BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
SECTION A: GENERAL PRINCIPLES
● SENSORY SYSTEM: part of the nervous
system that consists of :
○ sensory receptors that receive
stimuli from the external or internal
environment
○ neural pathways that conduct
information from the receptors to
the brain or spinal cord
○ parts of the brain that deal primarily
with processing the information
● SENSORY INFORMATION: regardless of
whether the information reaches
consciousness
○ but when IT DOES reach
consciousness→ SENSATION
○ e.g., feeling pain
● PERCEPTION: A person’s awareness of the
sensation
○ e.g., awareness that tooth hurts
7.1 SENSORY RECEPTORS
● peripheral ends of the afferent neurons
● change informations into graded potentials
that can initiate to action potentials, then
travel to the central nervous system
● sensory receptors respond to particular
modality of environmental stimuli
○ differences in neural pathways and
synaptic connections
● receptors change different forms of
sensation to nerve impulses that are
conducted to CNS
● STIMULUS: energy or chemical that
impinges upon and activates a sensory
receptors
● ADEQUATE STIMULUS: type of stimulus to
which a particular receptor responds in
normal functioning
TYPES OF RECEPTORS
1 MECHANORECEPTORS: respond to
mechanical stimuli (e.g., pressure or stretch);
responsible for many types of sensory
information (touch, blood pressure, muscle
tension)
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2 THERMORECEPTORS: detect sensations of
cold or warmth
3 PHOTORECEPTORS: responds to particular
ranges of light wavelength
4 CHEMORECEPTORS: respond to the binding of
particular chemicals to the receptor membrane;
provides the senses of smell and taste
5 NOCICEPTORS: general category of detectors
that sense pain due to actual or potential tissue
damage
THE RECEPTOR POTENTIAL
● SENSORY TRANSDUCTION: process by
which a stimulus (e.g., stretch, light) is
transformed into an electrical response
● RECEPTOR POTENTIAL: a graded
potential; change in the membrane potential
which came from the change in ion flux
across the receptor membrane (which
originally began because of the gating of ion
channels)
● ADAPTATION: decrease in receptor
sensitivity; results in a decrease in action
potential frequency in an afferent neuron
despite the continuous presence of a
stimulus
SLOWLY ADAPTING RAPIDLY ADAPTING
RECEPTORS RECEPTORS
sometimes referred to as sometimes called phasic
tonic receptors receptors
maintain a persistent or generate a receptor
slowly decaying receptor potential and action
potential during a constant potential at the onset of a
stimulus stimulus but very quickly
cease responding
initiate AP in afferent
neurons for the duration of only initiate AP at the onset
the stimulus of stimulus/”on response”,
some respond with a burst
at the beginning of the
stimulus and again upon its
removal/”on-off” responses
BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
7.2 PRIMARY SENSORY CODING
● CODING: conversion of stimulus energy into
a signal that conveys the relevant sensory
information to the CNS
○ begins at the receptive neurons in
the PNS
○ type of input, intensity, location of
the body it affects
● SENSORY UNIT: single afferent neuron with
all its receptor endings
● RECEPTIVE FIELD: area of the body that
leads to activity in particular afferent neuron
when stimulated
STIMULUS TYPE
● also known as STIMULUS MODALITY (e.g,
heat, cold, sound, pressure)
● can be divided into submodalities
o cold and warm: submodalities of
temperature
o sweet and salty: submodalities of
tastes
STIMULUS INTENSITY
● increased stimulus strength means a larger
receptor potential → more frequent AP
● as strength of local stimulus increases,
receptors on adjacent branches of an
afferent neuron are activating → summation
of local currents
● RECRUITMENT: “calling in” of receptors on
additional afferent neuron
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STIMULUS LOCATION
● where the stimulus is being applied
● coded by the site of stimulated receptor
● LABELED LINES: distinct anatomical
pathways
○ unique pathways to specific region
of CNS associated only with that
modality and body location
● PRECISION/ACUITY: depends upon the
amount of convergence of neuronal output
● in vision, hearing, and smell, stimulus
location is interpreted as arising from the site
from which the stimulus originated
STIMULUS DURATION
