Philosophy (love of wisdom in ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental

questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational
and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.

Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy.
However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential
traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy.
Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A
central topic in Arabic-Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian
philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the
nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses on practical issues in
relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.

Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies
what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right
conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished
from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and
properties. Other notable subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind,
philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and
political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote
different principles, theories, or methods.

Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include
conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of
ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many
other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an
interdisciplinary perspective and studies their scope and fundamental concepts. It also investigates their
methods and ethical implications.

Etymology

The word philosophy comes from the ancient Greek words φίλος (philos: 'love') and σοφία (sophia:
'wisdom').[1] Some sources say that the term was coined by the pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras,
but this is not certain.[2]

Wood engraving of Isaac Newton under an apple tree

Physics was originally part of philosophy, like Isaac Newton's observation of how gravity affects falling
apples.

The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around
1175 CE. The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia. The term philosophy
acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and
metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as
transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality,
and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding".[3]
Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of
rational inquiry, such as the individual sciences, as its subdisciplines.[4] For instance, natural philosophy
was a major branch of philosophy.[5] This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields,
including disciplines like physics, chemistry, and biology.[6] An example of this usage is the 1687 book
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton. This book referred to natural philosophy
in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.[7]

The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more
narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical
disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study
of reality, knowledge, and values. However, it is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry
such as the empirical sciences and mathematics.[8]

Conceptions of philosophy

See also: Metaphilosophy

General conception

The practice of philosophy is characterized by various general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it
aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.[9] It
requires thinking "as hard and as clearly as one can about some of the most interesting and enduring
problems that human minds have ever encountered".[10]

The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does
not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine
their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common
sense.[11] For example, Socrates stated that "the unexamined life is not worth living" to highlight the
role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence.[12] And according to Bertrand
Russell, "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices
derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions
which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."[13]

Academic definitions

Main article: Definitions of philosophy

Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial[14] and are studied in
metaphilosophy.[15] Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts
of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty
blanket term.[16] Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain
philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many
presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.[17]
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on
its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to
answer the big questions.[18] Such an approach is pursued by Immanuel Kant, who holds that the task
of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I
hope?"; and "What is the human being?"[19] Both approaches have the problem that they are usually
either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some
philosophical sub-disciplines.[20]

Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.[21] In this sense, philosophy
is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic
philosophers, such as W. V. O. Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned
with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.[22] Science-based definitions
usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same
extent or in the same way as the sciences.[23] This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an
immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully
developed.[24] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".[25]

Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many
such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of
language.[26] According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the
necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts.[27] Another definition characterizes
philosophy as thinking about thinking to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature.[28]

Phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science"

investigating essences.[29] They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality in
order to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that
this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that
one needs to understand the former in order to understand the latter.[30]

Another approach presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for
instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the
confusing structure of natural language.[31]

An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, and later adopted by 20th-century
philosophers such as Michel Foucault and Pierre Hadot, is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of
developing one's rational capacities.[32] This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of
wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life.[33]

History

Main article: History of philosophy

As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of
philosophical concepts and doctrines.[34] Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history, but it
also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past
philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant.[35] The history of philosophy is
primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation. However, some
historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths, religious teachings, and proverbial lore.
[36]

Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and Chinese
philosophy. Other philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and
African philosophy.[37]

Western

Main article: Western philosophy

Bust of Aristotle

Aristotle was a major figure in ancient philosophy and developed a comprehensive system of thought
including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and natural science.[38]

Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the pre-Socratics. They
attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole.[39] The philosophy following
them was shaped by Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427–347 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). They
expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act, how to arrive at knowledge, and
what the nature of reality and mind is.[40] The later part of the ancient period was marked by the
emergence of philosophical movements, for example, Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism, and
Neoplatonism.[41] The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics
and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrines.[42][43]

The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in various schools of
ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism. Humanism also emerged in this period.[44] The modern
period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific
knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience.[45]
Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional
authorities.[46] Various attempts to develop all-inclusive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th
century, for instance, by German idealism.[47] Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy
were the emergence and application of formal logic, the focus on the role of language as well as
pragmatism, and movements in continental philosophy like phenomenology, existentialism, and
postmodernism.[48] The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the
number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at academic institutions.[49] There was
also a noticeable growth in the number of female philosophers, but they still remained
underrepresented.[50]

Arabic-Persian

Main articles: Islamic philosophy and Iranian philosophy

Arabic-Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic
theological tradition. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by
Ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the
Quran.[51]

Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase

Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the Islamic
Golden Age.

Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and
interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony
between reason and faith.[52] Avicenna (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a
comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing
science, religion, and mysticism.[53] Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that
reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of
philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and
mystical insight.[54] Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of
philosophical inquiry waned.[55] Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most
influential philosophers of the subsequent period.[56] The increasing influence of Western thought and
institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of Islamic modernism,
which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.[57]

Indian

Main article: Indian philosophy

One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature
of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment.
[58] It started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written. They are the foundational scriptures of
Hinduism and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well
as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions.[59] This period also saw the
emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism.[60] Buddhism was founded by Gautama
Siddhartha (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a permanent self and proposed a path to
liberate oneself from suffering.[61] Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), who emphasized
non-violence as well as respect toward all forms of life.[62]

The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the
six orthodox schools of Hinduism: Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta.[63] The
school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It was systematized by Adi Shankara (c.700–
750 CE), who held that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many
distinct entities is an illusion.[64] A slightly different perspective was defended by Ramanuja (1017–1137
CE)[a], who founded the school of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and argued that individual entities are real as
aspects or parts of the underlying unity.[66] He also helped to popularize the Bhakti movement, which
taught devotion toward the divine as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.[67]
The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought.[68]
Various philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and
religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita
Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.[69]
Chinese

Main article: Chinese philosophy

Painting of Confucius

The teachings of Confucius on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.

Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct,
government, and self-cultivation.[70] Many schools of thought emerged in the 6th century BCE in
competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them
were Confucianism and Daoism.[71] Confucianism was founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE). It focused
on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society.[72] Daoism was
founded by Laozi (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by
following the Dao or the natural order of the universe.[73] Other influential early schools of thought
were Mohism, which developed an early form of altruistic consequentialism,[74] and Legalism, which
emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.[75]

Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into new forms of Buddhism.
[76] Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of Xuanxue emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works
with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations.[77] Neo-Confucianism developed in the 11th
century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of
ethics.[78] The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by
the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of Chinese Marxism—which
focused on class struggle, socialism, and communism—resulted in a significant transformation of the
political landscape.[79] Another development was the emergence of New Confucianism, which aims to
modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and
modern science.[80]

Other traditions

Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including
the indigenous Shinto religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and
Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by
active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination.[81] Neo-Confucianism became an
influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following Edo period and prompted a greater
focus on language and the natural world.[82] The Kyoto School emerged in the 20th century and
integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute
nothingness (zettai-mu), place (basho), and the self.[83]

Latin American philosophy in the pre-colonial period was practiced by indigenous civilizations and
explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans in it. Philosophy during the
colonial period, starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of
scholasticism. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were positivism, the philosophy of liberation,
and the exploration of identity and culture.[84]

Early African philosophy, like Ubuntu philosophy, was focused on community, morality, and ancestral
ideas.[85] Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses
topics such as ethnophilosophy, négritude, pan-Africanism, Marxism, postcolonialism, the role of
cultural identity, and the critique of Eurocentrism.[86]

Core branches

See also: Outline of philosophy § Branches of philosophy, and Outline of philosophy § Philosophical
schools of thought

Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches. These groupings allow philosophers to
focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same
questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches.[87]
There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor
mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under
the general heading of value theory as they investigate normative or evaluative aspects.[88]
Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social
sciences, religion, and mathematics.[89]

Epistemology

Main article: Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as theory of
knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value
it has. It further examines the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality.[90] Some of the
questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?";
"How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"[91]

Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge or knowledge of facts, like knowing that
Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates practical knowledge, such as knowing how to ride a
bicycle, and knowledge by acquaintance, for example, knowing a celebrity personally.[92]

One area in epistemology is the analysis of knowledge. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a
combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this
area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. This theory is
controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the Gettier problem.[93]

Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of
knowledge are perception, introspection, memory, inference, and testimony.[94] According to
empiricists, all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold
that some forms of knowledge, like innate knowledge, are not acquired through experience.[95] The
regress problem is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they
offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The
problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This
leads to an infinite regress or circular reasoning. Foundationalists avoid this conclusion by arguing that
some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves.[96] Another solution is
presented by coherentists, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the
person.[97]

Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts
about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge
requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.[98]

Ethics

Main article: Ethics

Drawing of John Stuart Mill

"The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other
things being only desirable as means to that end." — John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)[99]

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right conduct. It is also concerned with
the moral evaluation of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of morality are
and how to live a good life.[100] Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral
obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life
meaning?"[101]

