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Buy Muslim-made first – does Buy Muslim-

made first
halal consciousness affect
Muslims’ intention to purchase?
Siti Hasnah Hassan
School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia
Received 17 May 2019
Norizan Mat Saad Revised 15 October 2019
11 December 2019
Putra Business School, Putra Malaysia University, Serdang, Malaysia 30 May 2020
20 July 2020
Tajul Ariffin Masron Accepted 6 September 2020

School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia, and

Siti Insyirah Ali
Graduate School of Business, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia

Abstract
Purpose – Buy Muslim’s First campaign started with the primary aim of urging the Muslim community to
be more vigilant about halal or Shariah-compliant products, leading to a number of halal-related issues,
triggered by the exploitation or misuse of the halal logo in Malaysia. The purpose of this study is to gain an
understanding of the purchase intention for Muslim-made products by applying the theory of planned
behaviour (TPB). Halal consciousness was integrated as a moderating influence on the purchase intention of
Muslim-made products.
Design/methodology/approach – Data collection was performed through a self-administered
questionnaire which was distributed through convenience sampling method. Therefore, a useful sample
comprising 152 Malay Muslim participants aged over 18 was collected. For hypothesis testing, hierarchical
multiple regression analysis was implemented.
Findings – It was found that the participants’ attitudes towards the purchase of Muslim-made products and
their perceived behavioural control significantly influenced their purchase intention, but the subjective norm
did not impact this intention. Furthermore, halal consciousness moderated the relationships among all the
independent and dependent variables. Halal consciousness moderated the relationship between participants’
attitudes towards Muslim-made products and their perceived behavioural control towards the purchase
intention; however, this moderation did not occur through the subjective norm and the purchase intention.
Research limitations/implications – As the findings of this study were limited to the Muslim
population in Malaysia, it might be difficult to generalize for other nations that have no similarities with the
Malaysian Muslim culture.
Practical implications – The findings of this study may support Muslims to implement more effective
marketing strategies that attract the target customers to purchase Muslim-made products. Effective
promotion may attract potential customers as well.
Originality/value – The halal consciousness among Muslim consumers is important for the moderation
and prediction of consumers’ intention to purchase Muslim-made products.
Keywords Halal market, The Muslim consumer, Purchase intention, Buy Muslim First,
Halal consciousness, Muslim-made product
Paper type Research paper
Journal of Islamic Marketing
The authors are grateful to Ministry of Malaysian Education and University Sains Malaysia for © Emerald Publishing Limited
1759-0833
funding this research under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (203.PMGT.6711584). DOI 10.1108/JIMA-05-2019-0102
JIMA Introduction
Have you heard about the “Pau Ahmad”? “Pau” is a kind of Chinese bun while “Ahmad” is a
common Muslim name. The majority of Muslims assume that the Pau Ahmad is a Muslim-
made product. Surprisingly, however, the product is made by non-Muslims; Ahmad is only
the driver of the said company or brand. Meanwhile, other businesses use fake halal logos
when packaging products that contain non-halal substances, and these are openly sold in the
market (Halim, 2018; Ruslan et al., 2018). Some businesses and marketers have exploited
Muslim desires and expectations, and this strategy provides them with advantages in terms
of sales and market segmentation Most of these businesses, if not all, lack a full
understanding of the halalan-tayyiban concept in the production of products for the Muslim
market segment. Many cases were reported because of halal issues which led to confusion,
misunderstanding and the abuse of halal certification (Arif and Sidek, 2015; Halim, 2018;
Halim et al., 2019; Halim and Salleh, 2012; Ruslan et al., 2018). Once a manufacturer obtains
the halal certification and halal logo, they tend to neglect all the important halal aspects as
they have already obtained advantages in terms of market growth, greater profits and a
clear competitive edge (Halim et al., 2019; Ruslan et al., 2018; Tieman et al., 2013).
Halal and haram are vital Islamic dietary codes that even non-Muslims in the halal
industry need to comply with. Many countries, regardless of whether they are majority or
non-majority Muslim, demand halal products (Alam and Sayuti, 2011; Hassan and Hamdan,
2013; Ruslan et al., 2018) because halal-certified products are likely to increase the customers’
confidence in consuming them and may reduce confusion especially among Muslim
consumers (Ruslan et al., 2018; Tieman et al., 2013). The halalan-tayyiban means not only
that food is halal, healthy, delicious and pure, but also that it is beneficial to the body and not
harmful to the body which is in compliance with Sharia law (Arif and Sidek, 2015). Halalan-
tayyiban represents the halal principle and recommends safety, nutrition, quality, hygiene,
purity and health standards for products. Buying Muslim-produced products and the
participation of Muslims in the businesses that produce such products could serve as
effective solutions to overcome misunderstandings related to halal or the misuse of the halal
logo by non-Muslim food producers.
A Muslim-made product is one where the production or manufacturing is under Muslim
ownership (Tieman et al., 2013). Ulama postulated that knowledge of halal and haram could
affect the process of establishing a business which is considered as halal. A producer with
detailed knowledge of halalan-tayyiban has the advantage of gaining the confidence of the
target customers in their products offering and this may encourage customers to purchase
their products. Subsequently, the demand for the products will increase, contributing to
larger market expansion and production of Muslim-made products, especially in Malaysia,
where 60% of the population consists of Muslims (Ruslan et al., 2018). Besides, market
expansion and high production volumes not only have benefits for Malaysia but also
provide indirect assistance in marketing Muslim-made products to foreign countries,
particularly Islamic nations.
There are huge opportunities in all sectors of Islamic markets. In 2050, the Muslim
population could rise to 2.6 billion and account for almost 30% of the global population
estimated (Elasrag, 2016; Majlis Fleishman Hillard, 2011). The world-wide halal market is
projected to be value about US$2.3tn. Market values increase by about US$560b a year at an
annual yearly rate of 20%. The halal market is no longer limited to food and related
products. According to Paul Temporal branding expert, there are tremendous prospects in
all areas of the Islamic market, and it is important to note that many Western retailers are
moving to Islamic markets and selling Islamic branded products and services in most of
these Muslim segments. In addition to food products, the halal market has now expanded to
include a range of consumer products, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, health products Buy Muslim-
and many more, including service sectors, such as logistics, tourism and health care, to made first
accommodate Muslim lifestyles.
Although the Muslim market is huge, there is still a scarcity of study on Muslim-made
products. The challenges associated with Muslim-made products against a background
where the halal certification of non-Muslim products, to a large extent, constantly place
Muslim halal requirements at risk. Besides, the purchase of halal-certified products is related
to manipulation and weak enforcement of halal certification unless Muslims prefer to buy
Muslim-made products. Therefore, this study aims to highlight the challenges associated
with Muslim-made products by implementing the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and
incorporating halal consciousness as the moderating effect on the outcome variable, which is
the intention to purchase of Muslim-made products.

