Siwesreport Divinemedicallaboratoryservices

TECHNICAL REPORT
ON
STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)
BY
HAMMED Joshua Olasunkanmi
178867125
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY (EKSU), ADO-EKITI, EKITI STATE
AT
DIVINE MEDICAL LABORATORY SERVICES
BESIDE OLA-OLUWA PHARMACY, ILORO STREET, OLOJUDO ROAD,

IDO-EKITI, EKITI STATE
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

(B.Sc.) DEGREE IN SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
(BIOCHEMISTRY)
EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY, ADO EKITI, EKITI STATE
(February to August, 2022)
i
CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this report of Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES)
was prepared and compiled by HAMMED Joshua Olasunkanmi (Matric Number:
178867125) from the Department of Science Laboratory Technology
(Biochemistry), Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University ((EKSU), Ekiti State, for the
successful completion of my six (6) months Industrial Training undertaken at Divine
Medical Laboratory Services, beside Ola-Oluwa Pharmacy, Iloro Street, Olojudo
road, Ido-Ekiti, Ekiti State.
STUDENT TRAINEE: HAMMED Joshua Olasunkanmi (Matric Number: 178867125)

SIGNATURE AND DATE: …………………………………………..
UNIVERSITY-BASED SUPERVISOR: DR. FOLASADE ADEYEMI (Ph.D)

EKSU SIWES COORDINATOR: ENGR. DR. AYOTUNDE A. OJO

ii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this comprehensive report was compiled by me HAMMED

Joshua Olasunkanmi and entails precisely what I have done during my SIWES
Industrial Training at Divine Medical Laboratory Services, beside Ola-Oluwa
Pharmacy, Iloro Street, Olojudo road, Ido-Ekiti, Ekiti State. I withal declare that
this report and its content has not been submitted to this or any other institution of
learning for the purpose of consummating the requisites for the award of any degree. All
the citations, sources of information and research are pellucidly acknowledged by the
references incorporated.
iii
DEDICATION
This industrial training report is copiously dedicated to God Almighty for his
unquantifiable, immeasurable mercies and protection upon my life especially during the
period of my industrial training experience and also to my Late Mom: Pastor (Mrs)
Mercy Anike Hammed, you are forever in my heart.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My immense gratitude again goes to the Almighty and everlasting God, the beginning
and the end, who is the ultimate source of my strength, for His continuous
encouragement and inspiration right from day one.
I appreciate the Vice Chancellor of Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Prof. Edward
Olanipekun, for giving me the opportunity to undertake this SIWES programme.
I also acknowledge the wonderful efforts of my School-based Supervisor, Dr. Folasade

Adeyemi of the Department of Soil Chemist, the HOD of Science Laboratory
Technology, Ekiti State University, and my lovely and kind-hearted lecturers who have
for the past four years extensively impacted both the practical and theoretical
knowledge of Biochemistry into me and also for supporting me to undertake the
industrial training programme 2020/2021 session.
I also appreciate in a very special way the effort of the Director, Divine Laboratory
Medical Services, Dr. Adeleke B. A. (Ph. D.), and my industrial-based supervisor, MLT
Michael B. A., and also the entire staff of Divine Medical Laboratory Services in Ido-
Ekiti, for their support and tutorship during my period of attachment, God bless you all.
My appreciation would be incomplete without acknowledging the effort of my fellow

course mate who helped me during the course of my Industrial Training in person of
Abusewa Gbemisola Sefunmi. The immense contribution of Oluwafemi Hephzibah O.,
Kuti Toyosi E., Omodaratan Oluwadunsin S., Akinlamilo Adeyemi S., to mention a few
cannot be forgotten.
I hold in great esteem the unabated effort of my Father, Rev’d Julius Olafioye Hammed
for his incessant support making sure that I become a success in my academic pursuit
both in moral and finance.
I remain ever grateful to my siblings; Hammed Bosede Lydia and Hammed Rebecca
Adekemi for their understanding during the time of this training.
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ABSTRACT
This report is a summary of the experience I acquired during my six months Students’
Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) in Divine Medical Laboratory Services,
beside Ola-Oluwa Pharmacy, Iloro Street, Olojudo road, Ido-Ekiti, Ekiti State with
highlights majorly on laboratory services like packed cell volume (PCV), malaria
parasite (MP), renal functioning test (electrolyte, urea and creatinine), liver functioning
test (LFT) etc., testing different body fluid in the diagnosis of different diseases like
malaria, typhoid, kidney failure etc. This research also include analysis in blood and
urine samples, the use of UV spectrophotometer, water bath, ion selective electrode
(ISE), electrolyte analyser, centrifuge and also its analysis on different samples.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
DECLARATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF TABLES x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Brief history of SIWES 1
1.2.1 Vision Statement 2
1.2.2 Mission Statement 2
1.3 Aim of SIWES 2
1.4 Objectives of SIWES 2
1.5 Importance of SIWES to my Course of Study 3
CHAPTER TWO: COMPANY PROFILE 4
2.0 Brief history of the Establishment 4
2.1 Organization Core Values 4
2.2 Organization Services 5
vii
2.3 Organization Structure / Organogram of the Establishment 5
2.4 Justification for the Choice of Establishment 5
CHAPTER THREE: SERVICES RENDERED 10
3.1 Phlebotomy 10
3.2 Haematology Department 12
3.2.1 Full Blood Count (FBC) Test 12
3.2.2 Malaria Parasite Test 15
3.2.3 Blood Grouping and Rhesus Typing (ABO Blood system) 16
3.2.4 Genotype Test (HB Hemoglobin) 17
3.2.5 Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) 19
3.3 Chemical Pathology Department 20
3.3.1 Blood Glucose Tests 20
3.3.2 Fasting Lipid Profile (FLP) 22
3.3.3 Renal Function Test (RFTs) 26
3.3.4 Calcium (Ca2+) Estimation 31
3.3.5 Liver Functioning Test (LFT) 32
3.3.6 Urinalysis 37
3.4 Serology Department 38
3.4.1 Widal Agglutination Test 39
3.4.2 Retroviral Screening (RVS) Test 40
3.4.3 Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) Test 40
3.4.4 Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) 40
viii
3.4.5 Veneral Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test 41
3.4.6 Beta Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (β-hCG) 41
CHAPTER FOUR: EXPERIENCE GAINED AND RELEVANCE TO COURSE

OF STUDY 43
4.1 General Experience Gained 43
4.2 Relevance of Experience gained to Course of Study 43
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 45
5.1 Difficulties encountered during the programme 45
5.2 Recommendation 46
5.3 Conclusion 46
REFERENCES 48
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Organogram of Divine Medical Laboratory Services 5
Figure 2.2 Parts of a Microscope 6
Figure 2.3 A spectrophotometer 6
Figure 2.4 A centrifuge 7
Figure 2.5 An incubator 7
Figure 2.6 An electrophoresis machine with tank 8
Figure 2.7 A laboratory refrigerator 8
Figure 2.8 A measuring cylinder 9
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Observable results from the blood grouping and rhesus typing 17
Table 3.2 Procedure for glucose estimation 22
Table 3.3 Procedure for triglyceride estimation 24
Table 3.4 Procedure for cholesterol estimation 26
Table 3.5 Ranges for cholesterol estimation 26
Table 3.6 Procedure for potassium estimation 28
Table 3.7 Procedure for urea estimation 29
Table 3.8 Procedure for creatinine estimation 30
Table 3.9 Procedure for calcium estimation 31
Table 3.10 Procedure for total and conjugated bilirubin (TB & CB) 33
Table 3.11 Procedure for alanine transaminase (ALT) 34
Table 3.12 Procedure for aspartate transaminase (AST) 34
Table 3.13 Procedure for total protein 35
Table 3.14 Procedure for alkaline phosphatase 36
Table 3.15 Procedure for albumin 37
xi
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Students industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is a skill training program
designed to prepare and expose students of higher institution of hearing to the industrial
set-up they are likely to meet after graduation. The need for the establishment of this
scheme duke the growing concern among industrialist and employers that graduates of
higher institution lacked adequate practical background required for employment in
industries.
The scheme is funded by the by the federal government of Nigeria and jointly
coordinated by the national universities commission (NUC) and the Industrial Training
Fund (ITF).
1.2 Brief history of SIWES

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) Programme was established
by the ITF in 1973 to solve the problems of inadequate practical skills by the graduates
of Nigerian tertiary institutions, the students’ industrial work experience scheme
(SIWES) has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and Degree
certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of higher learning in the country.
The duration of the programme varies from four months to a year for Colleges of
Education and Polytechnics while University undergraduates undertake the programme
for six months.
Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a training programme

designed by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) to enhance one’s smooth transition from
the university to the outside world. Our exposition has bridge the gap between the
university academic work and its real practical application whereby there is a great
opportunity of producing or incorporating the theoretical skills, knowledge and
experience acquired to the real work areas of specialization.
Before the introduction of ITF, graduates of Nigerian universities were noted for the
theoretical excellence. This was widely indicated by the ability of some industries to
employ these fresh graduates without some sort of training. The Federal Government
sensing that this may be the beginning of the death if employable graduates established
1
the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1971. Since its establishment, it has worked
consistently and painstakingly within the context of its enabling law i.e. Decree 47 of
1971.
1.2.1 Vision Statement

