NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TRICHY

REINFORCED EARTH AND GEOTEXTILES

CEPE29

Dr. Deendayal Rathod

ASSOSIATE PROFESSOR
Civil Engineering Department
Syllabus
1. Reinforced Earth – The mechanisms of the reinforced earth techniques – Design
principles – Materials used for construction – Advantages of reinforced earth –
Reinforced earth construction techniques.
2. An overview of Geosynthetics, Description of Geotextiles – Geogrids – Geonets –
Geomembranes – Geocomposites– Geocells – Designing with Geotextiles – Geotextile
properties and test methods – Functions of Geotextile – Design methods for separation –
stabilization – filtration – Drainage.
3. Designing with Geogrids – Geogrid properties and test methods – Designing with
Geonets – Geonet properties and test methods – Designing with Geomembranes –
Geomembrane properties and test methods – construction practices with Geotextiles,
Geogrids, Geonets, Geomembranes.
4. Design of liquid Contaminant liners – liquid contaminant liners – Covers for reservoirs-
Water conveyance (Canal liners)-- solid material liners – underground storage tanks –
Design of pavements – Geo composites as liquid /Vapour Barriers – Improvement in
bearing capacity – Erosion Control for water ways.
5. Geo Synthetics: Recent research and Developments. Control of Improvement – Field
Instrumentation – design and analysis for bearing capacity and settlement of improved
deposits
 UNIT 3
Geogrids

A geosynthetic material consisting of connected parallel

sets of intersecting ribs with apertures of sufficient size to
allow strike-through of surrounding soil, stone, or other
geotechnical material

Geogrid Properties and Test Methods

Physical Properties Mechanical

Endurance Properties
Properties
 Physical Properties

Density Bending Stiffness Torsional Stiffness

Density or Specific Gravity : (ASTM D792)

• These test methods describe the determination of the specific gravity (relative density) and
density of solid plastics in forms such as sheets, rods, tubes, or molded items
• the ratio of the mass in air of a unit volume of the impermeable portion of the material at 23°C
to the mass in air of equal density of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the same
temperature.
• Determine the mass of a specimen of the solid plastic in air. It is then immersed in a liquid, its
apparent mass upon immersion is determined, and its specific gravity (relative density)
calculated.
Specimen size:
• volume shall be not less than 1 cm3 and its surface and edges shall be made smooth. The thickness
of the specimen should be at least 1 mm for each 1 g of weight. A specimen weighing 1 to 5 g
usually will be found convenient, but specimens up to approximately 50 g may be used.
• The specimen shall be free from oil, grease, and other foreign matter.

Calculation : Specific gravity of the

plastic as follows:

where:
a = apparent mass of specimen, without wire or sinker, in
air,
b = apparent mass of specimen (and of sinker, if used)
completely immersed and of the wire partially immersed
in liquid, and
w = apparent mass of totally immersed sinker (if used) and
of partially immersed wire.
Calculate the density of the plastic as follows:
 Bending Stiffness:
(ASTM D1388)
• Specimen is fixed at one end other end is
free as like cantilever
• specimen is slid at a specified rate in a
direction parallel to its long dimension,
until its leading edge projects from the
edge of a horizontal surface.
• The length of the overhang is measured
when the tip of the specimen is
depressed under its own mass to the
point where the line joining the top to
the edge of the platform makes a 0.724
rad or (41.5) angle with the horizontal.
• From this measured length, bending
length and flexural rigidity are calculated.
• Stiffness is calculated in terms of flexural
rigidity
Specimen size :

Test specimen size 25 x 200 mm, + or -1 mm

Select a specimen width at least 25 mm (1 in.) and not more than 75 mm (3 in.) with respect
to the tendency of the fabric to curl.

Calculation :
Torsional Stiffness

• The test apparatus and initial testing procedures

were developed by Kinney and Yuan (1995).
• In this test method an unsupported square
geogrid specimen is fixed on its four sides in a
horizontally oriented containment box.
• Its central node is then clamped by a torquing
device which has the capability of applying moment
to the geogrid structure and of simultaneously
measuring the resulting rotation.
• The modulus of the rotation versus moment curve
is the desired value of geogrid torsional stiffness in
units of N-m/deg.
 Mechanical Properties

Anchorage Strength\Pull
Tensile Strength Shear Strength
out test

Tensile Strength : (ASTM D6637)

• This test is again classified into two types:

1. Single rib tension method
2. Junction or node strength testing method
1. Single rib tension method
• A single rib tension strength test merely uses a constant rate-of-extension testing machine to pull
a single rib to failure, as described in ASTM D6637
• For unidirectional geogrids, this would most likely be a longitudinal rib. For bidirectional
geogrids, both longitudinal and transverse ribs require evaluation.
• a number of ribs can be tested simultaneously to obtain a more statistically accurate value for
the wide-width strength
 2. Junction or node
strength testing method