Halal issues in Malaysia

Essentially, halal is an issue under the Islamic law, and problems may arise because of
government interference. Consequently, no halal act has been implemented. Some of the
issues were inconsistency of halal regulations with respect to slaughter, issue of the halal
logo by few companies, exploitation of Arabic words and Islamic signals and misuse of
Quranic verses and the halal logo. Such issues emerge from the absence of the enforcement
by the authorities, leading to questions regarding the validity of the halal status of various
products and services. Furthermore, the absence of consistency among world authorities in
issuing the halal certification and logo has led to doubts among Muslim consumers. The
confusion over halal issues was studied by Buang and Mahmod (2012) who found that the
legal provisions were insufficient to overcome the issues. Meanwhile, in the case of
Department of Islamic Development Malaysia (JAKIM), the slow process of halal
certification poses a challenge. As JAKIM does not have a research and development unit, it
must obtain assistance from third parties.
In the study of Halim and Salleh (2012), halal standards established by the Organisation
of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) (an organization that aims to safeguard and protect the
interests of the Muslim world) discovered that there was no consensus among different
countries regarding the halal standards for animal feed, slaughter practices, packaging,
logistics and other issues. This has contributed to uncertainty, misunderstanding and
exploitation of the halal acquisition process. Another study was conducted by Omar et al.
(2013) on the method and production of halal chicken meat on supply-chain and
practicability. The production processing method has been categorized into the slaughtering
process before and after preparation which involves the handling of meat at the farm site,
followed by its logistics. Meat storage at the farm, proper storage and transport were found
to be under the important halalan-tayyiban supply chain.
Preslaughter stunning has become a key issue in animal slaughter, as can be seen from
how it is agreed upon in some countries and not in others. Although it is recognized in
Belgium, the United Kingdom, France, Germany and The Netherlands, it is rejected by
countries such as Denmark, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden. As the key exporter of halal
meat, New Zealand has established slaughter and stunning techniques which fulfil the
requirements of Islam. However, Muslims remain doubtful about the consumption of meat
which is processed via these techniques (Bonne, Vermeir et al., 2007; Fuseini et al., 2017). A
few cases of fraudulent of halal slaughtering certificates were reported by where
irresponsible parties were found to rent out the certificate to unqualified meat producers
(Asiah, 2012, August 28; Fuseini et al., 2017). Therefore, it is risky for Muslims to consume
meat which is only assumed to be halal.
JIMA In Malaysia, the JAKIM halal logo on food products is a crucial factor of consumer
confidence in the consumption of products produced specifically by non-Muslim companies.
However, several cases of companies using the halal logo for their products have been
reported by the Malaysian press, but the product contained pig deoxyribonucleic (DNA)
(Halim, 2018; Halim et al., 2019). Many of these products include Golden Churn Pure
Creamery Butter, HP Sauce and Tabasco Pepper Sauce and Kluang Rail Coffee. Muslim
customers have advised that food based on bread, pastries and cakes should be carefully
selected on the market. The halal certificate application by a European supplier has been
cancelled after supplying non-halal ingredients to some of the country’s most famous
supermarkets and restaurants. In another case, chicken and duck, meat that was packaged
bearing a halal logo by JAKIM and marketed around Klang Valley, was found to be mixed
with processed pork. It was also discovered that a non-Sharia-compliant slaughtering
method had been applied, wherein the chicken neck was folded and cut using a scissor. The
chicken was then submerged in hot water to kill it. Overall, these cases provided evidence
that non-Muslim producers were misusing the halal logo.
Yahya (2012, February 17) noted that approximately 100 food outlets manipulated Al-
Quran verses on their displays and used fake logos issued by agencies other than JAKIM
and State Islamic Religious Council (halal logo certification body known locally as Majlis
Agama Islam Negeri) in Malaysia. The manipulators used false “guaranteed halal” labels to
attract Muslims to their outlets. Furthermore, they wore the identity of Muslim at mamak
(Indian Muslim) stall, in which the workers wore songkok (Malay Muslim hat) to resemble
the Muslims. In another case, a raid exposed 27 food operators at a mall as using fake halal
stickers which were created by an unauthorized organization which falsely portrayed itself
as an Islamic organization (Idris, 2010). A report by Yusop (2011) highlighted a product
recognized as Bak Kut Teh (Chinese food with pork ingredient), which had a halal logo
accredited by Islamic Food Research Centre Asia attached to it. This was openly sold at the
supermarket in spite of the pork content. All these situations could lead uncertainty and
worries among Muslim consumers.

Muslims’ products
A Muslim-made product is defined as a product which is produced only by Muslims. A high-
level Shariah compliance among Muslim producers is necessary to create confidence among
Muslim consumers (Tieman et al., 2013). The number of Muslim producers in Malaysia has
been reported by Malaysian Muslim Consumers Association (PPIM) (a non-governmental
organization that aims to improve the landscape of Islamic consumption). However, the
number of such companies is limited. According to Mufti Professor Dr Asri Zainul Abidin,
Muslims are encouraged to prioritize Muslim products whenever they attempt to purchase a
product in spite of the possibility that their price is higher compared to non-Muslim
products to enhance the Muslim economy and its profitability (Jun, 2019). Furthermore, the
attitude of ukhuwah Islamiah is essential among Muslims (Abd. Ghani, 2014).
Datuk Nik Mustapha Nik Hassan, Chief Director of the Institute of Islamic
Understanding Malaysia (IKIM) (an institute that promotes the proper understanding of
Islam through various programmes and activities), said that the institute has organized
carnivals through their radio station IKIM.fm to help Muslim producers and assist them in
promoting Muslim-made products. The event attracted local visitors and drew the interest
of foreigners, especially Singaporeans and Indonesians (Utusan Malaysia Online, 2013).
Meanwhile, ethnocentrism indicates the beliefs held by consumers on the suitability and
morality of buying foreign made. Established on the perception of ethnocentrism, it was
found that a certain degree of it had a positive influence on purchase intention. An extended
study was conducted by Karim et al. (2011) by involving a group of Islamic followers and Buy Muslim-
investigating the level of “Muslim centric ness”. In the study, “Muslim centric ness” is made first
referred to as Muslim consumers’ beliefs regarding the appropriateness and morality of
purchasing products which are produced by Muslims. It was found that “Muslim centric
ness” had a significant influence on the intention to purchase Muslim-made products.
Moreover, the research of Othman et al. (2008) showed that ethnocentric customers were
Malay, married, female, mostly blue-collar workers, home-concerned, price-conscious and
had families. Meanwhile, Mokhlis et al. (2001) found that Muslim Malays tended to possess
high levels of ethnocentrism. Overall, it was proven that ethnocentric sentiment affected
consumers’ attitudes in choosing products.