The main branches of ethics are meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.[102] Meta-ethics
asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical
concepts, like right action and obligation. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be true in an
absolute sense and how to acquire knowledge of them.[103] Normative ethics encompasses general
theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by
examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of
the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace
or for medical treatments.[104]

Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics are influential
schools of thought.[105] Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is
utilitarianism, which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering.
Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or
killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what
consequences they have. Virtue theorists judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent
is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do
by manifesting virtues like generosity and honesty.[106]

Logic

Main article: Logic

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad
arguments.[107] It is usually divided into formal and informal logic. Formal logic uses artificial languages
with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In this way, it formulates exact criteria
and methods based on the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect.
Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to analyze and evaluate the correctness of
arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.[108]

Logic examines a variety of arguments. Deductive arguments are mainly studied by formal logic. An
argument is deductively valid if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively
valid arguments follow a rule of inference, like modus ponens, which has the following logical form: "p;
if p then q; therefore q". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't
have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".[109]

The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion. However, this support is not as
certain and does not guarantee that the conclusion is true.[110] One form is inductive reasoning. It
starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all
cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual
black ravens.[111] Another form is abductive reasoning. It starts from an observation and concludes that
the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor
diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.[112]

Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called fallacies and are divided into formal
and informal fallacies based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or
also in its content and context.[113]

Metaphysics

Main article: Metaphysics

Incunabulum showing the beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysics

The beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysics in an incunabulum decorated with hand-painted miniatures

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, objects and their
properties, wholes and their parts, space and time, events, and causation.[114] There are disagreements
about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages.[115]
Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "Why is there something rather than
nothing?"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"[116]

Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General
metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common.
Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ
from one another.[117]

An important area in metaphysics is ontology. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics.
Ontology investigates concepts like being, becoming, and reality. It studies the categories of being and
asks what exists on the most fundamental level.[118] Another subfield of metaphysics is philosophical
cosmology. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether
the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.[119]

A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like
matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as souls and experiences) and
abstract entities (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics
concerns the problem of identity. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining
the same entity.[120] According to one view, entities have essential and accidental features. They can
change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature.
[121] A central distinction in metaphysics is between particulars and universals. Universals, like the color
red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including
individual persons or specific objects.[122] Other metaphysical questions are whether the past fully
determines the present and what implications this would have for the existence of free will.[123]

Other major branches

See also: List of philosophies

There are many additional subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most
prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion,
philosophy of science, and political philosophy.[124]

Aesthetics in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of beauty and
other aesthetic properties, like the sublime.[125] Although it is often treated together with the
philosophy of art, aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such
as natural beauty.[126] In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and
nature".[127] A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective or mind-independent
feature of entities. This view is rejected by subjectivists, who claim that beauty is not an inherent quality
of objects, but depends on how people subjectively experience them.[128] Aesthetic philosophers also
investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and judgments. Further topics include the essence of
works of art and the processes involved in creating them.[129]

The philosophy of language studies the nature and function of language. It examines the concepts of
meaning, reference, and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and
how language affects human thought and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic
and linguistics.[130] The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century
in analytic philosophy due to the works of Frege and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand
how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal
truth conditions of sentences[b] and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is
suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with speech act theory.[132]

The philosophy of mind studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the
physical world.[133] It aims to understand different types of conscious and unconscious mental states,
like beliefs, desires, intentions, feelings, sensations, and free will.[134] An influential intuition in the
philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their
existence in the external world. The mind-body problem is the problem of explaining how matter and
mind are related. The main traditional responses are materialism, which assumes that matter is more
fundamental; idealism, which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and dualism, which assumes that
mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, a widely accepted position is
functionalism, which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.[135]
The mind-body problem is closely related to the hard problem of consciousness, which asks how the
physical brain can produce qualitatively subjective experiences.[136]

The philosophy of religion investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with
religion. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the divine, and whether one or more gods
exist. It also includes the discussion of worldviews that reject religious doctrines.[137] Further questions
addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not
literally?";[138] "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";[139] and, "Are the great variety of
world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological
claims?"[140] It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.[141] It differs from theology
since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, while debates in the
philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.[142]

The philosophy of science examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated
with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from pseudoscience. It investigates
the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what
assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.[143] Some of its
questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";[144] "Is a scientific law anything more than a
description of a regularity?";[145] and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a
more general science?"[146] It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the natural
sciences and the philosophy of the social sciences, with further subdivisions for each of the individual
sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the
philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or
epistemology.[147]

Political philosophy is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing
political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field
of politics. It investigates the nature and purpose of government and compares its different forms.[148]
It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is legitimate, rather than a form of
simple violence.[149] In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and
material goods, and legal rights.[150] Other topics are justice, liberty, equality, sovereignty, and
nationalism.[151] Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in
this respect from political science, which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing
states.[152] Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.[153] Influential schools of
thought in political philosophy are liberalism, conservativism, socialism, and anarchism.[154]

Methods

Main article: Philosophical methodology

Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for
arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for
choosing between competing theories.[155] A great variety of methods have been employed
throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the
natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.
[156] The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories
are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.[157] This choice is often guided by
epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence.[158]

Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers
to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both
for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.[159] Some philosophers
engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of
methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.[160]

Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of
concepts by analyzing them into their component parts.[161] Another method often employed in
analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to
draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize
philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.[162] It is
similar to how ordinary language philosophy approaches philosophical questions by investigating how
ordinary language is used.[163]

Diagram depicting a trolley that is headed towards a group of people. There is an alternate track with
only one person and a switch to change tracks.

The trolley problem is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and
allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single
person by redirecting a trolley in order to save a group of people.[164]

Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, that is, non-inferential
impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.[165] For example, they play
an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the
possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to
confirm or refute philosophical theories.[166] The method of reflective equilibrium also employs
intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs
and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a
coherent perspective.[167]

Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a
philosophical theory is true.[168] According to the pragmatic maxim as formulated by Charles Sanders
Peirce, the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences
they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as
merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.[169]
Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience.
They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical
judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as
"bracketing" or epoché. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.[170]

Methodological naturalism places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories
found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure
reasoning and introspection.[171]

Relation to other fields

Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that
clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background
assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an interdisciplinary perspective.
It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in
common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.[172] Historically, most of the
individual sciences originated from philosophy.[173]

The influence of philosophy is felt in various fields that require difficult practical decisions. In medicine,
philosophical considerations related to bioethics affect issues like whether an embryo is already a
person and under what conditions abortion is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical
problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-
human animals as food or for research experiments.[174]

In relation to business and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical
frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the
issue of corporate social responsibility. In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how
to assess whether a government policy is just.[175]

Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to
arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.[176] This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their
prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on empirical
evidence but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already include
theoretical assumptions. A closely related problem is whether the available evidence is sufficient to
decide between competing theories.[177]

In the fields of theology and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature
of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should
believe these doctrines, for example, whether revelation in the form of holy books and religious
experiences of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.[178]
A similar epistemological problem in relation to the law is what counts as evidence and how much
evidence is required to find a person guilty of a crime. A related issue in journalism is how to ensure
truth and objectivity when reporting on events.[172]

Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and computer science.
[179] Further fields influenced by philosophy include psychology, sociology, linguistics, education, and
the arts.[180] The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is
reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in
philosophy itself.[181]

Philosophical ideas have also prepared and shaped changes in the field of politics. For example, ideals
formulated in Enlightenment philosophy laid the foundation for constitutional democracy and played a
role in the American Revolution and the French Revolution.[182] Marxist philosophy and its exposition
of communism was one of the factors in the Russian Revolution and the Chinese Communist Revolution.
[183] In India, Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence shaped the Indian independence
movement.[184]

Photo of Judith Butler

Judith Butler is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the
feminist movement.

An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the feminist
movement through philosophers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Simone de Beauvoir, and Judith Butler. It
has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of gender, how it
differs from biological sex, and what role it plays in the formation of personal identity. Philosophers
have also investigated the concepts of justice and equality and their implications with respect to the
prejudicial treatment of women in male-dominated societies.[185]

However, the idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected.
According to one such view, philosophy is mainly done for its own sake and does not make significant
contributions to existing practices or external goalsPhilosophy is the systematic study of the foundations
of human knowledge with an emphasis on the conditions of its validity and finding answers to ultimate
questions. While every other science aims at investigating a specific area of knowledge, such as physics
or psychology, philosophy has been defined as “thinking about thinking.” At the same time, as expressed
by its Greek etymology, philosophy is the love of wisdom.

