BA-English Social History of England

BA-English Social History of England
B.A. English
First Year
Allied Paper
SOCIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND
BHARATHIAR UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
COIMBATORE – 641 046
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CONTENTS
Lesson Page
No.
1. 5
2. Chaucer’s England (1340-1413) 10
3. Wars of the Roses (1455-85) 17
4. Tudor England Part I (1485-1558) 21
5. Dissolution of the Monasteries 32
6. Tudor England Part II (1558-1603) 39
7. The Spanish Armada 44
8. Golden Age of Queen Elizabeth 47
9. Stuart England (1603-1658) 52
10. East India Company 56
11. The Stuarts and the Parliament 58
12. The Puritan Revolution 61
13. The Civil War (1642) 63
14. Puritanism 66
15. The Union of England and Scotland 69
16. The Agrarian Revolution 73
17. The Industrial Revolution 77
18. The Methodist Movement 81
19. Other Humanitarian Movements 84
20. The War of American Independence 90
21. England and Ireland 95
22. Effects of the French Revolution 99
23. The Reform Bills 103
24. The Victorian Age 107
25. Development of Education in the Victorian England 112
26. Means of transport and Communication 116
27. The World Wars and Social Security 120
28. Trade Unionism in England 124
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LESSON-1
CONTENTS
1.0. Aim and Objective
1.1. Origin
1.2. Evidences
1.3. Celtic Britain
1.4. Roman Britain
2.1. Medieval Britain
2.1.1. Early Norman Period
2.1.2. Early Plantagenet Period
2.1.3. Later Plantagenet Period
1.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVE
i) To introduce the pre – historic England to the readers.

ii) To facilitate the early development.
1.1 ORIGIN
Britain acquired geographical identity as an island around 5000 B.C. In the

course of the inexplicable phenomena of geographical changes, the Pleistocene
ice-sheets flooded over the present North Sea. Consequently, the water of the
present English channel merged with the North Sea severing England fr9m
continental Europe. The inhabitants, at that time, must have experienced the
pleasures and pressures of environmental tansformations and climatic changes.
The moistladen air of the Atlantic Ocean displaced the dry winds from the North
and East. Rainfalls increased and altered the vegetation. The island had turned
out to be a land of chalk downs, limestone hills and forests. The chalky ridges
extended in the southern and northern directions meeting in. a spacious
plateau, now known as the Salisbury plains.
1.2 EVIDENCES
Geological, archaeological and philological evidences confirm human existence in

this area even in the Palaeolithic period. Anthropologists believe that the earliest
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dwellers of the island must have been Iberians who were thought to be akin to
the people of Iberia or Spain. By about 1900 B.C., a set of invaders known as the
Beaker folk arrived. According to some historians it is to these people that and
owes some of the most extraordinary and mysterious monuments in the whole
world. It was they who began to build religious centres at Stonehenge at Avebury
in Wiltshire. The metallic implements they used and the stonehenge were the
distinguished features of the civilization of these earliest settlers.
Around 900 B.C., a war-like race attacked the Iberians and Beaker folk,
overpowered them, drove them to the mountainous regions and settled down in
the fertile and cultivable part of the land. They were the strong and ingenious
who offered a striking contrast to the Iberians, with their tall fire, fair-
complexion, red or yellow hair and great intelligence. The first wave of this
migration as known as the Gaelic. The Gaelic transformed the agricultural
methods of the people. The inefficient hoe was replaced by a Plough drawn by
two oxen controlled by man from the back. Another bitch of the Celtic tribe by
name the Brythons arrived about 500 B.C., introducing their knowledge of the
use of iron to the people of the island, The Celtic migration continued for many
centuries till the Romans invaded them in 55 B.C. Britain is a derivative of
Brython.
1.3 CELTIC BRITAIN
The arrivals of the Gaelic and tile Brythons marked the Bronze, and Iron ages
respectively. The Celts draped themselves with animal skin. They tilled the
ground and opened up tin and lead mines and established trade contacts with
their neighbours. They split themselves up into groups and submitted to the
control of a chieftain. A love of beautiful, ornamented things and a desire for
fierce battle were the distinguishing features of the Celts. The warriors fought on
horseback, rode chariots wearing bronze helmers and armour enriched by
ornament. Even the great Julius Caesar was struck by the might of these men in
chariot-fighting. Cassivellanus and Queen Boadica of the Iceni tribe were the two
great persons who offered fierce resistance to the Romans when they invaded
them. Druidism (one of the earliest pre-historic religions) was practised by the
Celts. The Druids carried out the ritual of human sacrifice to a ruthless pitch.
About hundred years before the Roman conquest a new group of tribe, called the
Belgic tribe. (Celts of German origin) overpowered the existing Celts. They were
culturally more advanced. Potter's wheel the use of coins and the art of
fortification were the specialities of this race. The Maiden Castle in Dorset, with
its complicated pattern of ditch and earthern wall is a Belgic contribution. They
built the first settlement in Britain, known as Camulodunum, a distant version
of a town. Here ruled Cunobelin, the Cymbeline of Shakespeare and perhaps the
old king Cole of the nursery rhyme. These men changed the use of iron bar for
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purposes of trade and replaced them with coins. They traded freely with Rome
setting up a trading station on the northern banks of the Thames, unknowingly,
laying the foundation for the emergence of the magnificent trading centre, the
city of London. The Celts were known for their extraordinary vitality.
1.4 ROMAN BRITAIN
Britain’s authentic recorded history commences only after the Roman Conquest.
Caesar came, saw and conquered' the Celts in 55 B.C. But the prudent Celtic
chief Cassivellaunus promised a tribute and surrender on condition that the
Romans left the island. Benedict Bishop the traveller (638-690), Bede the
teacher and historian (673-735); Alcuin the scholar (735-804), Wilfred,
Archbishop of York (630-709), Alfred the Great (849-901) and Dunstan the
churchman, scholar and statesman (925-988).
Alfred the Great subdued the Danes and established an independent kingdom
enabling his successors to resist Danish opposition and unite the Wessex and
Danish kingdoms into the single kingdom of England (900-975). The Danish
invasions had become frequent and the Danes conquered Britain in 1002. The
Danish king Canute (1017-35) ruled Britain for twenty-eight years. In 1042 the
English dynasty was restored by Edward the Confessor.
The Anglo-Saxans were tillers of the soil, hunters by compulsion and fierce sea-
rovers by temperament. In appearance they were big, large-limbed men with
blue-grey eyes and ruddy of face. They were relentless, savage, daring and
exhibited a passion for independence that has always marked the English race.
The freeman had his house with its long hall, where he ate and slept with his
comrades on the straw-strewn floor. The women kept the house, spinning and
weaving garments for the men. In social life, there was a Ministrel or Gleeman in
each household who sang songs at the close of the day.
Agriculture was the chief business among the people. Wheat, Oats and barley
were grown. Cattle, pigs and sheep were reared, not by individual enterprise, but
by the community as a whole. The notable craftsmen were the spinners,
weavers, shoemakers, carpenters and smiths. They traded with Ireland, France,
Germany and Scandinavia. Their principal ports were London, Chester, Bristol
and Dover.
Even at this early period there were differences, between the rich and the poor.
The influential nobles inhabited long, low halls surrounded by a large courtyard.
The lesser nobles lived in timber - built straw-thatched homesteads, and the
poor lived in mere wattle huts. They wore gaily coloured dresses made of coarse
cloth. The chief garment was a short cloak beneath a wollen tunic extending
from neck to knee, gathered at the waist by a belt. They wore shoes and wollen
caps. Both men and women were fond of ornaments like rings, bracelets,
necklaces of amber, jet and other precious metals.
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2.1 MEDIEVAL BRITAIN
The Norman Conquest in 1066 inaugurated decisive changes in the history of

Britain. William the Conqueror, the great Norman, defeated the Anglo Saxon
King Harold in 1066. The Normans conserved all that was best in English
institutions speech of the people changed.
2.1.1. Early Norman Period

The Early Norman Period (1066 - 1154) is one of settlement after conquest. The
society became feudal. Trade and industry expanded. Finance, law, and
education underwent reformative changes. The distinguishing feature of Norman
influence was seen in architecture. The Normans constructed castles of stone,
abbeys, and cathedrals with massive walls, pillars and semi-circular arches. The
White Tower of the Tower of London, the Keeps of Rochester, Norwich and
Kenilworth Castles, the Cathedrals of Durham and Norwich and the Abbeys of
Tewkesbury and. Furness are existing samples of Norman architecture.
2.1.2. Early Plantagenet Period

The Early Plantagenet Period (1154 - 1272) is important in respect of the
consolidation of the English nation. The struggle for power between the civil and
religious heads had started. Henry II and Thomas Becket, and the King John
and Pope Innocent III are the earliest contenders for power. Henry II reformed
the political and judicial systems. Magna Carta established the national liberty
of the English. King John yielded to the barons who proved their might in the
conflict between them and the king. John was forced to grant, sign and seal the
historic document called the Magna Carta, the great charter of English freedom.
It confirmed the rights claimed by the nobles, the clergy and the people of the
land. It is the basis of the rights and liberties which the English still enjoy.
2.1.3. Later Plantagenet Period

The Later Plantagenet Period (1272-1340): This is a period of national
expansion. Parliament was organized as a representative body with power to
participate in the government. Simon de Montfort brought about some changes
in the Parliament. Besides the usual lords and churchmen, the Parliament
included knights from each country and representatives from each borough,
which is the special name for a charted town. Edward I defeated Montfort. He
did not wish to Yield any of his power to Parliament, but he hoped to rule more
efficiently by keeping in touch with people and popular opinion. His son Edward
II was a weak king and was murdered by Lord Mortimer, his wife's favourite.
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Check your progress

Notes :a) What do you know about Celtic Britain?
b) Briefly illustrate the history of Roman Britain.
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LESSON-2
CHAUCER'S ENGLAND (1340-1413)
CONTENTS
2.0. Aim and objective
2.1. Political Background
2.2. The Hundred Year's War
2.3. The Fourteenth Century English society
2.4. Literature of the time
2.5. Social life
2.6. Caxton’s England
i) To examine Chaucer’s England and its background.

ii) To felicitate the reader about the fourteenth century civic life.
The Age of Chaucer 'speaks with many voices' the story of the shaping of the
English nation amidst a vortex of revolts, revivals and revelations. England
acquired a national, racial and linguistic identity during Chaucer's time. The
upper class French and the peasant class Anglo-Saxon merged to form the new
English race. England was beginning to shed her Franco-Latin influences in
Literature and Politics to bring forth her own individual forms. In Literature,
Chaucer (1340-1400) struck an individual note that was typically English. The
birth of the new national spirit determined her triumphs in wars, especially, the
Hundred Year's War. With the formation of the nation emerged the English
tongue. The Saxon and French words in a happy blend gave rise to the new
native language that was readily accepted as the vehicle of learning literature
and legal studies. The tremors of the Renaissance were beginning to be felt in
English literature with Chaucer as the forerunner. The typical Medieval
institutions like Feudalism and the Papacy were staggering under the strain of
modern thought, idea and approach, paving the way for great cultural-changes.
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While the country was forging ahead, it had also to bend under the burden of
natural calamities and social upheavals. The Black Death of the Peasants' Revolt
were the unforgettable and epoch – making events of the era.
This era is a very definite starting point for the study of English social life
because England had outgrown her foreign leanings to flower into an
independent nation with a strong character; fine culture, sharp intellect and
subdued emotions.
2.1 POLITICAL BACKGROUND
At the time of the deposition of Edward II, his son had just outgrown his
adolescence. He was subjected to the over lordship of his mother Isabella; the
'she-wolf' of France. A group of nobles, along with the young king; who had
grown sensitive to the humiliation of his dependence on his vile mother, plotted
against her and Mortimer (her paramour). They arrested Mortimer and put him
to a traitor's death. The status of mother and her royal lineage saved Isabel~.
Edward began his rule by himself three years after his accession.
Richard II (1377-1399)
Edward III died in ignoble death in 1377 deserted by his courtiers and robbed by
his own mistress. As the Black Prince had died before his father, his son,
Richard of Bordeaux, a boy of ten, succeeded Edward III. No regent was
appointed, but a council ruled in the King's name, of which John of Gaunt,
Edward III's third son and the brother of Black Prince, was the chief.
Henry IV (1399-1413)
Richard II turned a despot. Henry of Bolingbroke laid a claim to the throne.

Richard set aside that dispute planning to settle it later. He went on an
expedition to Ireland. Meanwhile, Henry of Bolingbroke took advantage of the
absence of Richard II. Usurping the throne, he declared himself king. On his
return, Richard II was imprisoned and disposed.
These were the three kings that ruled during the period of Chaucer. The major
events of the period are: The Hundred Years War, The Black Death, The
Peasant's Revolt and the Lollard Movement.
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2.2 THE HUNDRED YEAR'S WAR
Dynastic ambitions, expansion of territories and the pleasure of plunder usually

constitute the motives for wars in general. The Hundred Years', War stemmed
from Edward ill's claim to the French throne. But that was not the only cause.
The French king coveted Gascony which was in the possession of the English.
The French competed with England in the wool trade in Flanders. They were its
rivals at sea also. What made the Hundred Years' War historically significant
were the efficiency of Edward's warriors and the spirit of nationalism they
exhibited. The death of Charles IV of France without a male heir to the throne
posed a succession problem. Edward was the son of Isabella, sister of Charles IV
in the absence of a direct descendant, the next in line of succession was Edward
III. But the French hurriedly crowned Philip of Valois, the dead King's uncle, as
Philip VI, in order to avoid an English King. Rivalry at sea and in the well trade
culminated in the inevitable war, with a very remote claim to the throne. Edward
III set out in 1337, with a parade of arms assuming high – sounding titles.
Edward's Dutch campaigns exhausted high resources and diminished his
reputation; and his German Confederates did not strengthen his hand as he had
hoped. But the most decisive fighting was the Battle of Sluys in l340. The French
Navy was absolutely destroyed and England held command of the English
Channel for many years with the capture of the Flemish Port of Sluys. With the
Black Prince on his side, Edward conquered Crecy and Calais thereby becoming
a hero to his people and Europe. He signed a Peace Treaty at Calais in 1360
which was a proof of English victory as the Duchy of Aquitaine was enlarged and
released from French over lordship. Edward III renounced his claim to the
French throne. He had astonished the world with the power of his beloved son,
the Black Prince, and his formidable militia, the long bowmen and had won
eternal glory in the battle. He and his long bowmen became synonymous with
velour and victory. But the war with France was not to end with Edward's
success. It was fought for over a century, thou~ not continuously but
intermittently, with success and failure swinging from side to side. England won
brilliant victories at Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt, but it faced defeat in the
Hundred Years' War in 1453.
The incessant war with France was a great drain on the financial resources of
the country. It was a national disaster. The constant warfare resulted in the
spread of violence, anarchy and brigandage. The barons got used to a life of war
and the soldiers enjoyed fighting just for the pleasure of fighting and plunder.
This was one of the reasons why the Wars of the Roses started barely two years
after the Hundred Years' War. In spite of all these bad effects of the war, the
Hundred Years' War became a blessing in disguise because the stress of war
found expression in national consciousness, alert Parliament, a reformed
Church and a reconstructed social life. The intense national hatred for the
French gave birth to the English language. Statutory proclamations were made
to 3cbolish French and substitute it with English which later flowered into a
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copious language of international importance. Chaucer and Wycliffe shaped it

and with the invention of the printing press and the wide circulation of
Chaucer's works the language acquired beauty, dignity and strength.
2.3 THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY ENGLISH SOCIETY
The society of Chaucer's time was feudal in structure. The rural society was
constituted by the Lord of Manor or his agents on the one side. The lords and
the serfs; the two pillars of the Manorial system, were losing their mutual trust
and independence gradually during this period. The strip-cultivation of the
Anglo-Saxon period enabled him to preserve his personal freedom and live a co-
operative life. Bur the advent of feudalism marred the joy of freedom and bound
him to the soil of the lord of the manor, The lives of the serfs were so totally
servile that they were deprived of the free will to decide even their own family
affairs, like, for example, the marriages of their own children. The Lord of the
Manor was almost a living god who had an unwritten, absolute power over the
villains of his demesne. The serfs owed their masters field service despite having
their own holdings. Feudalism, a legacy of the fourteenth century, had become
firmly established In England, but the peasants were not in absolute bondage to
their lords like France, because every English peasant reared his own sheep and
he was not at the mercy of his landlord for livelihood. Feudalism in England
offered stability, security and peace. The serfs did not feel the pangs and pains
of slavery and injustice at the hands of their lords.
Natural calamities are great levelers of injustice, felt or unfelt, protested or

unprotested. A pestilence of unprecedented dimension struck the land in 1348,
claiming the lives of two millions of people. Generally known as the Black Death,
the disease left gruesome memories to the survivors with its swift onset, blotches
and malignant carbuncles. The country came under its attack twice in the same
century (1349, 1361 - 62, 1369). This astounding calamity altered the whole
character of English history.
The abrupt reduction of farm labourer by death left English agriculture at

crossroads and the feudal Structure experienced its first jolt. This condition gave
scope for the farm labourer to demand high wages. The surviving labourer
annexed the derelict holding and became a mini-lord known as the Yeoman:
England witnessed a peculiar class struggle precipitated by the Black Death. The
struggle was between the baron and the serf, the baron and the Yeoman, and
the Yeoman and the labourer.
The farmer of the fourteenth century was growing conscious of his rights. He
defied the Manor Court and sought redressal through representation to the
Parliament. John Ball, a priest of Kent, opened the eyes of the labourers pointing
out that it is because of us and our toil that these men hold their estate. When
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the Parliament levied a poll-tax to offset the heavy expense of the war; the
peasants rose in revolt.
The Peasants’ revolt gained impetus by the encouragement of a parallel religious