Role of halal consciousness

Halal is an Arabic word which means “permissible”. In the context of food, it indicates food
which is permissible under Islamic law (Wilson, 2014). Therefore, halal certification is seen
as a ticket to promote products or services; it functions as an effective marketing tool,
providing information and reassurance in relation to the halal status of the products or
services on offer (Mukhtar and Mohsin Butt, 2012; Shafie and Othman, 2006). A product
with a verified halal status would bring confidence to and prevent confusion among
consumers, especially Muslims (Alam and Sayuti, 2011).
Emphasis on halal-certified products alone is not sufficient because there are many issues
at hand, as described above. It is equally important to elaborate on the need to understand
the purchase behaviour relating to Muslim-made products. In spite of the active
implementation of the empowerment of halal certification, it is necessary to acknowledge the
presence of doubt with regard to halal logos and halal certifications in the real world. One
criticism is levelled at the weak enforcement in the use of halal logos and certifications.
Moreover, it is observed that Muslims find it convenient to patronize certain restaurants
which display halal authentication in spite of the possibility that the authentication is fake.
This phenomenon is a positive sign of a low level of halal consciousness among Muslim
consumers. Cases of fake halal logos are also on the rise as unethical reproduction of the logo
occurs because of weak security.
In extreme cases, some companies have managed to obtain halal authentication from the
regulatory bodies. However, the doubt among Muslims persists as they are not informed
about the progress after the acquisition of halal authentication. Several companies merely
fulfil halal requirements during the inspection process. Moreover, various issues related to
halal have emerged, such as ambiguity, confusion and misuse of halal certificates (Halim and
Salleh, 2012). It was reported in many cases that the certificate application process did not
comply with halal standards such as in the placing of slaughtered chicken on the floor
(Harian Metro, 2011, August 24) and halal soy sauce being filled in wine bottles (Sinar
Harian, 2013, March 8), proving that the manufacturer of the product was untrustworthy.
Although the scope of halal is not limited to its name alone, many Muslims with halal
consciousness are concerned about the concept of halalan-tayyiban, which not only indicates
the halal status but also proposes criteria related to safety, nutrition, quality, hygiene, purity
and health standards (Halal Industry Development Corporation (HDC), 2013). Therefore, it is
more or less agreed within the Muslim community that Muslims should take the
responsibility to produce halal products and services as they have a better understanding of
the concept of halal and halalan-tayyiban compared to non-Muslims. According to Wilson
and Liu (2011), marketers should develop an understanding of the behaviour of Muslim
consumers based on their diverse perceptions, imperfections and other aspects which may
be regarded as cultural constructs. Furthermore, many benefits are derived from the
JIMA acquisition of halal authentication such as market expansion, higher income and a strong
competitive edge, as Muslims practise the consumption of halal food at any location (Tieman
et al., 2013) and seek healthy and risk-neutral products (Hassan, 2011). Therefore, the
consumption of Muslim-made products is the ideal choice for Muslims and the best solution
to the halal issues that they face.
As the global halal market size is expected to increase, some foreign countries are
interested in Muslim products produced in Malaysia because of their confidence in the halal
status of the products (Hassan and Hamdan, 2013; Iranmanesh et al., 2019; Rahman, 2007).
JAKIM statistics indicate that over 60% of halal goods producers are non-Muslim-owned
foreign corporations. (Salama, 2019). Therefore, Muslims have little or no choice when
buying those products. Besides, having managed to fulfil the needs and desires of Muslim
consumers for products certified as halal, most of the non-Muslim producers have applied
for halal authentication from a regulatory body in Malaysia mainly for market penetration.
Table 1 presents information regarding applications for the halal certification and logo.
The table shows that the applications were monopolized by non-Muslim companies. They
made up 68.58% of the applicants and consisted of 170 multinational companies and 723
small and medium companies. In contrast, only 31.42% were Muslim producers that had
submitted applications. They comprised 59 multinational companies and 299 small and
medium companies.
To summarize, it is important to include halal consciousness in the study of Muslim-made
products to investigate why these products are purchased. This could also provide a theoretical
contribution to the understanding of TPB in the purchase of Muslim-made products.