Contents

1 The Nature of Philosophy

1.1 Methods and definitions

1.2 Philosophy as a Worldview

1.3 Branches, schools and doctrines

1.3.1 Branches

1.3.2 Schools and doctrines

2 History of Philosophy

2.1 Western philosophy

2.1.1 Greco-Roman philosophy

2.1.2 Medieval philosophy

2.1.3 Early modern philosophy (c. 1600 - c. 1800)

2.1.4 Later modern philosophy (c. 1800 - c. 1960)

2.1.5 Contemporary philosophy (c. 1960 - present)

2.1.6 The Analytic and Continental divide

3 Eastern philosophy

3.1 Indian philosophy

3.2 Persian philosophy

3.3 Chinese philosophy

4 African philosophy

5 Key themes and doctrines in Western Philosophy

5.1 Metaphysics and epistemology

5.1.1 Rationalism and empiricism

5.1.2 Kantian philosophy and the rise of idealism

5.1.3 Pragmatism

5.1.4 The prominence of logic

5.1.5 Phenomenology

5.1.6 Existentialism

5.1.7 The analytic tradition

5.2 Ethics and political philosophy

5.2.1 Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn

5.2.2 Human nature and political legitimacy

6 Applied philosophy

7 Confines of Philosophy

8 Philosophers on Philosophy

9 References

10 Further reading
10.1 Introductions

10.2 Topical introductions

10.3 Anthologies

10.4 Reference works

11 External links

12 Credits

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Traditionally at least, it is not the pursuit of knowledge for knowledge’s sake, but rather the attempt to
discover the meaning and purpose of existence, including through intellectual means, but including also
self-reflection, discipline, and religious practice and inquiry. Though the term philosophy is of Western
origin and implies a kind of investigation typical of western culture, it has its equivalents in the various
other cultures of the world, notably India, China and the Middle East.

The Nature of Philosophy

Methods and definitions

Philosophy has almost as many definitions as there have been philosophers, both as a subject matter
and an activity. The word is derived from the ancient Greek word "Φιλοσοφία" (philo-sophia), which
means "love of wisdom." Though no single definition of philosophy is uncontroversial, and the field has
historically expanded and changed depending upon what kinds of questions were interesting or relevant
in a given era, it is generally agreed that philosophy is a method, rather than a set of claims,
propositions, or theories. Its investigations are based upon rational thinking, striving to make no
unexamined assumptions and no leaps based on faith or pure analogy. Different philosophers have had
varied ideas about the nature of reason, and there is also disagreement about the subject matter of
philosophy. Some think that philosophy examines the process of inquiry itself. Others, that there are
essentially philosophical propositions which it is the task of philosophy to prove. The issue of the
definition of philosophy is nowadays tackled by Metaphilosophy (or the philosophy of philosophy).
Modern usage of the term is extremely broad, covering reflection on every aspect of human knowledge
and the means by which such knowledge can be acquired. In the contemporary English-speaking
academic world, the term is often used implicitly to refer to analytic philosophy and, in non-English
speaking countries, it often refers implicitly to a different, European strain, continental philosophy.

Did you know?

Until the Renaissance, 'philosophy' and 'science' were considered the same discipline.

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Until the Renaissance, 'philosophy' and 'science' were considered the same discipline. This earlier
tradition remains today in the expression PhD, or “Philosophiae Doctor” (doctor of philosophy), which is
by no means limited to graduates of philosophy proper, as one can have a PhD in biology, music, or
nursing to name but a few areas of expertise. Similarly, German-speaking academia still knows the
division between “Philosophy I” (philosophy and the humanities) and “Philosophy II” (the natural
sciences).

Many ancient Greek philosophers distinguished the desire for wisdom from desires for material things,
vices, and the satisfaction of bodily desires. The definition of wisdom for many ancient Greeks would
have been about virtue and the desire for knowledge as opposed to false opinions. However, the term is
notoriously difficult to define because of the diverse range of ideas that have been labeled as
philosophy. The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy defines it as the study of "the most fundamental and
general concepts and principles involved in thought, action, and reality." The Penguin Encyclopedia says
that philosophy differs from science in that philosophy's questions cannot be answered empirically, and
from religion in that philosophy allows no place for faith or revelation. However, these points are called
into question by the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, which states: "the late 20th-century… prefers to
see philosophical reflection as continuous with the best practice of any field of intellectual enquiry."
Indeed, many of the speculations of early philosophers in the field of natural philosophy eventually
formed the basis for modern scientific explanations on a variety of subjects.

Philosophy as a Worldview

A "philosophy" may also refer to a general worldview or to a specific ethic or belief that can be utterly
unrelated to academic philosophical considerations. This meaning of the term is perhaps as important as
the classical definition, because it affects each human being. Virtually everyone, knowingly or
unknowingly, lives and operates based upon a set of values and beliefs that are often unexpressed and
even unconscious. As a result, they may easily be incompatible and contradictory, leaving those who
maintain them with a sense of uneasiness. If a man professes that “only money counts in life,” this is a
philosophical stance. However, it is most likely to be at odds with other convictions held by that same
individual, such as a secret passion for art or love for his family.

Philosophy once competed with theology and mathematics for the title of “queen of the sciences.”
Today, it is often considered empty and useless speculation, finding no place along practical and
technical concerns and religious or ideological beliefs. However, efforts are being made to remove
philosophy from its crumbling ivory tower and make it into a discipline, academic or other, that can lead
to a clarification of one’s personal opinions and goals, as well as an informed evaluation of the many
issues in public life.

Branches, schools and doctrines

Branches

The ancient Greeks organized the subject into five basic categories: metaphysics, epistemology and
logic, ethics, politics and aesthetics. This organization of the subject is still partly in use in Western
philosophy today, but the notion of philosophy has become more restricted to the key issues of being,
knowledge, and ethics. At the same time, there has been an explosion of “philosophies of,” meaning a
philosophical inquiry into just about any field, including politics and art, but also science (philosophy of
science), religion (philosophy of religion) and many others. There are many places where these subjects
overlap, and there are many philosophical ideas that cannot be placed neatly into only one of these
categories.
Thus, philosophy involves asking questions such as whether God exists, what is the nature of reality,
whether knowledge is possible, and what makes actions right or wrong. More specifically, each branch
has its own particular questions. Logic asks: How do we distinguish arguments from premises to
conclusions as valid or invalid? How can we know that a statement is true or false? Epistemology asks: Is
knowledge possible? How do we know what we know? What kinds of questions can we answer? Ethics
asks: Is there a difference between morally right and wrong actions, values, or institutions? Which
actions are right and which are wrong? Are values absolute or relative? What is justice? What are
natural laws? How is it best to live? What is happiness? Is there a normative value on which all other
values depend? Are values 'in' the world (like tables and chairs) and if not, how should we understand
their ontological status? Aesthetics asks: What is beauty? What is art? And metaphysics asks: What is
reality? What exists? Do things exist independently of perception?

Schools and doctrines

Schools, with each their specific set of doctrines, have originated, evolved, and sometimes disappeared
centered on specific areas of interest. Thus, early (pre-Socratic Greek philosophy centered on the issue
of cosmology, ontology, and generally questions on the origin and nature of reality, while Socrates
redirected the focus of philosophy on ethics and epistemology. Generally, each era of human history
and each area of the world has concentrated its attention on those fields and topics that were of
greatest interest to its particular culture and society. Few systems, such as those of Plato and Aristotle,
cover the majority of all possible philosophical endeavors.

The interaction between philosophical worldviews can be considered both vertically and horizontally.
Horizontally, all thought originating in a particular period and area of the world will share common
traits, even though individual thinkers may oppose each other vehemently. Thus, the middle ages was a
time of interest in God and religious questions, while the modern era emphasized issues related to
epistemology. African thought has a natural interest in spiritual issues and spiritualism, while Eastern
philosophy emphasizes the harmony and complementarity of humans and nature.

Vertically, certain trends, largely associates with specifics areas of interest (e.g., ethics or epistemology),
have evolved over the centuries, with early thinkers directly and indirectly influencing much later
thinkers through a complex web of interaction. This has given rise to doctrines like idealism and realism,
the first insisting on the spiritual or ideal essence of reality, the second generally insisting on the
practical and often material nature of things. But such overall doctrinal characterizations can be very
misleading: Plato, the foremost idealist, was a realist when it cam to his belief in the “reality” of ideas.
Thus, there have been an immense variety of forms and combinations of these two major trends,
resulting in a complexity that defies any attempt at a fixed classification.

More specific trends or doctrines, within a certain area of philosophy, such as deontology in ethics, can
be followed with somewhat greater ease and accuracy. Nevertheless, a clear-cut and generally accepted
articulation can hardly ever emerge.

History of Philosophy
Western philosophy

The history of Western philosophy is traditionally divided into three eras: Ancient philosophy, Medieval
philosophy, Modern philosophy and, more vaguely, Contemporary philosophy, covering twentieth
century developments and what is often referred to as the "post-modern" period or post-modernism.