● rapid adapting receptors, respond rapidly at
the onset of stimulus but slow down or stop
firing during the remainder of a stimulus
IMPORTANCE OF RECEPTOR FIELD OVERLAP
● If the density of receptor terminals around
the area is greater than other stimulus
points , the frequency of AP in response to
a stimulus will be greater than the other.
LATERAL INHIBITION
● another important mechanism enabling the
localization of a stimulus site for some
sensory
● information from afferent neurons with
receptors at the edge of a stimulus is
strongly inhibited compared to information
from afferent neurons at the center
CENTRAL CONTROL OF AFFERENT INFORMATION
● All sensory signals are subject to extensive
modification at the various synapses
along the sensory pathways before they
reach higher levels of the central nervous
system
● Descending pathways may influence
sensory information by directly inhibiting
the central terminals of the afferent
neuron or via an interneuron that affects
the ascending pathway by inhibitory
synapses
BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
7.3 ASCENDING NEURAL PATHWAYS IN
SENSORY SYSTEMS
● Afferent sensory pathways are generally
formed by chains of three or more
neurons connected by synapses
● Sensory pathways are also called
ASCENDING PATHWAYS because they
project UP to the brain
● Most sensory pathways convey information
about only a single type of sensory
information
● SPECIFIC ASCENDING PATHWAYS: the
ascending pathways in the spinal cord and
brain that carry information about single
types of stimuli
○ pass to the brainstem and thalamus
○ final neurons in the pathways go
from there to specific sensory areas
of the cerebral cortex
● SOMATIC RECEPTORS: those carrying
information from the skin, skeletal muscles,
bones, tendons, and joints
● SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX: is a strip of
cortex that lies in the parietal lobe of the
brain just posterior to the central sulcus,
which separates the parietal and frontal
lobes
○ VISUAL CORTEX (in occipital
lobe): primary cortical receiving
area; specific ascending pathways
from the eyes connect
○ AUDITORY CORTEX (in temporal
lobe): specific ascending pathways
from the ear
○ GUSTATORY CORTEX (adjacent
to the region of somatosensory
cortex): specific ascending
pathways from the taste buds
○ PORTIONS OF LIMBIC SYSTEM
AND OLFACTORY CORTEX
(undersurface of the frontal and
temporal lobes): pathways serving
olfaction
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● NONSPECIFIC ASCENDING PATHWAYS:
activated by sensory units of several
different types and therefore signal general
information
○ they indicate that something is
happening, without specifying just
what or where.
○ POLYMODAL NEURONS:
pathways neurons
7.4 ASSOCIATION CORTEX AND PERCEPTUAL
PROCESSING
● CORTICAL ASSOCIATION AREAS: lie
outside the primary cortical sensory or motor
areas but are adjacent to them
○ not considered part of the sensory
pathways
○ lie outside the primary cortical
sensory or motor areas but are
adjacent to them
● Information from the primary sensory cortical
areas is elaborated after it is relayed to a
cortical association area.
● The primary sensory cortical area and the
region of association cortex closest to it
process the information in fairly simple ways
and serve basic sensory-related functions.
● Regions of association cortex farther from
the primary sensory areas process the
sensory information in more complicated
ways.
● Processing in the association cortex includes
input from areas of the brain serving other
sensory modalities, arousal, attention,
memory, language, and emotions.
● PHANTOM LIMB: limb lost by accident or
amputation is experienced as though it were
still in place
○ missing limb is perceived to be the
site of tingling, touch, pressure,
warmth, itch, wetness, pain, and
even fatigue
BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
SECTION B: SPECIFIC SENSORY SYSTEMS
7.5 SOMATIC SENSATION
● sensation from the skin, skeletal muscles,
bones and joints
● initiated by SOMATIC RECEPTORS
○ variety of sensory receptors
TOUCH AND PRESSURE
● The skin mechanoreceptors adapt at
different rates
● Two-point touch threshold
○ Minimum distance at which 2 points
of touch can be perceived as
separate
○ Measures of distance between
receptive fields
○ Indication of tactile acuity
● If distance between 2 points is less than
minimum distance, only 1 point will be felt