Theoretical background
In this study, TPB is applied by extending and modifying Ajzen’s previous theory with his
co-research, the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1980). TPB has been
supported by empirical research on consumption and by social psychology-related studies
(Ajzen, 1991; Taylor and Todd, 1997). The TPB model describes how the performance of a
person with a specific action is decided by the person to perform the behaviour. TPB has
served as the foundation for numerous research on consumer food choices, especially halal
studies related to Muslim consumers (Alam and Sayuti, 2011; Iranmanesh et al., 2019;
Khalek and Ismail, 2015). In this study, the important predictors used as the determinants of
intention to purchase Muslim-made products based on TPB are the perceived behavioural
control (PBC), subjective norm and attitude. Attitude towards Muslim-made products may
be defined as one’s feelings towards the purchase of Muslim-made products, be it positive or
negative, favourable or unfavourable (Alam and Sayuti, 2011). Another determinant is the
subjective norm, which leans more towards the influence of other individuals on Muslim-
made product purchase, including friends, spouse, family members and others who may
have a significant impact on an individual’s behaviour (Afendi et al., 2014). The last factor of
TPB is PBC, which is described as the help of Muslim-made product purchase. For example,
an individual is supposed to conduct such behaviours because of a favourable disposition,

Table 1.
Information of
Category Multinational Small and medium industry Small industry Total
company application
for JAKIM halal Bumiputera 59 299 381 739 (31.42%)
certification and Non-Bumiputera 170 723 720 1,613 (68.58%)
halal logo Total 229 1,022 1,101 2,352
forces surrounding them, and a high degree of PBC over internal and external factors Buy Muslim-
(Afendi et al., 2014; Jin Ma et al., 2012). made first
Halal consciousness is a strong commitment to ensuring that the product consumed is
halal (Nusran et al., 2018). Halal consciousness is viewed as awareness of the halal concept
and knowledge of the halal standard (Nusran et al., 2018; Rajagopal et al., 2011; Rezai, 2008).
Consumers with halal consciousness have a tendency to have a high concern for the concept
of halal and act upon it (Wilson and Liu, 2011). Many researchers conducted studies related
to halal consciousness in many countries with mixed results in many fields such as finance,
operation, marketing, logistic and supply chain management (Ahmad and Hassan, 2009;
Benamraoui, 2008; Fauziah et al., 2008; Iranmanesh et al., 2019; Khalek and Ismail, 2015;
Khan and Azam, 2016; Mukhtar and Mohsin Butt, 2012; Rehman and Shahbaz Shabbir,
2010; Umar Faruq Ahmad and Rafique Ahmad, 2009). The findings indicate a substantial
association between socio-demographics and the awareness, use and intention of halal
products. In addition, friends and the internet become important resources of halal
knowledge, and the halal logo is given as a guide for customers when selecting a product.
In this research, halal consciousness functions as the moderating variable, whereas a
stronger halal consciousness strengthens the relationship between independent and
dependent variables and vice versa. The fact that many Muslim-made products are not
bought by Muslims may because of low level of halal consciousness among Muslim
consumers. For this reason, the underlying article attempts to highlight the importance of
halal consciousness in the purchase of Muslim-made products. It also elaborates on the
recent movement by Buy Muslim First (BMF), which is currently widespread in Malaysia
(Fahimi Zakaria, 2019, October 2; Nor’Asyikin, 2019, September 8) and can be considered as
a catalyst to strengthen halal consciousness among Muslim consumers.

Methodology
Malay Muslim consumers in Penang were selected as the unit of analysis and sample for this study.
The survey method in this study involved the use of questionnaires to collect data. To prevent any
mistake such as in wording, a pre-test was conducted. The measurement items for each variable
were adapted from previous literature. Specifically, the independent variables consisted of the
attitude towards Muslim-made products (Cheng et al., 2011; Lada et al., 2009), the subjective norm
(Khalek and Ismail, 2015; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2008) and PBC (Khalek and Ismail, 2015), whereas
the moderating variables consisted of the element of halal consciousness (Ahmad et al., 2015; Khalek
and Ismail, 2015). On the other hand, the dependent variable comprised the intention to purchase
Muslim-made products (Khalek and Ismail, 2015; Lada et al., 2009). Likert scales were used for their
several advantages, including conformity, simplicity and standardized measurement (Bartikowski
et al., 2010).
The selection of the respondents was based on the ratio of the Malay population in all of
the districts in Penang. Based on the data obtained from the Penang Municipal Council, the
total population of Muslims in Penang is about 44.63% of an estimated population of
1,766,800 as of 2018. As a result, the survey form has been distributed to five district of
Penang using mall intercept technique, where the respondents were approached at a
shopping mall or public space. The questionnaires were distributed to the respondents using
the mall intercept technique, where the respondents were approached at a shopping mall or
public space. The potential respondents were first halted, followed by the screening process.
After obtaining the agreement to cooperate from the respondents, questionnaires were
distributed to be filled in. This was followed by data analysis through the Hierarchical
Multiple Regression method to test the hypotheses, especially the effects of the moderating
variable.
JIMA Results
Profile of the respondents
The results of the frequency analysis (Table 2) indicated that female respondents
constituted 53.3% of the total respondents, whereas male respondents constituted 46.7% of
the overall respondents. Most of the respondents (72.2%) originated from suburban areas,
with only 27.8% residing in urban areas. Approximately 62.9% of the total respondents
were married, whereas 37.1% were single. Most of the respondents worked in the private

