Food technology HSC Course Notes

9.1 The Australian Food Industry

Sectors of the agri-food chain:
Agriculture and fisheries
- Agriculture is the cultivation of land to produce food derived
from plants and animals
- Fisheries include the commercial catching of fish or any other
aquatic species.
Eg; oysters, octopus or crabs
Food processing/manufacturing
- Involves techniques that clean, prepare, preserve and package
food for sale
Eg; blanching, dicing, washing
Food service and catering
- Prepares food for consumers for our convince, leisure and
enjoyment
Eg; takeaway shop, restaurant, cafe
Food retail
- Where food is available at different places- selling of food
Eg; coles, Woolworths, butchers

Emerging technologies in food production:

Emerging Sector Risks Benefits
Technologies
GM crops - Agricultur Allergic reactions Increased yields
transferring DNA e and Threat to biodiversity Decreased use of natural
from one organism fisheries The unknown long term resources
to another to impact Improved health benefits
produce a desirable
characteristic

HPP- a cold Processing Expensive Not destroying heat-sensitive

pasteurization and Can only be used on products. No change in flavour
technique by which manufactur certain products e.g due to protein denaturing.
products are sealed e milk, juices, avocado Extended shelf life
and introduces into
a vessel that is
subjected to high
pressure

Biodegradable Processing Increase cost Less landfill

packaging has the and Land used for packing Produces less carbon
ability to break manufactur rather than food
down and return to e
nature within 90
days

Organic farming - Agricultur Uses more human energy No chemical runoff

method of farming a e and High cost No threat to biodiversity
crop or livestock fishery Lower yields No chemical residue
without the use of s Perceived health benefits
fertilizers,
pesticides and GMOs

Levels of operation:
Household
- Simple and small quantities of food
- Limited use of tools and equipment, that is often small and
domestic
- Generally low levels of technology
Eg; farmers markets stalls, street stalls or fete stall
Small business
- Often less than 20 employees
- Equipment not usually industrial, but maybe semi-automated
Eg; local businesses, family-run stores
Large company
- Often more than 50 staff
- May have multiple stores or processing plants
- Involve automated equipment and machinery, less labour
Eg; coles, iga
Multinational
- Operate in several countries
- Use sophisticated technologies and are highly productive
Eg; McDonald’s, subway,

Research and development:

- Research and development is costly but necessary
- Businesses need to spend money on ‘r&d’ relating to their
product/ packaging/marketing
- The government provides funding, this can be done by the CSIRO
- Work to improve prosperity and sustainability in the agribusiness
sector
- Long term benefits of ’R&D’ included increased export, production
and profitability
- Government body FSANZ conduct consumer research

Consumer influence:
Consumers' wants and needs are what drive the AFI industry. There is
an increasing demand for different types of foods to be produced, to
stay competitive the food industry meets the consumer’s demands.
Move towards Value-added products ( processing of goods to increase
their selling price and hence profit margin)

Trend Demand on the industry Examples

Healthier snack foods Increased demand for Dip and crackers

healthy snack foods Protein bars
and ‘school lunch box’ Small box dried foods
items

Busier lifestyle Foods that are already Pre-packed salad

prepared or are quick Frozen meals
and easy to prepare Single-serve veggies

Meal replacement Calorie and Diet shakes

portion-controlled Protein bars
foods
Impact on the environment:
- During food production, energy and water contribute to carbon
emissions
- AFI is heavily dependent on fossil fuels
- Due to the damage that has been done more than half of the
Australian farmland requires intervention
- Australians throw out ⅓ of food produces this contributes to
greenhouse emissions and methane
- Processing and manufacturing affects the environment due to
excessive packaging and poor waste management
- In retail and processing, large amounts of energy are used to
continuously run fridges and freezers, lights, assembly lines,
equipment and machinery. - Large area for R&D
- Water is another resource that is heavily used within the
production as an ingredient, or for cleaning and cooling and
agriculture.
- Environmental impact includes waste management, packaging
practices, production techniques and transportation

Impact on the economy:

- Provides a large financial contribution and employment
- The industry is dynamic and focused on meeting consumer demand
- AFI internationally focused on exports
- Australia is known for its safe, clean and natural produces
- Aus has well-established education and training facilities that
cater to the food industry

Impact on society:
- AFI provides safe and reliable food sources
- Products are developed and formulated to meet consumer needs
- Large variety may have a negative impact upon consumers health
- Foods produce to please the health-conscious consumer and meet
lifestyle changes

Career opportunities:
Employment
- Employment opportunity for unskilled, semiskilled and highly
skilled workers ( move away from unskilled to skilled with the
increased use of technology and automation)
- Shift work common
- Wages depend on skill level and nature of employment
Gender
- Gender imbalance in the agriculture and fisheries
- Upper management often males summarily to physical work