movement. Headed by John Wycliffe, this movement protested against the
material greed and spiritual arrogance of the ecclesiastical authorities. They
identified themselves and their causes with the peasants and fanned the fire of
the revolt with active as well as passive co-operation. Watt Tayler led the
insurgents. The agitators were met by the boy King Richard II and the orally
granted pardon to them. But the death of Watt Taylor turned the tables. The
barons declared the King's oral grant null and void and put down the revolution
with an iron hand.
The ecclesiastical community, during this period, had failed in its spiritual
mission. Feudal arrogance usurped spiritual piety and the parson's position was
similar to that of a serf in a manor house. Wycliffe, an Oxford academician
censured the Ceasarian self-importance and thirst for power of the clergy. He
exposed the irreligious practice of the Church such as the worship of images,
sale of pardons and masses. The followers of Wycliffe were known as the
Wycliffites or Lollard. The Lollard’s kept on muttering something to themselves
which earned them the name Lollards' which means ‘idle bablers’. Wycliffe has
been justly called ‘the Morning Star of Reformation’, because he was the first
and foremost scholar to attack the church from within, on all that the Church
had come to believe about itself. This movement was quelled by persecution.
The general spirit of restlessness of the age found among peasant and the clergy
spread to the University. Oxford, the centre of intellectual activity came under
the grip of Lollardism as Wycliffe was a scholar. The University split in two as
the secular clergy and the regular clergy. The medieval University system was
not commendable as the students were riotous, lawless and licentious. There
was a violent strife between the 'town' and the 'gown’ (priests). The townsmen
massacred clerks and students. The King intervened and closed down the
university. Later William of Wickham established the Winchester Grammar
School in I382 and restored discipline and order. In the second half of the
fourteenth country situation changed and much importance was given to
learning and development of character.
2.4 LITERATURE OF THE TIME
The nascent literature of England breathes the spirit and strength of the
contemporary English society. Chaucer, Langland, Wycliffe and Gower are the
pillars on whose shoulders rest the glorious edifice of English literature. Chaucer
brought alive the medieval society in his ' The Canterbury Tales'. He concerned
himself with the largeness, variety and complexity of the fourteenth century
society. We get a two-pronged view of the society from Chaucer's The Canterbury
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Tales and Langland’s Piers Plowman. While Chaucer ridicules human folly
unoffending in an amusing vein, Langland censures the immorality,
licentiousness and irreligiousness of the age with his idealistic yardstick.
Langland's world is the world of the poor with their problems of misery, hunger,
toil and monotony. Wycliffe's schemes of reforms heralded the birth of English
Protestantism. Gower bewailed the corruptions of the medieval society and
religion.
2.5 SOCIAL LIFE
Luxury and leisure are the innovators of cultural habits. The long gowns of
Chaucer were discarded by his younger contemporaries for short coats and tight
hosen. The youth of the day paraded in blazing colours with pointed shoes and
gilded coats. Women and even men had a fascination for headgears of fantastic
shapes like horns, turbans and towers. French food, French furniture and
French fashion were the craze of the day.
The woodland overflowed with games and game keeping was the pastime of the
landed gentry. Poaching was a passion with all sections of the society. Politics,
lawsuits and local administration were the chief interests of the gentry. Field
sports and tournaments were their favourite hobbies on the home front.
The fabric of Chaucer's England was wrought with wars, epidemic, social strifes
and religious discontentment. With the collapse of the Manorial system the
social structure lost its feudal roof. Tile first wave of Modernism broke upon
English shores from Chaucer’s period.
2.6 CAXTON’S ENGLAND
Caxton’s England presents a spectacle of savage battles, ruthless executions,

murderous treasons and selfish malevolence. A great redeeming factor amidst
this chaotic state of affairs was that the civil strife of the lords was confined to
them and did not extend to rest of the society. The Battle of Agincourt (1415)
boosted the English ego to the point of justifying their aggression and plunder of
France. Kings and barons turned warmongers and their subjects admired them
in their triumphs and spurned them in their failures. Lollardy, weakened by
persecution and suppression, could not unseat Papal supremacy. The long
conflict between the Parliament and the Crown since the days of Edward I
resulted in the great securities of national liberty, the right of freedom from
arbitrary taxation, legislation, imprisonment and the accountability of .the king
to law and Parliament was brought into force: The influence of Italian
Renaissance manifested itself in the architecture of the day. But literature,
during this period, was as its lowest ebb. Chaucer's immediate successors were
mere imitators and translators. The event of far reaching social consequence was
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the invention of the Printing-Press. It accelerated the pace of learning, infused a

new intellectual culture, refashioned religion and reconstructed the social life of
the people. At the time of its invention it was looked upon as a new toy of
science which enabled to promote literacy and learning. But none had foreseen
the might of the machine in uprooting religious institutions and causing political
upheavals in the centuries to come, for it is truly said that the printed word
destroys the faith.
Henry IV (1399-1413): Henry Bolingbroke assumed the title of Henry IV after

overthrowing Richard II. He had no legal claim to the throne, but he somehow
managed to get the support of the Parliament.
Henry V (1413-1422): On the death of Henry IV, his son became the King. Henry
V was a youth of twenty-six. In many respects he was model king. Historians
applaud him as a typical medieval hero and the flower and glory of knighthood.
Henry VI (1422-1461): Henry VI was an infant when Henry V died. So his uncle
Duke of Bedford was appointed as the Protector of England and the Regent of
France till he came of age.
Edward IV (1461-1483): In the Wars of the Roses, the Lancastrians were
completely defeated and Edward IY became the King of England.
Richard III (1483-1485): Edward IV was succeeded by his minor son Edward V.
His uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, became the Protector of the Kingdom.
Edward V, and his brother were murdered by Richard, Duke of Gloucester.
Richard ruled as Richard III. He fought the last battle of the Wars of the Roses
and was defeated by Henry Tudor.
Check your progress

Notes : i) The Hundred year’s War
ii) What picture do you have about the fourteenth century English society?
iii) What do you know about Caxton?
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LESSON-3
WARS OF THE ROSES (1455-85)
CONTENTS
3.1. Wars of the roses
3.2. Fifteenth century English society
3.3. Civic life
i) To provide the background on wars of the Roses.

ii) To felicitate about fifteenth century England.
3.1 WARS OF THE ROSES
The war campaigns with France ended in a disaster. The mighty English were
humbled. Internally, the nobles were at war with themselves. Dynastic feuds
were inherited by their posterity. Duke of Somerset, the chief minister Henry VI
was strengthening his weak claims to the throne. Suspecting his cunning
designs, the Duke of York stirred to action. He raised an army of 10,000 men
and advanced upon St. Albany. This was the first battle of the Wars of the
Roses.
In the fierce battle, the Duke of York emerged victorious. The king was suffering
from fits of madness and the nobles took advantage of it. In the battle of 1460,
assisted the Earl of Warwick, the York’s took Henry VI prisoner. The Queen fled
to Scotland. When the Duke of York was gloating over the prospects of kingship
the birth of a son to the King frustrated his hopes. Nevertheless, he convened
the Royal Council and presented before them a petition of rights. The Council,
obviously concealing their annoyance, refused to dethrone the King, but
consented to ignore the rights of his son, and agreed to accept him as King after
the death of Henry VI. The open display of the rights of the Duke of York united
the partisans of the Royal House and thus extended the Wars of the Roses. The
Lancastrians fought with their badge of white rose and the York’s with their
badge of red rose. This is the justification for the name of the war. Anarchy ruled
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the kingdom. Bloodshed and tyranny knew no bounds. The nobles hired soldiers
.as they did agricultural labour and even there the men fought for those that
paid more. There was no question of loyalty.
Back in Scotland, Queen Margaret was secretly mobilizing the armies in the
north and marched to meet the Duke of York and Salisbury. In this war Queen
Margaret slew Richard, the Duke of York and the Duke of Salisbury. She
defeated the Earl of Warwick and recovered her husband in 1461.
Richard, Duke of York was succeeded by his son Edward who marched on
London with the support of the Earl of Warwick proclaiming the title of King
Edward IV: He pursued Queen Margaret, hunted her out and destroyed her
army. The king the queen and the Prince of Wales ran away. Edward IV became
king of England and ruled from 1461 to 1483. But he was frequently opposed by
other contending lords.
King: Edward IV fell out with the Earl of Warwick. To avenge his wrongs, Earl of
Warwick sprang on Edward in a surprise attack and held him. He released him
on the guarantee that Edward obeyed his command. Initially Edward behaved
well but later he gave back the Earl of Warwick's treachery in the same coin. He
defeated Warwick who ran away to France and joined Queen Margaret. The Earl
of Warwick persuaded Margaret to let her son marry his daughter and promised
help. This time the tide was favourable to Warwick who captured London,
released Henry VI and put him back on the throne.
Once again Edward IV laid siege on London and captured Henry VI and fought
the bloody battle of baronet. The Earl of Warwick was killed. Queen Margaret
was beaten in the battle of Tewkesbury in 1471. Her son was killed in the battle.
The Lancastrian line was completely routed and Edward IV ruled in peace.
Edward IV was succeeded by his minor son Edward V in 1483 and their uncle,
Richard, Duke of Gloucester was appointed the Protector of England Richard the
hunch back, was conceived of evil and nourished from cruelty. He murdered the
minor king and his brother, and proclaimed himself King Richard III of England
in 1483. But the English hated him. In.1485 the battle of Basworth Field settled
this long drawn dynastic dispute. Henry Tudor won the battle of Bosworth Field
and Richard III was killed in the battle. Henry Tudor became King Henry VII
England entered a new era of peace, civilization, culture and progress.
The Wars of the Roses dealt a death blow to the Feudalistic anarchy of the
aristocracy. The extinction of the nobility was the inevitable consequence of
these suicidal wars. The decline of the aristocracy gave birth to the new middle-
class society which was to build up the future British Empire. It is significant to
note that London remained neutral in the war and the merchants and traders
did not participate or take sides in the war. It was not a national civil war but a
narrow, personal quarrel of larger proportions with bloody operations.
18
The letter of the Paston family, the Stonor and the Cely Papers are the windows
to the London social life of the fifteenth century. The spread of education
together with the invention of the printing press raised the mental standard of
the London public.
If Chaucer created English literature, it was Caxton who aimed at perfecting the
language. His devotion to literary pursuits compelled him to look for a common
dialect that could be understood by all the people belonging to the various
countries. He printed the works of Chaucer, Gower, Langland, Malory and
others. He himself translated Latin and French works.
The Fifteenth century gentry and laity were acutely aware of their ignorance and
illiteracy in the wake of the invention of the printing press. Reading habit
developed as the materials for reading were easily accessible and readily
available. Knowledge came out of the guarded monastic walls to the public place.
Everyone the rich and the poor evinced interest in the education of his children.
Except the very poor, the rest - the small gentry, yeomen burghers and
merchants - sent their children to the grammar schools. Municipal guilds, the
landed gentry and the burghers endowed generously to establish schools. The
spread of education to all sections of the society sowed the seeds of awareness
among the people.
Feudalism in its last stages manifested itself in aquasifeudal set up in the land.
The agricultural scene, in general, presented prospects more favourable to the
peasant than to the landlord. The d~ of farm hand, because of recurrent plague
gave scope for higher wages for hired labourer. The agricultural depression hit
the landlord. He collected exorbitant rent from his tenant and any resistance to
it was brutally dealt with.
3.2 FIFTEENTH CENTURY ENGLISH SOCIETY
Much light is thrown on the inner lives of men and women by the Paston Letters.
The Patriarchial society granted male supremacy in the society. Child marriages
and cradle weddings were common and unquestioned. Arranged marriages were
in vogue. The unawakened medieval mind had not yet learnt to look upon
marriage as a bond of mutual trust and love between the partners. Among the
poor in the governing factors of a marriage were primarily mercenary and then
the domestic accomplishment of the girl to run the family and rear children. In
all ranks of life a woman worked round tile clock with innumerable domestic
chores and responsibilities. She baked, brewed, cured and stored the meat. She
made the family clothing and met the dairy requirements of the house. Spinsters
were accommodated in the nunnery.
19
3.3 CIVIC LIFE
In towns and villages many guilds organized pageantry and merriment. Apart
from maintaining schools, chantries, alms houses etc., they staged miracle plays
also. Famous plays, legends and Bible stories constituted the theme of these
plays. This was the beginning of the English Drama that groomed Marlowe,
Shakespeare, Dryden and a host of others.
All sections of the society prospered through the increase of trade and
commerce. Fifteenth century was the time of the greatest influence of the Crafts
Guilds. These societies offered a forum for the members of the concerned trade
to express their, problems and seek redressal.
New inventions surfaced in the mode of fighting also. The use of fire arms and
light hand guns were coming into use. But the English archer still reigned
supreme. The joyful background of the country life was hunting, hawking,
snaring and fishing conducted by the parsonage, monastery, manor - house and
castle with pompous show. Wrestling, running, shooting and throwing stones or
bars were also played and watched with enthusiasm. It is intereS1ing to note
that the art of playing cards came in during this period. The design and dress of
the present cards are still based on the fifteenth century English costume.
People gathered at the Church on festival days and many competitions were
conducted.
The fifteenth century was simmering with the discontent of the medieval
institutions and it was brought to a bend in the next century in the wake of new
monarchy, new learning and new discoveries.
Check your prograess
Notes : i) Explain Wars of the Roses.
ii) Comment on the social life of fifteenth century England.
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LESSON-4
TUDOR ENGLAND
PART I (1485-1558)
KINGS: HENRY VILL (1485-1509); HENRY VIII (1509-1547); EDWARD VI
(1547-1553); MARY (1553-1558). EVENTS: RENAISSANCE AND
REFORMATION
CONTENTS
4.2. The Renaissance
4.3. Revival of learning
4.4. English Church
4.5. The Reformation
4.6. The reaction
4.7. The results
i) To felicitate the reader about two major historical events – Renaissance and
Reformation.
The Tudor Era exuded splendour and majesty donning the attire of Modern
spirit and thought, wriggling out of its medieval rags. The last remnants of the
medieval Institutions faded out as the country came under the sway of a host of
new influences the emancipation of the Villains, the Studies of the Renaissance,'
the rise of the middle-class, the cloth trade; the spirit of nationalism, the
adoption of the English language, the printing press, the knowledge of the Bible,
the awareness of church monopoly and the resultant Reformation - in the
presence of these momentous changes the social revolution quite successfully.
The Tudor Kings asserted their strength despotically over their nobles, clergy
and foreign agencies. Despite the prevalent cry for new ways of life and thought,
the people of Tudor England preserved the form and spirit of much that was old.
The Tudor monarchs let most of the orders, corporations and institutions of
21
medieval life remain intact on the single condition that they pledge
unquestioning submission and unflinching loyalty to the sovereignty of the state.
Universities, nobles, lawyers, bishops and secular clergy and town corporations
survived in the old forms. The barons and commoners, the clergy and the laity –
all were made equal before the law of the land. A new idea of a national State
with a National Church attached to it had evolved. Trade guilds disappeared as
the State began regulating trade; Honorary Justices of peace were appointed to
form a link between the 'central authority and local administration. The
establishment of the Royal Navy and the diplomatic Strategies in dealing with
foreign powers laid the corner stone for the future emergence of Imperial
England. The adventurous spirit of the English inspired the rising generation
and set them on an explorative spree of new lands. England was growing in all
directions and the English language reached its pinnacle of glory with
Shakespeare at its centre. The Tudors gave a new direction to the external and
expansive energies of the English people.
Tudor England covers a period of one hundred and eighteen years from 1485-
1603, but this is only a political date for social changes are inaccessible to
specific dates. This date is used as a convenient division for academic purpose.
The whole of Tudor period is dealt in two parts, allotting the second part
exclusively to the reign of Elizabeth I.
Henry VII (1485-1509): Henry Tudor emerged victorious in the final Wars of the
Roses and married the princess of York. He ruled for twenty four years and left
the kingdom to his son Henry VIII.
Henry VIII (1509-1547): Henry was a young man of eighteen at the time of his
accession. He brought about the English Reformation which is an important
event in the evolution of Christianity in England. His was a reign of terror and
he was a consummate despot. After his death, his son Edward VI, a boy of ten,
ascended the throne.
Edward VI (1547-1553): Edward VI’s age and health required a council of
regency and his father had named the advisors and their leader. The Duke of
Somerset was the chief. But Edward died of consumption at sixteen leaving the
throne to Lady Jane, by direction in a will. But a rebellion placed Mary Tudor on
the throne.
Mary Tudor (1553-1558): Mary's reign was unpopular. Her measures to restore
the Catholic faith led to her fall. Her husband's neglect and her own incapacity
ruined her health and in 1558 she died letting her sister Elizabeth ascend the
throne.
22
4.2 THE RENAISSANCE
The dawn of the sixteenth century brought along its trail a Series or momentous
changes that shook the entire European continent out of its torpor. New
inventions, new discoveries, new lands, new learning and new ideas widened the
horizons of knowledge, thought and perception. These were not overnight
occurrences but gradual transformations spread over a span of more than half a
century. This social, political, religious and cultural metamorphosis is generally
referred to as the renaissance. Historians define the term Renaissance as the
process of transition of Europe from the Medieval to Modern Era. The whole of
Europe set its old beliefs, superstitions and ideologies to embrace the new mode
of Life and learning. It appeared as though classical Europe of Greece and Rome
was reborn again.
The distant rumbles of the: reawakening was heard even in 1326. In the wake of
the fall of Constantinople the capital of the eastern Roman, Empire an exodus of
Greek scholars sought asylum in Italy. The despots of the Italian States offered
royal patronage to these scholars for enhancing the splendour of their courts,
and enriching their knowledge. But the germs of the renaissance sprouted
rapidly in the fertile soil of Italy under the leadership of literary luminaries like
Petrarch, Dante and Baccaccio. Florence, the home of freedom and of art became
the central of the intellectual Revival. The poetry of Homer, the drama of
Sophocles, the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle and the treatise of Cicero were
resurrected and the precious cargoes of the galleys of those days were not
diamonds and gold but the ancient manuscripts of the great literary giants of
Greece and Rome. Florence held the key of the new knowledge and crowds of
scholars flocked to learn Greek from the Florentine teachers. Grocyn, a fellow of
New College, Oxford was perhaps the first Englishman who studied Greek.
The Greek lectures that he delivered in Oxford on his return marked the
commencement of a new era in English history. The progress of English Science
dates from Linacre who revived the old tradition of medicine by his translation of
Galen. The Florentine studies of Colet threw open the gates of rational
Christianity in England.
4.3 REVIVAL OF LEARNING
The Revival of Letters had a pronounced moral and religious impact on 1he
society of England. Colet acquired the knowledge of a language that unlocked
the gospels and revealed the New Testament in a light hitherto unknown to the
people of the Middle Ages. He rejected the allegorical and mystical theology of
the middle Ages in preference to a rational and practical religion. The great
fabric of belief built up by the medieval doctors seemed to him simply the
23
corruptions of the Schoolmen. His new interpretation of the St. Paul's Epistles
reflected his religious zeal and moral earnestness. The audience stood mute
captivated by his speech. Even to the most critical among his hearers he seemed
like one inspired, raised invoice, eye, his whole countenance and mien, out of
himself. He practiced what he preached. Clad in black robe he led a fife of severe
austerity. The lively conversation and nobility of nature of the man fascinated
Erasmus and Thomas More who were chief among his disciples. Erasmus saw
Plato in Colet and discovered the same polish and learning of the Italian
scholars in the, Oxford scholars like Grocyn, Thomas More, Linacre and the
Archbishop of Warham. Erasmus was alive to the follies of the contemporary
society and he ridiculed the ignorance of the old world, the superstitions of the
monk, the pedantry of the grammarian and the dogmatism of the theologians in
his little book 'The Praise of Folly. The erudite scholar devoted himself to the
cause of enlightening the masses and his efforts gained impetus by the printing
press. In the last phase of the fifteenth century ten thousand editions of books
and pamphlets were published throughout Europe. Almost all the great authors
of Greece and Rome were accessible to every aspiring student of literature, art
and philosophy. “For the first time men opened their eyes and saw” - writes
Taine on the influence of the books. Experimental science, the science of
philology, the science of politics, the science of religion - all emanated from the
spirit of inquiry, love of freedom and aesthetics that were the characteristic
features of the Renaissance.
In England the influence of the New Learning manifested itself in educational