Greco-Roman philosophy

Main article: Greek philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophy may be divided into the pre-Socratic period, the Socratic period, and the post-
Aristotelian period. The pre-Socratic period was characterized by metaphysical speculation, often
preserved in the form of grand, sweeping statements, such as "All is fire," or "All changes." Important
pre-Socratic philosophers include Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Democritus, Parmenides,
Heraclitus, Pythagoras, and Empedocles. The Socratic period is named in honor of the most recognizable
figure in Western philosophy, Socrates, who, along with his pupil Plato, revolutionized philosophy
through the use of the Socratic method, which developed the very general philosophical methods of
definition, analysis, and synthesis. While no writings of Socrates survive, his influence as a "skeptic" is
transmitted through Plato's works. Plato's writings are often considered basic texts in philosophy as they
defined the fundamental issues of philosophy for future generations. These issues and others were
taken up by Aristotle, who studied at Plato's school, the Academy, and who often disagreed with what
Plato had written. The subsequent period ushered in such philosophers as Euclid, Epicurus, Chrysippus,
Pyrrho, and Sextus Empiricus. A woman philosopher of the Ancient period is Hipparchia the Cynic, who
flourished around 300 B.C.E.

Though many of these philosophers may seem irrelevant given current scientific knowledge – some, for
example, believed that all movement was illusion – their systems of thought continue to influence both
philosophy and science today. The tradition started by Socrates and Plato, which was to remain as the
most important overall tradition in Western philosophy, had a strong idealistic bent in that it
emphasized the importance of ideas and the spirit over material existence, as well as the human ability
to reach absolute truth. Combined with the beliefs of theism, particularly Christianity, it would in the
following centuries take on many different shapes but remain as the fundamental tradition in western
thought. This current of thought was nevertheless increasingly challenged by forms of thought
emphasizing skepticism, materialism, and pragmatism, culminating in movements such as positivism and
scientism.

Saint Thomas Aquinas

Medieval philosophy

Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Western Europe and the Middle East during what is now
known as the medieval era or the Middle Ages, roughly extending from the fall of the Roman Empire to
the Renaissance period. Medieval philosophy is defined partly by the process of rediscovering the
ancient culture developed by Greeks and Romans in the classical period, and partly by the need to
address theological problems and to integrate sacred doctrine (in Christianity and Judaism) and secular
learning.
Many of the early Christian philosophers took as their starting point the theories of Plato and later
Aristotle. Others, however, such as Tertullian, rejected Greek philosophy as antithetical to revelation
and faith (“Athens has nothing to do with Jerusalem”). Augustine of Hippo remains as the greatest
representative of early Christian thought. The medieval period brought Christian scholastic philosophy,
with writers such as Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham. The
philosophers in the scholastic Christian tradition and philosophers in the other major Abrahamic
religions, such as the Jewish philosopher Maimonides and the Muslim philosophers Avicenna, Al-
Ghazali, and Averroes, were intercommunicative. A female Christian philosopher of the period was a
student of Abelard named Heloise. Another was Hildegard von Bingen who, besides her
accomplishments in music, healing, and spirituality was also an important religious thinker and leader.

Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and
unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of
individuation.

An important debate was that of Realism vs. Nominalism. Classically, realism is the doctrine that
abstract entities corresponding to universal terms like 'man' have a real existence. It is opposed to
nominalism, the view that abstract or universal terms are words only, or denote mental states such as
ideas, beliefs, or intentions. The latter position, famously held by William of Ockham, is called
'conceptualism'.

Early modern philosophy (c. 1600 - c. 1800)

Medieval philosophy had been concerned primarily with argument from authority and the analysis of
ancient texts using Aristotelian logic. The Renaissance saw an outpouring of new ideas that questioned
authority. Roger Bacon (1214-1294?) was one of the first writers to advocate putting authority to the
test of experiment and reason. Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) challenged conventional ideas about
morality. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) wrote in favor of the methods of science in philosophical discovery.

Modern philosophy is usually considered to begin with the revival of skepticism and the genesis of
modern physical science. Canonical figures include Montaigne, Descartes, Locke, Spinoza, Leibniz,
Berkeley, Hume, and Immanuel Kant. Chronologically, this era spans the 17th and 18th centuries, and is
generally considered to end with Kant's systematic attempt to reconcile Leibniz and Hume. If Descartes
has marked the beginning of modern philosophy, Kant’s revolution marked the beginning of late
modern philosophy and led directly to contemporary developments. It meant a clear-cut break with
traditional dogmatism and empiricism, the philosophical justification of scientific certainty on the level
of phenomena, and a degree of agnosticism as far as ultimate matters (God, eternal life) were
concerned.

Later modern philosophy (c. 1800 - c. 1960)

Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of Immanuel Kant at the
beginning of the 19th-century. German idealists, Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling, expanded on the work of
Kant by maintaining that the world is rational. Unlike Kant, they believed that the Absolute Reality was
knowable and they produced elaborate speculative systems.
Rejecting idealism, other philosophers, many working from outside the university, initiated lines of
thought that would occupy academic philosophy in the early and mid-twentieth century:

Arthur Schopenhauer created a pessimistic system based on Kant’ thought

Peirce and William James initiated the school of pragmatism

Husserl initiated the school of phenomenology

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche laid the groundwork for existentialism

Frege's work in logic and Sidgwick's work in ethics provided the tools for early analytic philosophy

Contemporary philosophy (c. 1960 - present)

In the last hundred years, philosophy has increasingly become an activity practiced within the modern
research university, and accordingly it has grown more specialized and more distinct from the natural
sciences. Much philosophy in this period concerns itself with explaining the relation between the
theories of the natural sciences and the ideas of the humanities or common sense.

It is arguable that later modern philosophy ended with contemporary philosophy's shift of focus from
nineteenth century philosophers to twentieth century philosophers. Philosophers such as Heidegger,
the later Wittgenstein, and Dewey, opened a type of philosophical discourse that would usher in post-
modernism and its rejection of all foundationalism (the belief that it is possible to reach an ultimate
foundation of knowledge), as exemplified by thinkers such as Derrida, Quine, Michel Foucault, and
Rorty.

The Analytic and Continental divide

The late modern period in philosophy, beginning in the late nineteenth century and lasting into the
1950s, was marked by a developing schism between the "Continental" (European) tradition and the
"Analytic" tradition associated with English-speaking countries. The split between these two currents
can be seen as the continuation of the division between continental rationalism and British Empiricism.

The two traditions appear radically different, yet they have a common root. Both reject the Cartesian
and empiricist traditions that had dominated philosophy since the early modern period, and both also
reject the "obsession with psychological explanation" that pervaded the logic and method of idealist
philosophy.

What underlies the Analytic tradition (culminating with thinkers such as Bertrand Russell), is the view
(originally defended by Ockham) that philosophical error arises from misunderstandings generated by
language. According to analytic philosophers, the true meaning of ordinary sentences is "concealed by
their grammatical form," and we must translate them into their true form (understood as their logical
form) in order to clarify them. "Continental" philosophy, in the hands of the thinkers such as Edmund
Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, took a different turn in its
preoccupation with consciousness.
Both traditions tend to strongly reject any claim to certain knowledge about a given reality. Their
dominance on the contemporary philosophical scene creates an atmosphere that is contrary to any
affirmation of dogmatic belief or even the attempt to elaborate a worldview claiming to give definitive
answers to fundamental questions. Ironically, the main actors on the contemporary philosophical arena
have often been challenged for their dogmatic affirmation that certainty is impossible and they have
sometimes been accused of promoting personal views under the cover of an overall criticism of
established views.

Eastern philosophy

Although the word "philosophy" originates in the Western tradition, many figures in the history of other
cultures have addressed similar topics in similar ways. The philosophers of the Far East are discussed in
Eastern philosophy, while the philosophers of North Africa and the Near East, because of their strong
interactions with Europe, are usually considered part of Western Philosophy.

Many societies have considered philosophical questions and built philosophical traditions based upon
each other's works. Eastern and Middle Eastern philosophical traditions have influenced Western
philosophers. Russian, Jewish, Islamic and recently Latin American philosophical traditions have
contributed to, or been influenced by, Western philosophy, yet each has retained a distinctive identity.

The differences between traditions are often well captured by consideration of their favored historical
philosophers, and varying stress on ideas, procedural styles, or written language. The subject matter and
dialogues of each can be studied using methods derived from the others, and there are significant
commonalities and exchanges between them.

"Eastern philosophy" refers to the broad traditions that originated or were popular in India, Persia,
China, Japan, Korea and, to an extent, the Middle East (which overlaps with Western philosophy due to
being the origin of the Abrahamic religions).

Indian philosophy

Main article: Indian philosophy

In the history of the Indian subcontinent, following the establishment of an Aryan–Vedic culture, the
development of philosophical and religious thought over a period of two millennia gave rise to what
came to be called the six schools of astika, or orthodox, Indian or Hindu philosophy. These schools have
come to be synonymous with the greater religion of Hinduism. The origins of Hindu philosophy are to be
traced in Vedic speculations (circa 1500 B.C.E.) about the universe and Rta - universal order. Other major
texts with philosophical implications include the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutra,
from circa 1000 B.C.E. to 500 B.C.E.
Hindu philosophy constitutes an integral part of the culture of Southern Asia, and is the first of the
Dharmic philosophies which were influential throughout the Far East. The great diversity in thought and
practice of Hinduism is nurtured by its liberal universalism.