Agriculture and Food processing Foodservice and Food retail

fisheries and catering
manufacturing

Farmhand Engineer Chief Butcher

Stock agent Market Cleaner Baker
researcher

mechanic Forklift driver Food stylist Product

demonstrator

Policy and legislation:

Policy - a strategy put in place by the government e.g Food and
Nutrition Policy, Free Trade Agreements
Legislation - law can be local, state or federal.
Advisory groups are independent organisations that provide advice to
the government when they are developing policies and legislation eg
Federal
FSANZ Act 1991
- The main objective is to protect public health
- Helps to provide enough information about food to help consumers
make informed choices
Competition and Consumer Act 2010
- Aims to promote competition and fair trading
- A way of protecting consumers
Gene technology act 2000
- Ensures public health and safely
- Protects the environment by identifying and managing potential
risks associated with GM foods
State
NSW Food Act 2003
- Aims to ensure food for sale is both safe and suitable for human
consumption.
- prohibits any misleading conduct surround food
Work Health and Safety Act 2011 (NSW)
- Aim to protect the health and safety of workers and workplaces
- Provides certainty and consistency in regards to WHS
- Provides effective support and advice by encouraging all parties
to improve WHS
- Aims to assist businesses/workers to achieve a healthier and
safer workplace
Local government roles
Each local government is responsible for
1. Appointing an environmental health officer who specializes in
food surveillance
2. Inspecting food and food premises
3. Building requirements such as construction and alteration on food
premises
EHO are given authority under the food act to carry out routine
inspections of all local foods premise in their area

Food Labeling requirements

- Labels are legible and written in english
- Food must be made in accordance with their name descriptions eg.
strawberry yogurt
- Must feature the name and business address
- Is specific storage conditions are required for the product
- Food additives (code name) listed in the ingredient list
- Country of origin
- Must be labelled as GM if the products DNA is altered
- Nutritional information panel is necessary
- Use by or best before marking
- Ingredients listed in descending order
- Major food allergens identified - highlighted in bold font
9.2 Food Manufacture
Quality and quantity control:
This process is necessary as it maintains standards, specifications
and various regulations. Lack of quality can result in injury,
sickness or death main aim of quality control is to find defects and
errors in the system, product and correcting them
Purpose
- Protect customers from dangers and ensure that they are getting
what they paid for
- Protect the business from being cheated by customers
- Comply with food laws
During the raw materials or receiving stage
- The quality of the final product depends on the raw materials
- This means that before processing materials are check to ensure
that they meet specifications and standards
During the food processing stage
- Regular sample pickup
- Monitoring of certain processes
- Regular cleaning and sanitization
Finished product
- After packing a check is done to ensure that the final product is
a desirable quality
quality assurance – a process of ensuring standards are achieved and
maintained.
quality management – planning and managing to ensure the product meets
expectations.

Role of additives in manufacturing:

- Improve the sensory qualities e.g Flavour enhancer - improve
existing flavour or aroma,. Colours - restore colour, enhance
flavour
- Improve the shelf life or stability of a product e.g humectant to
stop a product from drying out
- Preserve the product e.g Preservative - prevent deterioration or
spoilage
- Special dietary needs i.e artificial sweeteners

Characteristics of equipment:
The equipment for food production needs to meet the demand for this
equipment needs to be:
- Strong (operate continuously with large quantities)
- Durable (reliable so production is not held up by breakages)
- Hygienic (easily cleaned, scratch resistant)
- Efficient (transport conveyors from one process to another)
To use equipment efficiently there has to be a productive production
flow present, so that food can be safely produced.

Production systems used in manufacture:

The type of production system depends on: nature of product, scale of
production, economic considerations, consumer acceptance.
Production systems are classed as
 - Large scale
- Small scale
- Manual
- Automated
- Computerized
Large scale:
- Large volumes in short periods
- Continual inspection of raw materials
Small scale:
- Domestic level
- Less complex operation
Manual production:
- Operators have to physically add food components
Automated:
- Machines handle and control processing
- Automated systems have predetermined consciousness for operations
- Can operate 24/7
- Decreased waste
Computerised:
- Achieved through the use of sensors
- Programs developed to respond to variations in raw materials and
conditions

Quality management considerations:

- Quality management systems = a set of policies, procedures and
processes required to plan and execute a safe and reliable food
supply
- Manufactures integrate various management systems in their
processes to identify and control potential quality issues
- Quality management systems include quality control systems
procedures to achieve quality assurance, HACCP and WHS procedures
- Large companies can also use their own quality management
including good manufacturing processes (GMP)
HACCP -
- Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
- Used by food manufacturers to recognise and deal with hazards in
food production
- Used to identify when possible contamination may occur or when
undesirable microbial growth takes place
- Set up preventative measures to control what happens during
critical times
- System which identifies hazards within production, and methods
for dealing with them; 7 Steps: conduct hazard analysis, identify
CCP (critical control points), establish critical limits, monitor
CCP’s, corrective actions, verification (assessment),
documentation.

