49 All orbitals, including a 2p orbital, can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons.

7.50 The 2p sublevel can hold 6 electrons because it is composed of three orbitals, each of which can
accommodate 2 electrons.

7.51 The second principle energy level can accommodate 8 electrons: 2 in the s orbital and 6 in the p orbitals.

7.52 The first principle energy level can accommodate 2 electrons (in the 1s orbital).

7.53 We use the orbital diagram for the atom to determine the number of unpaired electrons .
P – 15 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
P         

The three electrons in the 3p sublevel are unpaired.

7.54 We use the orbital diagram for the atom to determine the number of unpaired electrons.
Cl – 17 electrons
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Cl         

There is one unpaired electron in the 3p sublevel.

7.55 All elements in group VII A (17) have five electrons in their highest-energy level p sublevel (see
Figure 7.23).

7.56 All the elements in Group IA (1) have one electron in their highest-energy s orbital (see Figure 7.23).

7.57 The transition elements except for Group IIB (12) have partially filled d sublevels (see Figure 7.23). The
elements in Group IIB (12) have completely filled d sublevels.

7.58 The lanthanides and actinides except for elements 71 and 103 have partially filled f sublevels (see
Figure 7.23). Elements 71 and 103 have completely filled f sublevels.

79
7.59 Atoms in the second group of elements in the p-block, Group IVA (14), each have two electrons in their
highest-energy level p sublevel. Silicon, Si, is the element at the intersection of Group IVA and the third
period; it has two electrons in its 3p sublevel.

7.60 Atoms in the third group of elements in the d-block, Group VB (5), each have three electrons in their
highest energy level d sublevel. The energy level of the d orbitals is equal to the period number minus 1.
This means that the d sublevel for the fifth period atoms is actually the 4d sublevel. Vanadium, V, is the
element at the intersection of the fourth period and Group VB (5); it has three electrons in its 3d sublevel.

7.61 For this problem, refer to Figure 7.21 and your periodic table.
(a) To build the electron configuration of sodium, we take note of its location on the periodic table.
Sodium, Na, is in the third period and Group IA (1). This means that its configuration ends as 3s1
because it is in the first group of the s-block. All of the sublevels which occur before 3s are filled.
From this information we can build the remainder of the electron configuration:
Period 1: 1s2
Period 2: 2s22p6
Period 3: 3s1
The complete configuration for sodium is: 1s22s22p63s1
(b) Manganese, Mn, is in the fourth period and Group VIIB (7). This means its configuration ends as 3d5
because it is in the fifth group of the d-block. Remember that the principle energy level of the d-block
elements is one less than the period number. All sublevels which occur before 3d are filled. From this
information we can build the remainder of the electron configuration:
Period 1: 1s2
Period 2: 2s22p6
Period 3: 3s23p6
Period 4: 4s23d5
The complete configuration for manganese is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5
(c) Selenium, Se, is in the fourth period and Group VIA (16). This means its configuration ends as 4p4
because it is in the fourth group of the p-block. All sublevels which occur before 4p are filled. From
this information we can build the remainder of the electron configuration:
Period 1: 1s2
Period 2: 2s22p6
Period 3: 3s23p6
Period 4: 4s23d104p4
The complete configuration of selenium is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4

7.62 For this problem, refer to Figure 7.21 and your periodic table.
(a) To build the electron configuration of scandium, we take note of it location on the periodic table.
Scandium, Sc, is in the fourth period and Group IIIB (3). This means that its configuration ends as 3d1
because it is in the first group of the d-block. Remember that the principle energy level of the d-block
elements is one less than the period number. All of the sublevels which occur before 3d are filled.
From this information we can build the remainder of the electron configuration:
Period 1: 1s2
Period 2: 2s22p6
Period 3: 3s23p6