Centuries before the western (notably Greek) tradition developed its own forms of philosophical
speculation, India already had well-developed schools of philosophy. Most followed spiritual and
idealistic lines involving speculation about the unity in diversity, giving Hindu polytheism a clear theistic
bent. In these forms of speculation, Brahman was often seen as the underlying, unitary and universal
Being of which the various divinities were mere expressions. At the same time, Brahman was often seen
as being ultimately one with Atman, the equivalent of the human soul. Nevertheless, atheistic and
materialistic philosophy also existed in the same environment.

The extent of the direct link between this philosophical speculation and the later Greek philosophy is a
matter of dispute. An influence of Indian thought on Middle Eastern, including Hebrew, thought has also
been suggested. What is certain is that, to one degree or another, the Ancient Hindu tradition and the
Ancient (though less ancient) Greek tradition, being both part of the Indo-European civilization have
interacted, with India being the source. Plato in particular is often said to have been under the influence
of the Hindu wisdom tradition.

Persian philosophy

Persian philosophy can be traced back as far as Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts, with
their ancient Indo-Iranian roots. These were considerably influenced by Zarathustra's teachings.
Throughout Iranian history and due to remarkable political and social influences such as the
Macedonian, the Arab, and the Mongol invasions of Persia, a wide spectrum of schools of thought arose.
These espoused a variety of views on philosophical questions, extending from Old Iranian and mainly
Zoroastrianism-influenced traditions to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era, such as
Manicheism and Mazdakism, as well as various post-Islamic schools. Iranian philosophy after Arab
invasion of Persia is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek
philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the
Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia.

Confucius, illustrated in Myths & Legends of China, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner.

Chinese philosophy

Main article: Chinese philosophy

Philosophy has had a tremendous effect on Chinese civilization, and East Asia as a whole. Many of the
great philosophical schools were formulated during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States
Period, and came to be known as the Hundred Schools of Thought. The four most influential of these
were Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, and Legalism. Later on, during the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism from
India also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. (It should be noted that Eastern
thought, unlike Western philosophy, did not express a clear distinction between philosophy and
religion.) Like Western philosophy, Chinese philosophy covers a broad and complex range of thought,
possessing a multitude of schools that address every branch and subject area of philosophy.
In China, the Dao De Jing of Lao-Tzu and the Analects of Confucius both appeared around 600 B.C.E.,
about the same time that the Greek pre-Socratics were writing.

Of all the Chinese philosophies, however, it is quite safe to say Confucianism has had the greatest
impact on East Asia. Confucianism is collective teachings of the Chinese sage K’ung-fu-Tzu (Confucius or
Master Kong) who lived from 551 – 479 B.C.E. His philosophy focused in the fields of ethics and politics;
emphasizing greatly on personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice,
traditionalism, and sincerity. Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating the world’s
first meritocracy, which is the system/belief that a person’s status should be determined by one’s ability
instead of ancestry, wealth, and/or friendships. It could be debatably said that Confucianism is most
responsible for shaping the Chinese culture and state (during Imperial China). Throughout history,
Chinese philosophy has been molded to fit the prevailing school of thought in China. The Chinese
schools of philosophy, with the exception of the period during the Qin dynasty, have been relatively
tolerant of one another. Instead of competition with one another, they generally have cooperated and
shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate into their own. For example, Neo-Confucianism was
a revived version of old Confucianism principles that appeared around the Ming Dynasty with Buddhist,
Taoist, and Legalist aspects. During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy has also began
to integrate concepts of Western philosophy as steps for modernization. Democracy, republicanism, and
industrialism attempted to be incorporated into the Chinese philosophy by Sun Yat-sen at the beginning
of the twentieth century. Mao Zedong added Marxism. Like Japan, Chinese philosophy has become
somewhat of a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while holding on to old beliefs.

See also: Yin-Yang, Tao, I ChingConfucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Legalism, Hundred Schools of Thought.

Related Topics: Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, Bushido, Zen

African philosophy

Main article: African philosophy

Other philosophical traditions, such as African philosophy, are rarely considered by foreign academia.
Since emphasis is mainly placed on Western philosophy as a reference point, the study, preservation
and dissemination of valuable, but lesser known, non-Western philosophical works face many obstacles.
Key African philosophers include the Fulani Usman Dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Caliphate of
Northern Nigeria and Umar Tall of Senegal; both were prolific Islamic scholars. In the post-colonial
period, different images of what could be argued as "African" Philosophy from the level of epistemology
have risen. These could include the thoughts and enquiries of such individuals as Cheik Anta Diop,
Francis Ohanyido, C.L. Momoh, and Chinweizu.

The philosophy of the modern and contemporary African world, including the diaspora, is often known
as Africana Philosophy. Key philosophers include Frantz Fanon, Kwesi Wiredu, Paget Henry, Lewis
Gordon, Mabogo Percy More and many others.
Key themes and doctrines in Western Philosophy

Metaphysics and epistemology

Rationalism and empiricism

René Descartes

Main articles: Rationalism and Empiricism

Rationalism is any view emphasizing the role or importance of human reason. Extreme rationalism tries
to base all knowledge on reason alone. Rationalism typically starts from premises that cannot
coherently be denied, then attempts by logical steps to deduce every possible object of knowledge.

The first rationalist, in this broad sense, is often held to be Parmenides (fl. 480 B.C.E.), who argued that
it is impossible to doubt that thinking actually occurs. But thinking must have an object, therefore
something beyond thinking really exists. Parmenides deduced that what really exists must have certain
properties – for example, that it cannot come into existence or cease to exist, that it is a coherent
whole, that it remains the same eternally (in fact, exists altogether outside time). Zeno of Elea (born c.
489 B.C.E.) was a disciple of Parmenides, and argued that motion is impossible, since the assertion that
it exists implies a contradiction.

Plato (427–347 B.C.E.) was also influenced by Parmenides, but combined idealistic rationalism with a
form of realism. The philosopher's work is to consider being, and the essence of things. But the
characteristic of essences is that they are universal. The nature of a man, a triangle, a tree, applies to all
men, all triangles, all trees. Plato argued that these essences are mind-independent “forms,” that
humans (but particularly philosophers) can come to know by reason, and by ignoring the distractions of
sense-perception.

Modern rationalism begins with Descartes. Reflection on the nature of perceptual experience, as well as
scientific discoveries in physiology and optics, led Descartes (and also Locke) to the view that we are
directly aware of ideas, rather than objects. This view gave rise to three questions:

Is an idea a true copy of the real thing that it represents?

How can physical objects such as chairs and tables, or even physiological processes in the brain, give rise
to mental items such as ideas? This is part of what became known as the mind-body problem.

If all we are aware of our ideas, how can we know that anything else exists apart from ideas?

René Descartes, who is often called the father of modern philosophy, proposed that philosophy should
begin with a radical skepticism about the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge. In 1641, in
Meditations on First Philosophy, he used this method of doubt in an attempt to establish what
knowledge is most certain. He chose as the foundation of his philosophy the famous statement Cogito
ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"). He then attempted to rebuild a system of knowledge based on this
single supposedly indubitable fact. This involves proving the existence of God, using, among other
means, a version of the ontological argument). Descartes’ approach became known as rationalism; it
attracted such philosophers as Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, and Christian Wolff.

Empiricism, in contrast to rationalism, downplays or dismisses the ability of reason alone to yield
knowledge of the world, preferring to base any knowledge we have on our senses. John Locke
propounded the classic empiricist view in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1689,
developing a form of naturalism and empiricism on roughly scientific (and Newtonian) principles.
Hume's work A Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740) combined empiricism with a spirit of skepticism.
Other philosophers who made major contributions to empiricism include Thomas Hobbes and George
Berkeley (Bishop Berkeley).

During this era, religious ideas played a mixed role in the struggles that preoccupied secular philosophy.
Bishop Berkeley's famous idealist refutation of key tenets of Isaac Newton is a case of an Enlightenment
philosopher who drew substantially from religious ideas. Other influential religious thinkers of the time
include Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, and Jonathan Edwards. Other major writers, such as Jean-Jacques
Rousseau and Edmund Burke, took a rather different path. The restricted interests of many of the
philosophers of the time foreshadow the separation and specialization of different areas of philosophy
that would occur in the twentieth century.

Kantian philosophy and the rise of idealism

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant wrote his Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting
approaches of rationalism and empiricism and establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics.
Kant's intention with this work was to look at what we know and then consider what must be true about
the way we know it. One major theme was that there are fundamental features of reality that escape
our direct knowledge because of the natural limits of the human faculties. Kant's work was continued in
the work of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Arthur
Schopenhauer.

Kant's philosophy, known as transcendental idealism, would later be made more abstract and more
general, in the movement known as German idealism, a type of absolute idealism. German idealism rose
to popularity with G. W. F. Hegel's publication in 1807 of Phenomenology of Spirit. In that work, Hegel
asserts that the aim of philosophy is to spot the contradictions apparent in human experience (which
arise, for instance, out of the recognition of the self as both an active, subjective witness and a passive
object in the world) and to get rid of these contradictions by making them compatible. Hegel believed
that every thesis creates its own antithesis, and that out of the two arises a synthesis, a process known
as the "Hegelian dialectic." Philosophers in the Hegelian tradition include Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach
and Karl Marx.