reforms. Colet seized the opportunity to establish his own Grammar School
beside St. Pauls. The old methods of instruction were replaced by fresh
grammars composed by Erasmus and other scholars. The Oxford scholars
transformed the academic environs of the Universities with their teachings of
Greek and Latin. The New Testament of Erasmus was the topic of the day. The
Bible made available to the laity obliterated the agents between them and God.
The Court, the Universities and every household where the New Learning had
spread discussed and analysed Erasmus' Bible. The political and social
speculations of Sir Thomas More in the Renaissance vein found full expression
in his 'Utopia'. Lawyer by profession, Sir Thomas More visualises an ideal State,
Church and Society. Centuries of orthodox Christian teaching had produced
social injustice, religious intolerance and political-tyranny. Oppressed by the
degradation, More dreams of an 'Utopia' or 'Nowhere' where the natural human
order of equality, brotherhood and freedom is realised in the true sense of the
words. He also touches on the great problem& of labour, crime, conscience and
government.
While England was pruning off the old world ideas and concepts, certain other
changes were taking place in the other parts of the world. The physical
boundaries of the world were suddenly enlarged by the discoveries of some
Portuguese mariners and Columbus. America was added to the known regions of
the world and the new route to India through the Cape of Good Hope opened
new avenues of trade in the East. Sebastian Cabot threaded his way through the
24
icebergs of Labrador. 'The travels of Amerigo Vespucci' revealed the Western

World to the people. A reading of 'The Utopia' shows the narrowness of the
Middle Ages and how it is broken by new thoughts, faiths and ideas. The
characteristics features of the medieval society were dissolving in the new forces
of life. Feudalism began disappearing not only because of the revolt of the
peasants, but also of the barons’ destruction of themselves during the Wars of
the Roses. They lost their power in society by virtue of the reduction of their
numbers and wealth. The heyday of the smaller property owners-the squires, the
lawyers and the merchants--commenced. They depended on the Crown to
protect them against any revival of baronial power and the king (especially king
Henry VIII) also wasted no time in establishing an alliance with them to preserve
peace and order in the country. Monarchy was gaining ground with the advent of
the Tudors and together with them the age also belonged to the wool merchant
and clothier. The power had altered the mode of warfare. The new class
demanded a public recognition of their rise to power by declaration of titles and
honours. The Crown because the object of veneration and Shakespeare offers a
variety of instances of the royal glory of the symbols of a king:
“-------the balm, the sceptre, and the ball,
The sword, the mace, the crown imperial,
The intertissued robe of gold and pearl”
4.4 ENGLISH CHURCH
Royal authority and property of the nation in general, expressed themselves in

many ways and the chief among them were art and architecture. The changing
panorama was minored by the artistic pursuits of the people and the
architectural splendour of the day. The magnificent chapel at King's College,
Cambridge is one of the finest achievements of the late middle Ages. Henry VI
started the construction but financial constraints and defeat in wars prevented
its completion. The building stood roofless for years till Lady Margaret, mother of
Henry VII, persuaded her son to pay for its completion. "What the last
Lancastrian had started for the glory of God, the first Tudor finished for the glory
of his dynasty." It was regarded as an architectural marvel. The ruins of the
ancient civilizations of Rome and Greece were everywhere visible reminding a
bygone age and a way of life alien to the medieval society. The dead world offered
a new source of life and scholars avidly studied the antique remnants of the
past. England wore a new look with copies of ancient buildings and statues
everywhere. In fact, initially, this revival of arts was called the Renaissance and
later it was extended to other areas as well. When Henry VII died, his son Henry
VIII brought over a sculptor from Florence to carve a tomb worthy of his father.
The inner effigies of Henry and his queen belong to the architectural pattern of
the Renaissance and not to the then customary Gothic form. English
architecture turned into a new course. Even Church buildings were designed in
25
the new style. The distinguished coterie of the Renaissance movement in art of
that period were Michaelangelo, Raphael and Leonardo Davinci The statues of
David, Moses and the Pieta are the immortal glories of Michaelangelo. As a
painter he is famous for his fresco of tile 'Last Judgement'. Raphaell excelled
everyone in painting magnificent pictures most of these being Madonnas. Mona
Lisa' of Leonardo Davinci even to this day had survived as a painting of
unsurpassing beauty and standard. The proverbial mysterious smile of Mona
Lisa is a proof of the painter's genius Leonardo was not only a painter, he was a
poet, sculptor, musician, scientist and an engineer as well, 'The Last Supper' a
fre.sco on the walls of the refectory of Malia delle Grazie in Milan is a wonderful
piece of art. Columns, domes and round arches replaced the pointed arches and
spires. St. Peter's Basilica in Rome is the greatest example of this new style. By
the beginning of the sixteenth century Rome had become the artistic capital of
the Western World. The Pope, the greatest of all patrons, spent money lavishly
on painters, sculptors and architects. The efforts to modernise the church
building in the Renaissance style ironically backfired and caused one of the
remarkable revolutions in the ecclesiastical history. The obsession with money
induced the Pope to commercialise indulgences and he announced that
atonement of sins would be available for monetary assistance to the
construction of St. Peter's Basilica. The resistance and protest of Martin Luther,
a Benedictine monk of Germany, against this privilege triggered off a schism in
the Roman Church, commonly known as the Reformation. This is a religious
complement of the cultural Renaissance. Martin Luther nailed to the door of the
Wittenberg church a list of criticism on the anomalies in the church practices of
the day, This sparked off a series of incidents and the monk led the movement to
break away from the church of Rome. The questioning of spirit of the
Renaissance played a vital role in this event. 1'he knowledge of the Bible of the
laymen through the Greek and Latin rendering of Erasmus, and the accessibility
of the scripture to all because of the printing press, gave an added impetus to
the religious movement. The new pattern of thought evolved the theory of
observation and experiment in the scientific field marked the birth of new
theories in the field of astronomy. His theory of the solar systems disproved the
beliefs of medieval scholars. The invention of the Mariner’s compass facilitated
the exploration of the distant seas. John Gutenberg the inventor of the printing
machine and Caxton in England quickened the literary Renaissance. Whatever
was committed to memory and preserved in parchments came to be produced in
innumerable quantities of printed books. The closed mind of the medieval
society had to yield to the multi-faceted attack of the Renaissance which
certainly rang the death knell of medieval theology, cosmology and literature.
4.5 THE REFORMATION
The Renaissance scholarship, in due course, became counterproductive, in the

sense that the remedies it offered to the maladies of the social political and
religious systems had certain undesirable side effects. Sir Thomas More and
26
Erasmus meant only reforms in the Church and not overthrow of the Church;
they satirised despotism not for perpetuating it; they pleaded the cause of justice
between the rich and the poor not for fanning the discontent. But in reality that
was what happened. The Renaissance and the Reformation represent the
permanent gulf existing between idealism and reality, between the spirit of
revolution and the act of revolution. The whole European continent was bending
its head in shame at the corrupt practices of the Church of Rome. The Popes
were undermining their own prestige walking on the world as earthly gods. They
focused their attention on the expansion of the church buildings and on the
increase of papal wealth much to the neglect of the spiritual mission, the sole
purpose of their existence. Salvation of souls became secondary to the business
of tax-collection. Pope Julius II ventured to construct a new majestic cathedral
pulling down the medieval Church of St. Peter. The project involved a huge sum
of money and in their enthusiasm the clergy declared pardon to the sinners if
they freely donated to the construction of St. Peter's Basilica. When the
construction was in progress during the regime of Pope Leo X, a frolicking Pope,
they ran short of funds. Hence a proclamation was made to grant Indulgences to
those who donated generously, to raise the enormous sum of money required.
They took their secure position and power and the submission of the people for
granted. The commercialisation of Indulgences roused the indignation of Martin
Luther, a German Benedictine Monk. He said that the Indulgences
announcement was a deliberate encouragement of false doctrines to meet
extravagant expenditure. The smouldering discontent burst into a fury. He
nailed to the doors of Wittenberg Church a list of his criticisms on the abuse of
Indulgences and Papal power. Pope Leo X on his way to a hunting expedition
issued a Papal Bull excommunicating Martin Luther. Martin Luther defied the
ecclesiastical authority and publicly consigned the Bull to flames. Even at the
Diet at Worms, where he was summoned to explain his stand, he reiterated the
same and stuck to his view. He openly denounced not merely the abuses of
Papacy but Papacy itself. The moral revolt won him wide acclaim and a large
number of followers. In his own way, he accomplished what the Oxford scholars
could not for years with their sophisticated and refined appeal to the clergy and
the laity. This was the beginning of the Reformation. A similar movement in
Swit7.erland by Wrich Zwingli was started. A few years later John Calvin began
in France what Luther had done in Germany. All these leaders of the
Reformation completely broke away from the Roman Church and set up new
churches of then own on what they believed to be right. There was no consensus
among these reformers which complicated the strife between the old and new
faiths. But Luther's spirit spread everywhere.
England was horrified by the ways and actions of the audacious heretic of
Germany. Luther's controversial works were banned and burnt. The old spirit of
persecution was revived. The young king Henry VIII displayed his knowledge of
theology in his 'Assertion of the Seven Sacraments' answering the charges of
Luther. For his noble deed Pope Leo conferred on him the title 'Defender of the
Faith'. Martin Luther's sentiments were not echoed by the English reformers.
27
Dogmatic approach to anything was against the spirit of; the Renaissance,
because it annihilated piety and wisdom of the classic~ past. The insent which
Sir Thomas More and his Oxford coterie used to regenerate knowledge and
religion had been used to sever Christendom into warring factions. Though these
elderly scholars disapproved, some young scholars went to Germany and turned
ardent disciples of Martin Luther. Chief among them was William Tyndale who
published an English New Testament in 1525. The book was condemned and
burnt in the churches but all the same a good number of eager and enthusiastic
youngsters read it with interest. Though the English air smelt of the zeal of
Reformation, the actual break with the church was not caused by display of
public discontent but by the self-will and despotism of the king.
In the meantime, Thomas Wolsey had been inducted into the services of King
Henry VIII. His extraordinary abilities won him the favour of the young king and
he was raised to the level of a minister. His diplomacy kept England out of war.
The king trusted him in personal as well as political matters. The intimacy with
the king and the power thus he held intoxicated him. He lived as ostentatiously
as a prince in a palatial mansion with an army of attendants. In raising the
status of his favourite Henry VIII was gathering all civil and religious authority
into his personal grasp. The public feared and respected Wolsey. The nation
which trembled before Wolsey, learned to tremble before the king who could
destroy Wolsey by a breath, says J .R. Green.
Henry VIII became a full-fledged despot acquiring every vice and virtue that went
into the making of one. The war with France did not end as he had expected.
The alliance of the French King and Charles V of Spain left English weak. In
France after Louis XII, his cousin Francis became the king. hl Spain steady
rivalry between these two and all the states of Europe ranged themselves either
with France is or Charles V. Wolsey practised the foreign policy of balancing
strong European powers against weak ones and due to this successful policy; for
several years peace prevailed in England. At one point of time Charles was
growing powerful and Francis was becoming weak. On the advice of Wolsey, who
feared that Charles might become too powerful, Henry broke with Charles and
made peace with France. But though Henry professed himself an ally of France,
he did not offer help when Charles waged a war against Francis. In this war
Charles emerged as the supreme Emperor.
The years of peace bored King Henry VIII. At a period when he had severed his
connection with Charles, Henry began to lose interest in the seventeen long
years of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, his Brother Arthur's widow.
Suddenly he was disturbed by the scruples of marrying his brother's widow. His
mind was filled with the superstition that the absence of a male heir to the
throne was due to his sinful marriage. The sudden realisation of this guilt was
actually caused by his new found love for Anne Boleyn. Anne Boleyn was the
beautiful and lively daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, a Norfolk gentleman of
Henry's court. Henry wanted to divorce Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn. The
Catholic Church to which Henry VIII belonged laid it down that marriages
28
solemnised in the church could not be dissolved. 'Divorce' could be obtained