SKIN RECEPTORS
1 MEISSNER’S CORPUSCLE
● rapidly adapting mechanoreceptor,
touch and pressure
2 MERKEL’S CORPUSCLE
● slowly adapting mechanoreceptor,
touch and pressure
3 FREE NEURON ENDING
● slowly adapting, including nociceptors,
itch receptors, thermoreceptors, and
mechanoreceptors
4 PACINIAN CORPUSCLES
● rapidly adapting mechanoreceptor,
vibration and deep pressure
5 RUFFINI CORPUSCLE
● slowly adapting mechanoreceptor, skin
stretch
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POSTURE AND MOVEMENT
MAJOR RECEPTORS FOR THE SENSES:
MUSCLE-SPINDLE GOLGI TENDON ORGANS
RECEPTORS
mechanoreceptors; occur in skeletal muscles and the
fibrous tendons that connect them to bone
responds to magnitude of monitor muscle tension
muscle stretch and rate at
which the stretch occurs
● KINESTHESIA: sense of movement at a
joint
TEMPERATURE
● The actual temperature sensors are ion
channels in the plasma membranes of the
axon terminals that belong to a family of
proteins called TRANSIENT RECEPTOR
POTENTIAL PROTEINS (TRP)
○ ion channels for Ca2+ and Na+ to
diffuse into neuron
● Free nerve endings:
○ Temperature: heat and cold
● Receptors for cold located in upper region of
dermis
● Receptors for warm located deeper in dermis
● Hot temperature produces sensation of pain
through a capsaicin receptor
PAIN AND ITCH
● receptors for such stimulus are known as
NOCICEPTORS
○ free axon terminals of
small-diameter afferent neurons
with little or no myelination
REFERRED PAIN AND HYPERALGESIA
● REFERRED PAIN: phenomenon in which
the sensation of pain is experienced at a
site other than the injured or diseased
tissue
NOTE:
So example, if a person (simbako!!) gets to
experience a heart attack, so its not just the pain
in your heart area/chest you feel but also on your
shoulders, arm, upper back, etc.
So if you’re heartbroken…. joke.
BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
● HYPERALGESIA: increased sensitivity to NEURAL PATHWAYS OF THE SOMATOSENSORY
painful stimuli; pain can last for hours after SYSTEM
the original stimulus is gon
INHIBITION OF PAIN TWO MAJOR TYPES OF SOMATOSENSORY
● ANALGESIA: selective suppression of pain PATHWAYS FROM THE BODY
without effects on consciousness or other ASCENDING DORSAL COLUMN
sensation ANTEROLATERAL PATHWAY
● LATERAL INHIBITION: sharpening of PATHWAY
sensation
○ When a blunt object touches the both pathways cross from the side where the afferent
skin, sensory neurons in the center neurons enter the central nervous system to the opposite
areas are stimulated more than side either in the spinal cord (anterolateral system) or in
neighboring fields the brainstem (dorsal column system
○ Stimulation will gradually diminish
also called the named for the section of
from the point of greatest contact,
spinothalamic pathway white matter through which
without a clear, sharp boundary the sensory receptor
○ Will be perceived as a single touch makes its first synapse neurons project.
with well, defined borders between the sensory
● ACUPUNCTURE: an ancient Chinese receptor neuron and a Sensory neurons do not
therapy involving the insertion of needles second neuron located in cross over or synapse
into specific locations on the skin the gray matter of the immediately upon entering
● PLACEBO: injections of sugar that spinal cord the spinal cord. Rather, they
● patients thought was the drug ascend on the same side
● TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL processes pain and of the cord and make the
STIMULATION (TENS): which the painful temperature information first synapse in the
site itself or the nerves leading from it are brainstem.
stimulated by electrodes placed on the
surface of the skin 7.6 VISION
○ works because the stimulation of ● most important sense for the day-to-day
nonpain, low-threshold afferent activities of humans
fibers leads to the inhibition of ● Eyes transduce energy in the
neurons in the pain pathways electromagnetic spectrum into APs
ITCH LIGHT
● somatic sensation with mechanisms distinct ● WAVELENGTH: distance between two
from pain signal pathways successive wave peaks of the
● also can originate with the stimulation of electromagnetic radiation
sensory receptors in the skin ● FREQUENCY: Hertz, Hz; number of cycles
○ receptors can be activated by per second
mechanical stimulation or by ○ varies inversely with wavelength
chemical mediators
● ECZEMA: inflammatory condition of the skin