710
 Period 4: 4s23d1
The complete configuration for scandium is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1

(b) Arsenic, As, is in the fourth period and Group VA (15). This means its configuration ends as 4p3
because it is in the third group of the p-block. All sublevels which occur before 4p are filled. From
this information we can build the remainder of the electron configuration:
Period 1: 1s2
Period 2: 2s22p6
Period 3: 3s23p6
Period 4: 4s23d104p3
The complete configuration for arsenic is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p3
(c) Barium, Ba, is in the sixth period and Group IIA (2). This means its configuration ends as 6s2 because
it is in the second group of the s-block. All sublevels which occur before 6s are filled. From this
information we can build the remainder of the electron configuration:
Period 1: 1s2
Period 2: 2s22p6
Period 3: 3s23p6
Period 4: 4s23d104p6
Period 5: 5s24d105p6
Period 6: 6s2
The complete configuration of barium is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s2

7.63 There are two errors in the bromine, Br, configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s24d 104p6. Bromine is in the fifth
group of the p-block so the 4p orbital has one too many electrons. In addition, the 4d orbital should be 3d.
The correct electron configuration for bromine is 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d 104p5.

7.64 There are several errors in the rubidium, Rb, configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d103p64s2. The sublevels
that follow 3d10 should be 4p65s1. Rubidium is in the fifth period and Group IA (1) so its configuration
must end in 5s1. The complete configuration for rubidium is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s1.

7.65 The highest principle energy level indicates the period of the element. We identify the group from the last
portion of the electron configuration. (a) third period (3s) and fifth group in the p-block (p5); chlorine (Cl);
(b) fourth period (4s is the highest energy level) and the seventh group in the d-block (d 7); cobalt (Co); (c)
sixth period (6s) and the first group in the s-block (s1); cesium (Cs).

7.66 The highest principle energy level indicates the period of the element. We identify the group from the last
portion of the electron configuration. (a) fourth period (4s) and first group in the s-block (s1); potassium
(K); (b) sixth period (6s is the highest energy level) and the tenth group in the d-block (d10); mercury (Hg);
(c) fifth period (5s or 5p) and the fifth group in the p-block (p5); iodine (I)

7.67 To write the abbreviated electron configuration we locate the noble gas that occurs in the period above the
element on the periodic table. Write the symbol for that noble gas in brackets. This is always the noble
gas, with a lower atomic number, closest to the element. For example, for any element in the fifth period
we would use [Kr] from the fourth period. Next, we determine the remainder of the electron configuration
from the periodic table:
(a) Na: The noble gas in the period above sodium is neon (Ne). The remainder of the configuration
outside the noble gas configuration is: 3s1. The abbreviated configuration is: [Ne] 3s1.

711
 (b) Mn: The noble gas in the period above manganese is argon (Ar). The remainder of the configuration
outside the noble gas configuration is: 4s23d5. The abbreviated configuration is: [Ar] 4s23d5.
(c) Se: The noble gas in the period above selenium is argon (Ar). The remainder of the configuration
outside the noble gas configuration is: 4s23d104p4. The abbreviated configuration is: [Ar] 4s23d104p4.

7.68 To write the abbreviated electron configuration we locate the noble gas that occurs in the period above the
element on the periodic table. Write the symbol for that noble gas in brackets. This is always the noble
gas, with the lower atomic number, closest to the element. For example, for any element in the fifth period
we would use [Kr] from the fourth period. Next, we determine the remainder of the electron configuration
from the periodic table:
(a) Sc: The noble gas in the period above scandium is argon (Ar). The remainder of the configuration
outside the noble gas configuration is: 4s23d1. The abbreviated configuration is: [Ar] 4s23d1.
(b) As: The noble gas in the period above arsenic is argon (Ar). The remainder of the configuration
outside the noble gas configuration is: 4s23d104p3. The abbreviated configuration is: [Ar] 4s23d104p3.
(c) Ba: The noble gas in the period above barium is xenon (Xe). The remainder of the configuration
outside the noble gas configuration is: 6s2. The abbreviated configuration is: [Xe] 6s2.

7.69 The element is bromine (1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5). If the element has two filled p sublevels and one
partially filled sublevel, it is in the fourth period (there are no p orbitals in the first period). In addition,
because it has five p electrons the element must be in the fifth group in the p block.

7.70 The element is calcium (1s22s22p63s23p64s2). If the element has four filled s sublevels, it is in the fourth
period. It also must have its highest sublevel electrons in the 4s2 sublevel (since there are no d-electrons).
This places the element in the second group of the s-block.

7.71 Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest principle energy level.