The vision of the SIWES is to be the leading skills training organization and
Human Capital Development organization in Nigeria and one of the best in the
World.
1.2.2 Mission Statement
To equip students with the necessary practical knowledge and technical skills for
self-employment and effective involvement in Nigeria’s industrial growth.
1.3 Aim of SIWES
i. The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skills
training programme designed to expose and prepare students of universities
and other tertiary institutions for the Industrial Work situation they are likely
to meet after graduation.
ii. To expose students to work method and techniques in handling equipment
and machinery that may not be available in their institutions. Make the
transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance students
contact for later job placement.
1.4 Objectives of SIWES
i. To prepare students for work situations they are likely to meet after graduation.
ii. To provide an avenue for students in Nigerian universities to acquire industrial
skills and experience in their course of study.
iii. To enlist and strengthens employers involvement in the entire educational
process of preparing university graduates for employment in industries.
iv. To provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in
real work situations, thereby closing the gap between university work and actual
practice.
v. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and
machinery that may not be available in the universities.
vi. To make the transitions from the university to the world of work easier and thus
enhance students contact for later job placement.
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vii. Teaches the student on how to interact effectively with other workers and
supervisors under various conditions in the organization.
1.5 Importance of SIWES to my Course of Study
One of the aims and objectives of the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme
(SIWES) is to expose and prepare students of universities and other tertiary institutions
for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after graduation and also to
provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real work
situations, thereby closing the gap between university work and actual practice and thus
is the case with my course of study.
One of the importance of SIWES to my course of study is that it provides me with the
theoretical knowledge of what I have been taught since my 100L days and hence a great
step in achieving what I have started.
3
CHAPTER TWO
COMPANY PROFILE
2.0 Brief history of the Establishment
Divine Medical Laboratory Services, popularly known as DMLS is a Laboratory
founded by the present Chief Medical Director, Dr. Adeleke Babajide Adewoyin (Ph.
D.) It started full operations in the year 2004 and was situated beside Ola-Oluwa
Pharmacy, Iloro Street, Olojudo Road, Ido-Ekiti, Ekiti State. Over the years, Divine
Medical Laboratory went through some sinking sands but instead of sinking, it came out
stronger, tougher and above all with a metallic luster that instigated a change in
environment.
The laboratory was established with the aim of providing quality and very affordable
laboratory diagnosis to the community bearing in mind that lots of people around the
community find it difficult financially to access quality health care services.
It started operation with only a staff and a few items in the test menu. The establishment
was individually sponsored. The laboratory is fully registered with the Medical
Laboratory Science Council of Nigeria and it is gradually growing its staff strength and
work load.
Presently, the organization has a capital investment of over a 10million naira and
professional staff capacity of over 10staff.
The main objective is to provide quality and a very affordable diagnostic services to the
community.
2.1 Organization Core Values

 Medical excellence based on knowledge, skills and first rate human relations
 Passions
 Knowledge based hard work
 Trust
 Persistence
 Imagination
 Timeliness
 Integrity
4
 Professionalism
2.2 Organization Services

Laboratory services testing different body fluid in the diagnosis of different diseases.
2.3 Organization Structure / Organogram of the Establishment
Director
Chief Medical Laboratory Scientist

Scientist
Laboratory Unit Non-Laboratory Unit
Hematology Chemical Medical Serology

Department Pathology Microbiology Unit
Department Department
Reception Cleaner
Unit
Figure 2.1: Organogram of Divine Medical Laboratory Services

2.4 Justification for the Choice of Establishment
Securing a place of attachment for industrial training programme was a very big
challenge to me. This is due to the fact that there are very limited establishment that
accepts students undergoing industrial training. While I was searching for a place of
attachments, I got to find out most of the establishments that accepts students had
already taken the maximum number of students needed, while others would just reject
the request giving one reason or the other and hence, my choice of the establishment.
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND THEIR USES

 Microscope: A microscope is an optical instrument having a magnification lens
or a combination of lenses for inspecting objects too small to be seen distinctly
5
and in detail by the unaided eyes. It is used in the pathology laboratory for
examination of stained blood film, stool, urine etc.
Figure 2.2: Parts of a Microscope

 Spectrophotometer: A spectrophotometer is used to measure either the amount
of light reflected from a sample object or the amount of light that is absorbed by
the sample object. It is an instrument used to measure the intensity of
wavelength in a spectrum of light compared with the intensity of light from a
standard source. It is used in pathology laboratory to measure the absorbance of
calcium, glucose, cholesterol, uric acid and other chemistry tests.
Figure 2.3: A spectrophotometer
 Centrifuge: A centrifuge is a piece of laboratory equipment, driven by a motor,

spins liquid samples at high speed. There are various types of centrifuge
depending on the size and the sample capacity. Like all other centrifuges,
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laboratory centrifuges work by the sedimentation principle where the centripetal
acceleration is used to separate substances of greater and lesser density. It is
usually used to separate serum or plasma from red cells in a blood sample etc.
Figure 2.4: A centrifuge

 Incubator: An incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological
cultures or cell cultures. The incubator maintains optimal temperature, humidity
and other conditions such as the carbondioxide and oxygen content of the
atmosphere inside. Incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in cell
biology, microbiology and molecular biology and are used to culture both
bacterial as well as eukaryotic cells.
Figure 2.5: An incubator

 Electrophoresis Machine: This is one of the most important equipment used by
molecular biologists. It migrate a charged molecule through a restrictive matrix,
7
or gel, drawn by an electrical force. To mention but a few applications,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) electrophoresis is used to map the order of
restriction fragments within chromosomes to analyze DNA variation within a
population by restriction fragment length polymorphisms and to determine the
nucleotide-sequence of a piece of DNA.
Figure 2.6: An electrophoresis machine with tank
 Laboratory Refrigerator: Laboratory refrigerators are used to cool samples or

specimens for preservation. They include refrigerator units for storing blood
plasma and other blood products, as well as reagents, vaccines and other medical
and pharmaceutical supplies. They differ from standard refrigerators used in
homes and restaurants because they need to be totally hygienic and completely
reliable. Laboratory refrigerators need to maintain a consistent temperature in
order to minimize the risk of bacterial contamination and explosions of volatile
materials.
Figure 2.7: A laboratory refrigerator
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 Graduating/measuring cylinder: This is a common piece of laboratory
equipment used to measure the volume of liquid. They are generally more
accurate and precise than laboratory flasks and beakers but they are not used to
perform volumetric analysis. Graduated cylinders are sometimes used to
measure the volume of a solid indirectly by measuring the displacement of a
liquid.
Figure 2.8: A measuring cylinder