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
OVERVIEW OF EYE ANATOMY 1 MACULA LUTEA
● eye is a three-layered, fluid-filled ball divided ● yellow spot
into two chambers ● small region near the center of the
● divided into two fluid-filled spaces that retina that is relatively free of blood
provide support vessels
2 FOVEA CENTRALIS
● central, shallow pit within the macula
ANTERIOR CHAMBER POSTERIOR CHAMBER containing a high density of cones
● specialized to deliver the highest visual
between the iris and the between the lens and the acuity
cornea retina 3 OPTIC DISC
● distinct, circular region towards the
AQUEOUS HUMOR: VITREOUS HUMOR: nasal side of the retina
clear fluid viscous, jellylike substance ● neurons carrying information from the
photoreceptors exit the eye as the optic
nerve
4 BLOOD VESSELS
● enter the eye at the optic disc and the
branch extensively over the inner
surface of the retina

THE OPTICS OF VISION

● REFRACTION: bending of light waves
○ mechanism allowing us to focus an
accurate image of an object onto
the retina
● ACCOMODATION: ability of the eyes to
keep the image focused on the retina as the
distance between the eyes and object varies
● Ciliary muscle can vary its aperture
● Distance = > 20 ft
○ Relaxation places tension on the
suspensory ligament
○ Lens is least convex
● Distance DECREASES:
○ Ciliary muscle contract
○ Reducing tension on suspensory
ligament
○ Lens becomes more rounded and
more convex

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
● VISUAL ACUITY: sharpness of vision ● Photopigments consist of membrane bound
○ depends on resolving power proteins called opsins bound to a
○ Ability of the visual system to chromophore molecule.
resolve closely spaced dots ● RETINAL: chromophore in all types of
photopigment; derivative of vitamin A
○ part of the photopigment that is light
MYOPIA HYPEROPIA ASTIGMATISM
sensitive
nearsightednes farsightedness asymmetry of the ADAPTATION OF PHOTORECEPTORS
s unable to see poor near vision cornea and/or lens;
distant objects distant objects lens or cornea does DARK ADAPTATION LIGHT ADAPTATION
clearly can be seen not have a smoothly
spherical surface temporary “blindness” when you step from a
takes place dark place into a bright
one
image brought image brought to images of line of
to focus in front focus in behind circle appear low levels of illumination The rhodopsin is soon
of the retina the retina blurred of the darkened room, inactivated/“bleached”
vision can only be as retinal dissociates
PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS AND supplied by the rods, from rhodopsin
PHOTOTRANSDUCTION which have greater
● Retina consists of single-cell thick pigmented sensitivity than the cones.
epithelium, layers of other neurons, and ● VISUAL ACUITY AND SENSITIVITY
photoreceptor neurons (rods and cones) ○ Each eye oriented so that image
falls within fovea centralis
STRUCTURE OF PHOTORECEPTORS ○ Fovea only contain cones
● OUTER SEGMENT: tip of photoreceptor ○ Peripheral regions contain both
cells; composed of DISCS rods and cones
○ stacked layers of membrane ○ Visual acuity greatest and
● MULLER CELLS: elongated, funnel-shaped sensitivity and lowest when light
cells span the distance from the inner falls on fovea
surface of the retina directly to the ● BLEACHING REACTION
photoreceptors ○ Rhodopsin dissociates into
● CHOROID AND THE PIGMENT retinenen and opsin
EPITHELIUM: two pigmented layers ○ Initiates changes in ionic
○ absorb light rays that bypass the permeability to produce APs in
photoreceptors ganglionic cells
○ prevents reflection and scattering of
photons back through the rods and NEURAL PATHWAYS OF VISION
cones, which would cause the
visual image to blur 1 RECEPTIVE FIELD: part of visual field that
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT BY affects activity of particular ganglion cell
PHOTORECEPTORS 2 ON-CENTER FIELDS: responses produced by
● The photoreceptors contain light in the center of visual fields
PHOTOPIGMENTS 3 OFF-CENTER FIELDS: responses inhibited by
○ absorb light light in the center and stimulated by light in the
● RHODOPSIN: unique photopigment in the surround
retina for the rods