Demographic Frequency (%)

Gender Male 71 46.7

Female 81 53.3
Total 152 100.0
Residential area Urban 42 27.8
Suburban 109 72.2
Total 151 100.0
Age of respondents Less than 20 24 15.8
21–25 20 13.2
26–30 29 19.1
31–35 15 9.9
More than 35 64 42.1
Total 152 100.0
Education level Schooling 96 63.6
Certificate or Diploma 28 18.5
Bachelor degree 19 12.6
Master degree 6 4.0
Others 2 1.3
Total 151 100.0
Marital status Single 56 37.1
Married 95 62.9
Total 151 100.0
Occupation Government 13 8.6
Private sector 49 32.2
Self-employed 47 30.9
Unemployment 26 17.1
Student 13 8.6
Others 4 2.6
Total 152 100.0
Income Less than RM 1,500 66 43.4
RM 1,500–RM 3,000 30 19.7
RM 3,001–RM 4,500 10 6.6
RM 4,501–RM 6,000 4 2.6
Not related 3 2.0
Total 39 25.7
152 100.0
Religious study Formal 112 74.2
Informal 27 17.9
Both 12 7.9
Total 151 100.0
Religious work environment Yes 85 56.3
Table 2. No 34 22.5
Profile of the Not related 32 21.2
respondents Total 151 100.0
sector (32.2%), whereas 30.9% were self-employed and 17.1% were unemployed. The Buy Muslim-
remaining 8.6% consisted of government agency employees and students. made first
Cross-tabulation
To gain more meaningful results, cross-tabulation was performed. The demographic items
and purchasing intention were tested. The analysis showed that 76% of male respondents
intended to purchase Muslim-made products, as did 67.8% of the female respondents.
Considering the place of residence, approximately 71.4% of urban residents had an intention
to purchase Muslim-made products, compared to 71.7% of suburban residents. The
respondents’ intention to purchase was also based on their marital status, with 72.4% of the
married respondents having the intention as compared to 71.4% of the single respondents.
Moreover, the relation between purchase intention and the respondent’s religious
background was observed. A positive result was obtained from 68.8% of respondents who
were raised with formal religious study, including 75.3% of respondents who were
employed in a Muslim-majority work environment. In conclusion, positive results on
purchase intention were obtained from respondents who resided in a suburban area, had
obtained formal religious education and worked in a Muslim-majority environment.
The percentage of purchase intention was higher among the suburban residents than the
urban residents. This was possibly because of less exposure to modernization among the
suburban respondents. The urban respondents were more exposed to the Western lifestyle,
as evidenced by the abundance of fast-food franchises, leading to a high possibility of their
visiting Western fast-food restaurants. Furthermore, married respondents had a higher
tendency to purchase Muslim-made products because of the norm that the purchasing
decisions for the household are made by mothers, who have higher concerns regarding the
product status as they are normally responsible for cooking and managing the home.
Meanwhile, singles had low purchase intention as they would consume anything that was
available in the kitchen or simply buy food prepared at a restaurant.

Multiple regression analysis

Multiple regression analysis was performed to test the relationship between all the
independent and dependent variables. The results are summarized in Table 3. It was found
that the attitude towards Muslim-made product purchase ( b = 0.390, p < 0.01) and PBC
( b = 0.336, p < 0.01) affected the purchase intention. However, the subjective norm ( b =
0.094, p < 0.01) had no impact on the purchasing intention.