Other pathology laboratory equipment include: syringe and needles, test tubes,
microhematocrit reader, petri-dish, micropipette, microhematocrit centrifuge, ESR
stand, and universal bottle (for collecting urine, stool, sputum and semen samples).
9
CHAPTER THREE
SERVICES RENDERED
3.1 PHLEBOTOMY
Phlebotomy (from Greek words phlebo-, meaning “pertaining to a blood vessel”, and –
tomy, meaning “to make an incision”) is the process of making an incision in a vein
with a needle. It is simply the practice of drawing blood from patients and taking the
blood samples to the laboratory to prepare for testing. The procedure itself is known as
venipuncture. A person who performs phlebotomy is called a “phlebotomist”, although
doctors, nurses, medical laboratory scientists, and others in medical field do portions of
phlebotomy procedures in many countries.
Phlebotomists are people trained to draw blood from a patient for clinical or medical
testing, transfusions, donations and researches. Phlebotomists collect blood primarily by
performing venipuncture, (or for collection of minute quantities of blood, finger sticks).
Blood may be collected from infants by means of heel stick. The duties of a
phlebotomist may include properly identifying the patient, interpreting the tests
requested on the requisition, drawing blood into the correct tubes with the proper
additive, accurately explaining the procedure to the patients, preparing patient
accordingly, practicing standard and universal precaution, performing the skin/vein
puncture, withdrawing blood into containers or tubes, restoring homeostasis of puncture
site, instructing patients on puncture-care, ordering test per the doctor’s requisition,
affixing tubes with electronically printed label and delivering specimens to the
laboratory.
Aim: Phlebotomy is majorly practiced for the collection of blood samples to needed to
carry out various laboratory tests. Phlebotomy that is part of treatment (therapeutic
phlebotomy) is performed to treat polycethemia vera, a condition that causes an
elevated red blood cell volume (hematocrit). Phlebotomy is also prescribed for patients
with disorders that increase the amount of iron in their blood to dangerous levels such as
hemochromatosis, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C. Patient with pulmonary edema may
undergo phlebotomy procedures to decrease their blood volume. Phlebotomy is also
used to remove blood from the body during blood donation and for analysis of the
substances contained within it.
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Preparation: Patient having their blood drawn for analysis may be asked to discontinue
medications or to avoid food (to fast) for a period of time before the blood test. Patients
donating blood will be asked for a brief medical history, have their blood pressure
taken, and have their hematocrit checked with a finger stick test prior to donation.
Materials: Syringe and needle, tourniquet, cotton-wool, methylated spirit, and the
appropriate container (EDTA, flourideoxide or lithium heparin bottles) or blood bag.
Procedure: Blood is usually taken from a vein on the back of the hand or just below the
elbow. Some blood tests, however, may require blood from the artery.
 Allow the patient to sit comfortably.
 Apply the tourniquet on his/her arm and allow the patient to make a fix.
 Select the prominent vein.
 Disinfect the appropriate site in-out with cotton wool containing methylated spirit
(swob).
 Insert your needle gently at angle 30 (obtuse angle) and withdraw the blood into the
syringe.
 Place a cotton wool at the puncture site and withdraw the needle gently.
 Dispense the sample into the appropriate bottle.
 Gently mix the blood by inversion method/rotary method.
For some tests requiring very small amount of blood for blood analysis, the technician
uses a finger stick. A lancet blade is used to make a small cut in the surface of the
fingertip and a small amount of blood is collected in a narrow glass tube. The fingertip
may be squeezed to get additional blood to surface. The amount of blood drawn
depends on the purpose of the phlebotomy.
After care: After blood is drawn and the needle is removed, pressure is placed on the
puncture site with a cotton ball to stop bleeding and a bandage is applied. It is not
uncommon for a patient to feel dizzy or nauseated during or after phlebotomy. The
patient may be encouraged to rest for a short period once the procedure is completed.
Patients who experience swelling of the puncture site or continue bleeding after
phlebotomy should seek immediate medical treatment.
Normal results: Normal results include obtaining the needed amount of blood with the
minimum of discomfort to the patient.
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3.2 HAEMATOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Hematology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the morphology and
physiology of blood. It is concerned with the study, diagnosis, treatment and prevention
of diseases related to blood. It includes the study of etiology. It involves treating
diseases that affect the production of blood and its components such as blood cells,
hemoglobin, bone marrow, blood proteins, platelets, blood vessels, spleen, and the
mechanism of coagulation. Such diseases might include hemophilia, blood clot, other
bleeding disorders and blood cancer such as leukemia, myeloma, and lymphoma.
The laboratory work that goes into the study of blood is frequently performed by a
medical technologist or medical laboratory scientist. These laboratory works includes
viewing blood films and bone marrow slides under the microscope, interpreting various
hematological tests results and blood clotting test results. Various tests carried out in the
hematology laboratory includes;
i. Full Blood Count (FBC) Test
ii. Malaria Parasite Test
iii. Blood grouping and Rhesus typing (ABO Blood system)
iv. Genotype Test (HB Hemoglobin)
v. Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)
3.2.1 Full Blood Count (FBC) Test
A full blood count (FBC) also known as complete blood count (CBC) is a blood panel
requested by a doctor or other medical professional that gives information about the
cells in the patient’s blood, such as the cell count for each cell types and the
concentration of various proteins and minerals. A scientist or laboratory technician
performs the requested testing and provides the requesting medical professional with the
results of the full blood count. There are majorly three tests involved here which
includes:
i. Packed cell volume (PCV) or Hematocrit (HCT) test
The hematocrit also known as PCV, is the volume percentage (vol.%) of red blood
cells in blood. It is considered an integral part of a person’s complete blood count
result. The measure of a subject’s blood sample’s hematocrit level may expose
possible diseases in the subject.
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Aim: To measure the percentage/relative proportion of red blood cell and plasma
in the whole blood of an individual.
Principle: Packed cell volume, is a percentage of the known volume of whole
blood occupied by packed blood cells, when the blood is centrifuged at a constant
speed and period of time. It is also expressed as the fraction of the volume
occupied by the erythrocytes, when a sample of whole blood in a capillary tube is
centrifuged. The method used for the determination of PCV by centrifugation is
the micro-haematocrit method or capillary method. When the blood is spun at
12,000rpm, the centrifugal and centripetal forces acting in the blood sample
separates the blood into red cell, buffy- coat and plasma.
Materials: Heparinized capillary tube, sealant, dry cotton wool, micro-
haematocrit centrifuge and micro-haematocrit reader.
Procedure:
 Fill the capillary tube with well mixed anticoagulated blood, then wipe the
excess blood using dry cotton wool.
 Seal the capillary tube with sealant (plasticin) then place in micro-
haematocrit centrifuge and spin for 5 minutes at 12,000rpm (revolution per
minute).
 Allow the centrifuge to stop by itself before you open.
 Remove the tube and use the hematocrit reader to read the PCV.
 Align the base of the blood in the column with 0, and the bottom of the
meniscus of the plasma with 100. The volume of the packed cells is taken
from the PCV reader directly.
Ranges: Normal range for adult male should be measure between 42-57% while
that of the adult female between 35-47% and for children 50-60%. Abnormally
low PCV refers to anemia and abnormally high PCV refers to polycythemia.
ii. Total white blood cell (WBC) count

The white cell count is the number of white cells in 1 cubic millimeter of blood.
WBC range for humans is from 4,000-11,000 and the unit is centimeter cube.
Materials: Improved Neubauer Counting Chamber, diluent (Turk’s solution),
anticoagulated blood sample, sterile test tube, dry cotton wool, micropipette, cover
slip and microscope.
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Procedure:
 Pipette 380µl of diluent (Turk’s solution) into a sterile test tube.
 Add 20µl of whole blood into the test tube as well.
 Allow the diluent to settle for 3-5 minutes.
 Charge the Improved Neubauer Counting Chamber (Exert air pressure to it
and slide the cover slip on the counting chamber. Withdraw a little
quantity of the diluted blood from the test tube. Ensure the tip of the
pipette touch the edge of the cover slip) and allow the cells to settle for 3-5
minutes.
 Examine microscopically using ×10 objective lens with a lower condenser
to have a good contrast.
 Locate the first square and count the total WBC.
Calculation: Total WBC = N × D.F × 106L-1
A×D
Where N = Number of cell counts
D.F = Diluting factor (20)
106L-1 = Conversion unit
A = Area of cell count (4)
D = Depth of the cell count (0.1)
iii. Leukocyte differential count
Leukocytes are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the
body against both infectious diseases and foreign invaders. The number of
leukocytes in the blood in often an indicator of the disease and, thus, the
differential count is an important subset of the complete blood count (CBC).
Materials: Clean grease free slide, dry cotton wool, pasteur pipette, anticoagulated
blood sample, spreader, leishman stain, draining rack, and microscope.
Procedure:
 Apply a drop of well mixed anticoagulated blood to about 1cm away from head
of the slide.
 Place the spreader at the front of the blood, gently move the spreader backward
and allow the blood to spread across the spreader.
 Move the spreader forward along the slide until the whole blood has smeared.
 Place the smear on a draining rack to air-dry.
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 Stain with leishman stain for 2 minutes.
 Double dilute with buffer pH 6.8 and allow to stay for 8 minutes.
 Rinse in water.
 Wipe the excess water from the side to the back of the slide with dry cotton wool.
 Place on a draining rack to air-dry.
 Examine microscopically using ×100 objective lens with a higher condenser.
3.2.2 Malaria Parasite Test

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by
eukaryotic protists of the genus plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication
of plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include
fever and headache, in severe cases progressing to coma and death. It is widespread in
the tropical and subtropical regions, including much of sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and
America. Five species of plasmodium can infect and be transmitted by humans. Severe
disease is largely caused by Plasmodium falciparum while the disease caused by
Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium malariae is generally a milder
disease that is rarely fatal. Plasmodium knowlesi is a zoonosis that causes malaria in
macaques but can also infect humans.
Test for Malaria Parasite
The various species of malaria parasite can be determined in the laboratory with the use
of blood film. The blood film can be made in two ways namely:
• Thin blood film
• Thick blood film
Leishman stain is mostly used in the determination of Plasmodium falciparum while
Geimsa and field stain is used to determine the other species. The main say of malaria
diagnosis has been the microscopic examination of blood. Although blood is the sample
most frequently used to make a diagnosis both saliva and urine has been investigated as
alternative less invasive specimens.
Materials: Clean grease free slide, pasteur pipette, anticoagulated blood sample,
staining rack, applicator stick, microscope, giemsa stain, dry cotton wool.
Procedure:
 A drop of well mixed anticoagulated blood sample was dropped on a clean
grease free slide.
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 The blood was smeared to about 0.5mm/d with the aid of an applicator stick to
make a smear.
 Allow the smear to air-dry.
 The smear was placed on a staining rack and stained with giemsa stain for 15
minutes (diluting stain ratio).
 Rinse in water and wipe the excess water from the side to the back of the slide
with the use of dry cotton wool.
 Place on a draining rack to air-dry.
 To view under microscope, add a drop of immersion oil on the stained slide,
place on the stage of the microscope and view using ×100 objective lens
resolution power.
NB: All dry smears like TB examination, malaria parasite are viewed using ×100
resolution power of the microscope while wet preparations like stool microscopy, HVS
microscopy uses ×10 and ×40.
3.2.3 Blood Grouping and Rhesus Typing (ABO Blood System)