Pragmatism
William James

Main article: Pragmatism

The late nineteenth century brought about the rise of a new philosophy in the New World. Charles
Peirce and William James are considered to be the co-founders of loosely allied schools of pragmatism,
which holds that the truth of beliefs does not consist in their correspondence with reality, but in their
usefulness and efficacy. It led to what would later be called instrumentalism, the idea that what is
important for a good theory is how useful it is, not how well it represents reality. Since the usefulness of
any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualized final truth
as that which would be established only by the future, final settlement of all opinion. Thinkers in this
tradition included John Dewey, George Santayana, and C. I. Lewis. Though not widely recognized under
the term "pragmatist," philosophers like Henri Bergson and G. E. Moore shared many of the same
foundational assumptions with the pragmatists. Pragmatism has recently been taken in new directions
by Richard Rorty and Hilary Putnam. Critics have accused pragmatism of falling victim to a simple fallacy:
because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is the basis for its truth.

The prominence of logic

Bertrand Russell

With the publication of Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead's Principia Mathematica in 1910-
1913, mathematical logic attracted the interest of many philosophers. With this increased interest in
mathematical logic came the rise in popularity for the view known as logical positivism and related
theories, all of which shared a commitment to the reliability of empirical tests. Philosophers such as
Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach considered only confirmable or falsifiable claims to be genuine
philosophy; anything that could not be deduced from testable claims was considered mere superstition
or dogma.

Phenomenology

Edmund Husserl

Main article: Phenomenology

At the same time that logic was coming to prominence in America and Britain, a separate movement
occurred in continental Europe. Under the influence of Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl developed a
new method to study human problems in his Logical Investigations (1900-1901) and Ideas (1913). The
method, known as phenomenology, was used to examine the details of human experience and
consciousness in order to observe the most basic facts of human existence; the examination included
not just observations of the way the world appears but observations of one's own thoughts, and when
and how they occur. An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project was to show that all
conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called intentionality.

Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological
schools in Munich and Göttingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work
of such philosophers as Martin Heidegger (formerly Husserl's research assistant), Maurice Merleau-
Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Indeed, through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on
subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism.

Heidegger expanded the study of phenomenology to elaborate a philosophical hermeneutics.

Hermeneutics is a method of interpreting texts by drawing out the meaning of the text in the context it
was written in. Heidegger stressed two new elements of philosophical hermeneutics: that the reader
brings out the meaning of the text in the present, and that the tools of hermeneutics can be used to
interpret more than just texts (e.g., "social text"). Elaborations of philosophical hermeneutics later came
from Hans-Georg Gadamer and Paul Ricoeur.

Existentialism

Main article: Existentialism

Søren Kierkegaard

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that rejects any predetermined role for human beings.
Unlike tools, which are designed in order to fill some preconceived role (for example, a knife's
preconceived role, or essence, is to cut), human beings are capable, to some extent at least, of deciding
for themselves what constitutes their own essence. Although they didn't use the term, the nineteenth-
century philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche are widely regarded as the fathers of
existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended beyond existentialist thought. Religious thinkers
were among those influenced by Kierkegaard. Christian existentialists include Gabriel Marcel, Nicholas
Berdyaev, Miguel de Unamuno, and Karl Jaspers. The Jewish philosophers Martin Buber and Lev Shestov
have also been associated with existentialism.

Two of the targets of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche's writings were the philosophical systems of Hegel and
Schopenhauer respectively, which they had each admired in their youths. Kierkegaard thought Hegel
ignored or excluded the inner subjective life of living human beings, while Nietzsche thought
Schopenhauer's pessimism led people to live an ascetic, or self-hating, life. Kierkegaard suggested that
“truth is subjectivity,” arguing that what is most important to a living individual are questions dealing
with one's inner relationship to life. Nietzsche proposed perspectivism, which is the view that truth
depends on individual perspectives.

Influence by Kierkegaard, the German philosopher Martin Heidegger is generally considered an

existentialist thinker and one of the key figures in twentieth century thought. In Being and Time (1927),
he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (Dasein) to be
analyzed in terms of existential categories. In The Letter on Humanism, however, Heidegger explicitly
rejected the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre. Karl Jaspers is another important German existentialist
philosopher.

Sartre became the best-known proponent of existentialism, exploring it not only in theoretical works
such as Being and Nothingness, but also in plays and novels. Sartre, along with Albert Camus, Maurice
Merleau-Ponty, and Simone de Beauvoir, all represented an avowedly atheistic branch of existentialism,
which is now more closely associated with the ideas in the novel Nausea, contingency, bad faith, and the
absurd than with Kierkegaard's spiritual angst. Nevertheless, the focus on the individual human being,
responsible before the universe for the authenticity of his or her existence, is common to all these
thinkers.

The analytic tradition

Main article: Analytic philosophy

The term analytic philosophy roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress clarity of
meaning above all other criteria. The philosophy developed as a critique of Hegel and his followers in
particular, and of speculative philosophy in general. Some schools in the group include 20th-century
realism, logical atomism, logical positivism, and ordinary language. The motivation is to have
philosophical studies go beyond personal opinion and begin to have the cogency of mathematical
proofs.

In 1921, Ludwig Wittgenstein published his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, which gave a rigidly "logical"
account of linguistic and philosophical issues. At the time, he understood most of the problems of
philosophy as mere puzzles of language, which could be solved by clear thought. Years later he would
reverse a number of the positions he had set out in the Tractatus, notably in his second major work,
Philosophical Investigations (1953). Investigations encouraged the development of "ordinary language
philosophy," which was promoted by Gilbert Ryle, J.L. Austin, and a few others. The "ordinary language
philosophy" thinkers shared a common outlook with many older philosophers (Jeremy Bentham, Ralph
Waldo Emerson, and John Stuart Mill), and it was this style of philosophical inquiry that characterized
English-language philosophy for the second half of the twentieth century.

The implied outlook for "ordinary language philosophy" is that philosophy is thus not a unified whole
but a set of unrelated problems. Great thinkers whose work indicates an acceptance of this general
outlook include Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, P. F. Strawson, Donald Davidson, Hilary Putnam, John
Rawls, Noam Chomsky, and the continental thinker Mikhail Bakhtin.

Analytic philosophy in general considers that a good approach to philosophy must itself be based on a
careful examination of the meaning of language.

See also Transcendentalism

Ethics and political philosophy

Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn

Jeremy Bentham

Main articles: Consequentialism, Deontological ethics, Deontology, and Virtue ethics

One debate that has dominated the attention of ethicists in the history of the modern era has been
between consequentialism (the idea that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any
valid moral judgment about that action) and deontology (that decisions should be made solely or
primarily by considering one's duties and the rights of others).

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are famous for propagating utilitarianism, which is the idea that
the fundamental moral rule is to strive toward the "greatest happiness for the greatest number."
However, in promoting this idea they also necessarily promoted the broader doctrine of
consequentialism: that is to say, the idea that the morally right thing to do in any situation is determined
by the consequences of the actions under consideration.

In contrast to consequentialism, Immanuel Kant argued that moral principles were simply products of
reason. Kant believed that the incorporation of consequences into moral deliberation was a deep
mistake, since it would deny the necessity of practical maxims to the working of the will. According to
Kant, reason requires that we conform our actions to the categorical imperative, which is an absolute
duty unrelated to possible consequences. An important 20th-century deontologist, W.D. Ross, argued
for weaker forms of duties called prima facie duties.

More recent works have emphasized the role of character in ethics, a movement known as the aretaic
turn (that is, the turn towards virtues). One strain of this movement followed the work of Bernard
Williams. Williams noted that rigid forms of both consequentialism and deontology demanded that
people behave impartially. This, Williams argued, requires that people abandon their personal projects,
and hence their personal integrity, in order to be considered moral. G.E.M. Anscombe, in an influential
paper, "Modern Moral Philosophy" (1958), revived virtue ethics, inspired by Aristotle's ethics, as an
alternative to what was seen as the entrenched positions of Kantianism and consequentialism. Virtue
ethics has since gained some adherence and has been defended by such philosophers as Philippa Foot,
Alasdair MacIntyre and Rosalind Hursthouse.

Based on a consideration of their approaches, these three currents in ethical thought can be seen as
concurring, rather than conflicting with each other, at least on a very general level. While deontology
focuses on the motivation, utilitarianism focuses on the results, and virtue ethics on the moral qualities
required to achieve these results through proper motivation.