Reasons for preserving foods:

Foods are preserved because:
- Make perishable food available year-round
- Retain the nutritional value
 - Keeps food in an acceptable form to the consumer and therefore
prevents waste
- Promote safety
- Achieve economies for the production company

Causes of food deterioration and spoilage:

(MR PEE) Microbes Rodents Physical Enzymes Environmental
M R P E E
Physical damage
- The bruising of fruit, wilting of vegetables
- Can occur during transport or product being moved.
Enzymatic activity
- Responsible for the ripening and breakdown of fruit and
vegetables
- When picked/harvested or slaughtered, enzymes continue to work
causing spoilage
- When fruit is physically damaged the bruise is the result of
enzymes being releases within the cells around them and within
the air
Microbial
- Include bacteria, virus, yeast, moulds and cause foods to spoil
- Maybe pathogenic
- Especially important in food preservation is the lag phase
- Lag phase - the time required for bacteria to adjust to the
new environment
- Minimising cross-contamination essential
- Favourable conditions that encourage food spoilage by microbes
and enzymes include
- Warm temperatures
- Available water
- Oxygen
- Suitable pH
- Suitable food source
Rodent activity
- Infestations of bugs and other creatures
Environmental factors
- Includes warm temperature, air, moisture, light
- These factors speed up the rate of spoilage

Principles for food preservation:

Exclusion of air: restriction of oxygen to prevent the growth of
microbes. This method is achieved by
- Completely filling containers
- Evacuating infill space
- Gas flushing (replace oxygen with alternate gas MAP, modified
atmosphere gas)
Restriction of moisture:
Achieved either through dehydration, the use of solute or by freezing
Control of pH:
- Dissolving other substances in water ie salt so that the water is
unavailable to microbes
- Decrease pH results in an acid food
 - Also include smoking
Control of temperature:
- Microbes are damaged by temps >60c
- A few minutes at 100c will destroy all enzymes and kill most
forms of bacteria
- Most microbes and enzymes active at moderate temperatures between
5-60c - danger zone and inactive at lower temps <4c

Preservation process:
Process How it works Where it’s used

Freezing Preserving foods by Milk, ice cream,

lowering the poultry
temperature to inhibit
microorganism growth
-18

Refrigeration Involves control of Eggs, juice, meats,

temperature cooked foods
The cold filling
temperature while
being stored slows
down bacterial growth

Pasteurization Involves control of Milk, cheese, yogurt,

temperature, with a juices
heat treatment process
that kills or reduces
microbes to an
acceptable level,
Heating to 72’c for 15
seconds to eliminate
pathogens

Freeze drying Rapidly freezing and Coffee, fruit, juice,

then subjecting it to
a high vacuum

Aseptic canning Pre Sterilized Most canned, paper,

containers are filled and plastic packaging.
with sterilized and
cooled product and
sealed in a sterile
atmosphere
Convention canning
combines control of
temperature and
exclusion
of air, with the can
filled with
the food product and a
 liquid is added to
force air
out of the package.
The
filled cans are then
heated
to kill microbes.
Aseptic
canning is another
method,
where the can and food
product are separately
heated then packed.
Bothe
processes use a retort
to
heat cans. The can
should
be concave, indicating
the
vacuum inside.

Fermentation Involves control of beer brewing, bread

pH. Occurs when production. The sour
carbohydrates are condition is
converted into acids unfavourable to
or alcohol microbes.

Dehydration Involves restriction salting, candying,

of moisture via the freeze drying
control of (sublimation/solid to
temperature. Any gas) e.g. dried tea,
method that decreases herbs.
water in a food is a
form of drying

Functions of packaging:
Contain - for easy storage and handling
Protects
- From physical and mechanical damage
- Excess moisture and rain
Preserves - packaging must decrease chances of microorganisms, prevent
moisture entering, prevent the process of rancidity in fats.
Communication - used to promote products, communicate info to
consumers and create brand awareness
Convenience - use of product direct from packaging to save the
consumer effort, as well as packaging that means the consumer can
consume the food anywhere
2 P’s, 3 C’s