Blood grouping/typing is a test that tells what specific type of blood you have. The type
of blood you have depends on whether or not there are certain proteins, called antigens,
on your red blood cells. Blood is often grouped according to the ABO blood typing
system. This method breaks blood types into four types, namely,
 Type A
 Type B
 Type AB
 Type O
Rhesus factor is an inherited protein found on the surface of the red blood cells. It is
usually determined along with the blood type of an individual. Rhesus positive is the
most common type.
Blood Group A has “A” antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the
plasma
Blood Group B: has a “B” antigen with anti-A antibodies in the plasma
Blood Group O: has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma
Blood Group AB: has both “A” and “B” antigens, but no antibodies
16
Materials: Clean grease free tile, anti-sera A, anti-sera B, anti-sera AB, anti-sera D,
applicator stick, dry cotton wool, pasteur pipette and test sample.
Principle: The antigen in the blood sample reacts with antibody in the serum thus
resulting in agglutination reaction.
Procedure:
 Apply a drop of blood on a clean grease free tile in four portions.
 Add a drop of each anti-serum (A, B, AB and D) into each cavity respectively.
 Mix the blood in the 4 portions separately with the applicator stick.
 Rock gently and observe for agglutination.
Observation:
Table 3.1: Observable results from the blood grouping and rhesus typing (ABO
Blood System)
Blood type Anti A Anti B Anti AB Anti D Result
+ - + + ‘A’ Rh. ‘D’ positive
+ - + - ‘A’ Rh. ‘D’ negative
- + + + ‘B’ Rh. ‘D’ positive

(-) Non-agglutination
(+) Agglutination
- + + - ‘B’ Rh. ‘D’ negative
+ + + + ‘AB’ Rh. ‘D’ positive
+ + + - ‘AB’ Rh. ‘D’ negative
- - - + ‘O’ Rh. ‘D’ positive
- - - - ‘O’ Rh. ‘D’ negative
3.2.4 Genotype Test (HB Hemoglobin)

Genotyping is the process of determining differences in the genetic make-up (genotype)
of an individual by examining the individual DNA sequence using biological assay and
comparing it to another individual sequence or a reference sequence. It reveals the
alleles an individual has inherited from the parents. Various genotypes include: AA, AS
and SS. Hemoglobin is the protein inside the red blood cells responsible for transporting
oxygen to the tissues and organs.
There are hundreds of different types of hemoglobin which include:
17
a. Hemoglobin F: this is also known as fetal hemoglobin. It’s a type of hemoglobin
found in growing fetus and newborns which is replaced with Hemoglobin A soon
after birth.
b. Hemoglobin A: This is also known as adult hemoglobin. It is found in healthy
children and adult and thus a common type of hemoglobin.
c. Hemoglobin C, D, E, M and S: these are rare type of abnormal hemoglobin which
is caused by mutations.
Principle:
The red cell hemolysate (red blood cell membranes are destroyed to free the
hemoglobin, Hb molecule for testing) is placed in a cellulose acetate membrane, which
is placed in an Electrophoresis tray with the inoculated hemolysate near the cathode(-).
Materials: Clean grease free tile, pasteur pipette, dry cotton wool, applicator stick,
lysate, tissue paper, blood sample, cellulose acetate paper, tris buffer, electrophoresis
machine with tank.
Procedure:
 A cellulose acetate paper soaked in genotype buffer is slightly dried by closing
two dry cotton wool on it.
 A drop of anticoagulated blood was applied on a clean grease free tile.
 A drop of lysate was added into the anticoagulated blood and was gently mixed
together.
 With the aid of an applicator stick, the mixed anticoagulant blood was applied
on a cellulose acetate paper on 3 different places with the AS and AC control on
the first, second and the end on the cellulose acetate paper.
 Place the cellulose acetate paper into the electrophoresis machine with tank and
allow for 15 minutes.
Result:
After migration of INS, separation follows. The reference sample (AS) disperses into
two, one towards the positive pole and the other towards the negative pole and if the test
sample does the same, it implies AS. The other reference sample (AC) disperses into
two, one towards the positive pole and the other farther apart towards the negative pole
and if the test sample also does the same, it implies AC. If the test sample does not
disperse and moves towards the positive pole, it implies AA, if the test sample does not
18
disperse and moves towards the negative pole, it implies SS and if the test sample does
not disperse and moves farther apart towards the negative pole, it implies CC.
3.2.5 Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)

An erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a type of blood test that measures how
quickly erythrocytes (red blood cells) settle at the bottom of a test tube that contains a
blood sample. It is a common hematology test, and is a non-specific measure of
inflammation. The ESR is governed by the balance between the pro-sedimentation
factor, mainly fibrinogen, and those factors resisting sedimentation, namely the negative
charge of the erythrocyte (zete potentials).
When an inflammatory process is present, the high proportion of the fibrinogen in the
red blood cells from stacks called ‘rouleaux’, which settle faster, due to their increased
density.
There are three stages in erythrocyte sedimentation, namely;
Stage 1: Rouleaux formation – first 10 minutes
Stage 2: sedimentation or settling stage – 40 minutes
Stage 3: packing stage – 10 minutes (sedimentation slows and cells start to pack at the
bottom of the tube).
Principle
When an anticoagulant is added to a whole blood, properly mixed and placed in a
vertical tube, erythrocyte tends to settle towards the bottom leaving clear plasma on the
top. The rate of sedimentation of red blood cells at a given interval of time is celled
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate.
Materials: ESR tube, sodium citrate, tube rack, timer, anticoagulated blood sample
micropipette.
Procedure (Western-green):
 Prepare ratio 1:4 of anticoagulant and anticoagulated blood sample.
 Pipette 0.4ml of sodium citrate (anticoagulant) into the ESR tube.
 Add 1.6ml of anticoagulated blood sample into the test tube.
 Mix the anticoagulant with the blood and insert your western-green pipette into
the tube.
 Draw the blood to zero mark of the western-green pipette and avoid air bubbles.
19
 Allow the tube to position vertically (on non-vibrating working bench) on the
tube rack.
 Set your timer to an hour and read the result after 1 hour.
Result:
Take a reading at 15 minutes interval for an hour and after 1 hour, measure and read
your result starting from the 0-mark on the ESR tube down to the buffy coat (which is
the segment between plasma and the red blood cell consisting of white blood cell and
the platelets) and read your result in mm/hr.
Reference range:
For male: 3-5mm/hr
For female: 4-7mm/hr.
3.3 CHEMICAL PATHOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Chemical pathology (also known as clinical chemistry, clinical biochemistry or medical
biochemistry) is the area of clinical pathology that is generally concerned with analysis
of bodily fluids for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes (not to be confused with
medicinal chemistry). The discipline involves the use of simple chemical tests for
various components of blood and urine.
All biochemical tests come under chemical pathology. These are performed on any kind
of body fluid, but mostly on serum or plasma. Tests carried out in this department
include;
i. Blood Glucose Tests
ii. Fasting Lipid Profile (FLP)
iii. Electrolye
iv. Kidney Functioning Test (Urea and Creatinine)
v. Calcium Estimation
vi. Liver Functioning Test
vii. Urinalysis
3.3.1 Blood Glucose Tests
This is a laboratory test used in the estimation of blood sugar level at a given period of
time in order to obtain the average level to see how fast the body will utilize glucose. In
a normal person, blood level is controlled within a narrow range. In the early morning,
after overnight fasting, the blood sugar level is low. Between the first and second hour
20
after meal (random) blood sugar level rises to between 3.9-6.1mmol/L. The blood sugar
level is brought back to normal at the end of the second hour after meal. In normal
persons, the blood sugar is well maintained in spite of lack of dietary sources. The blood
sugar regulating mechanism is operated through liver and muscle by the influence of
pancreatic hormones which are insulin and glucagon.
Types of blood glucose tests:
1. Fasting blood sugar (FBS) measures blood glucose after fasting for at least 8
hours. It often is the first test done to check for diabetes.
2. 2-hour postprandial blood sugar (2-hour PP) measures blood glucose exactly 2
hours after eating a meal.
3. Random blood sugar (RBS) measures blood glucose regardless of when the person
last ate. Several random measurements may be taken throughout the day. Random
testing is useful because glucose levels in healthy people do not vary widely
throughout the day. Blood glucose levels that vary widely may indicate a problem.
This test is also called a casual blood glucose test.
4. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) measures the body's ability to use glucose. It
is used mainly to diagnose prediabetes and diabetes. An oral glucose tolerance test is
a series of blood glucose measurements taken after you drink a sweet liquid that
contains glucose. This test is commonly used to diagnose diabetes that occurs during
pregnancy (gestational diabetes). This test is not commonly used to diagnose
diabetes in a person.
Principle: The principle of this test is based on the measurement of electrical currents
caused by the reaction of glucose with the reagent on the gold electrode of the stip. The
blood sample is drawn into the strip’s reaction chamber through capillary action and
glucose in the blood sample reacts with glucose dehydrogenase and mediator. This
reaction creates electrical current which is proportional to the glucose concentration in
the blood and this concentration is read in mmol/L equivalence by the glucometer with
the aid of the algorithm programmed in it.
Materials: Spectrophotometer, test tube, micropipette, glucose reagent, dry cotton
wool.
Procedure:
 Arrange three test tubes in a rack labeled Blank (B), Standard (S) and Test (T).
21
 Pipette 1000µl of glucose reagent into each of the test tube.
 Add 10µl of distilled water, standard solution and test sample into the test tube
respectively.
 Mix properly and incubate at 37ºC for 10 minutes.
 Read using spectrophotometer at 546nm.
Table 3.2: Procedure for glucose estimation
Blank Standard Test
Glucose reagent 1000µl 1000µl 1000µl
Distilled water 10µl - -
Standard solution - 10µl -
Test sample - - 10µl
Incubate at 37ºc for 10 minutes
Read using spectrophotometer at 546nm
Calculation:
Absorbance of Test × Concentration of Standard (5.55mmol/L)
Absorbance of Standard
Result:
There are different ranges of standard values for the glucose test but however depending
on the type of glucose test carried out which includes;
Fasting blood sugar test: The patient is expected to be on fasting for a period of 10-
12hours before test, preferably over the night. It has a standard value which range
between 3.5-6.1mmol/L.
Random blood sugar test: This is carried from the patient the first and second hour
after meal. It has a standard value that ranges between 3.9-8.0mmol/L. it can also be
referred to as post-prandial blood sugar test.
3.3.2 Fasting Lipid Profile (FLP)