Human nature and political legitimacy

Thomas Hobbes

From ancient times, and well beyond them, the roots of justification for political authority were
inescapably tied to outlooks on human nature. Plato declared that the ideal society would be run by an
oligarchy of philosopher-kings, since those best at philosophy are best able to realize the good. Even
Plato, however, required philosophers to make their way in the world for many years before beginning
their rule at the age of fifty. For Aristotle, humans are social animals, and governments are set up in
order to pursue good for the community. Aristotle reasoned that, since the state (polis) was the highest
form of community, it has the purpose of pursuing the highest good. Aristotle understood political
power to be the result of natural inequalities in skill and virtue. Because of these differences, he favored
an aristocracy of the able and virtuous (meritocracy). For Aristotle, the person cannot be complete
unless he or she lives in a community.

Nicolas of Cusa rekindled Platonic thought in the early 15th century. He promoted democracy in
Medieval Europe, both in his writings and in his organization of the Council of Florence. Unlike Aristotle
and the Hobbesian tradition to follow, Cusa saw human beings as equal and divine (that is, made in
God's image), so democracy would be the only just form of government. Cusa's views are credited by
some as sparking the Italian Renaissance, which gave rise to the notion of "Nation-States."

Later, Niccolò Machiavelli rejected the views of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas as unrealistic. The ideal
sovereign is not the embodiment of the moral virtues; rather the sovereign does whatever is successful
and necessary, not what is morally praiseworthy. Thomas Hobbes also contested many elements of
Aristotle's views. For Hobbes, human nature is anti-social: people are essentially egoistic, and this
egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things. Moreover, Hobbes argued, though people may
have natural inequalities, these are trivial, since no particular talents or virtues that people may have
will make them safe from harm inflicted by others. For these reasons, Hobbes concluded that the state
arises from a common agreement to raise the community out of the state of nature. This can only be
done by the establishment of a sovereign, in which (or whom) is vested complete control over the
community, and which is able to inspire awe and terror in its subjects.

Many in the Enlightenment were unsatisfied with existing doctrines in political philosophy, which
seemed to marginalize or neglect the possibility of a democratic state. One attempt to overturn these
doctrines was that of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who responded to Hobbes by claiming that a human is by
nature a kind of "noble savage," and that society and social contracts corrupt this nature. In his Second
Treatise on Government John Locke agreed with Hobbes that the nation-state was an efficient tool for
raising humanity out of a deplorable state, but argued that the sovereign may become an abominable
institution compared to the relatively benign state of nature.

Following the doctrine of the fact-value distinction, due in part to the influence of David Hume and his
student Adam Smith, appeals to human nature for political justification were weakened. Nevertheless,
many political philosophers, especially moral realists, still make use of some essential human nature as a
basis for their arguments.

Applied philosophy

Though often seen as a wholly abstract field, philosophy is not without practical applications. The most
obvious applications are those in ethics – applied ethics in particular – and in political philosophy. The
political philosophies of Confucius, Kautilya, Sun Zi, Ibn Rushd, Immanuel Kant, John Locke, Thomas
Hobbes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Mahatma Gandhi,
Robert Nozick, Ayn Rand and John Rawls have shaped and been used to justify the existence of
governments and their actions.
In the field of the philosophy of education, progressive education as championed by John Dewey has
had a profound impact on educational practices in the United States in the twentieth century. Carl von
Clausewitz's political philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft, international politics
and military strategy in the twentieth century, especially in the years around World War II.

Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which aid in understanding the notions of
what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. The philosophy of science discusses the
underpinnings of the scientific method. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of art. Ontology,
even within the artificial intelligence definition, has had important consequences for logic and computer
science. Deep ecology and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world
that has non-human occupants to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of music,
literature, the plastic arts, and the whole artistic dimension of life.

In general, the various "philosophies of…" such as the philosophy of law, can provide workers in their
respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their
fields.

Often philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not understood well enough to be its own
branch of knowledge. What were once philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields of
psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics (among others).

Confines of Philosophy

What should, and what should not, be counted as philosophy, has been heavily debated by many
philosophers through the ages. See also pseudophilosophy.

Relativists may claim that any statement can be counted as a philosophical statement, as there is no
objective way to disqualify it of being so. Also, the very open-minded nature of philosophy makes many
people skeptical when it comes to limiting the concept of philosophy to something tangible and not
something open-ended. However, several philosophers or philosophical directions have had ideas about
what philosophy is and what it shouldn't be.

Plato, or the protagonist in his dialogues, Socrates, who arguably coined the term, held up a number of
virtues for anyone who wanted to call themselves a philosopher. Amongst other things, he rejected the
idea that rhetoric had a place in philosophy, most famously in Gorgias.

The logical positivists denied the soundness of metaphysics and traditional philosophy, and affirmed
that statements about metaphysics, religion, and ethics are devoid of cognitive meaning and thus
nothing but expressions of feelings or desires.
What constitutes sound philosophical work is sometimes summed up by the term Philosophical method.
Also, it is often agreed upon that arguments should try to avoid vague, non-defined, or ill-defined
concepts; avoid mixing together different concepts that share the same term; avoid heavy use of
concepts with strong connotations; and being logically sound. It has also been argued that the scientific
method should be followed as closely as the subject matter allows. When a branch of philosophy fully
follows the norms of the scientific method, it is no longer termed philosophy, but science.

Philosophers on Philosophy

What is philosophy? Some would respond by listing its major subfields such as logic, ethics, and
epistemology; on the other hand, it has also been said that "philosophy is the study of its own history"
(i.e., its own literature). However, some noted philosophers have attempted to address these issues
central to philosophy's subject matter and how it is treated:

... [philosophy] is the acquisition of knowledge.

Plato, Euthydemus, 288d.

... [that] philosophy only is the true one which reproduces most faithfully the statements of nature, and
is written down, as it were, from nature's dictation, so that it is nothing but a copy and a reflection of
nature, and adds nothing of its own, but is merely a repetition and echo.

Francis Bacon, The Enlargement of Science, 1. 2, ch. 3

To repeat abstractly, universally, and distinctly in concepts the whole inner nature of the world, and
thus to deposit it as a reflected image in permanent concepts always ready for the faculty of reason, this
and nothing else is philosophy.

Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, §68

Philosophy is the science by which the natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest
principles of all things - is, in other words, the science of things in their first causes, in so far as these
belong to the natural order.

Jacques Maritain, An Introduction to Philosophy, 69

The object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a theory but an activity.
A philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is not a number of
‘philosophical propositions’, but to make propositions clear. Philosophy should make clear and delimit
sharply the thoughts which otherwise are, as it were, opaque and blurred.

Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, 4.112

... [philosophers] are not honest enough in their work, although they make a lot of virtuous noise when
the problem of truthfulness is touched even remotely. They all pose as if they had discovered and
reached their real opinions through the self-development of a cold, pure, divinely unconcerned
dialectic… ; while at bottom it is an assumption, a hunch, indeed a kind of “inspiration”—most often a
desire of the heart that has been filtered and made abstract—that they defend with reasons they have
sought after the fact.

Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, Part One: On the Prejudices of Philosophers, §5

In order to live, man must act; in order to act, he must make choices; in order to make choices, he must
define a code of values; in order to define a code of values, he must know what he is and where he is –
i.e., he must know his own nature (including his means of knowledge) and the nature of the universe in
which he acts – i.e., he needs metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, which means: philosophy. He cannot
escape from this need; his only alternative is whether the philosophy guiding him is to be chosen by his
mind or by chance.

Ayn Rand, Philosophy: Who Needs it, Chapter One: Philosophy: Who Needs it

"The point of philosophy is to start with something so simple as to seem not worth stating, and to end
with something so paradoxical that no one will believe it." Some Characteristics of the philosophy Most
outstanding are his critical attitude, his universality in the object of study and its depth.

Philosophy is the study of the foundation of things; Addresses issues such as existence, morality, beauty,
knowledge, language and truth. This current is In Greece, with great thinkers such as Socrates and
Aristotle , In the 6th century BC. The word philosophy is a conjunction of"philos", meaning love,
and"sofia", meaning wisdom.

Painting by Rafael Sanzio, symbol of philosophy.

School of Athens. Rafael Sanzio.

The study of philosophy began when the great Greek thinkers began to wonder where the world came
from, trying to separate from their thoughts the mysticism that prevailed at the time.
The Philosophers They sought to find rational and demonstrable arguments for the questions they
posed, and through it they criticized ignorance and superstition.

At the beginning of the studies of philosophy, all the Branches Which nowadays are already
differentiated, such as alchemy, astrology, ethics, physics, etc.

Today philosophy is within all of them but promoting a critical point of view of all of them.

You may also like to know The 14 most important philosophical currents and their representatives .

Main features of philosophy

1- Universality

As we said above, philosophy does not focus on the study of a Branch of science , But embraces them
all. It seeks the deeper ends of science and promotes a critique of them.

The universality of philosophy also refers to the global and general character of the management of it as
a way of life and way of thinking.

Although there are different variants depending on geographical location, such as Chinese philosophy,
Arabic, Western philosophy... All have in common that seek to discern universal truth by separating
mysticism and superstitions.

2- Depth

Philosophy seeks the truth of all things. The depth of thought consists in having definitions of concepts.
These definitions have to be complete and truthful.