Types of packaging
Cans
Either aluminium or steel. Must use packaging in Australia. Cheap,
unbreakable, stackable, recyclable, inert, easy to handle.
● Glass
● Inert, aseptic, odourless, recyclable, easy to open and reseal,
heat resistant, non-porous, transparent, comes in variety of
shapes, colours, sizes, provides long-term storage.
● Paper/Cardboard
Paper bags
e.g. flour, paper sacks e.g. bulk flour, moulded fibreboard cartons
for example. eggs, paperboard e.g. milk, composite containers (more
than 1) for examples. pringles.
Versatile, cost effective, light weight, recyclable, print over
packaging, fragile, inert (grease-proof).
Plastic
Either rigid or flexible. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) for
example. plastic bottle, High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) e.g. bottle
cap. Cheap, light weight yet strong, flexible, easy to store,
resistant to breakage, comes in variety of shapes, colours, sizes.
Aluminium foil/Laminations
Light weight, heat resistant, usually combined with other packaging in
lamination.
Combination packages
Consists of two or more separate packaging materials that function
independently of each other, for example. cereal packaged in HDPE bag
to protect against humidity and oxidation, and paperboard box to
protect product.
Primary: packaging in which food is sold to consumers.
Secondary: multiple primary packs, e.g. juice packs. Tertiary: secure
multiples of secondary packaging for bulk handling and distribution.
Choosing packaging
Inert – non-reactive chemical or biological properties.
Considerations must be given when determine the best package for the
job: characteristics of food, cause of spoilage or quality loss,
shelf-life requirements, intended usage, company image, cost,
production facilities, legal requirements, ethical consideration,
consumer wants.

Current developments in packaging:

Available packaging improves to be able to store food fresher for
longer
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP):
- Modifying the internal atmosphere of a package
Active packaging:
- technology that intentionally releases or absorbs compounds from
the food or the headspace of packaging
Sous vide
- Food is cooked, rapidly chilled, vacuum-packed and stored at a
low temperature

Storage conditions and distribution systems:

Handling – transport and packaging of goods.
Distribution – movement of goods once the product has undergone
processes; from manufacturer to consumer, through wholesalers and/or
retailers.
Storage
- Occurs during manufacturing and production
Can include
- Dry storage (below 24C)
- cold storage (between 0-5C)
- Freezer storage (between -18 to -30)
Distribution
- Moves a food product from one stage of production to another
- Packaging is essential to protect the product
- Distribution channels are the routes products take from producers
to consumers
- Distribution intermediaries provide a link between producers and
consumers
Business must decide how many intermediaries will be needed
- Intensive channels: the use of every possible outlet in the
channel
- Selective channels: using multiple but not all channels
- Exclusive channels; involve using a single wholesaler
9.3 Food product development
External factors that impact on food product development:
P.E.T.E
Economic environment
- The economy can affect food product development
- New product ideas work well when consumers have a high-income
level but may fail in tougher times

● Recession: a downturn in the economy resulting in less disposable

income
● Expansion: economy grows in areas of production, employment and
new products
● Boom: when consumers spend more money, eat at better restaurants
and try new products
● Contraction: economic cycle with the effects similar to during a
recession
● Inflation rates: change equipment and ingredients cost, wage and
processing; pass cost to consumers.
● Interest rates: interest rate change on borrowed money; pass cost
to consumers.
● Exchange rates: changes cost on imports.
● Tax rates: changes affect company profit margin; pass cost to
consumers.
● Tariffs: affect retail price of food.
● Wage and salary levels: high wage=high priced food, though
consumer have more to spend.
● Unemployment: unemployment place strain on government=high taxes.
● Natural disasters: drought, flood disrupts production and affects
availability and prices.

Political environment
Manufactures, producers and distributors of food are all subject to
regulations made by federal, state and local governments. E.g policies
or incentives, tariffs, legislation, HACCP
Ecological environment
- The natural environment
- Can be affected by waste disposal, land degradation, pollutions,
water use, transport , fuel sources, post consumer e.g packaging
disposal
- These issues turn consumers towards recycling, biodiversity of
packaging
Technological environment
- Changes in science and technology allow for new processes e.g
MAP, GM
- Can lead to new foods and components
Internal factors that impact on food product development:
These are mostly within the manufactures control
Personnel expertise
- The expertise of the staff is crucial to the operation and
development
- The worker’s skills have a direct effect on what can be produced
- Many enterprises require staff to be multiskilled
Production facilities
- The proper equipment is required to produce products
- The complexity of equipment is related to processes, output
volume and financial status e.g
Level of production
One-off production: In-house custom made, high price products, for
single or few items (for example. birthday cake).
Batch production: Single production run, general purpose use, with low
production volume and efficiency, and high costs (for example.
Tim-Tam, ice-cream).
Mass production: Simple technology and assembly, few highly trained
staff, automated (for example. Coke).
Continuous production: High-technology equipment, few staff,
consistent quality maintained by automation.
Financial position
- The position is a major factor in the type of equipment that can
be afforded
- A strong financial position gives a company advantage over its
competitors
- As well as the ability to counteract macro-environment factors
Company image
- Public perception of a company is the result of a companies
image’
- Any change to company image could lead to new product failure and
reduced profits.
SWOT analysis – looks at businesses strengths and weaknesses in
relation to its competitors and identifies opportunities and threats
arising from the external environment.