A lipid profile or lipid panel is a panel of blood tests used to find abnormalities in lipids,
such as cholesterol and triglycerides. The results of this test can identify certain genetic
diseases and can determine approximate risks for cardiovascular disease, certain forms
of pancreatitis, and other diseases.
22
Lipid panels are usually ordered as part of a physical exam, along with other panels
such as the complete blood count (CBC) and basic metabolic panel (BMP). The lipid
profile typically includes:
 Triglyceride
 Total cholesterol
 High-density lipoprotein (HDL)
 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
Typically the laboratory measures only three quantities: total cholesterol; HDL;
Triglycerides. From these three data LDL may be calculated. According to Friedewald’s
equation:
LDL = TC –HDL – TG
5
Where LDL = Low-density lipoprotein
TG = Triglyceride
HDL = High-density lipoprotein
TG = Triglyceride
Principle: This test can be carried out by using an instrument known as
spectrophotometer which operates on the principle of absorbance of light that travels in
a straight line (rectilinear propagation of light).
Triglyceride Test
This test measures the amount of triglycerides in the blood. Triglycerides are the body's
storage form for fat. Most triglycerides are found in adipose (fat) tissue. Some
triglycerides circulate in the blood to provide fuel for muscles to work. Extra
triglycerides are found in the blood after eating a meal–when fat is being sent from the
gut to adipose tissue for storage. The test for triglycerides should be done when you are
fasting and no extra triglycerides from a recent meal are present.
What does the test result mean?
A normal level for fasting triglycerides is less than 150 mg/dL. It is unusual to have
high triglycerides without also having high cholesterol. When triglycerides are very
high (greater than 1000 mg/dL), there is a risk of developing pancreatitis. Treatment to
lower triglycerides should be started as soon as possible.
23
Principle:
Sample triglycerides incubated with lipoproteinlipase (LPL), liberate glycerol and free
fatty acids. Glycerol is converted to glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) and adenosine-5-
diphosphate (ADP) by glycerol kinase and ATP. Glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) is then
converted by glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase (GPO) to dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(DAP) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
In the last reaction, hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2) reacts with 4-aminophenazone (4-AP)
and p-chlorophenol in presence of peroxidase (POD) to give a red colored dye:
Triglycerides + H2OGlycerol + free fatty acids →LPL
Glycerol + ATP G3P+ ADP → kinaseGlycerol
G3P + O2 DAP + H → PO2O2
H2O2 R+ 4-AP + p-Chlorophenol Quinone + H → POD2O
NB: The intensity of the color formed is proportional to the triglycerides concentration
in the sample.
Materials: Spectrophotometer, test tube, dry cotton wool, micropipette, triglyceride
reagent.
Procedure:
 Pipette 1000µl of triglyceride reagent into each of the test tube.
respectively.
Table 3.3: Procedure for triglyceride estimation
Blank Standard Test
Triglyceride reagent 1000µl 1000µl 1000µl
24
Calculation:
Absorbance of Test × Concentration of Standard (2.36 mmol/L)
Cholesterol Test
This test is used to determine the cholesterol level of an individual. Cholesterol is a
waxy fatlike substance that is naturally present in the body, and is important part of the
body’s function. The body uses cholesterol to produce many hormones including
vitamin D and the bile acids that help to digest fat. The body needs small amounts of
cholesterol to function normally, and excess amounts are deposited in artery walls
throughout the body. This can lead to narrowing of the coronary arteries in the heart,
causing angina and heart attack. This test is also called a lipoprotein profile or
lipoprotein analysis measures:
Total cholesterol
HDL- High density lipoprotein (ranges from 70-130mg/dl)
LDL- Low density lipoprotein (ranges from 40-60mg/dl)
Blood cholesterol measurements can be used to help minimize the risk of stroke, heart
attack and peripheral artery disease.
Principle:
The apoB containing lipoproteins in the specimen are reacted with a blocking reagent
that renders them non-reactive with the enzymatic cholesterol reagent under conditions
of the assay.
Cholesterol esters + H2O Cholesterol esterase cholesterol
Cholesterol + H2O + O2 Cholesterol oxidase cholesterone + H2O2

H2O2 + 4-Amino antipyrine + 3, 5-dichlorophenol colored quinic
derivative + 4H2O2
NB: The color intensity formed or observed in the spectrophotometer is proportional to
the concentration of the serum cholesterol.
Materials: Spectrophotometer, test tube, dry cotton wool, micropipette, cholesterol
reagent.
Procedure:
25
 Pipette 1000µl of cholesterol reagent into each of the test tube.
respectively.
Table 3.4: Procedure for cholesterol estimation
Blank Standard Test
Cholesterol reagent 1000µl 1000µl 1000µl
Calculation:
Ranges:
Table 3.5: Ranges for cholesterol estimation
Ranges for Cholesterol

Desirable up to or <200mg/dl (5.2mmol/L)
Borderline 2 high risk 200-239mg/dl (5.2-6.2mmol/L)
High risk ≥240mg/dl (≥6.24mmol/L)
3.3.3 Renal Function Test (RFTs)

Kidney function tests is a number of clinical laboratory tests that measure the levels of
substances normally regulated by the kidneys can help determine the cause and extent
of kidney dysfunction. These tests are done on urine samples, as well as on blood
samples.
Blood tests:
There are several blood tests that can aid in evaluating kidney function. These include:
26
 Measurement of the blood levels of other elements regulated in part by the
kidneys can also be useful in evaluating kidney function. These include sodium,
potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, protein, uric
acid, and glucose.
 Urea test.
 Creatinine test.
Electrolytes
This is a chemistry test that explains further on the electrolytes like sodium ion (Na +),
potassium ion (K+), chloride ion (Cl-) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) in the blood serum.
Bicarbonate is important in determining the pH of the blood, indicating acidosis and
alkalosis. Analysis of U&Es focuses on raised (hyper-) and reduced (hypo-) levels of
these products and electrolytes.
Sodium (Na+)
Raised sodium (hypernatraemia) can be caused by a salt-rich diet or by dehydration,
which can be identified by loss of skin elasticity. Another common reason for
hypernatraemia is low blood volume, which can be the result of insufficient drinking or
excessive loss of water in urine, sweat or diarrhoea. The simplest treatment is to replace
fluid orally; if this is not possible, water can be infused as part of a dextrose infusion.
Similarly, low sodium (hyponatremia) may be due to the retention of water or excessive
loss of sodium. It is the most common in-hospital electrolyte disturbance, affecting 15%
of patients. Hyponatremia may be accompanied by oedema, which is associated with
heart failure and hypoalbuminaemia. In some cases, water retention can be treated with
thiazide drugs.
Potassium (K+)
Aim: Determination of potassium (K+)
Materials: Test tubes, micropipette, dry cotton wool, potassium reagent,
spectrophotometer, bucket centrifuge, water bath.
Procedure:
 Spin the anticoagulated blood sample using the bucket centrifuge at 12,000rpm
(revolution per minute) for 5 minutes.
 Pipette 1000µl of potassium reagent into each of the test tube.
27
respectively.
 Mix properly and incubate at room temperature for 3 minutes.
Table 3.6: Procedure for potassium estimation
Blank Standard Test
Potassium reagent 1000µl 1000µl 1000µl
Incubate at room temperature for 3 minutes
Calculation:
Normal reference range: 3.0-5.9mmol/L
Raised potassium (hyperkalaemia) may be due to renal problems such as failure to