7.72 We can identify the valance electrons as the electrons in the s and p blocks of the highest period. We can
also relate the valence electrons to the “A” group number of the element. For example, germanium (Ge) is
in Group IVA so it has four valence electrons.

7.73 No. The d-orbital electrons are always one energy level lower than the valence electrons. For example,
calcium has two valence electrons (Ca [Ar] 4s2). Scandium (Sc [Ar] 4s23d1) also has two electrons because
the d electrons are in principle energy level 3.

7.74 The d electrons in gallium are core electrons. Core electrons belong to energy levels below the valence
electrons. The abbreviated electron configuration of gallium (Ga [Ar] 4s23d104p1) shows that the d
electrons are in energy level 3 while the valence electrons are in energy level 4.

7.75 One electron is added each time the group number increases, moving from left to right across the periodic
table. The group number is the number of electrons in the s and p orbitals of the highest energy level (for
the main group elements). Electrons in the d-orbitals are not included because they are always one energy
level below the highest energy level (i.e. 4s3d4p, where the 4 and 3 represent the energy levels of the
electrons).

7.76 All the elements in Group VIA have the same number of valence electrons as selenium. These elements are
oxygen (O), sulfur (S), tellurium (Te), and polonium (Po).

712
7.77 The valence level is the same as the period number of the element in the periodic table. The number of
valence electrons for the main group elements is the same as the Roman numeral designating the group
number.
Valence Valence
Element Period Group Number
level electrons
(a) Al 3 3 IIIA 3
(b) S 3 3 VIA 6
(c) As 4 4 VA 5

7.78 The valence level is the same as the period number of the element in the periodic table. The number of
valence electrons for the main group elements is the same as the Roman numeral designating the group
number.
Valence Valence
Element Period Group Number
level electrons
(a) Sr 5 5 IIA 2
(b) Ga 4 4 IIIA 3
(c) I 5 5 VIIA 7

7.79 They are different because cations always have fewer electrons than the elements from which they are
formed. They are similar in that they possess the same electron core (for example, [Ne], [Ar], or [Kr]).

7.80 They are different because anions always have more electrons than the elements from which they are
formed. They are similar in that they possess the same electron core.

7.81 First, we write the complete configuration for the atom. Next, we add or subtract the number of electrons
specified by the ionic charge.
(a) Magnesium: Mg 1s22s22p63s2. To form a 2+ ion, a magnesium atom loses 2 valence electrons. The
electron configuration of Mg2+ is 1s22s22p6. This is the same as the electron configuration of neon, so
it can be abbreviated as [Ne]. To find an ion that is isoelectronic with Mg2+, we need to determine
which ions have 10 electrons. Fluorine has 9 electrons. A fluoride ion, F, has 10 electrons, so F is
isoelectronic with Mg2+.
(b) Oxygen: O 1s22s22p4. To form a 2 ion, an oxygen atom gains 2 valence electrons. The electron
configuration of O2 is 1s22s22p6. This is the same as the electron configuration of neon, so it can be
abbreviated as [Ne]. Nitrogen has 7 electrons. The nitride ion forms when a nitrogen atom gains three
electrons. N3 is isoelectronic with O2. It is also isoelectronic with Mg2+ and F (see part (a)).
(c) Gallium: Ga 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1. Gallium atoms lose three valence electrons to form Ga3+ ions.
As a consequence, the electron configuration of Ga3+ is 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 (4s and 4p electrons have
been removed). The electronic configuration is abbreviated as [Ar] 3d10. Zinc atoms that have lost
two electrons to form Zn2+ ions are isoelectronic with Ga3+.
Summary of answers:
Ion complete abbreviated isoelectronic
(a) Mg 2+
1s 2s 2p
2 2 6
[Ne] F
(b) O2 1s22s22p6 [Ne] N3
(c) Ga3+ 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 [Ar] 3d10 Zn2+