only by declaring that a marriage had never been a valid one from the beginning.
The law of marriage was complicated, but still resourceful kings like Henry VIIl
could persuade the church to grant divorce as they pleased. Expecting no
opposition, Henry suggested to Cardinal Wolsey that he must declare his
marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of Emperor Charles V, invalid. The
Cardinal tried to appeal to the good senses of the King, but that was of no use.
The more Wolsey remonstrated, the more the king became obstinate and was
determined to divorce Catherine. This act involved political implications as
Charles V was a close relative of Catherine. Just then Charles V had sacked the
Pope and taken him prisoner. Henry, however had to apply for Papal permission
for divorce to Clement VII, who could not decide in favour of Henry for fear of
antagonising Charles V Henry, in his application, pointed out that the
permission given by Pope Julius II to marry Catherine was wrong and on that
ground his marriage should be regarded invalid from the start. This directly
pointed out the lapses of Church administration. Pope Clement was obliged to
reject the appeal to uphold the dignity of his office and not to enrage Emperor
Charles V. Instead of hearing the case and passing the verdict, Clement VII,
adopted delaying tactics. Henry suspected Wolsey. Clement VII appointed
Cardinal Campeggio and Cardinal Wolsey as the heads of the Commission to
examine the case.
Henry was sure to come through it with success because both the cardinals
were indebted to him one way or the other. Cardinal Wolsey appealed to
Catherine to move out of the palace and seek asylum in a convent. Catherine
pleaded with her husband. Charles V was anxiously watching the proceedings.
Within a short period, the Pope annulled the Commission and ordered the whole
business to be gone through again at Rome. Henry held Wolsey responsible for
this. He stripped him of all power and wealth and removed him from the
Chancellorship. Later Henry got him arrested for treason and the Cardinal died
an inglorious death in the Leicester Abbey. Soon after the fall of Wolsey, the
Parliament and the convocation assembled. Henry VIII accused the clergy of
breaking the law of Statute Praemunire, which forbade Englishmen carrying law,
suits out of the country. The clergy paid an enormous sum of money, frightened
to point out that the Statute had been neglected even by the king himself. The
next step of the king was to declare himself the Supreme Head of the Church
and the English church submissively accepted the declaration. Having
established his will, Henry began to pass Acts that checked the power of the
Pope. The Parliament which passed these Acts is known as the Reformation
Parliament. After the revival of the old law of Statute Praemunire, the Annates
(the payment of the first year's revenue of a new church) were transferred from
the Pope to the Crown (1532), in 1533 the Act of Appeals forbade Englishmen to
carry appeals from the English Church courts to the court of the Pope. Pope
Paul II; the successor of Clement VII, threatened the king with
excommunication. Henry retaliated with the Act of Supremacy which made it
treason to deny Henry the supreme Headship of the English Church. The king
29
had already secretly married Anne Boleyn and was entertaining her in the royal
palace as his wife. The Archbishopric of Canterbury fell vacant and Henry
appointed Cranmer, a Cambridge scholar, to that office. He was a pious, learned
and submissive man; The Act of Appeals made the English church court
supreme and there the new archbishop Cranmer declared that the marriage of
Catherine to Henry was unlawful and therefore invalid. The price Henry paid to
wed Anne Boleyn was the breach with Rome and not Protestant sentiments.
Hence the English Reformation brought about by Henry VIII was essentially
different from that of the Luthern Reformation in Europe.
4.6 THE REACTION
England's breach with Rome was complete like the Protestant churches in
Germany. But Henry despised Protestantism and professed to make no changes
in the doctrine, discipline and worship of the English Church. Hilaire Belloc
comments that Henry wished to keep England without the Pope. He also tried to
prove his old faith by seeking out the Protestants and burning them. But the
English Reformation was at once a religious, political and social change. A great
majority of the English subjects passively accepted the king's policy, more out of
fear. Scholars and learned men began murmuring their protest because they
realised the implications of the King's highhanded behaviour. Bishop Fisher
expressed his disapproval from the beginning. Sir Thomas Iv1ore resigned his
office and retired from public life. By the end of 1533, a daughter was born to
Henry and Anne, named Elizabeth. The King passed in 1534 an Act of
Succession declaring the right to the crown to Elizabeth and any other issue of
their wedding. Besides, a Treasons Act was also enacted that rnade it treason to
deny the king any of his royal rights. When Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More
refrained from renouncing the authority of the Pope and accepting his
supremacy, Henry executed them and placed their heads on the London Bridge.
as a warning to tile dissenters. The king relentlessly resolved to stamp out all
opposition and there was a reign of terror in England. Among the clergy some of
them sincerely desired to reform their own profession. Many of the expropriated
monks and dissolved friars became Protestant clergymen under Edward VI.
4.7 THE RESULTS
England acquired a new national religion after the Reformation. The king passed
Act after Act defining and prescribing the duties and responsibilities of the
churchmen. He ordered every Parish church to have a Bible. The Ten Articles
that he prescribed for the clergy were nothing but Catholic doctrines. In 1539
the Statute of Six Articles obliged the clergy to accept the traditional belief. The
Act was commonly referred to as the 'whip with six strings. According to this
Act, death penalty was imposed on those who questioned the doctrine of
transubstantiation, .the value of auricular confession, the value of private Mass,
30
the vow of chastity, the celibacy of the clergy and the reservation of wine for the
clergy in the communion. These were Catholic doctrines. As a sequence to the
break away from the Roman Church, Henry obliterated the trace of the clan of
monks and friars by dissolving the monastries in England.
Check your progress:
Notes: i) What is Renaissance?
ii) What aspects of political history do you know about Renaissance?
iii) Give a brief account about Reformation?

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LESSON-5
DISSOLUTION OF THE MONASTERIES
CONTENTS
5.1. The Pilgrimage
5.2. Religion life
5.3. Prayer Book
5.4. Mary’s England
The dissolution of the monastries was the natural outcome of the Reformation
movement. The immediate causes were both financial and religious. The monks
and friars reminded Henry of the Papal powers ~ and he resolved to remove
them from the social fabric altogether. Cardinal WolSey was succeeded by
Thomas Cromwell, a former servant of the Cardinal. It was Cromwell who sowed
the seed of complete break with the Roman Church in Henry’s mind. In 1535
Cromwell sent royal agents throughout the country to assess the state of the
monasteries. The reports revealed the gross indifference to the spiritual cause,
the shocking corruption and immorality of some of the monks in the
monasteries. The monasteries, that were the centres of education, Ii scholarship
and learning had become exceedingly rich materially, but spiritually
impoverished. Henry's foreign policy and profitless war with France had made a
dent in his financial reserve. He was unwilling to levy taxes after the open
rejection of the Parliament in Wolsey's time. Cromwell and the king coveted the
wealth of the monasteries and resolved to dissolve them. Among the public also
the monks had become unpopular owing to their irreligious way of life. They too
wished to rob them of their wealth and privileges as expressed in one of the
famous pamphlets of the day 'The Supplication of the Beggars'. In 1536 King
Henry induced the Parliament to pass the Act for abolishing the monastries. He
began by suppressing the smaller monastries with endowments worth less than
£ 200 a year. In the very first year nearly 400 monasteries were dissolved.
Following the proclamation many monks and nuns were on the streets having
no place to go to immediately. Hundreds of religious houses were broken up and
their lands were taken by greedy courtiers.
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5.1 THE PILGRIMAGE
The north of England was least affected by the new ways. There were monks led
a noble life and maintained decorum and respectability. The dissolution of the
monasteries all over the nation caused a riot in the north. They broke into open
revolt and showed their detestation to the policy of Henry WI. Here and there
were violent incidents. The most formidable: was in Yorkshire where a large
number of rebels gathered under the leadership of Robert Aske. This rebellion
was called The Pilgrimage of Grace because they marched to the king on a
pilgrimage expecting to persuade him to restore the glory of the church to expel
upstarts like Cromwell, and to reinstate in his place the old nobles as his
advisers. The King sent the Duke of Norfolk to put down the revolt. He
persuaded the rebels to go back peaceably assuring that their grievances would
redress at the earliest. This was aimed as a technique to break the back of the
revolt, and Henry violated his promise. The leaders of the rising were hunted
down and hanged in public as a warning. He established the Council of the
North to curb similar riots in future. This new court made the monks yield and
brought peace in those regions.
The wealth of the monasteries that were left untouched in 1536, were later
confiscated. Abbeys were forced to surrender their properties to the king.
Threats and violence were unscrupulously employed. When the chiefs of the
Abbeys grumbled or showed the least resistance, charges from theft to treason
were framed against them and they were put on the stakes. The Abbot of
Galstonbury was accused of stealing and was hanged on the high wall
overlooking the countryside. On 23rd March 1540, the last great Abbey at
Walthanl surrendered and the destruction of the monasteries was complete. The
king had plans of confiscating the chantry houses and other pious foundations
too but death claimed him before he could accomplish this. He left this to his
son Edward VI.
G.M. Trevelyan estimates that about 5000 monks, 1600 friars and 2000 nuns
were sent back into the world. They received a pension from the State from £ 25
to £ 1000 annually. Those who surrendered without resistance were the ones
who enjoyed maximum benefits. The nuns were subjected to maximum
humiliation as they were given only a gown and asked to see1: employment or
live on charity. The younger monks belong to the age of twenty four were set free
from their vows with permission to marry.
The wealth from the monasteries ranged from plates and jewel to the immovable
properties. Lands were transferred to the king. The movable property went into
the royal treasury. The declaration of the king to use the vast sum of money on
founding new bishops, reorganising the navy and defending the coast was only
partially fulfilled. Of course, he spent the money for constructing the Trinity
College, Cambridge, built ships of war, erected fortifications on the coast and
cast strong cannons to equip them. But still it was a well known fact that half
the monastic wealth was spent on his friend’s anicourt splendour.
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5.2 RELIGION LIFE
The suppression of the monasteries affected the social and religious life of the
people. England held her breath at the irrepressible and reverential way in
which Henry treated their most sacred beliefs. People lost their old and familiar
prayer houses. All of a sudden their spiritual and psychological hold on life was
unhinged without notice. They reacted in silence it was the silence born or
Terror. They trembled in fear anticipating the next move of the king. Suddenly
they lost the ease and joy of social mixing because it was dangerous to speak to
anyone freely for death was the punishment for even small crimes. The sale of
the monastic lands was the next move of the king. The unprofitable war, the
enormous sum of money wasted on courtly splendour and the king's extravagant
life cost the exchequer heavily. So he decided to encase the monastic lands, and
the most significant part of the sale was that the lands were sold to lay
purchasers like small merchants, squires, local gentries, lawyers and doctors. A
new landed class was born in the process and this added to the middle class
that was coming up. The ultimate beneficiary of the Dissolution was not religion,
not education, not the poor, not even the Crown, but a thin class of fortunate
gentry. Some towns lost their importance because of the Dissolution as the
popularity and wealth of these towns as the centers of pilgrimage were reduced.
Some other towns like St. Albans' and Bury St. Edmunds benefited from the
Dissolution for the towns were released from tile stronghold of monastic lordship
and were flee from the frequent rebellions. The destruction of the monastic
libraries was a cruel injury to learning and literature. They possessed invaluable
and irreplaceable manuscripts of ancient and medieval texts. The monks and
friars accepted this change in silence and quickly found employment that suited
them. Some really had awaited the opportunity to be set free from their vows.
The disappearance of the nunneries had no special impact because the nuns
were a minority and most of them belonged to respectable families. They did not
find it particularly difficult to find asylum in one of these families. The poorer
sort also found employment at the lower level. The most severely affected by the
Dissolution were the poor, who lost the benefits of the unorganized and
indiscriminate charity rendered by the monasteries. The monks had let their
lands on lease and sublet when the monastic lands were confiscated by the
Crown and resold to new owners, there was a change in the system of
employment. Some retained the same labourers, others evicted the old tenants
and appointed new ones. The domestic servants of the monastic households
were thrown out of jobs. Though the new proprietors absorbed them into their
service, a good number of them turned into 'Sturdy beggars'. The new nobility
formed by the Dissolution were devoted to the King and the House of Lords
became an assembly with a strong lay majority dependent on and grateful to the
king. In the wake of the Dissolution, images and relics were destroyed and some
old church holidays were abolished. Archbishop Cranmer and Thomas
Cromwell, over the years, lost their animosity against the Protestants and tried
to alter Henry's policies. Henry VIII yielded to the advice of his minister and
Archbishop and permitted the printing and circulation of the English Bible. This
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was based on Tyndale's version, but Henry issued orders to seek Tyndale and
behead him. While he was turning to Protestantism he did not give up the
persecution of the heretics. According to him he was not bothered about
Protestantism or Catholicism, but people should accept him as the Head of the
Church. If so, anybody could belong to any sect. Those who refused to do so
were burnt or beheaded. As days passed by the king became weary of Anne
Boleyn, who bore him only a female child. The very purpose of Reformation was
defeated. He was irritated by her unseemly dealings and sent her to the scaffold
on charges of adultery. The very next day after her execution he married Jane
Seymour who gave him the long-hoped-for male heir. Catherine and Anne
Boleyn in their life time saw that their children Lady Mary and Lady Elizabeth
were stripped of their rights to the throne. Cranmer had pronounced their
marriage invalid and their children naturally were regarded illegitimate.
Tudor despotism was at its height. After the 'whip of the six strings' was
enforced, the Protestants lost their hopes and most of them were sent to the
prison. Latimer gave up his bishopric; Cranmer had secretly married and sent
JUs wife to Germany. Thomas Cromwell's influence with Henry was on the
wane. Cromwell suggested to Henry to marry Anne of Cleves after the death of
Jane Seymour. Henry agreed but after marrying she discovered her to be dull
and plain. He divorced her on some frivolous pretext. His anger turned on
Cromwell and he issued orders to arrest him on charges of treason and heresy.
The Parliament passed an Act of attainder without a murmur of protest. Henry
married as his fifth wife Catherine of Howard. The execution of Cromwell
arrested the progress of the Reformation. Historians have described the period
1540-47 as the reactionary period because the King went back to his former
ancient ways breaking away from the new opinions. The court was divided into
two groups- the men of old learning and the men of .new learning. The former
was headed by the Duke of Norfolk and the latter by the timid. Cranmer. Henry
passed another strange law contrary to his previous ones forbidding all but
gentlemen to read the English Bible. In his foreign policy also he followed the old
ways. But his war with Scotland and France ended in failure. The royal treasury
became bankrupt. He had already spent the monastic wealth. He took the
drastic step of debasing the coinage by mixing copper with silver at the royal
mint. His greedy sense remembered the chantries and he ventured to dissolve
them but could not affect it in his life time. The Duke of Norfolk lost his
influence With the King and the latter executed his wife Catherine of Howard
niece of Norfolk on charges of adultery. He married as his sixth wife - Catherien
Parr, who was prudent enough to keep out of politics and she was lucky to
outlive her husband. The King's health was declining and the powerful factiot of
the council were at war with each other. The Duke of Norfolk was accused of
aiming at the throne and .was beheaded in 1547. Henry died soon after, leaving
his young son Edward to ascend the throne with the Duke of Somerset as the
leader of the Council emergency.
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Henry VIII and Ireland

King Henry VIII in his life time wished to be the lord of the whole of Britain and
Ireland. He crushed the Irish revolt in 1535. He bribed the Irish lords conferring
on them English titles and dividing the Irish monastic lands among them. This
raised their status and affluence and led them to accept Henry's overlordship.
Since then Henry called himself King of England. Later his daughter Elizabeth
completed the conquest of Ireland. The Union of England and Wales Henry
succeeded in uniting Wales with England. The Council of Wales set up at Ludlow
secured good peace In the Principality. Hailing from Wales the king wished it to
be a part of England. He divided all Wales into thirteen countries and
incorporated the whole with England. The Welsh shires were represented in the
English Parliament which made laws which now applied to Wales as well.
Edward VI and England (1547-1553)

King Henry VIII had drawn up a scheme for a balanced Council of regency for
the rule of his young son Edward VI. He had anticipated his death in those
years. Accordingly the old council of learning and found equal representation in
the Council. Duke of Somerset had been named to head the Council of regency
the natural guardian of his young nephew's throne.
The Duke of Somerset was a weak and unpractical man who mismanaged the
affairs of the country. He was driven from power in disgrace. Somerset's lack of
diplomacy caused a war with Scotland. Though he achieved military triumph, he
failed in his political mission. There was a proposal of Henry VIII to wed Mary of
Scotland to Edward VI, when they attained majority. The Scots, angered by
English invasion, smuggled their queen into France, wishing to save her from
becoming the bride of England. She was educated in France and raised as a
Catholic and she nurtured a hatred for England. Scotland remained Catholic for
another decade. Duke of Somerset as the regent added his contribution, in the
name of king Edward VI, to the Reformation. Cranmer by then had become, in
the absence of Henry VIII, an ardent disciple of Luther. Image breaking,
arbitrary imprisonment of bishops and other anti- Catholic acts were revived. A
new standard of doctrine, set forth in a Book of Homilies was issued. The
ignorant clergy, who had neither learning nor competence to preach, were
instructed to read to their flocks the Book of Homilies as the official book of the
Church. The Chantries which had escaped dissolution by Henry VIII met their
fate in the reign of Edward VI. The chantries were not purely ecclesiastical
establishments. Many of them were the property of Jay guilds, and their
endowments went to pay for prayers on behalf of the dead for the maintenance
of bridges, harbours and schools. Most of the chantry and build schools suffered
by this legislation.
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5.3 PRAYER BOOK
The significant religious change of this period was the introduction of the
English Prayer Book and abolition of Latin services of the Church. Cranmer had
been engaged since 1543 in drafting a form of common prayer in English. In
1549, the Act of Uniformity was passed, which enjoined that all the churches
should use the English services contained in the First Prayer Book of Edward VI.
This was a translation of the old Latin services in a precise form in English. In
the Communion Service that replaced Latin Mass, CraI1mer took the greatest
care to maintain ancient rituals and ceremonies and preserved the congregation
of priests, in Devonshire which rose in rebellion demanding the restoration of
the Six Articles and Latin Mass. Meanwhile there was a rebellion on the eastern
side by the farmers.
The stronger men of the Council rose to the occasion and put down the revolt
and imprisoned Somerset in the Tower. In the confusion John Dudley, Earl of
Warwick rose to be the head, of the regency. Dudley opened the gates for the
foreign Protestant reformers like the Zwinglians Lutherans and Calvinists. After
the execution of the Duke of Somerset sweeping religious changes were brought
about. The First Prayer Book was considered out of fashion and in 1552 a new
and Second Prayer Book of Edward VI was introduced. In most essentials the
Second Book was the same as the First this was the most enduring and valuable
religious reform of Edward VI.
Another Protestant Reform appeared in the form of Forty two Articles of Religion
of 1553. Edward at sixteen resembled his father in strong will and
imperiousness. The young king became a victim of the incurable disease of
consumption. His zeal for Protestantism did not wish, Mary, his sister, who had
always voiced her opposition to the Reformation, to succeed him. He bad drew
up a will to let Lady Jane, his cousin, to ascend the throne. But before he could
complete the will, he died. No one ever preferred Lady Jane to be die queen
everyone felt that Mary had better claims to the throne. Mary fled to the eastern
countries and came with supporters for her cause. After ten days of nominal
reign. Lady Jane was obliged to step aside to give place to King Henry VIII's
daughter Mary amidst universal approval.
5.4 MARY’S ENGLAND
Mary Tudor, the daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, had inherited
her father's fierce will and iron determination. A devote Catholic, Mary sought to
undo the Protestant Reforms of her father and restore the Roman Catholic faith,
in her father's style and demeanor. The only surviving Cardinal in England was
Reginald Pole and Mary shared with him a fanatical devotion to the Catholic
religion. She proposed to affect her reforms through Pole.
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Mary's first step in Catholicising England was the abolition of the Prayer Book.
Bishops were ordered to restore the old faith. Latimer, Bishop Ridley,
Archbishop Cranmer was sent to the Tower. In 1554 Reginald Pole arrived in
England with the Pope's authority. He revived the heresy laws and religiously
roasted and burnt the heresies. In the same year the Parliament swept away all
the Acts passed against. Rome by Henry VIII, except the Dissolution of
Monasteries Act. The courtiers obeyed the Queen; the public was divided in its
opinion. In 1554 the Queen, her husband and the members of the Parliament
knelt before Cardinal Pole, to receive forgiveness for their past errors and
absolution of their sins and applied for a reconciliation with the Church of
Rome. Mary kept up the reputation of her father for cruelty by sending three
hundred Protestants to flames. Mary's act only strengthened Portestantism.
Latimer, before being burnt said "We shall this day light such a candle, by God's
grace, in England, as shall never be put up". The faith of such great masters
inspired the Church of England and reinforced their faith in Protestantism.
Cranmer, though recanted twice, died a courageous death proclaiming his
Protestant convictions. Together with the death of these men, Mary destroyed
the loyalty and affection of the C9mmon people for her.
The English multitude was growing a weary of Tudor despotism and did not
expect Elizabeth to be different from the rest of her family. Though she was a
Tudor in her resolute spirit and will, she was humane and loved her subjects,
thought of their welfare and considered the peace of the nation. The country
took the coronation in the usual way, but never anticipated that she would bring
lasting glory and permanent peace and progress to! His country the new queen
was to become the most admirable ruler of the whole history of England.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Describe the dissolution of the monasteries.
ii) Comment on the Religion life of the people of sixteenth century?
iii) What do you know about the First Prayer Book?
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LESSON- 6
TUDOR ENGLAND
Part II (1558-1603)
Queen Elizabeth I: (1558-1603)
Events: Elizabethan Settlement (1559); the Spanish Armada (1558)
CONTENTS
6.1. Italian Influence
6.2. Elizabethan Settlement
6.3. Parker’s Advertisement
6.4. Brownists
6.5. Counter Reformation
i) To inform the student about the antecedents of Elizabethan Settlement.
The accession of Elizabeth I in 1558 was heraldic of an era of stability, security