excrete, acidosis (high pH) or potassium being released from damaged cells, such as red
bloods cells or tumor cells destroyed by chemotherapy. Whatever its cause,
hyperkalaemia can be serious; high levels (over 7 mmol/L) can contribute to cardiac
arrest and can be fatal, which is why it is the most common and most serious electrolyte
emergency. Treatment includes administering insulin and glucose to get potassium into
the cells. However, this effect is transient and a rebound effect is possible so the root
cause must be addressed and other treatments given for a longer-term effect.
Causes of low potassium levels (hypokalaemia) include the opposite of those of
hyperkalaemia, for example alkalosis (low pH), as well as loss in diarrhea and vomiting
or from the kidney, or inappropriate use of corticosteroids or thiazide drugs. Treatment
focuses on replacement orally or by adding potassium to an intravenous infusion. Care
must be taken to avoid hyperkalaemia when using supplements.
28
Urea test
Urea is a by-product of protein metabolism. This waste product is formed in the liver,
then filtered from the blood and excreted in the urine by the kidneys. High urea level
can indicate kidney dysfunction, but because urea is also affected by protein intake and
liver function, the test is usually done in conjunction with a blood creatinine, a more
specific indicator of kidney function.
Materials: Micropipette, test tubes, water bath, dry cotton wool, urea reagents,
spectrophotometer, bucket centrifuge, water bath.
Procedure:
 Pipette 100µl of urea reagent 1 into each of the test tube.
respectively.
 Pipette 2.5ml of urea reagent 2 and 3 into each of the test tubes.
 Mix properly and incubate again at 37ºC for 15 minutes.
Table 3.7: Procedure for urea estimation
Blank Standard Test
Urea reagent 1 100µl 100µl 100µl
Incubate at 37ºC for 10 minutes
Urea reagent 2 2.5ml 2.5ml 2.5ml
Urea reagent 3 2.5ml 2.5ml 2.5ml
Re-incubate at 37ºC for 15 minutes
29
Calculation:
Normal reference range: 2.0-3.0mmol/L
Creatinine test
This test measures blood levels of creatinine, a by-product of muscle energy metabolism
that, like urea, is filtered from the blood by the kidneys and excreted into the urine.
Production of creatinine depends on an individual's muscle mass, which usually
fluctuates very little. With normal kidney function, then, the amount of creatinine in the
blood remains relatively constant and normal. For this reason, and because creatinine is
affected very little by liver function, an elevated blood creatinine is a more sensitive
indication of impaired kidney function than the urea.
NB: Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used
indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with
marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore this test is not suitable for detecting
early stage kidney disease.
Materials: Micropipette, test tubes, dry cotton wool, NaOH, picric acid,
spectrophotometer, bucket centrifuge, stopwatch.
Procedure:
 Pipette 500µl of NaOH solution into each of the test tube.
 Add 500µl of picric acid into each of the test tube.
 Mix and start stopwatch.
Note: Read the absorbance after 1 minute and your second absorbance after the next 1
minute of the sample addition.
Table 3.8: Procedure for creatinine estimation
30
Blank Standard Test
NaOH solution 500µl 500µl 500µl
Picric acid 500µl 500µl 500µl
Calculation:
Absorbance of Test × Concentration of Standard (177µmol/L)
Normal reference range: 53-110µmol/L.
3.3.4 Calcium (Ca2+) Estimation

Principle: At a neutral pH the Ca 2+ form with Arsenazo III a complex, the color
intensity of which is directly proportional to the concentration of calcium in the sample.
Aim: To estimate blood calcium acid.
Materials: test tubes, chromogen, calcium reagent, buffer, EDTA chelating agent, dry
cotton wool, distilled water.
Procedures:
 Pipette 500µl of buffer solution into each of the test tube.
 Add 500µl of chromogen into each of the test tube.
 Add 25µl of EDTA chelating agent, standard solution and test sample into the
test tube respectively.
Table 3.9: Procedure for calcium estimation
Blank Standard Test
Buffer 500µl 500µl 500µl
Chromogen 500µl 500µl 500µl
EDTA solution 25µl - -
31
Calculation:
Normal reference range: 2.15-2.57mmol/L.
3.3.5 Liver Functioning Test (LFT)

LFTs are group of clinical biochemistry laboratory blood assays designed to give
information about the state of a patient’s liver. As the liver performs it's various
functions it makes a number of chemicals that pass into the bloodstream and bile.
Various liver disorders alter the blood level of these chemicals. Some of these chemicals
can be measured in a blood sample. Some tests that are commonly done on a blood
sample are called 'LFTs' (liver function tests).
Below are the parameters carried out on LFTs’
i. Bilirubin Tests [Total Conjugated (TB) and Conjugated Bilirubin (CB)]
Materials/Reagents: Clean test tubes, micropipette, dry cotton wool,

spectrophotometer, bucket centrifuge, cuvette, bilirubin reagents (R1 =
Sulphanilic acid, R2 = Sodium nitrite, R3 = Caffeine, R4 = Tatrate), Normal
saline
Procedure:
 Arrange four test tubes in a rack labeled Blank (B) and Test (T).
 Pipette 100µl of R1 into each of the test tube.
 Add 25µl of R2 into the test tubes labeled T.
 Add 500µl of R3 into the test tubes labeled B & T for the total bilirubin (TB).
 Add 1000µl of normal saline into the test tubes labeled B & T for the conjugated
bilirubin (CB).
 Add 100µl of test sample into all the test-tubes.
32
 Add 500µl of R4 into the test tubes labeled B & T for the total bilirubin (TB).
 Read TB at 578nm using spectrophotometer and CB at 546nm.
Table 3.10: Procedure for total and conjugated bilirubin (TB & CB)
Total Bilirubin (TB) Conjugated Bilirubin (CB)
Blank (B) Test (T) Blank (B) Test (T)
Reagent 1 100µl 100µl 100µl 100µl
Reagent 2 - 25µl - 25µl
Reagent 3 500µl 500µl -
Normal saline - - 1000µl 1000µl
Test sample 100µl 100µl 100µl 100µl
Reagent 4 500µl 500µl - -
Read using
Spectrophotometer 578nm 546nm
at
Calculation:
TB × 185µmol/L
CB × 246µmol/L
ii. Alanine transaminase (ALT)

spectrophotometer, bucket centrifuge, cuvette, water bath, ALT reagents, NaOH
Procedure:
 Arrange two chemically clean test tubes in a rack labeled Blank (B) and Test
(T).
 Pipette 250µl of R1 into each of the test tubes.
 Add 50µl of test sample into the test tube labeled T.
 Incubate at 37ºC for 30 minutes
33
 Add 250µl of R2 into each of the test tube.
 Re-incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes.
 Add 2.5ml of NaOH into each of the test tube.
Table 3.11: Procedure for alanine transaminase (ALT)
Blank (B) Test (T)
Reagent 1 250µl 250µl
Test sample - 50µl
Re-incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes
NaOH 2.5ml 2.5ml
Result: Compare the result with the standard chart.
iii. Aspartate transaminase (AST)

spectrophotometer, bucket centrifuge, cuvette, water bath, AST reagents, NaOH
Procedure:
 Arrange two chemically clean test tubes in a rack labeled Blank (B) and Test
(T).
 Pipette 250µl of R1 into each of the test tubes.
 Add 50µl of test sample into the test tube labeled T.
 Incubate at 37ºC for 30 minutes
 Add 250µl of R2 into each of the test tube.
 Re-incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes.
 Add 2.5ml of NaOH into each of the test tube.
Table 3.12: Procedure for aspartate transaminase (AST)
34
Blank (B) Test (T)
Test sample - 50µl
Re-incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes
NaOH 2.5ml 2.5ml
Result: Compare the result with the standard chart.
iv. Total protein (TP)
Materials: Clean test tubes, micropipette, dry cotton wool, spectrophotometer, bucket
centrifuge, cuvette, total protein reagents (R1), distilled water.
Procedures:
 Add 1600µl of distilled water into each of the test tube.
respectively.
Table 3.13: Procedure for total protein
Blank Standard Test
Protein reagent 400µl 400µl 400µl
Distilled water 1600µl 1600µl 1600µl
35
Calculation:
Absorbance of Test × Concentration of Standard (60g/L)
v. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
Principle: p-nitrophenylphosphate will react with water in the presence of ALP to

produce phosphate + p-nitrophenol.
p-nitrophenylphosphate + H2O ALP phosphate + p-nitrophenol
Materials: Clean test tube, micropipette, dry cotton wool, spectrophotometer, cuvette,
alkaline phosphatase reagents
Procedures:
Table 3.14: Procedure for alkaline phosphatase
Pipette into a cuvette: Macro Semi-Micro Micro
Sample 0.05ml 0.02ml 0.01ml
Reagent (25ºC, 30ºC, 37ºC) 3.00ml 1.00ml 0.50ml
Mix, read initial absorbance and start timer simultaneously.