713
7.82 First, we write the complete configuration for the atom. Next we add or subtract the number of electrons
specified by the ionic charge.
(a) Na: Na 1s22s22p63s1. Sodium atoms lose one valence electron to form Na+ ions. The electron
configuration of Na+ is 1s22s22p6. This is the same as the electron configuration of neon, so it can be
abbreviated as [Ne]. To find an ion that is isoelectronic with Na+, we need to determine which ions
have 10 electrons. Magnesium has 12 electrons. Magnesium ions, Mg2+, have lost two electrons, so
they are isoelectronic with Na+.
(b) Phosphorus: P 1s22s22p43s23p3. Phosphorous atoms gain three electrons to form P3 ions. The
electron configuration of the P3 ion is 1s22s22p63s23p6. This is the same as the electron configuration
of argon, so it can be abbreviated as [Ar]. Potassium, K, has 19 electrons. Potassium ions, K+, have 18
electrons, so they are isoelectronic with P3.
(c) Hydrogen: H 1s1. Hydrogen atoms can gain one electron to form hydride, H, ions. The electron
configuration of H is 1s2. This is the same as the electron configuration of helium, so it can be
abbreviated as [He]. When lithium, Li, atoms lose one electron to form Li+ ions, they are isoelectronic
with hydride ions.
Summary of answers:
Ion complete abbreviated isoelectronic
+
(a) Na 1s 2s 2p
2 2 6
[Ne] Mg2+
(b) P3 1s22s22p63s23p6 [Ar] K+
(c) H 1s2 [He] Li+

7.83 The common ions of the main group elements are all isoelectronic with the closest noble gas. O2, N3, and
Na+ are each isoelectronic with Ne (all have 10 electrons).

7.84 The common ions of the main group elements are all isoelectronic with the closest noble gas. Se2, Br,
and Sr2+ are each isoelectronic with Kr (all have 36 electrons).

7.85 The valence electrons of potassium atoms are in a higher energy level than those of sodium atoms.
Therefore they are farther away from the nucleus. The farther the valence electrons are from the nucleus,
the less they are subject to its attraction and the easier they are to remove. As a result, potassium (with 4s
valence electrons) has a lower ionization energy than sodium (with 3s valence electrons). This means that
potassium holds its valence electrons less tightly than sodium does. As a result, potassium is more reactive
than sodium.

7.86 The valence electrons of strontium atoms are in a higher energy level than those of calcium atoms.
Therefore, they are farther away from the nucleus. The farther the valence electrons are from the nucleus,
the less they are subject to its attraction and the easier they are to remove. As a result, strontium (with 5s
valence electrons) has a lower ionization energy than calcium (with 4s valence electrons). This means that
strontium holds its valence electrons less tightly than calcium does. As a result, strontium is more reactive
than calcium.

7.87 Ionization energy of the elements increases as you go from left to right on the periodic table. This means
that the first ionization energy of calcium is higher than that of potassium. As a result, potassium atoms
hold their valence electrons less tightly than calcium holds its valence electrons. As a result, potassium is
more reactive than calcium. In addition, calcium atoms must lose a second electron before they become
stable. Even more energy is expended to remove the second electron.

7.88 Ionization energies of the elements increase from left to right on the periodic table. Group IA and Group
IIA metals have very low ionization energies and, as a result, they are very reactive. Since Group IA and
IIA metals generally react with water, they would make a poor choice for making coins or jewelry.

714
7.89 Ionization energy increases from the bottom to the top of a group and from left to right on the periodic
table. The order for increasing ionization energy is: P < S < O. Oxygen is above sulfur, and sulfur is to the
right of phosphorus on the periodic table.

7.90 Ionization energy increases from the bottom to the top of a group and from left to right on the periodic
table. The order for increasing ionization energy is: Mg < P < O. Phosphorus is to the right of magnesium
and oxygen is above and to the right of phosphorus.

7.91 The electron configurations of lithium and sodium atoms are:

Li 1s22s1
Na 1s22s22p63s1
The valence electron of a lithium atom is in a lower energy level (2s1) than that of a sodium atom (3s1). It
is closer to the nucleus making it more subject to the attraction of the nucleus. Therefore, more energy is
required to remove an electron from a lithium atom.

7.92 The electron configurations of bromine and iodine atoms are:

Br 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
I 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p5
The valence electrons of a bromine atom are in a lower energy level (4p5) than those of an iodine atom
(5p5). They are closer to the nucleus making them more subject to the attraction of the nucleus. Therefore,
more energy is required to remove an electron from an iodine atom.