and peace. The country was facing political and, religious crises at that moment,
owing to the misgovernment of Mary Tudor. The subjects winced under the
autocratic whimsicalities of the Tudor kings and queen. Needless indulgences in
wars depleted the financial resources of the king and voices of general
discontent, both agrarian and social, could be heard here and there. People
longed for peace and prosperity. Just when they were cowering before
despotism, Elizabeth ascended the throne. The people did not expect any
overnight transformation in the Tudor disposition. All they wanted was an end to
religious persecution and frequent wars. The religious factions especially the
Roman Catholics, sniggered at the illegitimacy of their queen and disapproved of
her. The proclamation of the new queen in. the Parliament. I have desired to
have the obedience of my subjects by love and not by compulsion an un-Tudor
attitude, showed silver linings in their otherwise dark clouds of political and
social life.
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Much of Elizabeth's success depended on her character; political acumen and

feminine diplomacy. Inheriting the Tudor tenacity, she reinforced it with
goodwill, sound judgement, sense of fairness, feminine parsimony and political
astuteness. She was a typical Tudor minus the Tudor rashness. Her childhood
and adolescent experiences of disgrace, imprisonment and danger of death had
taught her the virtue of patience and caution. She had fully understood that
private affections and passions were not for Princes. She was selfish because she
knew that unless she placed the nation's interest before her own, she would
never be able to win the love and confidence of her subjects and establish a
strong and stable kingdom. She was .aware of the wrong moves of father the
tactical blunders of Edward VI and the gross misjudgement of Mary and
carefully avoided these evolving her own technique of governing the nation. Her
first act was to bring. about a religious compromise between the warring factions
through statutory proclamations. The Elizabethan Settlement gave an identity to
the church of England. The subsequent victories over Scotland and Spain and
her alliance with France boosted her personal image and political stature. She
was the most masculine of all the female sovereigns of England Trade, commerce
and industry scaled new heights. British Navy emerged as the new formidable
force in the whole of Europe.
6.1 ITALIAN INFLUENCE
The Italian Renaissance bloomed afresh in England headed by poets of

uncommon ability. Amidst the religious and political controversy Shakespeare
and his friends enjoyed their own spacious domains, a rare freedom of spirit.
Poetry flowed over into the theatre and there was a song in the hearts and lips of
a pedlar a craftsman and a milkmaid. The general prosperity and security
turned the people merry and their artistic capabilities found myriad forms of
expressions. Trevelyan sums up the general nature of the age as “Among a whole
people living in the constant presence of nature with eyes and ears trained to
rejoice the best pleasures of the mind, the perfect expansion of Shakespeare's
poetic gift was as much a part of the general order of the society as the
development of a great novelist out of a journalist would be today". Three great
musicians William Byrd, Thomas Tallis and Orlando Gibbons led the revival in
sacred music. The literary firmament glowed with bright stars like Spenser,
Sidney, Marlow, Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Lyly and others. This is also a great
period of domestic architecture. The fine farm houses and castles speak of the
architectural splendour and taste of the day. The English pledged loyalty to their
Tudor queen. who. found her way into their hearts through love and able
administration. To the last she lived as a Supreme queen and at the close of her
reign, in a melting mood, shared with her nobles a secret of her success.
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6.2 ELIZABETHAN SETTLEMENT
In an age of fanaticism Elizabeth managed to avoid religious war by an ingenious

compromise between the Catholics and Protestants. She resolved to revive her
father's policy but the changes in the society warranted a cautious arid clever
approach. Her assessment of and approach to the religious strife was more
political than religious. She did not' to make windows into men's souls' in the
name of religion. She realised that while national pride was uniting the people,
religion divided them. Viewing the problem in the political light, she sought to
establish a church that was peculiarly English and that would command the
allegiance of all sorts of men. This could be done only by Royal Proclamation.
She restored the Reformation in its Anglican form passing the Act of Supremacy
and the Act of Uniformity. The former passed in 1559, abolished the Papal Power
and the latter, passed in the same year made the Prayer Book the only form of
legal worship. These Statutes represented the will of the Crown and the House of
Commons. She chose the less offensive title of ‘Supreme Governor’ instead of
'Supreme Head' as assumed by her father. The House of Lords were forced to
accept the extensive changes in ritual and doctrine. Four years later the
Elizabethan Settlement was completed by the publication of the Thirty-Nine
Articles, defining the doctrines of the Church. The Elizabethan Prayer Book
became the only authorised form of worship. Church attendance was made
compulsory and a fine of a shilling was levied on the absentees. The Catholic
bishops, appointed by Mary, could not reconcile to the new situation. All, but a.
few, refused to take the oath of Supremacy and they were deprived of their
posts. New bishops filled their places, and Matthew Parker became the
Archbishop of Canterbury. A number of clergy were turned out of their living.
But a noticeable feature of the Elizabethen religious settlement was that the
clergy who refused to accept it were not beheaded or burnt or victimised in any
manner. They were simply disrobed and seized of their powers.
The rapid and radical changes threw the religious life of the public out of gear.
Parker; a religiously moderate Archbishop, was resolute in restoring order and
discipline in the worship in the church. The Forty -Two Articles of 1553 were
carefully revised and modified. Elizabeth set up a Permanent Court of
Ecclesiastical Commission called to exercise the royal supremacy over the
church and enforce the religious settlement on the clergy, The ardent
Protestants Unwillingly accepted the settlement while the Catholics hated it. The
Protestants who were in exile during Mary’s reign returned. They had become
the disciples of John Calvin the great French Protestant. Calvin exercised a
despotic control over the Church and State in the free city of Geneva, the cradle
of advanced Protestantism on the continent: These religious enthusiasts formed
a rigid dogmatic system called Calvinism. The Calvinists taught that God was a
stem task master. dealing. Out salvation and reprobation according to ills
predestined decrees. The Church of Geneva rejected the rule of bishops. Instead
it was governed by little councils of ministers, all equal in rank called
Presbyterianism. This system was called Presbyterianism. This system did not
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recognise fixed forms of prayer, and enforced simplicity of living and a rigid code
of moral discipline all over the congregation. From their profession of purity in
doctrine worship and life the English followers of Calvin were generally referred
to as Puritans.
6.3 PARKER’S ADVERTISEMENT
The Puritans disliked some aspects of the Settlement like set forms of prayer,
elaborate ceremonies, special dress for the clergy, the use of sign of Cross at
Baptism and kneeling to receive communion. The queen needed the support of
the Puritans to fight the battle against Rome. She diplomatically let them have
their way for a short while but after some time enforced their submission to
these lay laws. In 1565 Parker issued a series of directions to the clergy,
popularly known as Parker's Advertisements which ordered the ministers in all
the churches to wear a surplice. They were expected to conform to the other
directions mentioned in the Prayer Book. There was a storm of protest from the
Puritans. Nevertheless Elizabeth and Parker persevered those who disobeyed
were disrobed and deprived of their benefices. The Puritans denounced the
government and demanded the English I Church be made Presbyterian like the
Church of Geneva.
6.4 BROWNISTS
The 'disrobed' clergy fanned separate congregations of their own called.

'Sectaries' and formed new sects known as 'Separatists' because they separated
from the church altogether with Robert Brown as their leader. These separatists
were known as Brownists. They were the first Protestant Dissenters. The other
Protestants remained in the church grumbling and contriving ways to evade the
hated ceremonies. They were called Non - Conformists for this reason. The
dissenters and the Puritans were hostile to each other. Elizabeth kept on
enforcing conformity and that infuriated the Puritans and increased the number
of e Separatists. But the second half of her reign saw a distinct strengthening of
the church and a weakening of the Puritans.
6.5 THE COUNTER REFORMATION
The overwhelming growth of Calvinism could not wipe out Catholicism. It had
been revived, purging itself of laxity and corruption, assuming a new name and
form. The Catholic Reaction or the Counter Reformation as it is widely known
had countered the Protestant Movement. New religious orders had been set up
to preach the old faith to the heathen the heretic and the indifferent. The Popes
42
had shed their political aspirations and had become zealots and religious
leaders. The most conspicuous among the new orders was the Order of Jesus
founded Ignatius Loyola, who enforced iron discipline on his clan, demanded
dedication and devotion from them and trained them to lead a rigorous religious
life willing to sacrifice all for the cause of the Church. These Jesuits missionaries
became ardent champions of the Counter Reformation. The Inquisition was
revived and reorganised with a Church Court that tried the heretics. The worst
abuse of the church had been removed, its faith redefined and its discipline
improved by the Council of Trent. Thus the Catholic reforms and the spread of
Calvinism nourished sectarian animosities. But in all this the political way of
handling the religious problem strengthened the hand of Elizabeth and boosted
her image.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Comment on the Impact of Elizabethan Settlement.

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LESSON-7
THE SPANISH ARMADA
CONTENTS
7.1. Conflict between Spain and England
7.2. Admiral Darke
i) To appraise the reader about the historical ‘Spanish Armada’
7.1 CONFLICT BETWEEN SPAIN AND ENGLAND
Queen Elizabeth and Philip II of Spain had become irreconcilable religious rivals
with the former acting as the champion of Protestantism and the latter as the
crusader of Catholicism. The Catholics denounced Elizabeth as an illegitimate
heir to the English throne. Philip II instigated the Catholics to arrange several
plots to assassinate Elizabeth. He was out to exterminate Protestantism and that
necessitated the removal of Elizabeth from the throne and the plots were
discovered by Walsingham and his spies which resulted the expulsion of the
Spanish ambassador from England. Elizabeth countered Philph’s anti- English
activities by encouraging the protestants of Netherlands to rebel against the
king. Queen Elizabeth had been keeping her suitors at bay by making false
promises of marriage and pursuing a policy of delaying tactics. Philip II was one
of the victims of the queen's coquetry. All these were sufficient to provoke Philip
to declare war against England. Moreover he had grouses against the English
because they were his rival contenders of trade and commerce at Sea.
Spain was at that moment the mightiest of European powers. The discoveries of
Columbus opened a world or riches to the country. The Spanish galleons
brought the rich produces of Indies, their gold, their jewels, their ingots of silver
and all the imaginable wealth by way of plunder. The commercial position of
Philip was made stronger when in 1580, He conquered Portugal and its colonies
and extended his power to Brazil, thus becoming a mighty empire in Southern
and Central America. At first Spain and Portugal were the unrivalled conquerors
of these lands. The English, who had been the stay-at-home people, had
44
developed an interest in overseas trade. Signs of a new spirit of activity were

discernible in the early Tudor time. The discoveries of Columbus and Vasco do
Gama stirred the fancies of King Henry VIII and he sent John Cabot on an
expedition. Fortunately it resulted in the discovery of the Coast of Labrador. A
team of private merchants of Bristol brought home a share in the newfound land
fisheries and established trade connections with West Africa. The Plymouth
Adventurers opened out commerce-between England and South America. In
London the company of Merchant Adventurers was formed as chief society of
English traders who had long trade connections with the Baltic and
Scandinavian markets, of which Sebastian Cabot, son of John Cabot, was the
Chief in 1553, at Cabot's instance, the last native English voyage of discovery
was undertaken. In Mary Tudor’s reign some of the Protestant refugees took to
sea and robbed their Catholic fraternity with special zeal. Soon the Protestants
of France and Netherlands followed suit. These sea-beggars, as these Calvinist
shipmen were called, found an easy prey in the richly freighted merchant ships
of Spain. They became daring and enthusiastic with the secret back-up of Queen
Elizabeth. Thus the Protestant sailors amassed wealth easily and quickly. The
Spaniards had kept their American colonies under strict control and exercised
absolute trade monopoly over them. Smuggling commodities into Spanish
colonies became another lucrative business proposition.
7.2 ADMIRAL DARKE
Following Hawkins, Francis Drake and Martin Frobisher set sail to explore new
lands. Drake formed resolution to sail on English ship upon the Pacific. He met
with a number of hardships and faced the hostilities from the Spaniards and
returned safely. He crossed the South Atlantic, sailing through the dangerous
straits of Magellan to the Pacific Ocean and plundered the Spaniards at will.
Loaded with his precious looty he sailed Westwards over the Indian Ocean and
returned to England by Cape of Good Hope. The Queen was overjoyed at the
heroic action of Drake that she knighted him on the quarter-deck of Iris ship
Golden Hind.
The Spaniards denounced Drake as a pirate and demanded Iris surrender.
Drake and Forbisher were for the first time commissioned in the queen's service
to make reprisals on Spanish ports. In 1585 they plundered Vigo and embarked
upon a fresh expedition to the West Indies. Spain was goaded by this and also
by the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, to declare open war against England.
Philip II of Spain prepared special fleet to destroy the English. He also poured an
army into the island secretly. Meanwhile Drake sailed into Cadiz harbor and
sunk the Spanish ship infuriated by this the King resolved to invade England in
1588. Philip aspired to the English throne with a claim as a nearer descendant
of John of Gaunt.
45
England had no regular army to meet the Spaniards on land. She had recently
beaten them on sea and so decided to meet her foe in the sea. Since Henry VIll’s
time the royal navy of England had been gaining Strength and efficiency.
Hawkins in the capacity of Treasurer to the Navy had built a large number of
new ships much better in use and shape than the Spanish vessel they were
mainly built for the purpose of fighting and not for transporting cargo.
Check your progress

i) What impression do you have on ‘Spanish Armada’?
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LESSON-8
GOLDEN AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH
CONTENTS
8.1. Elizabethan Society
8.2. The Legal System
8.3. The Clergy
8.4. Literature
8.5. Architecture
8.6. Fashion
i) To highlight me great aspects of the age of Queen Elizabeth.
8.1 ELIZABETHAN SOCIETY
A general awakening of life, an increase of wealth, a gradual refinement in living