Drivers of the development of food products:

Market concerns
Many new products are marketed on the basis of health claims. Special
products of this type are called functional foods; they are designed
to promote various aspects of consumer health. Eg wonder white bread-
Hi fibre , low salt sauce, low-fat yogurt
Packaging may change due to consumer concerns about the environment
Consumer demands
- People want convenient foods at a low price - dual income
families, aging population, changing household structures, longer
working hrs
- Target markets need to be assessed before designing new products
- Eg slow cooking bases = preparation methods, easy-open =
convenience
Technological developments
 - Novel ingredients and raw materials eg hi-maize, kangaroo
- Advances in processing equipment and methods, biodegradable and
active packaging eg plantic packaging
- Technological developments allow for greater efficiency, economic
advantage and products of greater appeal
Company profitability
Companies seek to improve profitability this is often achieved
through:
- Developing new products
- Entering new markets
- Cheaper production
- Staff reductions
Societal changes
Manufacturers need to consider trends within the community when
developing new products:
- Aging population
- Increase in single-person households
- Changed in lifestyle
- Multicultural society

Types of food product development:

Type What is it Positive Negative

Line Food product inexpensive, meet It may be

extension which is consumer demand, rejected, if
changed in increase market unsuccessful may
Eg krispy some way share, the affect the
cream tv manufacturer company image
snacks already has the
equipment and
skills

Me too A copy of an Easy and Has to compete

existing inexpensive, the against the
Eg generic product manufacturer pre-existing
pringles already has the product, risky
equipment and
skills, meets
customer demands

New to the A completely More likely to be Can have large

world new product successful, large production costs,
different possible profit needs large
Eg green from promotion costs.
banana pre-existing
flour products

Steps in food product development:

Ideas generation and screening
- Can be used to find the premise of a new product
 - Large companies hire market research firms to inform them of
consumer trends
- Feasibility of all ideas assessed
market research
- This is accessing the likelihood of consumer acceptance
- It involved asking consumers what they want
- Involves market surveys, field reports to understand the level of
market acceptance
Functions of market research are:
- Identify consumer wants
- Design of methods for data collection
- Managing and organising data collection
- Analysis of market research response
- Communication of their finding to the manufacturer
Primary research - a collection of original data
Secondary research - involves investigating what others have found
Product specification
- Precise descriptions of the characteristics the manufacture is
planning to introduce
- They are for the benefit of the manufactures
- Specifications depend on the internal company factor such as
financial status
- Lists the formulations, ingredients, quantities and of raw
materials
Feasibility study
- Used to determine whether a new product will be profitable, help
decide if a product will be developed
Two types of feasibility study financial and technical
Financial feasibility study
- Determination of a break-even point
- This study is based on development, marketing, production and
delivery
- Issues including market demand, likely market share and
competitor are assessed
technical feasibility study
- Requires knowledge of whether processing and equipment are
available to develop
- Involves both internal and external factors of the company
- Issues that must be analyzed include
- availability of ingredients
- Access to appropriate staff
- If it’s necessary to develop new tech or
equipment
- Expenditure of time and money
- Costs and time to develop

Production process development

- Involved necessary changes to
to produce the new product
- Necessary changes can include
equipment and staffs level of
- Quality control and assurance
adapt the manufacturing resources
factory layout, processing
training
in place as a precaution
Development of a prototype
- Allows testing of ingredients, processes, specifications and
related matters and storage conditions
Testing of the prototype
- The final step where the prototype is in tangible form
- Undergoes laboratory and consumer testing, modification and
storage trials
- Tested to ensure that it meets aus food standards
- Packaging and labelling refined labelling formulated
- Prototype testing, quality testing, sensory evaluations, consumer
testing, packaging tests and storage trials

Marketing plans:
4 P’s
Product
Developed in response to the consumer’s needs
These are the attributes
- Physical; brand, packaging, quality, features, styles and size
- Service; before, during and after, warranty
- Symbolic; perceived benefits
Phases
- Introduction; product enters the market
- Growth; demand for the product grows
- Maturity; the product is well known
- Decline; the product is being outsold by its competitors