Read again after 1, 2 and 3 min.
Calculation:
To calculate the ALP activity, the following formulae are to be used:
U/I = 3300 × A 405 nm/min MACRO

U/I = 2760 × A 405 nm/min SEMI-MICRO
U/I = 2760 × A 405 nm/min MICRO
vi. Albumin
Materials: Clean test tubes, micropipette, dry cotton wool, spectrophotometer, bucket
centrifuge, cuvette, total protein reagents (R1).
Procedures:
36
 Add 10µl of distilled water, standard solution and test sample into the test tubes
respectively.
Table 3.15: Procedure for albumin
Blank Standard Test
Albumin reagent 3000µl 3000µl 3000µl
Calculation:
Absorbance of Test × Concentration of Standard (45g/L)
3.3.6 Urinalysis
Urinalysis is a test of the urine. It is a screening test usually used to detect and manage a
wide range of disorders such as urinary tract infections, disease of the kidney, diabetes,
metabolic abnormalities, liver disease, biliary and hepatic obstructions and haemolytic
diseases. A urinalysis involves checking the appearance, concentration and content of
urine. Abnormal urinalysis result may point to a disease or illness.
1. Macroscopic urinalysis
2. Chemical analysis
Macroscopic Urinalysis: This is the direct visual observation of the urine noting its
colour and clarity or cloudiness.
Chemical Analysis: A urine dipstick is used in this part. Urine dipstick is a narrow
plastic strip which has several squares of different colours attached to it. Each small
square represents the component of a test used to interpret urinalysis. The entire test
37
strip is dipped in the urine sample and colour changes (which take place several seconds
after dipping) in each square are noted.
Each colour change on the particular square may indicate specific abnormalities in the
urine sample caused by a certain chemical reaction. The reference of the colour changes
is posted on the plastic bottle container of the urine test strips. This makes for easy and
quick interpretation of the urinalysis result by placing the strip next to the container and
comparing each colour change to the reference provided. The squares on the dipstick
represent the following components in the urine:
1. Blood: The detection is based on the pseudoperoxidative activity of
haemoglobin and myoglobin which catalyse the oxidation of an indicator by an
organic hydroperoxide producing a green colour.
2. Urobilinogen: The test paper contains a stable diazonium salt forming a reddish
azo compound with urobilinogen.
3. Bilirubin: A red azo compound is obtained in the presence of acid by coupling a
bilirubin with urobilinogen
4. Protein: The test is based on the “protein error” principle of indicators. The test
zone is buffered to a constant pH value and changes colour from yellow to
greenish blue in the presence of albumin. Other proteins are indicated with less
sensitivity.
5. Nitrite: Microorganisms which are able to reduce nitrate to nitrite are indicated
indirectly by this test. The principle of the Griess reagent is the basis of this test.
The test paper contains an amine and coupling component. A red colouredazo
compound is formed by diazotization and subsequent coupling.
6. Ketones: The test is based on the principle of Legal’s test. Acetoacid and
acetone form with sodium nitroprusside in alkaline medium, a violet coloured
complex.
7. Ascorbic Acid: The detection is based on the discoloration of Tillman’s reagent.
In the presence of ascorbic acid, a colour change take place from blue to red.
8. Glucose: The detection is based on glucose oxidase-peroxidase chromogen
reaction. Apart from glucose, no other compound in urine is known to give a
positive reaction.
38
9. pH: The test paper contains indicators which clearly change colour between pH
5 and pH.
3.4 SEROLOGY DEPARTMENT

Serology is the scientific study of serum and other bodily. In practice, the term usually
refers to the diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum. Serological test may be
performed for diagnostic purposes when an infection is suspected, in rheumatic illness,
and in many other situations. Serology blood test help to diagnose patients with certain
immune deficiencies associated with the lack of antibodies.
Some tests classified under serology are: widal agglutination test, retroviral screening
(RVS) test, hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) test, hepatitis c virus (HCV),
pregnancy test, and syphilis test (VDRL).
NOTE: All above mentioned tests under serology have the same procedures but
different strips kit, except for widal agglutination test.
PROCEDURE FOR SEROLOGY TEST (except for Widal)
 Spin the anti-coagulated blood sample in the bucket centrifuge at 12,000rpm for
5 minutes.
 Apply 2-3 drops of plasma/serum on the sample pad of the test strip with the
pasteur pipette (each test has its own strip).
 Read the result after 10 minutes.
RESULT
Double band (one on control and the other on test) = Positive
Single band (on the control alone) = Negative
No band = Invalid (to be repeated).
3.4.1 Widal Agglutination Test

The principle of Widal test is based on antigen-antibody reaction. The test is done to
diagnose Salmonella typhi which is the causative agent of typhoid.
Aim: To determine the presence of Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi in a
patient’s plasma.
Principle: The stained antigen suspensions are bacteria stained to enhance the reading
of agglutination test. The blue antigens are specific ‘O’ antigen while the red stained
antigens are specific to the flagella ‘H’ antigens.
39
Materials: Clean grease free tile, dry cotton wool, applicator stick, pasteur pipette,
bucket centrifuge, widal kits.
Procedure:
 A drop of plasma was applied on a clean grease free tile and a drop of each of
the paratyphi O, A-O, B-O, C-O, and H, A-H, B-H, C-H in square 1-8 was
added into the plasma respectively and was rocked gently for 3 minutes.
 Observe for agglutination.
Result: If the degree of agglutination shows 1:80 titre or above for both O and H anti-
bodies, it indicates positive result but if it has less than 1:80 titre, it indicates negative
result.
3.4.2 Retroviral Screening (RVS) Test

Retroviral screening test is used is the diagnosis of the human immuno virus, HIV.
The virus can be transmitted through the following ways:
 Through transfusion of infected blood.
 Through the use of unsterilized surgical instrument.
 From mother to child during delivery.
 Through an unprotected sex with an infected person.
3.4.3 Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) Test

Hepatitis refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver. Hepatitis B is an infectious
disease caused by hepatitis B virus which affects the liver. It causes both acute and
chronic infections. The hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is most frequently used to
screen for the presence of the infection. It is the first detectable viral antigen to appear
during infection. It is transmitted through sexual intercourse, kissing and exchange of
body fluids.
Principle: The human body produces a sufficient amount of antibodies against the
hepatitis virus within the plasma when the virus invades the body. The antibodies
produced forms a complex during reactions that can be seen as coloured bands on the
test zone of the strip membrane depending on the level of the antibodies produced
which are proportional to the level of the infection obtained. The antigen embedded
strip reacts with the antibodies in the plasma. The result is read in 10 minutes.
3.4.4 Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)
40
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) test is done to detect the presence or absence of Hepatitis C
virus. Hepatitis C is transmitted through direct contact with infected body fluids,
typically through injection drug use and sexual contact. HCV is among the most
common blood-borne viral infection. This virus affects the liver, causing inflammation
which damages liver cells and eventually fibrosis where the liver cells are replaced by
tough, but non-functional fibrous tissue and if left untreated can lead to cirrhosis of the
liver. Symptoms of hepatitis C includes fatigue, loss of appetite, fever, abdominal pain,
jaundice (a yellowing of the skin and eyes), etc.
Principle: HCV test employs chromatographic lateral flow device in strip format. HCV
antigens are bond at the test (T) zone and anti-HCV monoclonal bodies are bond at the
control (C) zone. Upon plasma addition it migrates by capillary diffusion rehydrating
the gold conjugate. If present in sample, HCV Antibodies will bind with the gold
conjugated antigens forming particles. These particles will continue to migrate along the
strip until the test zone where they are captured by the HCV antigens generates a visible
red line. The gold conjugate will continue to migrate alone until it is captured in the
control zone by the anti-HCV antibodies aggregating in a red line, which indicates the
validity of the test.
3.4.5 Veneral Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test

Veneral Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) test also known as syphilis test is a test
done to detect the presence or absence of Treponema palllidum bacteria in a patient’s
plasma. Syphilis is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). It is
an infection caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. Syphilis is transmitted through
vaginal, oral, or anal sex with an infected person. It is mostly through contact with a
syphilis sore (chancre), a painless sore. Symptoms include painless sore either in the
anus, mouth or genitals, rashes, fatigue, weight loss, fever and hair loss.
Principle: Recombinant syphilis antigen is immobilized in a test line region. After a
plasma sample is added, it reacts with syphilis antigen coated particles in the test. This
mixture migrates along the length of the test strip and interacts with the immobilized
syphilis antigen.
3.4.6 Beta Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (β-hCG)
41
Beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG) is a test that measures the amount of
human chorionic gonadotropin in the blood. This hormone is produced as soon as 10
days post-conception and an above-normal level can confirm pregnancy.
Aside from this, the beta-hCG test may also be used during evaluations of fertility
treatments (a synthetic form of the hormone is sometimes used to help follicles mature
and trigger ovulation), as well as when there are concerns that something may be wrong
with a pregnancy.
What Beta HCG Measures
Pregnancy testing involves the detection of hCG either in the urine or blood.
The urine test is a qualitative one in that it can only tell you if the sample is positive or
negative for hCG. The same goes for the qualitative hCG blood test.
In contrast, the beta hCG is a quantitative test, meaning it reveals not just that the
hormone is present in the blood, but in exactly what amounts. Levels of hCG are
measured in milli-international units per milliliter (mIU/ml).
The beta-hCG test is also used when there are concerns about pregnancy complications,
including miscarriage. In these situations, repeat tests may be performed every two to
three days to evaluate how quickly hCG levels are rising.
42
CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIENCE GAINED AND RELEVANCE TO COURSE OF STUDY
4.1 General Experience Gained
As a student of the Department of SLT (Biochemistry), I learnt so many things
concerning my discipline that I had a little knowledge of. This training reshaped my
reasoning and the way I look at science. Tests like blood grouping, genotyping etc.
sounded odd at first with also tests that I never knew existed but I was opportune to
conduct several tests and it became really simple.
Passing through different sections of the laboratory made me understand some courses
that we did earlier in on in the university that I just read but didn’t quite understand how
it should be applied or how it work. The haematology section, routine tests like blood
grouping and genotyping that sounded familiar because of teachings about it appeared
rather different in the sense that I didn’t have to apply theoretical knowledge but learn
the techniques on how to conduct the practical and after that put it together with the
theory aspect and learn so much more.
4.2 Relevance of Experience gained to Course of Study