7.93 Electron configurations

F 1s22s22p5
O 1s22s22p4
Two factors are important in explaining why fluorine has a higher ionization energy than oxygen. The first
is that a fluorine atom has one more proton in its nucleus than an oxygen atom. Secondly, the valence
electrons of fluorine and oxygen are in the same energy level. Since the electrons are in the same energy
level and fluorine has a higher positive charge in its nucleus attracting the electrons, the ionization energy
of fluorine is higher.

7.94 Electron configurations

K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Ca 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
Two factors are important in explaining why calcium has a higher ionization energy than potassium. The
first is that a calcium atom has one more proton in its nucleus than a potassium atom. Secondly, the
valence electrons of calcium and potassium are in the same energy level. Since the electrons are in the
same energy level and calcium has a higher positive charge in its nucleus attracting the electrons, the
ionization energy of calcium is higher.

7.95 The product of the first ionization (Mg+) is the reactant for the second ionization. In each step of the
ionization only one electron is removed.

First ionization Mg(g)  Mg+(g) + 1e IE1

Second ionization Mg+(g)  Mg2+(g) + 1e IE2

7.96 Only one electron is lost in any step of the ionization process. The ionization energies (IE1, IE2, IE3) for Al
correspond to the following reactions:

715
 1st Ionization Al(g)  Al+(g) + e IE1

2 nd
Ionization Al (g)  Al (g) + e
+ 2+
IE2

3 rd
Ionization Al (g)  Al (g) + e
2+ 3+
IE3
The third ionization energy, IE3, relates to the loss of the third electron.

7.97 The third ionization of magnesium corresponds to removing an electron from the noble gas core:
Mg(g)  Mg+(g)  Mg2+(g)  Mg3+(g)
1s22s22p63s2  1s22s22p63s1  1s22s22p6 or [Ne]  1s22s22p5
Because noble gas configurations are especially stable, a large amount of energy is required to remove the
third electron from a Mg atom. The third ionization of aluminum results in the formation of a noble gas
configuration.
Al(g)  Al+(g)  Al2+(g)  Al3+(g)
1s22s22p63s23p1  1s22s22p63s2  1s22s22p63s1  1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
This is the stable ion of aluminum. Thus magnesium has a higher third ionization energy than aluminum.

7.98 The second ionization of potassium corresponds to removing an electron from the noble gas core:
K(g)  K+(g)  K2+(g)
1s22s22p63s23p64s1  1s22s22p63s23p6 or [Ar]  1s22s22p63s23p5
Because noble gas configurations are especially stable, a large amount of energy is required to remove the
second electron from a K atom. The second ionization of calcium results in the formation of a noble gas
configuration.
Ca(g)  Ca+(g)  Ca2+(g)
1s22s22p63s23p64s2  1s22s22p63s23p64s1  1s22s22p63s23p6 or [Ar]
This is a stable ion of calcium.

7.99 (a) The first ionization energy of fluorine is very high (Figure 7.26). As a result, it does not normally lose
an electron. Because it has such a high ionization energy, fluorine does not form positive ions under
normal conditions. (b) When sodium atoms form 1+ ions, they are isoelectronic with the noble gas neon.
However, to lose a second electron, Na+ would have to lose an electron from a noble gas configuration.
Because noble gas configurations are especially stable, sodium does not normally lose a second electron.
(c) Neon is a noble gas. The electron configurations of noble gases are very stable, so the first ionization
energy is very high (see Figure 7.26).

7.100 (a) When barium atoms form Ba2+ ions, they have two electrons and are isoelectronic with the noble gas
xenon (both have 54 electrons). Because noble gas configurations are especially stable, barium will not
easily lose a third electron to form Ba3+. (b) Oxygen has a high ionization energy (Figure 7.26). Because it
is difficult to remove electrons from oxygen atoms, they do not normally form positive ions. (c) Chlorine
has a high ionization energy. Because it is difficult to remove electrons from chlorine atoms, they do not
normally form positive ions.

7.101 Atomic radii increase as you go from right to left across a period, and down a group (Figure 7.30). The
order of increasing radius is: O < S < P. Phosphorus is to the left of sulfur, and sulfur is below oxygen.