and a welcome outburst of literature characterise the Elizabethan England. The
sphere of human interest Widened following the discoveries of new lands and
contact with new people. The economic and religious restlessness of the middle
Tudor period, after the efficient handling of the situation by the Queen, took a
positive turn and transformed the land into a nest of singing birds. The English
language had 'touched its moment of fullest beauty and power. The Renaissance
that had enjoyed its spring time in Italy saw its glorious summer in the northern
isle. The New learning that had been confined to scholars of the court spread to
the common man in the days of Shakespeare. The Elizabethan Englishmen were
in love with life. Large, classes expressed the joy of life that surged within them
in wit music and song. Peace and order prevailed in the land even during the sea
war with Spain. In politics, fear and oppression were replaced by love and loyalty
to the Queen. Elizabeth was the symbol of unity, prosperity and freedom for her
subjects;
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Food and Agriculture
Tudor London was fed largely by the apples of Kent, the garden of England,
barley of East Anglia and the bear of Royston. Wheat and rye, that made
London's bread were grown allover the country in plenty. Vegetables were little
eaten with meat; cabbage helped to make the pottage. Potato had just come into
existence but not grown as a special crop in the fields. Sugar was procured in
small quantities from the Mediterranian.
The Villages were almost self-sufficient in agricultural produce. London was the
great market of the country. This necessitated more supply and recourse to new
methods of enclosure and private methods of farming. Wood and foodstuffs for
some special market at home and abroad was also grown in the rural areas.
Industrial crops, like flax were grown. Wool trade was gaining importance due to
the high quality of their wool. Native and foreign travellers marveled at the
number and size of the flocks bred on the hillside of the North unparalleled
elsewhere in Europe. The cattle fairs of Leicestershire and Northamptonshire
were famous. The great quantities of cattle naturally promoted leather industry.
The Southerners used leather shoes holding 'wooden shoes' in contempt. Horse-
breeching also kept pace with the increase in demand.
Class divisions and Social setup
Class distinctions were not rigid and hereditary during Elizabeth's period. In
Tudor England the number and variety of the intermediate classes and
occupations rendered strict class divisions impossible because these men had to
mingle with those above and those below in social status for business reasons
and daily amusements. English society was not based on equality, but on
freedom of opportunity and freedom of personal intercourse. The Tudor peerages
were a small section who were expected to keep up great households to extend
munificent patronage to their clients. They enjoyed some special privileges but
were not exempt from taxation. With the Wars of the Roses the nobility had lost
the independent military and the Tudors did not wish to revive it. The House of
Lords was a less important body in Tudor times and the old aristocracy had
been pruned away and the new aristocracy was in its nascent form.
Elizabeth's reign was a great age for the gentry. The decay of the old nobility
enhanced their importance. Their wealth and number had considerably grown
on account of the distribution on the monastic estates, vitality of commerce and
land improvement in the new era. The squire in the Elizabethan times was part
of the general movement of an active society. The younger sons of the manor-
houses were apprenticed into industry and trade. Thus the landed gentry co-
mingled with: the commercial class. The term gentleman was not confined only
to the landed proprietors but extended to all those who studied in the
universities, who rendered the queen service as captains in wars and all those
who worked for the benefit of the Commonwealth by counseling.
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8.2 THE LEGAL SYSTEM
The peaceful public life of the people of England owes it to the power exercised
by the Crown, through the Privy Council and the Prerogative – Courts,. The Privy
Council is the-real governing body of Tudor Bngland. The Prerogative Courts
were - The Star Chamber, the Council of Wales and of the North, the Chancery
Court and the Ecclesiastical Court of High Commission. These courts enforced
respect for law and saved the liberties of the English man. The Privy Council and
the Prerogative Courts put an end to the terrorization of the Judges and Juries
by local mobs and local magnates, saying the Common Law and its tribunals.
These Courts also introduced many new principles of law that suited the times.
Trevelyan writes - in England the medieval law, fundamentally a law of liberty
and private rights was preserved, modernised supplemented. enlarged and above
all enforced by the council and Courts of the Tudor despotism,. so that both the
old system of law and the old Parliament survived into a new age :with a
renewed vigour".
The Tudor Privy Council also combined the old with the new. local liberty with
national authority. The queen appointed Justices of Peace to carry out her
political and ecclesiastical policy. They also were obliged to administer petty
justice that executed all the ordinary functions of the local governments
including the new Poor Law. The Statute of Artificers and the regulation of wage
and prices. The Parliamentary statutess were to be enforced by the Justices of
Peace and the defaulters of this duty were punished by the arm of the Privy)
Council.
8.3 ELIZABETHAN CLERGY
The Tudor English were not irreligious but were anti-clerical. All accepted the
religion decided by the Crown. Because of this Erastian attitude to religion, the
clergy were obedient to the queen. But the Calvinists, who were of Erastians at
heart, accepted the Crown's religion for they hoped of reformation in the future.
By the en4 of the queen’s reign We Anglican clergy were more respectable
members of the society and established their religious customs. The most
striking social change in the life of the clergy was that they were authorised to
many. The need to support the family accentuated the parson's poverty. In the
beginning the parson's wives were not the daughters of rich and noble
gentlemen.
In the wake of the Roman Catholic rebellion and the assassination plots, fear
gripped the society of the religious factions. The Jesuits flitted about in town,
hiding or in disguise, often hunted down by the arm of La" Some were caught
and executed.
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Education
The grammar schools and Universities played a major role in the improvement of
the standard of the clergy. Oxford and Cambridge revised under Queen Elizabeth
and flourished exceedingly weft. There was a perceptible change in the attitude
of the governing class of education. A gentleman who aspired to serve the state
must necessarily be a University graduate, Lidney, Raleigh, Camden, Haklyt,
were Oxford scholars. Greater emphasis was laid on discipline and good
teaching in those two ancient temples of learning. Some engaged private tutors
whose relationship between them was akin to that of master and apprentice. The
students lived with their tutors. There were nearly a hundred grammar schools
in this period.
8.4 ELIZABETHAN LITERATURE
Elizabethan literature breathes the air of a harmonious creative power. The

forest, the field and the city were there in perfection and tile poet exercised Iris
highest faculties to bring forth the best in him. Shakespeare was the wonderful
phenomenon that happened to English Literature. The common folk in towns
and village were accustomed to poetry as a vehicle for storytelling. Ballads with
stories from the Bible or myths or histories, and lyrics and love songs overflowed
from the imaginative minds of the gifted people.
The essence of the Elizabethan spirit found full expression in the dramatic
literature which marks the special glory of the age. The medieval taste for the
mysteries and miracles laid the foundation for the rude beginnings of English
drama. The festival performance in the churchyard were slowly taken outside
the premises and regular theatres were opened: where plays could be acted.
James Burbage, the first famous Elizabethan actor opened the first building set
apart for dramatic performances in 1576. Then many playhouses came into
existence. Globe is the most popular among them. These Elizabethan playhouses
were crude structures built of wood: and roofed with thatch. They were exposed
in the centre to the weather. But, the side of the stage was covered where the
wealthy patrons sat on stools among the actors to watch the performance at
close range. The other spectators occupied the exposed area known as the pit.
These were commonly spoken of as 'the groundlings'. A Few ladies who
ventured to be present at the performance sat masked in the boxes that ranged
round the covered sides of the house. The time of performances was the
afternoon, and Sunday was the most ideal day for many. There were hardly any
scenery and stage property. Women's role were enacted by adolescent boys
whose voice hadn't broken. Though it was not deemed as a lucrative profession,
many managers of such theatres made fortune.
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Travel
The general prosperity of the day, the steady growth of commerce and land
development had given the people a taste for travel. The roads were busier than
before with riders and pedestrians of all classes for pleasure and business. The
medieval custom of pilgrimage cultivated the love of travel and sightseeing. The
medicinal spa was taking the place of the holy well. The nobility and the gentry
haunted the medicinal waters of Buxton and Bath. These tourists were housed
in the fine lodgings erected by the Earl of Shrewsbury.
8.5 ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE
Elizabethan architecture testified to the peace and prosperity of the age. Wealth
and power had passed from the princes of the Church to the gentry. So manor-
houses in different styles and material sprang up everywhere. The great era of
ecclesiastical building had come to an end. The architecture of the day was a
mixture of Gothic and classical. Gothic architecture was used mostly in
converting old fortified manor houses into peaceful and splendid homes such as
Penshurst and Haddon Hall. While this kind of remodeling was going on new
private palaces in an ltalianate or classical style, like the Kenilworth Castle of
the earl of Leicester, added beauty and splendour to the surroundings.
8.6 DRESS AND FASHION
Dress became exceedingly rich and gorgeous and the clothes both for men and
women were expensive and fantastic. Fashions from Italy and France were
imitated and the tailor was an indispensable being in the life of an Elizabethan
gentleman. The ruff, an exaggerated collar and the farthingale or hoops were the
conspicuous ladies articles. Jewels and costly trinkets of gold and silver were
worn by men and women alike. Gentlemen had the privilege of wearing swords
as part of their full dress in civil life.
Check you progress

Notes: i) Examine the salient features of the age of Queen Elizabeth.
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LESSON-9
STUART ENGLAND (1603 – 1658)
CONTENTS
9.1. From Tudor to Stuart
9.3. Oliver Cromwell
9.4. American Settlements
9.5. Importance
i) To appraise the learner about the Stuart Dynasty and the American
settlements.
9.1 FROM TUDOR TO STUART
The change of dynasty from the Tudor to the Stuart brought two blessings - the
end war with Spain and the Union of England and Scotland, though the first
forty years of the Stuart era was relatively uneventful. The accession of King
James VI of Scotland as the King of Great Britain 1603, raised the hopes of the
Catholics, tempered the animosity between the English and the Scots, expanded
overseas trade and commerce, established colonies in America and laid tile
comer stone for the formation of a system of Parliamentary Government, local
administration and freedom of speech and person. From tile time of James’
accession till the outbreak of the Great Rebellion, the social, political and
economic life of the people suffered no change. It remained just an extension of
what it had been during the Elizabethan era.
In due course, the aggressive attitude of the Stuart monarchs sowed the seeds of
rebellion in the country. The religious policy of King James I set up a strange
dichotomy of spiritual peace and religious war in the country. The authorised
King James version of the Bible brought spiritual solace that no other religious
agency had done before. It became part and parcel of the lives of the people. At
the same time, the hostility of the king towards the Puritans reached its highest
pitch precipitating the Puritan Revolution which brought even his successor to
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the scaffold. While the people tried to take repose in the spiritual calm generated
by the Bible, the Puritans tore the peace of the nation with religious strife.
James I was again at fault in his liberal policy with the Roman Catholic because
it was they who masterminded the Guy Fawkes gun powder plot. The subdued
'murmur' of the Parliamentarians during the Elizabethan era, rose to a 'clamour'
in James' period and ended in revolution in Charles time. The Long Parliament
was an epoch-making event of the Stuart era. The civil war is a proof of the spirit
of independence of the English people. The Stuart kings were largely responsible
for the growth of Great Britain as a colonial empire. The indulgence in overseas
trade brought both fame and wealth. The American colonies and India depleted
tile receding financial resources of the government. Another noticeable feature of
the Stuart Age was that the monarchy lost by one Stuart (Chales I) was restored
by another Stuart (CharlesII).
Socially, the whole ration was swept with a Puritanical zeal and Bible became
the cherished literature of the public. The geniality the play and delight of the
Elizabethans dissolved into. a measured sobriety, seriousness and self-restraint.
John Milton is the epitome of this new influence. His verses pamphlets epics,
mosques and sonnets mark the steady rise of Puritanism The literature of this
period reflects the moral consciousness of the people. John Bunyan grew up
with the notion that merry sports and childish vanities were sins and strove
hard to overmaster them. In the middle of the Stuart Age a spark of the spirit of
freedom gleaned through the chinks of the puritan sobriety. The Elizabethan
gaiety thrown overboard with Puritan contempt in the beginning of the Stuart
Era; came up the surface during the end of the era bursting out in a jollity
minus the Elizabethan refinement and poise.
9.2 POLITICAL BACKGROUND: JAMES (1603-1625)
After the demise of Elizabeth I, King James VI of Scotland succeeded her. His
claim to the English Crown was based on his Tudor descent. He was the son of
Mary Queen of Scots and the great grandson of Margaret Tudor. Even Queen
Elizabeth silently acknowledged his claim. He assumed the title of King of Great
Britain. He died in his old age in 1625 leaving the English throne to his son
Charles I.
Charles I (1625-1649)
Charles I was a proud obstinate and unyielding king of England. He often

quarreled with the Parliament and dissolved them at will. The Long par1iament
of 1640 greatly limited the powers of the king. His unwise dealings of political
affairs resulted in wars and later in his execution in 1649.
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9.3 OLIVER CROMWELL AND HIS PROTECTORATE (1649-1660)
For eleven years from 1649-60 England was ruled by the Commonwealth with
Oliver Cromwell as the leader. He was a man of iron will, indomitable energy and
strong religious conviction; He died of an illness in 1658 and his son Richard
Cromwell was made the Lord Protector.
9.4 AMERICAN SETTLEMENTS
The first forty quiet years of James I Witnessed the beginning of the greatest
social change in the permanent expansion of English race across the Atlantic.
The successful establishment of colonies in Virginia, New England and the West
Indian Islands and also the founding of the first trading centres on the coast of
India were the epoch-making events of the reigns of James I and Charles I. The
spirit of adventure and conquest usually motivates expeditions to other new
lands. The English race with its characteristic instinct for travel and expansion,
began its quest in a different way from the past, under different leaderships.
Peace prevailed in the sea with the end of the war with Spain. England had an
effective navy strengthened by the Stuarts. Conditions for colonization were
conducive. Government provided the safety of voyage and some private
enterprises supplied money and men for the explorers to set sail. The private
entrepreneurs aimed at creating permanent commercial marked across the
Atlantic. Sir Walter Raleigh discovered Virginia, which is named after the Virgin
queen and to this New World about 20,000 men, women and children were
transported in 200 ships. Private companies like Virginia Company and the
Massachusetts Bay Company backed up such organised emigration, Raleigh's
men could not set up a colony in Virginia for they were distracted by the greed
for gold. But the emigrants of James' times went forth with a motive of founding
a new civilization in the wilderness. Their objective was to earn a living and also
to create another England in the foreign land. But in the later years, the Puritan
emigrants had solely religious motive. In 1607, a band of emigrants under the
leadership of 1ohn Smith reached Virginia and established the first English
settlement and named it as Jamestown after the reigning sovereign. John Smith
was quite realistic about his mission. He set aside the dream of gold and
believed in hard labour and toil. He held together his men in the face of fame,
desertion and sickness. He motivated them to work hard and gathered the fruits
of labour. Potato and tobacco were introduced into England since the discovery
of Virginia. In a short period the new settlements was streaming with tobacco
plantations. English institutions and English laws were introduced in the
settlement of Virginia.
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Some years later, Lord Baltimore, was forced to seek asylum far away from
England on account of his conversion to Catholicism. He and his clan found a
home in the district across Potomac. Though he wished to make it a pure
Catholic settlement, prudence made him keep the new colony open for men of
every faith. This new colony was known as Maryland named after Henrietta
Maria wife of Charles I.
9.5 IMPORTANCE
The primary motive of the settlers in Virginia, the West Indian Island and New
England, was not religious cause. They were lured by their promoters assurance
of free land. At the time of land-hunger, for many younger sons of peasants and
yeomen, this was a promising proposal. Unemployed craftsmen hoped for better
prospects in these colonies. Moreover, stories about the fabulous riches of
America had spread far and wide that many gentlemen adventurers ventured to
leave England. Most of these men emigrated by instigation and persuasion of the
promoters. The government sent only convicts and later prisoners of wars.
Sometimes the private enterprises kidnapped youths to be sold into servitude in
the West Indian Islands of Barbados and Virginia. These unfortunates managed
to secure their freedom and formed prosperous families, if they survived. There
was a tacit agreement among the promoters and landowners to keep the negroes
from Africa m permanent bondage. The slave trade, a legacy of Hawkins in
Spanish Colonies, flourished in Virginia and West Indies, The Civil War of
Cromwell arrested the flow of voluntary emigration. Settled three thousand miles
away from their homeland, these colonists preserved their individual opinion
and liberty. Virginia and Maryland remained loyal to the Crown in England. The
New England colonies adopted a policy of neutrality even though they
sympathised with the Puritans.
Check your progress

Notes: i) What do you mean try ‘Stuart England’ and ‘American Settlement’ ?
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LESSON-10
EAST INDIA COMPANY
When Queen Elizabeth granted the Charter in 1600 to open trading centres in
the East, no one ever suspected the potentiality of the venture in shaping the
political destiny of England. After the conquest of Portugal in 1600 by King
Philip of Spain, the Dutch monopolised the trade in India. England had always
an eye on the profitable market of the Spice Islands India was referred so on
account of its spice trade) with great confidence the English ships touched the
shores of the Cape of Good Hope. The Crown did not venture to offer the same
protection to trade it gave for the American colonies to these Eastern traders due
to the great distance and heavy expense. This necessitated the East India
Company to develop its own armed force for defending itself from its rivals,
especially the Dutch, who had massacred English merchants ~ hundreds, in
Amboyna (1623). The distance and danger demanded strongly built ships that
could weather the storm for. ten thousand miles voyage. The natural instinct for
sea-faring of the English accepted this challenge and constructed ships that
could carry heavy loads and stand the stress of the travel With an unmatched
band of navigators who had the knowledge of the difficult routes by their palms
and a formidable defence navaI force.
Under the guidance and counselling of Sir Thomas Roe, the East India company
resolved to focus its attention only on commerce and not on conquest But after a
century, they threw caution to winds and exploited the internal disunity of the
Indian Princes and gradually established the empire.
The Stuart kings established trading centres at Madras, Surat, north of Bombay
and Bengal. Bombay came to English possession as the Queen's dowry to
Charles II, through his Portuguese marriage in the later part of the century. The
king gave it to the East India Company for a throw away rent of £10. Trading
with China was indirectly done through the Company's efficient servants. Ships
were sent to the Persian Gulf also. The East India company added to the
strength of the English king with its expert manners, heavily armed navy and
swelling trade profit. The country’s coffer was getting filled with the wealth from
Indian trade. English cloth did not capture the market greatly owing to the warm
climate. Queen Elizabeth, with her characteristic business acumen, wisely
suggested to export great quantity of coins of the realm on condition that as
much silver and gold was returned after each voyage. The immense returns of
this venture increased the treasures of the realm. Raw silk, spices, saltpetre and
pepper were the most important commodities brought from India.
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The king's policy of commerce in overseas trade displeased the merchants. ne