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 BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
● CONES AND COLOR VISION SOUND TRANSMISSION IN THE EAR
○ Cones less sensitive than rods to
light
○ Cones provide color vision and
greater visual acuity
○ High light intensity bleaches out of
the rods, and color vision with high
acuity is provided by cones

● TRICHROMATIC THEORY OF COLOR

VISIONS:
○ 3 types of cones:
○ Blue, green and red
○ According to the region of visual
spectrum absorbed

7.7 AUDITION
● based on the physics of sound and the
physiology of the external, middle, and inner
ear.
SOUND
● Sound waves travel in all directions from
their source
○ Waves are characterized by
frequency and intensity
THREE DIVISIONS OF THE EAR:

FREQUENCY INTENSITY
Measured in hertz (cycles Directly related to
per second) amplitude of sound
waves
Pitch is directly related to
frequency Measured in decibels
Greater the frequency the Human ears can
higher the pitch tolerate sounds not
exceeding 85 decibels
1 OUTER EAR: all sound waves pass here first,
increases sound wave intensity
Pinna (auricle) → external auditory meatus →
tympanic membrane (ear drum)
2 MIDDLE EAR: cavity between tympanic
membrane and cochlea
● MELLANUS - vibrations of membrane
transmitted to the malleus and incus to
stapes
● STAPES- vibrates in response to
vibration in tympanic membrane
● VIBRATIONS TRANSFERRED
THROUGH 3 BONES: provides
protection and prevents nerve damage,
stapedius muscle contracts and
dampens vibrations
3 INNER EAR

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
COCHLEA
● Vibrations by stapes at oval window
produces pressure waves that displace
perilymph fluid within scala vestibuli
● Vibrations pass to the scala tympani
● As sound frequency increases, pressure
waves of the perilymph are transmitted
through the vestibular membrane to the
basilar membrane
TRANSMISSION OF SOUND VIBRATIONS
THROUGH THE MIDDLE AND INNER EAR
HAIR CELLS OF THE ORGAN OF CORTI
● HAIR CELLS: receptor cells of the organ of
Corti
○ mechanoreceptors that have
stereocilia protruding from one end
○ single row of inner hair cells and
three rows of outer hair cells
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● The stereocilia of outer hair cells are
embedded in an overlying tectorial
membrane
○ mechanically alter its movement in
a complex way that sharpens
frequency tuning at each point
along the basilar membrane
● Separate parts of the basilar membrane
vibrate maximally in response to particular
sound frequencies; high frequency is
detected near the oval window and low
frequency toward the far end of the cochlear
duct.
IN SUMMARY (SEQUENCE OF SOUND
TRANSMISSION)
1. Sound waves enter the external auditory
canal and press against the tympanic membrane,
causing it to vibrate.
2. The vibrating membrane causes movement
of the three small middle ear bones; the stapes
vibrate against the oval window membrane.
3. Movements of the oval window membrane
set up pressure waves in the fluid-filled scala
vestibuli, which cause vibrations in the cochlear
duct wall, setting up pressure waves in the fluid
there.
4. These pressure waves cause vibrations in
the basilar membrane, which is located on one
side of the cochlear duct.
5. As this membrane vibrates, the hair cells of
the organ of Corti move in relation to the tectorial
membrane.
6. Movement of the hair cells’ stereocilia
stimulates the hair cells to release glutamate,
which activates receptors on the peripheral ends
of the afferent nerve fibers.
BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
7.8 VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
● The vestibular apparatus is a connected
series of endolymph filled, membranous
tubes that also connect with the cochlear
duct
● consists of 2 parts which lie in tunnels of the
temporal bone on each side of the head
1 OTOLITH ORGANS
2 UTRICLE AND SACCULE
● SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
● The bony tunnels of the inner ear, which
house the vestibular apparatus and cochlea,
have such a complicated shape that they
are sometimes called the LABYRINTH
THE SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
● detect angular acceleration during rotation of
the head along three perpendicular axes
○ activated during rotation around the
horizontal axis, rotation around the
vertical axis, and rotation around
the anterior–posterior axis
● Receptor cells of the semicircular canals, like
those of the organ of Corti, contain
stereocilia
○ encapsulated within CUPULA–
gelatinous mass
○ eastenders across the lumen of
each semicircular canal at the
AMPULLA– slight bulge in the wall
of each duct
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THE UTRICLE AND SACCULE
● provide information about linear acceleration
of the head, and about changes in head
position relative to the forces of gravity
● UTRICLE: More sensitive to horizontal
acceleration
○ During forward acceleration,
otolithic membrane lags behind hair
cells, so hairs pushed backward
● SACCULE: More sensitive to vertical
acceleration
○ Hairs pushed upward when person
descends
● The stereocilia projecting from the hair cells
are covered by a gelatinous substance in
which tiny crystals, or otoliths, are
embedded
○ calcium carbonate crystals; make
the gelatinous substance heavier
than the surrounding fluid
VESTIBULAR INFORMATION AND PATHWAYS
● Vestibular information is used in three ways.
1 CONTROL THE EYE MUSCLES
● so that, in spite of changes in head
position, the eyes can remain fixed on the
same point
● NYSTAGMUS: large, jerky, back and-forth
movement of the eyes that can occur in
response to unusual vestibular input in
healthy people;
○ involuntary oscillations of the eyes,
when spin is stopped. Eyes
continue to move in direction
opposite to spin, then jerk rapidly
back to midline
● VERTIGO: Loss of equilibrium when
spinning
2 REFLEX MECHANISMS FOR MAINTAINING
UPRIGHT POSTURE AND BALANCE
● functions in the support of the head during
movement, orientation of the head in space,
and reflexes accompanying locomotion
3 PROVIDING CONSCIOUS AWARENESS OF THE
POSITION AND ACCELERATION OF THE BODY,
PERCEPTION OF SPACE SURROUNDING THE
BODY, MEMORY OF SPATIAL INFORMATION
BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 7: SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY

7.9 CHEMICAL SENSES ●

● CHEMORECEPTORS: receptors sensitive
to specific chemicals
○ some respond to chemical changes
in the internal environment
■ e.g., receptors that sense
oxygen and hydrogen ion
concentration in the blood
GUSTATION
● TASTE BUDS: specialized sense organs for
gustation; found in the mouth and throat
○ vast majority on the upper surface
and sides of the tongue
○ small groups of cells arranged like
orange slices
○ found in LINGUAL PAPILLAE
■ walls of visible structures
● BASAL CELLS: bottom of the taste buds;
divide and differentiate to continually replace
taste receptor cells damaged in the
occasionally harsh environment of the mouth
● Epithelial cell receptors clustered in
barrel-shaped taste buds
○ Each taste bud consists of 50-100
specialized epithelial cells
● Taste cells are not neurons and if threshold
is reached, they release NT that stimulate
sensory neurons
● Each taste bud contains taste cells
responsive to each of the different taste
categories (sweet, sour, salty, bitter and
umami)
● A given sensory neurons may be stimulated
by more than 1 taste cell in number of
different taste beds
● One sensory fiber may not transmit
information specific for only 1 category of
taste
● Brain interprets the pattern of stimulation
with the sense of smell; so that we perceive
the complex taste
OLFACTION
● sense of smell
● Olfactory apparatus consists of receptor
cells, supporting cells and basal (stem) cells
○ Basal cells generates new receptor
cells every 1-2 months
○ Supporting cells contain enzymes
that oxidize hydrophobic volatile
odorants
● Axon projects directly up into olfactory bulb
of cerebrum
● OLFACTORY BULB: lie on the undersurface
of the frontal lobes
○ projects to olfactory cortex,
hippocampus and amygdaloid
nuclei
● For us to detect an odorous substance (an
odorant), molecules of the substance must
first diffuse into the air and pass into the
nose to the region of the olfactory epithelium
● ANOSMIA: total lack of the ability to smell
● KALLMANN SYNDROME: condition in
which the olfactory bulbs fail to form, as
do regions of the brain associated with
regulation of sex hormones

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