Standardized beta
Independent variable Intention to purchase Muslim’s products

Attitude towards purchasing Muslims’ products 0.390*

Subjective norm 0.094
Perceived behavioural control 0.336*
R2 0.508
Adjusted R2 0.498
F-value 0.000
Durbin–Watson 1.465 Table 3.
Summary of multiple
Note: *p < 0.01 regression analysis
JIMA Hierarchical multiple regression analysis
The impact of moderating variables was tested using hierarchical regression analysis. Meanwhile,
halal consciousness was investigated to observe its influence on the relationship among the
predictors and the dependent variable. The pure moderators were tested through moderated
regression analysis, as suggested by Sharma et al. (1981) using the steps proposed by Sharma et al.
(1981). The moderator hypotheses were first tested using moderated regression analysis. In this
case, a moderator effect would be present when the interaction term was statistically significant.
Following that, whether the hypothesized moderator was related to the predictor or criterion
variables or vice versa was identified. The hypothesized moderator was identified as a quasi-
moderator when its relationship with the variables was significant. Overall, the results for halal
consciousness are summarized in Table 4.
The results showed that halal consciousness had a positive moderation impact on the
relationship between two independent variables – namely the attitude towards Muslim-made
product purchase and PBC to purchase intention. The value of R2 for the independent and
dependent variables increased from 51% to 55% whenever the moderator was adopted in the
previous model. The decrease of the R2 value for the relationship of independent and dependent
variables ranged from 0.51 to 0.01 with the inclusion of the moderator. It was also observed that the
beta value for halal consciousness amounted to 0.23 (p < 0.01) for Model 2, followed by its decrease
to 0.10 for Model 3. Moreover, the beta values for HC_ATT and HC_PBC were positive at 0.47 (p <
0.01) and 0.26 (p < 0.01), respectively, indicating that with higher values of halal consciousness and
PBC, a more significant impact would occur on the association of the predictor variables with
Muslim-made product purchase. However, it was proven that halal consciousness had no impact on
the relationship between the subjective norm and purchase intention.

Discussion
This study emphasized the importance of Muslim-made products and halal consciousness in
determining the intention to purchase Muslim-made products. Results show that two of the
elements in TPB, namely, the attitude towards Muslim-made product purchase and PBC,
significantly influenced the purchase intention. Notably, attitude is an important predictor in
influencing the intention of Muslim consumers to purchase Muslim-made products, as proven in

Beta Beta Beta

Independent variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Attitude toward purchasing Muslims’ products (ATT) 0.39** 0.25** 0.05

Subjective norm (SN) 0.09 0.10 0.11**
Perceived behavioural control (PBC) 0.34** 0.33** 0.14**
Moderating variable
Halal consciousness (HC) 0.23** 0.10
Interaction
HC_ATT 0.47**
HC_SN 0.01
HC_PBC 0.26**
Table 4. R2 0.51 0.54 0.55
Adjusted R2 0.50 0.53 0.52
Hierarchical R2 change 0.51 0.03 0.01
regression analysis F-value 51.02 42.90 24.61
for halal
consciousness Note: **p < 0.01
previous studies by Alam and Sayuti (2011), Afendi et al. (2014) and Khan and Azam (2016). Buy Muslim-
Similarly, perceived behaviour control was found to be an equally important factor (Afendi et al., made first
2014; Khan and Azam, 2016). Specifically, Afendi et al. (2014) highlighted that individuals in
collectivist cultures, such as the Muslim community, appeared to see themselves as interdependent
with their communities and to follow in-group rather than specific objectives. This characteristic led
to the Muslims’ tendency to purchase Muslim-made products.
The findings revealed that the subjective norm in this study conflicts with previous studies on
food consumption. The subjective norm did not influence the purchase intention, as proven in