SIWES- the student industrial work experience scheme stands out as one ITF
programme of which its relevance to students in various areas of vocational education
need be appreciated. ITF in 1973/1974 established SIWES to ensure the acquisitions of
relevance industrial work experience by universities, polytechnics and college of
education students whose course are directly related to industry and to solve the
problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by
Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions.
SIWES is a cooperative internship programme, which enable students of technology to
spent some part of their course for relevant on the job training practical experience in
appropriate areas of the Nigerian industries. The internship programme, SIWES, can
therefore be seen as that which is intended to give Nigerian students studying
occupationally related courses experience that would supplement their theoretical
learning.
SIWES programme provides an avenue for evaluating participating students, both as
students and as prospective employees where defect are found in students job
43
performance or attitude to work, he/she through proper supervision guided to correct
such defect prior to taking up permanent employment.
The SIWES programme also provide an enabling environment where students can
develop and enhance personal attributes such as critical thinking, creativity, initiative,
resourcefulness, leadership, time management, presentation skills and interpersonal
skills, amongst others.
In addition, SIWES also provided students the opportunity to work in one or more area
of industry and this will enable them to relate their theoretical knowledge to the
practical work situation which is a realistic way of determining the relevance of theory
and practice.
44
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Difficulties encountered during the programme
Life they say is not a bed of roses and whatsoever that has advantages also have its
disadvantages. In as much as the SIWES programme is a wonderful programme which
has been designed to help the students have a practical knowledge of their various
courses of study, it is note-worthy to also mention some of the problems encountered
during the programme.
 Problems of securing a place of attachment: Securing a place of attachment for
industrial training programme was a very big challenge to me. This is due to the
fact that there are very limited establishment that accepts students undergoing
industrial training. While I was searching for a place of attachments, I got to find
out most of the establishments that accepts students had already taken the
maximum number of students needed, while others would just reject the request
giving one reason or the other.
 Inaccessible Machines: In most laboratories, industrial training students were not
opportune to access most of the automated analyzers, e.g. the full blood count
(FBC) machine and instead, most student were been told to watch and learn which
does not assist us in learning better going with the saying ‘practice makes
perfection’ and not ‘watching makes perfection’. One of the objectives of SIWES
is to expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipments and
machineries that may not be available in their universities, thus, the above stated
objective of SIWES is not been fulfilled completely.
The difficulties encountered during the programme among others include;
 Inadequate monitoring of students on industrial training;
 Lack of cooperation and support from organization;
 Delay in release of fund for supervision and student’s industrial training
allowances;
 Student’s reports were not corrected.
45
5.2 Recommendation
The recommendations arising from the foregoing appraisal of the effectiveness of
SIWES in the formation of competent and productive technical manpower for the
economy are summarized as follows;
 The Federal Government should make adequate provisions in the annual budget
for proper funding for SIWES in view of the potentials of the scheme to contribute
to enhancing the quality of pool of technical skills available to the economy.
 A review of the policies that guide and regulate SIWES is necessary to ensure that
the scheme complies fully.
 Tertiary institutions need to comply with the standards set for proper
implementations of SIWES to enable students derive the greatest benefits from
participation in the scheme.
 Quality assurance of SIWES, through adequate supervision of participants by the
relevant stakeholders (institutions, employers and ITF) would ensure that the
scheme meets its objectives vis-à-vis the principles of cooperative education or
work-integrated learning.
 Students should be well prepared through meaningful orientation programmes
by institutions before embarking on SIWES. A book, such as the “Guide to
successful participation in SIWES” would be useful in achieving the purpose if
read before, during and after SIWES by participants.
5.3 Conclusion
My six months industrial attachment with Divine Medical Laboratory Services (DLMS)
has been one of the most interesting, productive, instructive and educative experience in
my life. Through this training, I have gained new insight and more comprehensive
understanding about the real industrial working condition and practice and also
improved my soft and functional skills.
All these valuable experiences and knowledge that I have gained were not only acquired
through the direct involvement in task but also through other aspects of the training
such as: work observation, supervision, interaction with colleagues, supervisors,
superior and other people related to the field. It also exposed me to some certain things
46
about medical environment. And from what I have undergone, I am sure that the
industrial training programme has achieved its primary objective.
I am confident that my future career has already been built with what I have already
started with Divine Medical Laboratory Services and concisely, the overall importance
of this program (SIWES) cannot be overstated. The period of training enables student to
gradually get composed into the working environment of their chosen career, a very
important step in creating skilled professionals.
47
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"Prealbumin Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 25
February 2021.
"What Is a Total Serum Protein Test?". WebMD.
Agwuna, R. N. (2012) Detailed manual in SIWES guidelines and operations for tertiary
institutions. Rex Charles and Patrick limited.
Fund I. T. (2018) http//www.itf.gov.ng/about.php
Google search engine
Gronowski, Ann M. (2004). "Human Pregnancy". Handbook of Clinical Laboratory
Testing During Pregnancy. Humana Press. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1007/978-1-59259-
787-1_1.
Johnston DE (1999). "Special considerations in interpreting liver function tests". Am
Fam Physician. 59 (8): 2223–30. PMID 10221307.
Kasper, Dennis L.; Fauci, Anthony S.; Hauser, Stephen L.; Longo, Dan L.; Larry
Jameson, J.; Loscalzo, Joseph (6 February 2018). Harrison's principles of
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York. ISBN 9781259644047. OCLC 990065894.
Kwo, Paul Y.; Cohen, Stanley M.; Lim, Joseph K. (January 2017). "ACG Clinical
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McComb, Robert B.; Bowers, George N.; Posen, Solomon (1979). "Clinical Utilization
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TECHNICAL REPORT

STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

HAMMED Joshua Olasunkanmi

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY (EKSU), ADO-EKITI, EKITI STATE

DIVINE MEDICAL LABORATORY SERVICES

BESIDE OLA-OLUWA PHARMACY, ILORO STREET, OLOJUDO ROAD,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY, ADO EKITI, EKITI STATE

(February to August, 2022)

STUDENT TRAINEE: HAMMED Joshua Olasunkanmi (Matric Number: 178867125)

UNIVERSITY-BASED SUPERVISOR: DR. FOLASADE ADEYEMI (Ph.D)

EKSU SIWES COORDINATOR: ENGR. DR. AYOTUNDE A. OJO

I hereby declare that this comprehensive report was compiled by me HAMMED

I also acknowledge the wonderful efforts of my School-based Supervisor, Dr. Folasade

My appreciation would be incomplete without acknowledging the effort of my fellow

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Brief history of SIWES 1

1.2.1 Vision Statement 2

1.2.2 Mission Statement 2

1.3 Aim of SIWES 2

1.4 Objectives of SIWES 2

1.5 Importance of SIWES to my Course of Study 3

CHAPTER TWO: COMPANY PROFILE 4

2.0 Brief history of the Establishment 4

2.1 Organization Core Values 4

2.2 Organization Services 5

2.4 Justification for the Choice of Establishment 5

CHAPTER THREE: SERVICES RENDERED 10

3.2 Haematology Department 12

3.2.1 Full Blood Count (FBC) Test 12

3.2.2 Malaria Parasite Test 15

3.2.3 Blood Grouping and Rhesus Typing (ABO Blood system) 16

3.2.4 Genotype Test (HB Hemoglobin) 17

3.2.5 Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) 19

3.3 Chemical Pathology Department 20

3.3.1 Blood Glucose Tests 20

3.3.2 Fasting Lipid Profile (FLP) 22

3.3.3 Renal Function Test (RFTs) 26

3.3.4 Calcium (Ca2+) Estimation 31

3.3.5 Liver Functioning Test (LFT) 32

3.4 Serology Department 38

3.4.1 Widal Agglutination Test 39

3.4.2 Retroviral Screening (RVS) Test 40

3.4.3 Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) Test 40

3.4.4 Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) 40

3.4.6 Beta Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (β-hCG) 41

CHAPTER FOUR: EXPERIENCE GAINED AND RELEVANCE TO COURSE

4.1 General Experience Gained 43

4.2 Relevance of Experience gained to Course of Study 43

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 45

5.1 Difficulties encountered during the programme 45

1.2 Brief history of SIWES

Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a training programme

1.2.1 Vision Statement