7.102 Atomic radii increase as you go from right to left across a period, and down a group (Figure 7.30). The
order of increasing radius is: O < P < Mg Phosphorus is down and to the left of oxygen and magnesium is
to the left of phosphorus.

716
7.103 There are two factors that determine the size of an atomic radius: nuclear charge and the principle energy
level of the valence electrons. Nuclear charge is more important when we compare elements in the same
period (i.e. left to right). The principle energy level of the valence electrons is more important when we
compare elements in the same group. The valence electrons of both chlorine and sulfur atoms are in
principal energy level 3 but chlorine has more protons in its nucleus to attract the electrons. This stronger
nuclear attraction causes the atomic radius of chlorine to be smaller than that of sulfur.

7.104 There are two factors that determine the size of an atomic radius: nuclear charge and the principle energy
level of the valence electrons. Nuclear charge is more important when we compare elements in the same
period (i.e. left to right). The principle energy level of the valence electrons is more important when we
compare elements in the same group. Because the principle energy level of krypton is higher than that of
argon (n = 4 vs n = 3), the electrons of krypton are further from the nucleus, causing krypton atoms to be
larger than argon atoms.

7.105 When an atom loses electrons, its radius decreases; when an atom gains electrons, its radius increases. This
means that cations are always smaller than the atoms they are formed from, and anions are always larger
than the atoms they are formed from. (a) Magnesium atoms are larger than magnesium ions, Mg2+. (b)
Phosphide ions, P3, are larger than phosphorus atoms.

7.106 When an atom loses electrons, its radius decreases; when an atom gains electrons, its radius increases. This
means that cations are always smaller than the atoms they are formed from, and anions are always larger
than the atoms they are formed from. (a) Fluoride ions, F, are larger than fluorine atoms. (b) Strontium
atoms are larger than strontium ions, Sr2+.

7.107 K+ and Ca2+ ions are both isoelectronic with argon, but K+ is larger because it has fewer protons in its
nucleus to attract the electrons.

7.108 S2 and Cl ions are both isoelectronic with argon, but there is one more proton in the nucleus of a Cl ion
than in the nucleus of a S2 ion. The added attraction of the additional proton in the Cl nucleus causes S2
to be larger than Cl.

7.109 Hydrogen has only one electron, and the energies of the sublevels are all the same. In multielectron atoms,
the energies of the sublevels vary (compare Figure 7.17 to Figure 7.18). This happens because, besides
interacting with the nucleus, the electrons interact with each other (they all have negative charge).

7.110 The s and p sublevels are filled in each noble gas.

7.111 The f electrons are two energy levels below the valence electrons of the atom, and the d orbitals are one
level below the valence level.
Configuration
(a) Bi [Xe] 6s24f145d106p3
(b) Rn [Rn] or [Xe]6s24f 145d106p6
(c) Ra [Rn] 7s2

7.112 The 4s sublevel is lower in energy than the 3d sublevel.

7.113 Xenon is in energy level five, so there are 4 sets of p-orbitals (the sublevels 2p, 3p, 4p, 5p) which are filled.
Each p-orbital set contains 3 individual orbitals (px, py, pz). This means that there are 12 filled p-orbitals in
a xenon atom.

7.114 A zirconium atom’s valence electrons are in principle energy level 5 (fifth period). This means that a Zr
atom has five filled s orbitals (1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s).

717
7.115 A cadmium atom has two sets of d-orbitals which are filled (the sublevels 3d and 4d). Each d-orbital set is
composed of five different orbitals (see figure 7.16). This means that there are 10 filled d-orbitals in a
cadmium atom.

7.116 If we explain the stability of noble gases and common ions of the elements, we show the noble gases with
eight valence electrons. The valence electron configurations designated ns2np6, where n is the energy level
of the valence electrons, are very stable.

7.117 Both are related to the attraction of electrons to the nucleus. As this attraction increases, electrons are more
tightly held. This results in a greater ionization energy, and a smaller atomic radius.