king granted monopoly of manufacture for certain articles to courtiers and his
favourites. This was done to increase the non parliament revenue. Naturally
there was considerable rise in the price of these articles in the local market and
the consumers grumbled. The traders of East India Company were more
aggrieved because this measure infringed their own trade prospects till the Far
East. Moreover the Company had to bear the expense of political and military
action.
Charles I set up a second company known as the Courteen Association but it did
not survive. But it did affect the East India Company. The Courteen Association
came to ruins because of internal mismanagement. People approved of the policy
of Pym and the Parliament to suppress monopolies in England and maintain
them for the companies trading overseas. The Stuart kings did little to protect
tile Englj.sh and their tradition in the East. It was Cromwell, the Lord Protector,
who came to the rescue of the East India Company. The Civil War entirely
abolished trade monopoly and subjected English and Foreign trade to strict
regulation. But Industry was free and this is the major reason why England
could take the lead over its western rivals, in the Industrial Revolution.
Cromwen's conquest of Jamaica and other distant colonies from other
European. powers expanded the colonisation rapidly that he was referred to as
the Great .Imperialist. The financial strain of the East India Company because of
the Courteen Association, was eased by Cromwell who made a single joint-stock
enterprise. In 1657 a permanent fund, known as 'New General Stock was
instituted for all future purposes. The enormous wealth amassed from the East
India trade remained with select rich men of the court. Though the-public
grumbled, nothing could be done as the trade was carried on with legal and
royal authority. The agents of the East India Company assumed royal tone and
power. The trade conflict led to strange, unspeakable and unreported incidents
of death and enmity among rivaling nations by land and sea. With the rise of
English commerce in remote lands like India, England was unconsciously
preparing itself for its future Imperialism.
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LESSON-11
THE STUARTS AND THE PARLIAMENT
CONTENTS
11.0 Aim and Objective
11.1 The Parliament
11.2 The Gun Powder Plot
11.3 The King and Parliament
11.4 The Long Parliament
1) To focus on the British Parliament and its impact on civil life
11.1 THE PARLIAMENT
Under the Tudors the Parliament dared not voice its opinions, though the spirit
of liberty and freedom typical of the English, did not relish suppression. Queen
Elizabeth handled them shrewdly, but towards the end of her reign, she realised
that she was losing her grip over her parliamentarians. Under the Stuarts the
situation grew worse. James I, though the English, was basically Scot and little
knew of the English ways and thought. Hence he had narrower sympathies for
the sentiments of his English subjects. Moreover his policy of 'divine right
theory' and the open declaration of his superiority over the Parliament
intensified the conflict between the king and the Parliament. James I was wise
enough to retain Sir Robert Cecil and Whitgift as minister and archbishop
respectively so that his predecessor's tradition of statecraft was to some extent
perpetuated. But the Puritans and the Catholics resented the religious policy of
James. The Puritans, expecting James I to establish the Scottish Presbytery in
England, presented a Millenary petition, which begged for certain relaxation of
ceremonies disliked by them. James I categorically denied consent to this. The
Hampton Court Conference, convened to discuss the religious issue, did not
result in any major change; It brought about a few changes in the Prayer Book,
which did not satisfy the Puritans.The only solid result was the order of a new
translation of the Bible. This led to the authorized King James, Version of 1611,
which became the sole religious text for the English speaking Protestants for
centuries to come.
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11.2 THE GUN POWER PLOT (1605)
The Roman Catholics anticipated favourable change for them in the reign of King
James I. But the king followed a rigid and severe policy against the Catholics. In
despair a group of Catholics resorted to treason and decided to blow up the king
and the Parliament. The Parliament was due to meet on November 5th 1605. Guy
Fawkes, an old soldier in the Spanish service became the chief instrument of the
conspirators. Sir Robert Cecil's spies unearthed the plot and captured Guy
Fawkes and his associates, a band of English Jesuit.
11.3 THE KING AND PARLIAMENT
James I had little sense of economy unlike Elizabethan. He was also not
conscious of keeping up the dignity of his royal position. He did not shrink from
asking the Parliament for money frequently. Sometimes he went to the extent of
stooping to bargain with the House a/Commons. In the very first Parliament in
1604 itself there were hot disputes about the privileges of the Parliament and the
Commons. He independently issued the Book of Rates, a taxation policy, to
regulate trade, which the-Parliament opposed. They called these taxes as New
Impositions and denounced them as violation of their rights. At this moment the
king submitted another scheme known as The Great Contract, but the
Parliament rejected that also. The angry king dismissed the Parliament in 1611
without obtaining consent for any of his proposals.
The next blunder that Charles I committed was the enforcement of religious
ideas on his people. William Laud enforced ceremonial worship, decency and
order in church service:; according to his views. The Puritans and those who
opposed were driven out of the church and other such institutions. Laud gave
barbarous punishment to the religious offender. He suppressed the publication
of all views hostile to his own. Flogging, branding and cutting off ears were
common punishments. The Courts of Star Chamber, High Commission and the
Council of North became instruments of the tyrannical rule imposing
unscrupulous punishment on those who opposed civil and religious policies of
the king.
11.4 THE LONG PARLIAMENT (1640)
The bid to destroy the Presbytarian system of Church and assimilate it with the
Church of England was the last straw on the Puritans' back that caused the
breakdown of the King's personal rule. In 1637 Laud introduced the new form of
worship in the Scottish Church. A woman named Genny Geades threw a stool at
the head of the man who began to read the new Prayer Book. Soon the show of
opposition acquired wide dimension. Within no time the whole of Scotland was
up in arms. They signed a document called National Convenant in 1638 and
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pledged to resist the religious reforms imposed by the Crown. Charles I called a
general assembly of the Scottish church to discuss the matter. The Scots stuck
to their policy and it made matters worse. Charles raised an army to fight with
the Scots. This war is known as the Bishops' war. But actually the war was not
fought, and an agreement was reached at Berwick. The agreement was made to
convene another general assembly to sort things out, but the Scots were
obstinate and war became inevitable. The king, having no army of his own and
also not possessing enough money to raise an army, desperately sent for
Thomas Wentworth. He had been Earl of Strafford. Wenttworth advised him to
Summon the Parliament and the King heeded to his advice in 1640.
The Parlimentarians placed their demands one by one and won the consent of
the king. Many Acts were passed. The Trienniai Act provided that in future
Parliament ought to be convened every three years. The Parliament passed
another Act declaring every three years. The Parliament passed other A~
deClaring that ii shoUld be dissolved, prorogued or adjourned by the wish of the
king. These two Acts rendered the king powerless. The tonnage and poundage,
the ship-money, compulsory knighthood, the prerogative courts, and Privy
Council were abolished. The victims of the arbitrary government were released.
Thus absolute monarchy was rendered impossible in the future years to come.
As the king consented to all their demands, the Commons granted him some
money as a show of their gratitude.
Check your progress

Notes: i) Define: Gun Power plot.
ii) Comment on the role played by ‘The Long Parliament’.
iii) What is the role played by king in the parliament?
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LESSON-12
THE PURITAN REVOLUTION
CONTENTS
12.1. The Long Parliament
12.2. The Great Remonstrance
12.3. John Pym and the Milita Bill
i) To expose the reader about puritan revolution
12.1 THE LONG PARLIAMENT
The Long Parliament was a prologue to the Puritan Revolution that was to upset
the peace of the nation in the subsequent years. The consent of the king to the
abolition of a number of previous Acts emboldened the Parliament to bring
another Bill, known as the Root and Branch Bill. The extreme Puritans of the
Parliament presented a strong petition asking the king to abolish Episcopacy. As
far as the reduction of the power of the Crown. was concerned the Parliament
remained unanimous in its opinion. But regarding religious question, it was
divided. Soon after the submission of the Root-and-Branch Bill, another wing
presented another petition seeking the Government of the Church by Bishop to
be reformed. This- divided the Parliament into two wings namely the Puritan
wing that wished to dispense with episcopacy and the High Church Party that
aimed at maintaining the Church in all matters. After a hot debate, the
Parliament was adjourned for a holiday.
12.2 THE GREAT REMONSTRANCE
Meanwhile, Charles I, in his own characteristic thoughtless fashion, went to

Scotland to get the help of the Scots in suppressing his Puritan opponents. The
attempt of the king angered the Puritans and the House of Commons drew up a
document called the Great Remonstrance, in 1641. This clearly indicated the rift
between the two factions of the Parliament. The Great Remonstrance contained a
list of complaints against Charles I and a programme for the future. On his
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return from Scotland, the king was shocked to receive the document and was
amazed to know that the Commons were planning for the impeachment of his
dear Queen. In order to save her life arid preserve his dignity, once again he
resorted to rash acts. He directed his Attorney General to arrest five leading
members of the House including Pym and Hampden and produce them before
the House of Lords to try them on the charge of treason. When the matter was
delayed, the king himself, with a band of Royalists went in person to the House
of Commons. The members got wild of this and escaped. The Commons resented
the instrusion of the king when the session was in progress. The Commons took
it as a violation of the House of Commons.
12.3 JOHN PYM AND THE MILITA BILL
The king, feeling insulted, left London to raise an army to get rid of the
Parliament. But the Parliament countered this move by raising its own forces.
John Pym introduced the Militia Bill to deprive the king of his command of the
militia. Through this Bill, the Commons asked the king to transfer the command
of the militia from the king to the officers appointed by the Parliament. Militia
was the only organised force in England and the king resolutely refused to
accept the Bill. In 1642, the Parliament presented the Nineteen Propositions
which aimed at the transfer of control of the government from the king to the
Parliament, in matters like the appointments of Privy Councillors, Chief Judges
and great officers. Besides, the fortress and the militia, the Parliament
demanded, should remain under its control.
Acceptance of these conditions tantamounted to the surrender of royal power
and hence Charles I rejected it. This culminated in the great Civil War, the war
between the King arid the Parliament in all fury.
Check your progress

Notes: i) What is ‘The Great Remonstrance’?
ii) What do you think about John Pym and the Militia?
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LESSON-13
THE CIVIL WAR (1642)
CONTENTS
13.1 The Royalists and Roundheads
13.2 Battle of Naseby
i) To expose the reader on ‘Civil War’ and its aftermath.
13.1 THE ROYALISTS AND ROUNDHEADS
It was with great reluctance that the leaders of England drew their swords
against each other. Most of them hated this war without an enemy. The
Parliament became divided wit4 one group supporting the king known as the
Royalists, and the other group siding the Commons known as tile Roundheads.
In fact this clear distinction of Royalists and Roundheads became sh3rper only
later, but the germs of the political parties were created during the Civil War.
Some, like Lord Saville, saw reason on both sides. He said, "I would not have the
king trample on the Parliament, nor the Parliament lessen him so much as to
make a way for the people to rule us 311". The king received much of his
support from a large majority of the nobles and wealthy men of the country, a
great body of the Clergy from Oxford and Cambrige and all those who were for
the Episcopal government and the Anglican ritual. The Queen was a Roman
Catholic, and the King was not stern with them. So they too were on the king's
side; The Roundheads, nicknamed after the close-cropped hair affected by the
Puritans, were freeholders, merchants, shopkeepers, all Protestants, Non-
conformists, municipal corporations and a majority of the House of Commons.
The Parliamentarians were led by leaders like Pym. Hampden and Oliver
Cromwell, an upcoming leader. The king's army was led by the earl of Lindsay
and the king's nephew, PrinceRupert.
The first phase of the campaign was decided in favour of the king. The battles of
Edgehill and Brantford gave hopes to the king. The Parliamentarians lost
Hampden and Pym, in the course of the same year. Their loss was a setback to
the Roundheads. The king's general, the earl of New Castle defeated Lord Fairfax
of the Roundheads near Bradford. Encouraged by this, Charles himself
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undertook the attack. But Essex fought well and Charles fled. The retort of the
Royalists was impetuous, particularly from Prince Rupert. Some of their good
leaders like Falkland were killed in the battle. Though, here and there, the
Roundheads proved their might, in general, it was felt that lack of organization
was the cause for their failure in many places. So a New Model Army was
organized which welded the annies of the Parliament together into a single unit,
with sterner discipline. Oliver Cromwell was made Lieutenant-general with
supreme authority over the cavalry. Sir Thomas Fairfax became general-in-chief.
13.2 BATTLE OF NASEBY
The battle of Naseby in 1645, turned the tables more in favour of the
Roundheads. Cromwell, with his New Model Army crushed the troops of the
Royalists. Before his death, Pym had entered into an agreement with the Scots.
and the forces of Scotland, came to the help of the Roundheads. Charles I made
a miscalculation in seeking the help of the Scots, and rode to their camp. Had
Charles conceded to the abolition of episcopacy, the Scots would have
considered his offer. But the obstinate king refused this and so they handed the
captured king to the Parliament and went back to their country. Though the war
appeared to have concluded hostilities within and without the New Model Army
were at work. The religious division in the Parliament was exploited by King
Charles to upset the power and hold of the Parliament. The Presbyterians were
extremists in religion and the Independents were tolerant. The Presbyterians
wished to disband the army, in the wake of triumph. This step united the army
as one man against the Lords and Commons, under the headship of Oliver
Cromwell. The alarmed Parliament began to negotiate with the King and Scots.
The king as usual played a trick by signing a secret pact with the Scots for
making the English Church Presbyterian. The disgusted Independents resolved
to sever connections with king. In 1648, Colonel Pride went down to West
minster and drove out the Presbyterian members of the House of Commons.
This act was known as Pride s Purge. The minority of Independents were
derisively referred to as the Rump.
The Army demanded the trial of Charles I, for causing the Second Civil War and
the unnecessary bloodshed. The Independent peers shrank from this violent
policy. So the Commons resolved to act by themselves. A High Court of Justice
was set up with John Bradshaw as its president to try the king. Charles I
declared that no tribunal of subjects had a right to sit in judgement on its
sovereign. The plea was unheeded and Charles was condemned to death as a
murderer and a traitor after a mere pretence of a trial. On January 30th the king
was beheaded outside his own palace of Whitehall. The pitiable death of the king
made him a martyr of the cause of Church and Constitution. All his incurable
errors and treacheries were drowned in public sympathy. With the King's death,
the Army took the rule in its hand.
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Check your progress

Notes: i) Who are the ‘Royalists’ and ‘Roundheads’?
ii) Explain: The Civil War
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65
LESSON-14
PURITANISM
CONTENTS
14.1. The Bible
14.2 Puritanism
14.3. Growth of Puritanism
14.4. Impact of Puritanism
i) To expose the learners about Puritanism and its impact.
14.1 THE BIBLE
The Stuart society was swept over by a spiritual wave of Puritan piety. England
became the people of a book and that was the Bible. The Bible remained the
literary monument of the English. No other forms of literature, like the romance
of the history, could penetrate the religious grip of the Bible on the mass. Day
after day crowds gathered in the Church to listen to the legends and annals, war
song and psalm, state-rolls and biographies, the highty voices of the prophets,
the parables of the Evangelists, stories of mission journeys, apocalyptic visions
and philosophic arguments. The constant exposure to the sacred book reformed
and chastened the language of the people. The whole moral conscience of the
people underwent a change with the holy text in the hands of every citizen. It
altered the whole temper of the nation spreading a new moral and religious
impulse in every strata of the society. The lighter and more elegant sides of the
Elizabethan culture harmonised well with the temper of the Puritan gentleman.
The society was an admixture of the Puritans, the Brownists, the Non-
Conformists, the Anglicans and the Roman Catholics.'
14.2 PURITANISM
Puritanism was born from the extreme sense of Protestantism that was
dissatisfied with the religious settlement of Queen Elizabeth. Trevelyan defines it
as Puritans was the religion of all those who wished to purify the rituals of tile
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established church from the taint of Roman Catholicism. The Puritans not only
attacked the form of public worship but also condemned the administrative
machinery of the Church. They abhorred episcopacy or the rule by the bishops.
Their alternative for of Church administration lay i11 the management of the
affairs of the Church by a group of Presbyters and elders. They were also known
as Presbyterians.
Staunch Puritans were called dissenters and separatists as they dissented
against the Queen's settlement. The age of Puritanism starts from the late
Elizabethan period to the end of the Commonwealth.
14.3 GROWTH OF PURITANISM
The outlook of life changed with the spread of Puritanism. Life gained dignity in
moral grandeur, in orderliness and equable force. The temper of the Puritan was
noble, just and self controlled. Passion was replaced by purity. He loved wise
and virtuous women, abhorred scurrilous. The discourse and too delight in all
that was pure and holy. Even his ordinary conversation was tinged with gravity
and high-seriousness. The new sobriety manifested in his dress and demeanour,
the gorgeous colours and jewels disappeared. He preferred simple clothes and
plain appearance. The splendour of Elizabethan age faded out to make place for
solemnity giving rise to a new concept of a social equality. The social distinction
of the previous era assumed a new sense of common brotherhood in Christ. The
meanest peasent felt himself ennobled as a child of God. The proudest noble
recognized a spiritual quality in the poorest 'saint'. The strength of the Puritan
cause lay in the middle and professional class than in the small traders or the
gentry. John Milton, the sublime poet of English literature, was the complete
and perfect type of Puritanism. His life span was long enough to grow with the
rise of Puritanism and watch the fall of Puritanism. The compositions of his
youthful days breathe the Renaissance gaiety. But in the later years he was
drawn into the vortex of Puritan strife. Another representative literary figure of
the Puritan epoch was John Bunyan. During the course of the Civil War,
Puritanism had reached in terrible visions of Heaven and Hell. He had grown up
with the notion that indulgence in childhood sports was a sin and many a time
kneeled down and prayed for forgiveness. The concept of sin robbed the little
pleasures from a Puritan's life. A sermon against dancing and games drew the
young Bunyan from all these luxuries. This spirit of austerity was at the bottom
of the ordinances of 1647 and 1648 banning all customary sports and closing
the play houses.
14.4 IMPACT OF PURITANISM
In fact the Puritans were not imposers but the political events of the day gave
added impetus to their cause. Pym, Hampden and other leading Puritans of the
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Long Parliament were not fanatics. They had no sort special objection to
Episcopacy, but it was Puritans like Thomas Cartwright and a knot of clerical
bigots collected under the banner of Presbyterians hastened the movement.
There have been reasonable forces, among the Puritans like Richard Hooker, but
they could not crush the fanaticism Cartwright. Hooker's 'Ecclesiastical Polity'
set the authority of reason against the dogmatism of Cartwright. He urged that a
Divine Order existed, not in written revelations, but in the moral relations, and
the social an political institutions of men. But these views fizzled out in the
storm raise by Cartwright. The condition of the English man in the society was
akin to that Christian in Bunyan's Pi [grim :so Progre 55. The poor English man
was seeking salvation, from the constant religious and political conflicts, with no
guide save the Bible. Such men' multiplied', congregated, regimented' and are so
potent as to make and mar political and religious systems. The Puritan existed
under various names the Separatists, the Brownists, the presbyterians and so
on. To this clan: was added the Pilgrim Fathers of the Mayflower colony in
America.
Check your progress