Price
Factors that assist in deciding price include:
- Assumed that lower the price the there will be an increased
demand
- The market share that company wish to gain is important
- Company policies may restrict product development
- The reaction of customers is important
Types of pricing
- Penetration pricing; a price that is below the competitors for
long enough to obtain a hold in the market
- Price skimming; product sold at a relatively high price at first
then decreased
- Competitive pricing; price set to match the competitors
Promotion
A way in which companies communicate with consumers
- Advertising
- Personal selling
- Publicity
- Sales promotions
Advertising can include
- Social media
- Flyers
- Transportation
Promotions include
- Coupons
 - Cashback offers
- Free samples
Place
Where the product will be sold
Intensive distribution - products sold at every possible outlet
Selective distribution - wide but not intensive
Exclusive distribution - limited supply of a product is sold in only a
few retail outlets

Distribution involves the following activities:

Warehousing - correct storage results in increasing quality
materials handling - refers to forklifts, conveyor belts to move
products
Inventory control - ensure quality and quick filling of order
Transportation - a type of delivery possibly via air, rail, water or
road
9.3 Contemporary Nutrition Issues
Malnutrition
- Occurs when nutrients are not supplied to the body in correct
amounts; can cause over-nutrition (excess intake) or
undernutrition (inadequate intake).
- Health costs: health care is the highest national expense
(disease of affluence), loss of productivity increases the price
of goods.
- Social service cost: income support paid to those unfit to work;
ultimately a cost to taxpayers.
Overnutrition
Diet-related disorders: obesity (caused by hormones, heredity or
activity levels; result in excess adipose tissue and health problems),
hypertension (result in heart failure, reduced blood flow, aneurysms),
dental caries (caused by tooth decay; result in loss of teeth).
Undernutrition
Diet-related disorders: nutrition deficiencies (inadequate fibre,
iron, calcium), eating disorders (anorexia, bulimia).

Physical effects and economic costs of malnutrition and

diet-related disorders:
Condition Cause Physical effects Economic effects

Anemia Low iron count Chronic lethargy Less output

in blood Headache Blood
Dizziness transfusions
Iron supplements

Hypertension Excess sodium High Bp Hospital

can cause an Brain treatment
imbalance in the haemorrhage Surgery
cells causing Stroke Medicine
the heart to Heart failure absenteeism
pump blood under
pressure

Constipation Caused by lack Hernia Cost of

of fibre in the Varicose veins treatment
diet Haemorrhoids Employment
Diverticulitis Length of time
for treatment
Medical
facilities
Nutritional considerations for specific groups:
Group Nutritional needs Explanation of needs

Adolescent girls Energy Time of rapid growth

Protein Building new body
Iron tissue
minerals

Elderly Less high process Food prep and shopping

foods difficult
Calcium and phosphorus
Less energy-dense
foods

Pregnant and lactating Protein Folate to prevent

women Folate neural tube defects
minerals Calcium for bone
development and growth

Vegetarians
Health benefits
- Lower cholesterol levels
- Lower blood pressure and rates of hypertension
- Lower rates of type 2 diabete and lower body mass index
Nutritional needs
- Additional iron and vitamin b12 to replace loss
Lifestyle
- Many are teenage girls
- Many lack appropriate nutritional knowledge
At risk of
- Hormone disruption
- Leaky gut (due to some protein replacements)
- Anemia
Strategies
- Educational program; To educate adolescents how to safely become
a vegetarian, and appropriately modify their diet
- Informational Websites; To allow individuals to conduct their own
research

The role of the individual, community groups, the food industry,

government organisations and private agencies in promoting
health:
Community groups;
- Some groups mainly focus on one issue ie diabetics Australia
- Others provide a service ie meals on wheels
- Others are advocacy groups that provide information and advice ie
choice
Government organisations;
- Diet-related diseases are largely preventable but represent a
high proportion of government healthcare expenditure
 - It is more cost-effective to promote good health rather than
treat the long term results
Government incentives for health promotion include
- Food legislation ie hygiene, food safety, incentives i.e tax cuts
for research and development
- Health care ie public hospitals, clinics
- Policy and strategic plan ie Australian guide to healthy eating,
Australian dietary guidelines
- Disease prevention ie advertising and media campaigns
- Research ie CSIRO, FSANZ
Food industry;
- Currently responding to the demand for healthier food
- Primarily interested in making a profit and will produce healthy
products if it makes sound commercial sense
- Government legislation is required to get the food industry to
act in the best interest of consumers ie legislation to include
KJ labelling in fast food outlets
- Food service and catering: healthy options/vegan/ gluten-free
Private agencies;
- Aim to support society and promote better health and generate a
profit
- Ie doctors, weight loss clinic, gym, sporting groups
Individual;
- Majority of premature deaths from the lifestyle-related disease
- Lifestyle factors include smoking, poor diet, physical inactivity
- Individual needs to be educated, well informed and demand healthy
food options