previous studies, which offered mixed results regarding the predictability of subjective norms in
determining behavioural intentions (Khan and Azam, 2016). The subjective norm does not
explicitly affect the decision to purchase Muslim-made products. The general social influence of
family, friends and colleagues are not strongly determinant in choosing Muslim-made products.
Interestingly, this meant that consumers could make their own decisions without needing the
opinion of others in their purchase or daily consumption of Muslim-made products. Therefore, in
spite of the requirements for Muslims to buy Muslim-made products, it could be seen that many
individuals do not take fellow Muslim opinions into account in their consumption of products. This
phenomenon could become the impetus for the recent BMF campaign. Furthermore, the finding
regarding the subjective norm was related to the nature of the halal concept in Islam, where the
consumption of halal products leaned more towards personal belief instead of the law in Malaysia.
This indicates that Muslim consumers may freely purchase food products as long as they do not
openly breach Islamic laws. This is another religious issue in Islam, which is referred to as a
doubtful or Mushbooh product. Mushbooh is an Arabic word that literally means “doubtful” when
it is not clear whether the substance in the product is halal or haram. Many Muslims believe that
doubtful products are permissible in Islam. For this reason, future research is crucial to elaborate
further on the issue. The subjective norm is not a significant factor in purchasing a Muslim-made
product that could be due to two reasons. First, the subjective norm is a secondary consideration,
as opposed to attitude and PBC. Therefore, even if a positive attitude (i.e. the belief that a product is
halal) and the means to purchase a Muslim-made product are shown by a Muslim, the subjective
norm would not be considered. Second, the subjective norm has changed because of the obvious
law that Muslims must only consume from a halal-certified outlet. Although there is a law that the
manufacturer needs to obtain halal certification to display the halal logo from authorities, it is not
enforced that a Muslim must only consume halal products. For this reason, many Muslims may
not be concerned about a product being doubtful in terms of its halal status.
Another notable finding of the role of halal consciousness is its positive moderating impact on
the relationships between all variables except the subjective norm. Specifically, the beta values for
HC_ATT and HC_PBC amounted to 0.47 (p < 0.01) and 0.26 (p < 0.01), respectively, which were
highly predictable. This shows that the importance of halal knowledge and awareness in
consuming the food products, which is inline previous research (Ahmad et al., 2015; Nusran et al.,
2018; Ruslan et al., 2018). Furthermore, it is important for halal consciousness to be instilled within
the Muslim community to strengthen their attitude towards Muslim-made products. It is the same
case for behavioural control to enhance the Muslim consumer’s willingness to consume Muslim-
made products in spite of the lack of means to purchase the products. A general belief among
Muslims to purchase only halalan-tayyiban products is apparent, as they prefer Muslim-made
products over other products because of stronger halal consciousness in spite of the possibility that
the price is higher. As a result, Muslim-made product sector and its profitability could be supported
in the long run. The findings also indicated that halal consciousness is not a moderator for the
subjective norm as the beta value is not significant (b = 0.01, p > 0.01). This finding was
consistent with the above multiple regressions, in which the subjective norm did not have a
significant relationship with the purchase intention. Overall, it could be seen that the PBC and
JIMA attitude to purchase Muslim-made products remained the first consideration in higher or lower halal
consciousness.