7.118 We can understand these changes that occur during this single displacement reaction when we look at the
net ionic equation:
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
During the reaction, copper atoms lose two electrons to form Cu2+ ions. As atoms lose electrons and
become cations, their radii decrease. This happens because there are fewer electrons repelling each other in
the orbitals of the atom. Also, the two electrons copper atoms lose are the 4s valence electrons. Emptying
the fourth principle level producing a smaller structure. Silver ions each gain one electron to form metallic
silver. The additional electron causes the radius to increase.

7.119 NaCl is an ionic compound composed of Na+ and Cl ions. Sodium ions are smaller than sodium atoms.
When atoms lose electrons, there is less repulsion among the remaining electrons, and the radius shrinks
slightly. In addition, Na+ forms when sodium atoms lose their 3s valence electrons. Because the 3s
electrons are further away from the nucleus than the 2p electrons, there is a large decrease in the radius
(compare Figures 7.30 and 7.33). Chloride ions are larger than chlorine atoms because they have picked up
an additional electron. The increased repulsion of the electrons in the orbitals causes the radii to increase.
The radii of sodium ions are smaller than the radii of sodium atoms; the radii of chloride ions are greater
than the radii of chlorine atoms.

7.120 We know that light emission is quantized because we see line and not continuous spectra. Light absorption
is also quantized. Light absorbed by an atom causes an electron to jump from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level. Because only specific energy levels are allowed for electrons, only certain
wavelengths of light are absorbed by each element.

7.121 Neon’s red color indicates lower energy, lower frequency, and longer wavelength. Krypton’s blue color
indicates higher energy, higher frequency, and shorter wavelength.

7.122 Each of the aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule describe ways in which
electrons will distribute in the lowest energy state.

718
7.123

(a) aufbau principle; the lower-energy orbital should

be filled first

(b) Pauli exclusion principle; each orbital can hold

only two electrons, which must have opposite spins

(c) Hund’s rule; in a sublevel, electrons are

distributed to give a maximum number of unpaired
electrons

(d) Hund’s rule; in a sublevel, electrons are

distributed to give a maximum number of unpaired
electrons

(e) aufbau principle; the lower-level orbitals should

be filled first

7.124 From the electron configuration, 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4, we see that the element has four electrons in the p
sublevel of the third principal energy level, so it should be the fourth element in the p block of the third
period of the periodic table. That element is sulfur, S.

7.125 (a) [Ne]3s1: elements that have one valence electron are found in group IA (1) and are called alkali metals
(b) [Ne]3s23p3: elements that have the highest energy valence electrons in p orbitals in the third period are
nonmetals
(c) [Ar]4s23d104p5: elements with seven valence electrons are found in group VIIA (17) and are called
halogens; they are also nonmetals
(d) [Kr]5s24d1: elements with partially-filled d orbitals are transition metals
(e) [Kr]5s24d105p6: elements with eight valence electrons are found in group VIIIA (18) and are called
noble gases; they are also nonmetals

7.126 The halogens are found in group VIIIA (17) of the periodic table and have seven valence electrons. The
alkali metals are found in group IA (1) and have one valence electron. The alkaline earth metals are found
in group IIA (2) and have two valence electrons.

7.127 Different elements have different numbers of protons and neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses.
These ions all have the same number of electrons (36) and the electron configuration of the noble gas
krypton, Kr: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6. This is a set of isoelectronic ions.

7.128 The electron configuration of vanadium is [Ar] 4s2 3d3. To get the electron configuration of the ion, [Ar]
3d3, two electrons must be removed. Thus, the charge of the ion is 2+: V2+.

7.129 Atomic radius decreases across a period in the periodic table, so strontium is smaller than rubidium.
Number of valence electrons increases across a period, so strontium has more valence electrons (2) than
rubidium (1). Ionization energy increases from group IA (1) to group IIA (2), so strontium has a larger
ionization energy than rubidium.

7.130 Atomic size increases from right to left across a period and from top to bottom down a group in the
periodic table. All these elements are in the same period, so they should be arranged according to their
position in the periodic table: Cl < P < Al < Mg < Na.

719
7.131 The ionization energy of any element increases as each successive valence electron is removed, but it
increases dramatically when a core electron is removed. Boron has three valence electrons. Removal of
the fourth electron, a core electron, requires significantly more energy than removal of the first three
electrons.