The production/manufacture of nutritionally modified foods to

meet consumer demand including a range of functional foods such
as fortified foods:
Nutritional modified foods; foods that have been altered in some way
to improve their nutritional characteristics by adding or removing
particular compounds.
Functional foods; foods that have health benefits beyond those
provided by the basic nutrients in the food.
There are three groups of nutritionally modified and functional foods;
- Modified processed foods, where essential nutrients (vitamins and
minerals) have been added or where something has been removed -
salt or fat -. Ie high fibre bread, low-fat yogurt
- Foods that naturally contain beneficial substances, other than
essential foods nutrients. Ie dietary fibre and phytochemicals
- Foods with added active non-nutrients, ie phytochemicals or
modified starches
Fortified foods; when manufacturers add vitamins, minerals or other
micronutrients to manufactured foods
Enriched foods; contain nutrients added to replace those lost during
processing

The role of ‘active non-nutrients’ in the diet:

Active non-nutrients; substances that are not essential for life but
which can enhance the functioning of the body or contribute to the
promotion of good health.
Significant active non-nutrients include
- Phytochemicals
- Probiotics
- Fibre

Phytochemicals
Phyto-estrogens are substances that are converted into hormone-like
compounds.
Benefits include
- For women, there is a reduction in uncomfortable menopause
symptoms
- Improved cardiovascular health
- A reduction in the risks of cancers
Sources include; fruit, vegetables, seeds, grains, seeds
Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation
Benefits include
- Can reduce the effects of osteoporosis
- Can increase the HDL proportion in the blood
Sources include; soy and linseed bread, margarine made from vegetable
oils

Probiotics
Their role in the diet
- Resistance to pathogens
- Enzyme production in the large intestine
- Reduction of blood cholesterol concentration
- Prevention and treatment of diarrhea, lactose intolerance, and
constipation
Sources include
- Yakult
- Probiotic yogurt

Fibre
Groups of complex carbohydrates which resist the enzymes of your
digestive system
Insoluble fibre - found in cereals, whole grains, vegetables and
seeds
- It acts to accelerate the passage of food, promote bowel
movement, slow down starch digestion
Soluble fibre - Found in pectins (fruit and veg), hemicellulose (bran
from oats, psyllium), gums and mucilages (legumes and fruit) and
resistant starch
- Acts to delay the passage of food, delay glucose
absorption, bind with bile acids and lower cholesterol
By having a high fibre diet it can contribute to better intestinal
health, increased heart health, and maintain a normal weight

The role of supplements in the diet:

Types of supplements
 - Multivitamins
- Sports supplements
- Herbal extracts

Supplements are used to safeguard against inadequate diet or specific

illness, treat stress or illness or enhance athletic performance
Prophylactic use = taking supplements as a safeguard or protection
Protection against inadequate diet
- Many take vitamins and minerals without knowing if they’re
necessary
- The prophylactic use of supplements is costly and usually
harmless
- Deficiencies in diet are best treated by improving the diet
- Though for some their levels are too tough or for groups like
vegetarians there isn’t an appropriate substitute
Protection against disease
- Some take supplements as protection against certain diseases
~ Vitamin C to prevent cold or flu
~ Folic acid to prevent neural tube defects
~ Fibre to protect high cholesterol and colon cancer
~ Calcium to prevent osteoporosis
- Preemptive supplement usage may not be as preventative as when
they come from actual food sources
Supplements as treatment
- Therapeutic application = taking supplements to treat an illness
or disorder
- The value of therapeutic application has seen value
- The value for treating a non-specific illness ie stress is
doubtful though
Enhancing athletic performance
- They aim to build bulk muscle, improve metabolism, replacement
meals or provide replacement of fluid, energy and electrolytes
lost
- Ergogenic aids = substances or devices that enhance energy
production, use or recovery and provide athletes
Ergogenic aids that claim to be based on nutritional principles
include
- Protein powders ~ intended to provide muscle bulk, they don’t
supply amino acids and don't contain any other nutrients
- Amino acids ~ they claim to provide those most likely to be used
as fuel though they supply less fuel than glucose and fat
usually. In concentration, they can be hard for the body to
handle
- Meal replacements ~ promoted as supplying the nutrients usually
obtained from a single meal. Though it does not supply all the
nutrients you would expect from the meal
- Sports drinks ~ marketed towards athletes as being able to
replace water, energy, and electrolytes lost