Philosophy questions all approaches until they are demonstrable in all its aspects. He wants to get to the
point where no more questions can be asked because they have all been answered.

They reach as far back as possible through rationality. This is the most important point of philosophy,
the origin of the times and the explanation of all things.

3- Criticism
Philosophy has a critical attitude toward things because it does not accept presumptions without
demonstration. It is opposed to the dogmatic attitude, that is to say, that it does not admit absolute
truths as immovable principles that can not be subject to discussion.

He rejects submission and fanaticism, especially the religious, since it has no scientific and demonstrable
basis. It raises radical questions that are at the root of reality and existence.

Through criticism invites to use reason to leave behind ignorance and be free. It is opposed to the
natural attitude of survival, we must not only exist to survive but to know and understand our
surroundings.

The critique of philosophy is based on living in a constant disagreement in which we must seek the
meaning of existence.

4- Certainty

Philosophy is responsible for seeking the most logical answers to the existence of life and the universe.
Even in metaphysical subjects, it looks for foundations on which to base its theories to consider them
valid. It does not serve any kind of response.

5- Fundamental

Guided by logic, philosophy seeks to seek the true answers of the universe. The study of logic analyzes
the correct reasoning of the wrong ones. Logic helps the correct interpretation of language and prompts
reasoning and consistency of its contents.

A clear example of a logical approach is:

If it is sunny, then it is daylight.

It is sunny.

Therefore, it is daytime

It is not sunny, so it is not daytime

6- Totalizing

It has a tendency to universality, is not satisfied with partial explanations or fragments of reality. You
want to get the complete picture for the various problems you encounter on your way.

7- Wisdom

Philosophy and wisdom are not synonyms, but wisdom is encompassed within philosophy. Sophia It is
wisdom, and philosophy is the love of wisdom
The intellectual growth of people accumulates experiences. The whole of these experiences is a form of
personal knowledge and development. This is the definition of wisdom.

A well-known anecdote to explain the difference between wisdom and philosophy, came when Lion king
of the Fliacos asked Pythagoras his profession and he responded that he was not wise (sofos) but simply
a philosopher (lover to wisdom, aspiring to it)

He who is wise does not philosophize, for he is supposed to have discovered the mysteries of the world
and knows them. However, a philosopher recognizes his own ignorance, and his constant aspiration is to
attain wisdom

Socrates perfectly reflected the pursuit of his wisdom with the phrase known by everyone:"I only know
that I do not know anything".

8- Praxis

Praxis means action or realization. This is the opposite of theoretical activity, and in the origins of
philosophy practice was relegated to the background. It was considered that the theory prevailed over
the actions of the human being.

This perception changed with the postulates of Marx that considered it like"human activity like objective
activity". Marx maintained that practical activity is above theoretical activity, conditioning it.

According to him, the way in which the material production of human beings, in this case praxis, is
organized, determines the way in which people interpret reality. Philosophy is the study of how one can
lead a good life. It is also the study of how one can live in harmony with themselves and others.
Philosophy can be studied through both the study of history and through modern-day life. Philosophy is
a very broad field of study and this article will discuss the 5 major branches of philosophy.

What are The 5 Major Branches Of Philosophy?

The 5 major branches of Philosophy are the following:

Ezoic

Metaphysics

Ethics

Logic

Epistemology
Axiology

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is the study of the nature of reality, knowledge, morality, and existence. It is the search for
answers to fundamental questions about human existence.

Philosophers are interested in such questions as: What is the meaning of life? What is the nature of
truth? What is the relationship between mind and body?

The first known philosopher was Thales of Miletus, who was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Thales
first came up with the idea that everything is composed of a single substance, called “Hyle”. Hyle was
later replaced by the idea of “nous” which means “mind” in Greek.

Philosophy is very broad and can be looked at from many different perspectives. One such perspective is
philosophical anthropology, which focuses on understanding human beings.

Philosophical anthropology is a branch of philosophy that looks at how humans think and behave, and
what it means to be human.

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Philosophers aim to provide a systematic understanding of what is true and what is false in life. There
are many different philosophical schools of thought, but some of the most common ones are
existentialism, idealism, and materialism.

History of Philosophy

Philosophy has always been an important part of our society. It is a way to improve the human condition
by understanding and questioning it. Philosophy has existed since ancient times and many philosophers
have changed the way we think about the world and ourselves.

The history of philosophy is an immense topic and can be broken down into different periods. The
earliest period of philosophy was the pre-Socratic period, which began in the 6th century BC.

The pre-Socratic period is often referred to as the “age of wonder.” The next period of philosophy was
the Sophist period, which began in the 5th century BC.

This period is also referred to as the “age of knowledge.” The final period of philosophy was the Stoic
period, which began in the 3rd century BC.
Philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were some of the first people to question the human
condition and how it affects our lives. Other philosophers such as Descartes and Kant have helped shape
our understanding of the world in a more modern-day context.

The 5 major branches of Philosophy are further explained below

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Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that investigates the nature of being, existence, reality, and the
relationship between mind and matter.

The word “metaphysics” comes from two Greek words, meta, and physis. Meta means “beyond” or
“after,” while physis means “nature.” The term was coined by Aristotle to describe the study of what he
considered to be the most important branch of philosophy.

Metaphysics is the study of the nature of being and reality. In short, it is the study of what is beyond
what is known. It seeks to answer questions such as:

What is the nature of reality?

What is the relationship between mind and body?

What is the meaning of life?

What is truth?

Metaphysics also deals with questions about the universe, such as:

How did the universe come into existence?

What happens after death?

Many philosophers have attempted to answer this question about the relationship between mind and
matter, and how this relationship might be possible. The most famous being René Descartes who argued
that mind and body are separate entities.

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Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles and the right and wrong in human
conduct. It is the set of beliefs, values, and norms that govern the conduct of an individual or group.
Ethics are often divided into different fields such as religious ethics, medical ethics, and business ethics.
Ethics can also be separated into different approaches, such as natural law ethics, virtue ethics, and
consequentialism.

Ethics is categorized into two: normative ethics, which deals with moral values and principles that
govern human behavior, and meta-ethics, which deals with the meaning of ethical statements.

There are a few different schools of thought on ethics, but the most common is called consequentialism,
which focuses on how actions affect the greatest number of people.

It is important to have ethics because, without them, it would be difficult to know what is right and
wrong. Without ethics, people would not be able to make good decisions and would not be able to live
in peace.

Logic

Logic is a branch of philosophy that uses valid reasoning to determine the best course of action. It is the
study of how arguments are related to one another and what makes a good argument.

Logic is also a way of thinking that uses critical thinking to distinguish true from false, correct from
incorrect, and valid from invalid. It is the process of discovering valid conclusions from given premises.

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Logic is also known as the science of valid inference and correct reasoning. It is the study of the formal
foundations of such inferences. Logic is used in fields as diverse as mathematics, philosophy, law, and
computer science.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of knowledge and how it is acquired. It is an important branch of philosophy,
and it looks at the nature of knowledge and how we can know things with certainty.

Epistemology takes into account the mind-body problem, meaning it also looks at the relationship
between mind and body. It is closely related to the study of logic and the philosophy of language.

Epistemology asks questions such as: How do we know that our senses are reliable? How do we know if
our beliefs are justified? How do we know if something is true?

Axiology
Axiology is the study of values. The word comes from the Greek word Axios, which means “worthy” or
“fitting.” It is the study of how to make choices and decisions about values, and how these choices and
decisions can be made in a moral way.

Axiology is a philosophy that studies the nature of value in human beings, objects, and situations. It’s
also the discipline of moral philosophy that investigates the standards of value and the ways in which
they are applied.

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Conclusion

In summary, philosophy is the study of the nature of reality, knowledge, morality, and existence. It is the
search for truth and understanding. Philosophy is concerned with understanding human nature and the
world around us. Philosophy is often divided into different branches that each focus on different
philosophical questions. The 5 main branches of philosophy are Metaphysics, Ethics, Logic,
Epistemology, and Axiology.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs): what are the 5 major branches of philosophy?

Who is the father of philosophy?

The father of philosophy is Socrates. Socrates is a Greek philosopher who was born in Athens, Greece in
the year 470 BC. Socrates believed that he could know the truth by questioning people and listening to
their answers. He believed that “the unexamined life is not worth living.” This is a quote from Socrates.

What are the greatest philosophies in life?

There are many different philosophies in life. Some of the most well-known ones are from Socrates,
Buddha, and Jesus. All three of these men have taught people about living a happy and fulfilled life.
Socrates believed that virtue is the highest good, Buddha believes that enlightenment is the way to
happiness, and Jesus taught people to love one another and to turn the other cheek. It’s important to
understand what philosophy is really about before trying to live by one.

Why is philosophy divided into branches?

Philosophy has been divided into branches in order to help people who are studying the subject and
those who are interested in it. Philosophy is such a broad subject that there is no way to fit it into one
branch. It’s split into many branches so that people can focus on what they are interested in and not get
lost in the massive amount of information philosophy has to offer.