• The test method uses a clamping

fixture that grips the transverse ribs of
the geogrid immediately adjacent to
and on each side of the longitudinal
rib.
• The lower portion of the longitudinal
rib is gripped in a standard clamp, and
each clamp is mounted.
• In a tensile testing machine, where the
test specimen is pulled apart.
• The strength of the junction, in force
units, is obtained. Table 3.1 gives the
junction strength for a number
 • Test procedure is same as direct shear test.
• the geogrid is fixed to a block and is forced to slide over stationary soil in a
shear box while being subjected to normal stress.
• By varying normal stress, test must conduct and plot the graph between
Shear Strength shear stress and normal stress, also plot the graph between shear stress
and shear deformation.
• From these graph the shear strength parameters of the geogrid to the
particular soil are obtained.
• A large shear box must used to minimize scale effects
 • The anchorage strength or pullout resistance is a result of three separate mechanisms.
• The first is the shear strength along the top and bottom of the longitudinal ribs of the geogrid.
Anchorage • The second is the shear strength contribution along the top and bottom of the transverse ribs.
The third mechanism is the passive resistance against the front of the transverse ribs.
Strength\Pull out test :
•
• In the last mechanism the soil goes into a passive state and resists pullout by means of bearing capacity.
• It has been analytically shown that this bearing capacity can be a major contributor to the overall anchorage
strength of geogrids.
 Endurance Properties

Installation Damage Tension Creep Behavior Creep Rupture Behavior

Installation Damage :

• the placement of geogrids in the field requires a considerable degree of planning and care. As
happens all too often with careless field construction crews and heavy machinery, installation
damage of the geogrid can occur
• Other uncertainties in this same area are coarse soil impingement, falling objects, and other
accidents that may occur before the geogrid is covered
• Generally, the higher strength-loss values come about where large, poorly graded, quarried
aggregate is used and heavy construction equipment performs the placement and compaction.
• If it is necessary to use such materials and methods, it is prudent to first place a cushioning layer
of sand above and sometimes below the geogrid.
Tension Creep Behaviour :

• A major endurance property involving geogrids is their sustained-load deformation or tension "creep."
• Since all polymers used in the manufacturing of geogrids consist of long-chain molecules arranged in
crystalline regions with interspersed amorphous regions, the creep response reflects upon the percent
crystallinity and the glass transition temperature.

Creep Rupture Behavior :

• A variation of the tension creep test just described is the creep rupture procedure presented by Ingold
et al.
• In this procedure higher stresses are imposed on the test specimens, causing failure to occur in a
relatively short time.
• Upon performing several such tests, a graph of load-versus-log time can be generated.
• When extrapolated out to the desired service lifetime, an acceptable load can be obtained.
• When normalized to the short-term value, the inverse of this ratio becomes the reduction factor to be
applied on ultimate strength
Design for Geogrid Reinforcement:

Paved Roads : (Base course)

• The use of geogrids in paved road aggregate base courses is an area where the large aperture size of
geogrids provide an excellent advantage.
• Here the geogrids are placed within the granular base course, typically crushed stone, with the intention of
providing an increased modulus, hence a lateral confinement to the system
• Result of Geogrid Reinforcement :-
 increasing initial stiffness, decreasing long-term vertical deformation, decreasing long-term
horizontal defor- mation, increasing tensile strength, reducing cracking, improving cyclic fatigue
be- havior, and simply holding the system together.
• This leads to difficulties as far as a specific design methodology is concerned. We could use a geogrid
effectiveness factor and divide it into the design traffic number to determine a modified value and design
accordingly, that is
Paved Roads : (Pavement)

• The use of geogrids to retard and minimize reflective cracking within old pavements from
propagating through newly placed asphalt overlays is a topic of great interest.
• Results of laboratory testing by Molenaar and Nods., suggest the use of a power law to calculate
the rate of crack propagation through the new over lay thickness:
Reinforced Wall : Design Procedure

Solution is in
slide 40
Geonet

A geosynthetic material consisting of integrally connected

parallel sets of ribs overlying similar sets at various angles
for in-plane drainage of liquids or gases. Geonets are often
laminated with geotextiles on one or both surfaces and are
then referred to as geocomposite drainage materials

Geonet Properties and Test Methods

Physical Mechanical Endurance Hydraulic Environmental

Properties Properties Properties Properties Properties
 Physical
Properties

• The density or specific gravity of the polymer is an important property and it can be evaluated
either by ASTM D1505 or D792.
• The former is preferred if an accuracy of at least 0.005 mg/l is required.
• Another physical property needed to characterize a geonet is its thickness, which can be
determined using ASTM D5199 or ISO 9863. While there is no listing for geonets as such, it is
recommended that geonet thickness be measured under a normal pressure of 20 kPa.

• solid-rib extruded biplanar geonet, the mass per unit area is usually in the range of 800 to 1600
g/m².
• It is not a design property, but it is informative from a manufacturer's point of view.
• Other physical properties such as rib dimensions, planar angles made by the intersecting ribs,
cross-planar angles made at the juncture locations, aperture size and shape, and so on, can be
measured directly and are straightforward to obtain.
 Mechanical
Properties

Tensile Strength and Elongation :

Sample Size :- 200mm x 100mm

Rate of Elongation :- 10mm/min

• The specimen needs to undergo testing using a universal

tensile testing apparatus.
• The specimen is placed between the upper and lower grips
and secured in position using bolts.
• An elongation load is then applied at a specified rate of
elongation.
• The tensile strength is recorded upon the fracture of the
specimen.
Compressive Strength and Deformation :