CONCEPT REVIEW

7.132 Answer: C; the equation Ephoton = hc/ shows that the energy of a photon is inversely related to the
wavelength of light. Because blue light has a shorter wavelength than red light, the photon energy of blue
light is greater than the photon energy in red light.

The following have been converted to true statements:

A. Green light has a shorter wavelength than orange light.
B. Green light as a lower frequency than blue light.
D. Photon energy and frequency are proportionally related.
E. Wavelength and frequency are inverse-proportional.

7.133 Answer: C; emission results when an electron moves from a higher energy level to a lower energy level,
emitting the difference in energy as light energy. Because the energy released is inversely related to
wavelength, the transition with the smallest energy difference corresponds to the longer wavelength.

Transition n = 3 to n = 1 (choice D) would result in emission of light with the greatest photon energy
because the difference in energy is the largest.

7.134 Answer: D; the electron configuration for a phosphorus atom, 1s22s22p63s23p3, shows three electrons in p
orbitals. According to Hund’s rule, one electron singly occupies each of the px , py , and pz orbitals, so
there are three unpaired electrons.

A. 0; any element with completely filled highest-energy sublevel. Examples: Ne; Mg; Zn
B. 1; examples: K: Sc; Al; Cl
C. 2; examples: Ti; C; O
E. 5; example: Mn

7.135 Answer: B; the three p orbitals in a sublevel all have the same shape and are perpendicular to each other in
space.

An orbital is a three-dimensional region in space where an electron is likely to be found. Orbitals differ in
size and shape. An s orbital is a spherical three-dimensional region in space (D), and most d orbitals are
four-lobed three-dimensional regions in space (C).

7.136 Answer: E; for transition metals in the 5th period, the last-filled electrons are 4d electrons. Zirconium, Zr,
is in the 5th period and in the second column in the d block, so its electron configuration is [Kr]5s24d2.

A. Ge; 4p
B. Sn; 5p
C. Mo; 4d
D. Ti; 3d

7.137 Answer: E; germanium, Ge, is in group IVA (2nd column in the p block) and is in period 4, so it has argon’s
electron configuration plus 2 4s electrons, 10 3d electrons, and 2 4p electrons.

A. It is carbon’s ground-state electron configuration.

B. It is not a correct ground-state electron configuration for any element because the 3s sublevel should be
filled following neon’s electron configuration.
C. It is not a correct ground-state electron configuration for any element because the 3d sublevel should
be filled after the 4s sublevel.

720
 D. It is not a correct ground-state electron configuration for any element because the 3d sublevel should
be filled after the 4s sublevel, and the 3d sublevel should fill with 10 electrons before adding electrons
to the 4p sublevel.

7.138 Answer: E

A. They are in the highest-energy principle energy level.

B. They require less energy to remove.
C. Their ionization energies are less than that for core electrons.
D. They are removed during the formation of cations from neutral elements.

7.139 Answer: B; fluorine, with 9 protons in its nucleus, pulls the outer electrons in the p orbitals closer to the
nucleus than in oxygen, which has only 8 protons.

Fluorine has a greater first ionization energy than oxygen because the larger positive charge in fluorine’s
nucleus causes the valence electrons to be held more tightly, requiring more energy for their removal.

7.140 Answer; A; in this reaction elemental sodium, composed of neutral sodium atoms, converts to Na+ ions. As
the valence 3s electron on each atom is lost during this process, the electron cloud decreases in size.

The Cl atoms increase in size as they gain electrons to form Cl ions.

7.141 Answer: B; the energy required to a valence electron is called the ionization energy, which increases up a
group and from left to right in the periodic table.

Elements with high ionization energy values do not tend to form cations, and if they do form cations they
are not very reactive in those reactions. Instead they prefer to form anions, gaining electrons instead of
losing them. In the case of the noble gases, they do not form ions at all.

7.142 Answer: A; the metals higher on the activity series, such as the alkali and alkaline earth metals, are more
reactive in single-displacement reactions where they convert from neutral elements to cations, losing
electrons in the process. They react easily because they have low ionization energy values and therefore
lose their valence electrons easily.

In general, the most active metals are located on the left side of the periodic table in groups IA and IIA.

721