Health and the role of the diet in the development of conditions:

Obesity
 - When an individual is greater than 20% over their ideal weight
for their age and height
- Caused due to high sugar, fat, and salt diet - an imbalance
between energy consumption and energy expenditure
- Can be treated/managed by a balanced diet, surgery though this is
costly, medication to control associated conditions e.g
hypertension and/or high cholesterol and/or diabetes type II
Cardiovascular disease
- Results from high consumption of saturated fats and cholesterol
that deposits itself as plaque on the blood vessels - consumption
of LDL which deposits cholesterol on artery walls
- Can cause blood clots as well as partial or full block arteries
and blood vessels
- Caused by a diet high in salt and saturated fats
- Risk is increased if there's a family history
Diabetes type 2
- When the body is unable to produce or not enough insulin. Insulin
is required to control our blood sugar levels from the metabolism
of CHO. Lack of insulin results in high blood sugar levels and
therefore damage to capillaries and that is why diabetics have
poor wound healing on legs, problems with their feet and eyes and
can develop long turn damage to kidneys
- Can be caused by low fibre high-fat diets which can result in
obesity
- Excess weight as a result of overnutrition can cause the pancreas
to become insufficient in insulin production.
Allergies
- When the body's immune system identifies a specific food protein
as an antigen (foreign body)
- Triggers immune response: white blood cells produce antibodies
and attack the food protein.
- Results in symptoms including rashes, swelling, stomach cramps,
vomiting, breathing difficulties, irritability.
- Common allergies: egg, nuts, soy, seafood.
- Anaphylaxis: a severe allergic reaction that can cause death if
not treated.
Intolerances
- A reaction of the digestive system to specific chemicals in
foods.
- Symptoms including diarrhoea, constipation, migraines, stomach
cramps.
- Common intolerances: gluten, lactose, fructose.

Lifestyle and the effect of cultural and social practices on

nutritional status:
Lifestyles impact on nutritional status
Exercise and nutritional status
- Energy intake from the diet must be balanced with energy
expenditure
- Excessive energy intake = increase adipose tissue results in
overweight/obesity
 - Due to the changing nature of society individuals may lead a
sedentary lifestyle, with inconsistent exercise patterns and
passive leisure choices
Alcohol consumption
- Alcohol is toxic to body tissues, damaging the liver, pancreas
and brain
- Overconsumption contributes to weight gain
- Heavy drinking can lead to a variety of health problems
Impact of culture and religion on nutritional status
Culture in nutrition is the acceptance of nutritional practices due to
instilled attitudes, beliefs and values
Cultural influences include
- Parental likes and dislikes
- Methods of food prep used in the home
- Disposable income allocated to food
- Impact on religion
Due to the cooking methods used by other cultures, Aussies are
consuming foods that improve health levels. E.g stir-frying decreases
fat intake
Religious festivals and traditions can influence the nutritional
status of some individuals. Food taboos are restricted foods e.g
Muslims and Jewish people avoid pork and pig products
Social practices affecting nutritional status
- Many social gatherings are centred around food and beverages
- The food and beverages served are often controlled by social
expectations and reflect the cultural practices of the group

Media and ethical issues related to advertising practices on food

consumption:
Advertising strategies
- Advertainment = advertisements disguised as entertainment
- Product placement = using the product in a tv show or movie
Children's understanding of advertising
- Up to 4 ~ they are seen as entertainment
- 6 to 7 ~ believe they provide information
- 7 to 8 ~ cannot distinguish between information and intent to
persuade
- 10 to 12 ~ can understand advertising
Regulation
- Children's television standards 2009 regulated children’s free to
air programming in Australia
- The food and advertising industry have each developed two
self-regulatory codes
Ethical issues and responsible advertising
- Unethical for advertisers to lie, which is why they focus on
positive points and avoid negative; advertisement bombards
susceptible children (bright colours, fun characters), especially
that of junk food, contributing to obesity; Advertising Standards
Board (org. to monitor Australian advertising) band advertising
of free toy with unhealthy food. A large portion of advertising
is now through online media and not legally control like
free-to-air TV
Promotion of health foods
An increase in dietary disorders and health awareness increases
advertising for healthy choice food and healthy body image; producing
functional foods to appeal to customers’ desire for health and
wellbeing; use of words “healthy” and “nutritious” influence
purchasing behaviours and improve product sales.
Promotion of fast foods
Average Australians eat 4 meals a week prepared outside the home; dual
families with busy lifestyles are targeted with fast, convenient food;
Subway and McDonald’s “Healthy Choice” meals are targeting public
trends toward health.