Conclusion
In conclusion, this study emphasized the importance of halal consciousness as the moderator of
Muslim consumers’ intention to purchase Muslim-made products through the implementation of
TPB. The results also show that Muslim attitudes and PBC play important roles in influencing the
purchase intention towards Muslim-made products. Such insights should be of value to the
authorities, industry and academics. Halal food affects all age classes in Malaysia and is the most
essential component of the food system. The authorities involved must play a significant role in
ensuring that those available are not only halal, but also tayyiban. Prioritizing the buying of Muslim-
made products would further improve the economic position of the country for Muslim
entrepreneurs. Thus, future research should be conducted in other countries to facilitate
understanding of the impact of Muslim-produced products and the socio-economic impact on
entrepreneurs. Finally, the findings of this study have added valuable information for marketers
and Muslim companies which are competing in the halal industry to formulate an effective
marketing strategy for the promotion of Muslim-produced products. Muslim food producers need to
develop marketing campaigns to satisfy the need, want and desires of Muslim consumers.
Nonetheless, this research has drawbacks because only the Muslim community of Penang has been
chosen for the data collection process. Future research should, therefore, expand the sample size for
data collection.

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About the authors

Dr Siti Hasnah Hassan is a Senior Lecturer in the Marketing Section, School of Management,
Universiti Sains Malaysia. She joined the university after completing her PhD at the Australian
National University in January 2009. Her research interests include sustainable consumption
behaviour, convergence and divergence of consumer behaviour, Islamic marketing and branding,
food marketing, medical and spiritual tourism. She has published in local and international journals.
Siti Hasnah Hassan is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: siti.hassan@usm.my
Dr Norizan Mat Saad is currently an Associate Professor in marketing at Al Yamamah University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He earned his PhD from the Management Centre, University of Bradford, UK,
MBA from the University of Hull, UK and BBA (Hons) in marketing from Coventry University, UK.
He has published scholarly papers in internationally refereed journals, book, chapters in book and
conference proceedings. In summation, there are 14 journals published including two published
under widely cited Emerald journals. Dr Norizan has also published two books with international
publishers. In addition, he has also published nearly 40 articles in international conferences. In terms
of academic recognition, Dr Norizan has had significant international recognition as visiting fellow to
New Zealand and Saudi Arabia. Other major achievements include acting as paper reviewer
submitted to European Journal of Marketing, Baltic Journal of Management, IBIMA conference (ISI
indexed) as well as Asian Academy of Management Journal. To date, he has 9 PhD students and 12
MBA candidates graduated under his supervision.
Tajul Ariffin Masron, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Management, Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM). He has been with USM since March 2007.
Siti Insyirah Ali is a Master student at the Graduate School of Business in Universiti Sains
Malaysia. She graduated with a Bachelor of Management (Honours) degree from Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM), majoring Marketing. Currently, she is working as a Research Assistant at the
School.

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