Notes: i) Command on the growth of Puritanism and its impact ?
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68
LESSON-15
THE UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND
CONTENTS
15.1. England and Scotland
15.2. Lack of Correlation
15.3. Presbyterianism
15.4. Social Impact
15.5. Beneficial Grounds
i) To highlight the importance of the dominic union of England and Scotland

Synopsis: introduction - how the Union was brought about – lack of contact
between the two countries before the Union - no immediate good result - better
understanding and co-operation in the course of time - change for the better in
Scotland in standard of living and house building and religious attitude - Social
contact between the two countries before and after the Union - Scottish
contribution to English literature - change in social structure - economic and
educational improvements - conclusion - a new avenue opened for overseas
trade and missionary activities.
15.1 ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND
England and Scotland came under the rule of one monarch, when James VI of
Scotland became also King of England in 1603. Right from the beginning it was
an uneasy Union which did no good to either country. Not only that, there were
frequent quarrels between the borderers. So it became necessary to do
something more constructive so that the fruits of Union might be enjoyed by the
partners. The result of a prolonged consideration was the Act of Union which
was passed on 1st May 1707. According to this the two countries became one,
having a common Parliament which sat at Westminster. It was agreed that
Scotland would be represented by forty-five members in the House of Commons
and sixteen peers in the House of Lords.
Prior to the Union, that is when England and Scotland were under a nominal
Crown, the contact between the people of the two countries was very little. The
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Scots had more contact with European countries than with England. The
Presbyterian clergy and lawyers always went to the Dutch universities for their
higher education and seldom came to Oxford of Cambridge. As far as business
was concerned, the Scottish overseas merchants had transactions with Holland
and Scandinavia but not with England or the English colonies.
15.2 LACK OF CORRELATION
At first the Union was popular neither in England nor in Scotland. Even after
1707, the estranged relationship continued at least for one generation or more.
That was why the Old Pretender in 1715 and the Young Pretender in 1745 were
able to get a large number of supporters, especially from the Highlands of
Scotland. The marriage of England and Scotland was not the result of love at
first sight. On the other hand, it was a well-thought out alliance which was
intended to bring about a union of hearts as well as heads. So in spite of the
initial difficulties and misunderstandings, I as years passed by there was better
understanding and I co-operation between the partners which proved beneficial
to both the parties. For instance, before the Union, agriculture in Scotland had
been antiquated and miserable, but after the Union she was able to imitate
England's agricultural methods. A few English ploughmen and farmers from
South Britain were employed by the Scottish landlords to teach them better
methods of cultivation. The agricultural experiments conducted in Scotland were
so remarkable that by the time of the Napoleonic wars, she was in a position to
teach new things to England.
After the Union, there was considerable improvement in the standard of living of
the Scottish people. In the earlier years low wages, poor living and periodic
famine were the sad lot of the people. Things changed for the better in the
course of the eighteenth century. Potatoes, vegetables, cheese and occasionally
meat, were added to the porridge and milk which was the staple diet of the poor
in Scotland. A great change for the better took place to Scottish housing also. In
some regions, solid stone farms and cottages with one or two rooms, with
chimneys, glass windows, beds, furniture and outside privies replaced the hovels
which the peasants of Scotland used to share with their cattle. Thus the sturdy
Scots of the time of Robert Bums (1759-1796) looked a different race from their
grandfathers whom want of food, clothing and warmth had too often made
haggard and dull looking.
15.3 PRESBYTERIANISM
The main religion of Scotland was Presbyterianism, i.e., a Church governed by

elders and ministers, all of equal rank. These elders very often interfered even in
the everyday life of individuals. The punishment they inflicted on sins of
immorality was exasperating and even ludicrous. An adulterator or a fornicator,
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for example, was exposed on the stool of repentance in the church to the
merriment of all and particularly the junior section of the congregation. To avoid
this intolerable humiliation, poor girls often resorted to concealment of
pregnancy and sometimes to child murder. This narrow-minded bigotry on the
part of the elders died out in course of time and slowly they became more broad-
minded and tolerant. This was no doubt the result of their contact with the
English. The rival religious group was the Episcopalians. The gentry of the
Lowlands were divided more or less equally into Presbyterian and Episcopalian.
In the course of the century, the Episcopalians dwindled and Presbyterianism
became the acknowledged religion of Scotland.
15.4 SOCIAL IMPACT
Social contact between the two countries before the Union was deplorably poor.
It is true of the Scottish cattle dealers sold their cattle in the fairs of North
England, but apart from this, the business transacted between Scotland and
England was so little that the London mail-bag sometimes brought only one
letter to Edinburgh. Perhaps not more than a dozen people from England visited
Scotland in a year for pleasure. Political hostility was not the only reason for this
state of affairs. The few English travellers who went to Scotland always
complained about the badness of accommodation in the slovenly inns. Nor was
the landscape beautiful enough for the tourists. No Englishman then admired
the wild moorland scenery which 1he highly patriotic Scots no doubt loved in
their innermost hearts. The southerner despised the Lowland scenery as divided
between melancholy wastes and ill-managed fields of oats. As to the Highlands,
1hey looked horrid and frightful to English eyes. Towards the end of the century,
as a result of improved methods of cultivation the landscape looked so beautiful
that it inspired Wordsworth (the greatest Nature poet) to write some of his very-
famous poems like The Solitary Reaper and To the Highland Girl. This new
outlook was also the outcome of improved --social contacts inaugurated by the
Union. These contacts had the effect of dispelling the mist of national prejudices
which had prevented the peoples of both the countries from seeing the good in
each other. As a matter of fact all great literary mean of England visited Scotland
at least once. In 1773, Dr. Johnson who was highly prejudiced against the Scots
undertook a long journey through the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides,
accompanied by his admirer and biographer James Boswell.
The Union of 1707 was not without benefit for English literature. It was enriched
by the generous contributions of Scottish literary geniuses like Rober Bums,
George Smollett, Sir Walter Scott and Thomas Carlyle. Incidentally, it may be
mentioned that the greatest biography in English, the life of Dr. Johnson, was
also written by a Scot. Equally great was the contribution which Scottish
intellectuals made to the thought of the world as a whole. David Hume, the
Scottish philosopher, became famous not only in England but also in France,
with the publication of his book Political Discourses, first in English and
afterwards in French. His friend and countryman Adam Smith revolutionised the
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economic theories of the day when he brought out his masterpiece, "An Enquiry
into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations". Other intellectuals who
won international fame were William Robertson the historiographer and Dugald
Stewart, the famous professor of Moral Philosophy.
15.5 BENEFICIAL GROUNDS
The beneficial result of the Union was seen in another thing also. Even the early
part of the seventeenth century the evils of Feudalism survived in both Lowlands
and Highlands, but the latter remained much more primitive. For centuries
together the shackles of Feudalism kept them inactive and discontented. Shut
up in the prison of poverty the tribal Highlanders did not know the ways and
means to improve their economic condition. The Union with England gave them
an opportunity to become partakers in the overseas trade and also to emigrate to
foreign countries like Canada. The Highlanders with their inborn fighting spirit,
by being absorbed into the British army, were able to play responsible parts in
British wars abroad.
There was a phenomenal change in the field of education too. In the century
preceding the Union, Scottish education was miserably poor. Both out of thrift
and of patriotism the idea of sending of Scottish gentleman's son to an English
public school or university was unthinkable. At the same time the educational
institutions in Scotland did not maintain an encouraging academic atmosphere.
Even Glasgow at the time of the Union was a market and University town with a
small population of just 12,500. By the year 1800 the population rose to 8 with
spectacular improvement in the living conditions. The University became famous
also in Europe through Professor Adam Smith, the economist. Though
Edinburgh ceased to be the capital of Scotland after the Union, it continued to
be the legal, fashionable and intellectual centre of the country. The city was
famous throughout Europe for its philosophers, lawyers and academicians.
The Union opened a new avenue for the activities of the Scottish missionaries in
many parts of the British Empire, including South India. In addition to doing
missionary work, they established a network of educational institutions which in
subsequent years were able to mould some of the outstanding leaders of the
country. On the whole it may be said without much exaggeration that the latter
part of the 18th century marked the golden age of Scotland.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Comment on the unifications of England and Scotland?
ii) What is meant by Presbyterianism?
iii) Identify the after – effects of the union.
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LESSON-16
THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION
CONTENTS
16.1. Agrarian Revolution
16.2. Causes
16.3. Advantages
16.4. Contribution of Townshend
16.5. Robert Bakewell
16.6. English Banking system
i) To import the importance of Agrarian Revolution

Synopsis : Introduction - what the term Agrarian Revolution implies - causes for
the revolution - the reallocation of land - the agricultural improvements effected
by Jethro Tull - Charles Townshend and rotation of crops - the agricultural
experiments of Thomas Coke - Robert Bakewell and stock breeding - royal
patronage - setting up of Board of Agriculture - conclusion - result of the
agrarian revolution.
16.1 AGRARIAN REVOLUTION
The term "Agrarian Revolution" implies the great changes that took place in the
agricultural methods of England during the second half of the seventeenth
century and the first half of the eighteenth century. In the course of this
Revolution, the open field system disappeared, rotation of crops was introduced,
and scientific methods were applied to agriculture. Large farms superseded
small holdings.
16.2 CAUSES
The causes of the revolution were many. First of all the old open field system
was wasteful of land because, according to this arrangement, every year one of
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the three fields was to be out of cultivation. Secondly, the old system of
distribution of land was wasteful of time a farmer's holdings were scattered and
so he had to walk considerable distances to reach the remoter strips of his land.
Thirdly, there was the necessity of conforming to the customs of the village and
this made experiments in agricultural methods impossible. There were other
causes also. In the eighteenth century population was increasing and so more
food was needed. But the yield could not be enlarged, under the old system of
cultivation which therefore had to give place to another. Owing to the scarcity of
food materials there was a rise in prices. The old-fashioned farmers thought that
they could get more money if they produced more. This idea was an incentive for
them to improve their agricultural methods.
For the reallocation of lands in consolidated blocks which could be enclosed, a
number of Enclosure Acts were passed in the reign of George II and George III.
When an Enclosure Act was passed a commissioner was appointed to visit the
village concerned and carry out the work of reallocating the land. There were
many cases of the poor peasants being not satisfied with the reallocation. Such
people sold away their small holdings to wealthy businessmen of the city who
were eager to possess lands of their own. The final result of this tendency was
that the class or rural inhabitants known as yeomen disappeared.
16.3 ADVANTAGES
One of the advantages of the enclosure system was that it gave scope for many
enterprising people to make experiments. One such person who made some
pioneering work in the field of agricultural improvement was Jethro Tull of
Berkshiro. He was the inventor of a drill for sowing seeds. He did much
important experimental work in connection with the depth to which seeds
should be sown and the amount which should be sown per acre. He also
emphasized the necessity of careful selection of seed if good crops were to be
obtained.
16.4 CONTRIBUTION OF TOWNHEND
Another was Walpole's brother-in-law, Charles Townshend of Norfolk. He

adopted Tull's principles in working his estate at Rainham and paid much
attention to the question of rotation of crops. He introduced the Norfolk or four-
course rotation of turnips, barley, cloves and rye - grass and wheat. These
measures en e unproductive fallow and enabled him to carry more stock on his
lands, and more stock meant more manure, which in its turn led to still better
crops and therefore to still more stock. His innovations made Norfolk a leading
agricultural country, with the result that in thirty years the rental of one farm
rose from 180 pounds to 800 pounds a year.
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The work of Townhend was continued by Thomas coke of Holkham in Norfolk.

He followed the precepts of Tull and in addition fed the soil with manures
including bones. As a matter of fact, he was one of the first farmers to use bones
as manure. In nine years' time he was able to grow excellent wheat crops, and
by means of cloves and other roots was able to make his land carry three times
as many sheep and cattle as it had every done before. He also introduced new
artificial foods such as oil-cake and led the way in fattening cattle for the London
markets. He held yearly meeting of farmers at his house, and at these meetings
farming topics were discussed and much advice was given and received. He
changed the appearance of the countryside by planting trees upon his land. It is
estimated that the annual rental of his estate rose from 2,200 pounds in 1776 to
20,000 pounds in 1816.
16.5 ROBERT BAKEWELL
While Norfolk landlords were thus making great improvements in arable

farming, a Leicestershire farmer, Robert Bakewell was revolutionising English
methods of stock breeding. Up to this time sheep had been valued chiefly for
their wool, the production of mutton had been only secondary. Bakewell was the
first to turn his attention to the production of meat as the main consideration of
stock breeders. By patient choice and experiment he succeeded in producing a
new breed of sheep which fattened quickly and weighted heavy. His success
attracted the attention of many. Farmers from far and wide visited his farm at
Dishley and became converts to his new methods. Others who did pioneering
work in this field were George Culley, Charles Colling and John Ellman.
16.6 ENGLISH BANKING SYSTEM
Royal patronage was also given to the movement of revolutionising the

agricultural methods. George III, affectionately known to his subjects as Farmer
George, established a model farm at Windsor Much of the success of the
movement was due to the writings of agricultural writers, the most famous of
whom was Arthur Young. When a Board of Agriculture was established in 1793
young was made its secretary. He made a vigorous crusade in favour of
enclosures, large farms and longer leases, and made the new methods more
widely known by his writings.
With the advent of the enclosure system the English banking system also grew,
for even the wealthy landlords did not have enough money to do the fencing and
to effect other improvements. So they had to borrow money from the banks.
Because of the enclosure system many small independent farmers had to sell
their lands. They either became paid labourers or went to the cities, hoping to
get employment. But they were disappointed and thus added to the army of
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paupers and unemployed. In accordance with the system even the Commons
were enclosed. Though this measure was very desirable from the point of view of
national production, it had a harmful effect on the poor peasant. The system
deprived him of his privilege of grazing his cattle and cutting fuel from the
Commons.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Define Agrarian Revolution
ii) Comment on the Contributions of Townhend and Bakewell
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76
LESSON-17
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
CONTENTS
17.1. Industrial Revolution
17.2. Development
17.3. Transportation
17.4. Navigation
17.5. Results-Good and Bad
17.0. AIM AND OBJECTIVE
i) To highlight the importance and impact of Industrial Revolution

Synopsis: Introduction - what is meant by the term Industrial Revolution -
factors favourable in England for industrial development - the industries affected
by the Revolution - Textile industry before - inventions which revolutionised the
Textile industry - revolutions in Iron and Coal industries - improvements in
means of transport - change for the better in inland navigation - use of steam of
speeding up means of transport - conclusion - results - of the Industrial
Revolution.
17.1 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
During the second half of the eighteenth century and the first half of the
nineteenth century British industry underwent great changes. These changes
were so remarkable that the term Industrial Revolution has been applied to
them. The word "Revolution" has the connotation of suddenness and violence.
But the term Revolution also implies fundamental change. It is in this second
sense that the term is applicable to the English industries because there was a
fundamental and drastic change in the industrial methods of England. Before
the Industrial Revolution, goods were produced in limited quantities by human
hands in the houses of the workers; but after the Revolution goods were
produced in large quantities by machines in factories.
The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain earlier than in other European
countries chiefly because of the political and financial stability which she
enjoyed after the Glorious Revolution. It is true that England was involved in
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most of the wars 0 the 18th century but they were all fought outside on the
Continent or elsewhere. The fact that England was free from foreign invasion
also contributed to the industrial development of the country. There was
accumulation of capital which was available for investment in industry. This
accumulation of capital was partly due to the profit made by the trading
companies. Capital was accumulated, also as a result of abstinence and frugality
practised from religious motives by people like Puritans. Great Britain's
geographical position was peculiarly suitable for world trade, as no part of the
world was inaccessible to her ships. Her coastline offered excellent harbours and
her many navigable rivers offered means of internal communication. Her climate
was invigorating and promoted habits of industry. Natural resources were
abundant and the vast supplies of coal and iron in close proximity to each other
and to the coast were vital to industrial development.
17.2 DEVELOPMENT
During the Industrial Revolution, textile, coal and iron industries and means of
transport underwent a thorough change. Before the Industrial Revolution, textile
work was done in the cottages by people who were also engaged in agriculture,
and it was done by hand or with the help of hand worked implements. In this
cottage textile work, men, women and children were all engaged Carding was
undertaken by children, and the straightened fibres of wool or cotton were spun
into continuous yarn by women. Weaving on a handloom was usually done by
men. The supplementary processes ,such as dyeing or bleaching, fulling,
printing and finishing were carried on in establishments maintained by the
clothier The. System had many defects. The worst defect was that production
was deplorably slow and could not meet the ever-increasing demand abroad for
English textile goods. Some change, therefore, was necessary in the method of
spinning if production was to be increased. In the course of time a series of
inventions brought about an entire transformation of the Textile industry.
The first mechanical invention to be made was the flying shuttle by John Kay in
1733. The mechanism enabled cloths of any width to be made by a single weaver
and also doubled the pace at which the weaving could be done. To keep the
weavers engaged they had to be supplied with a sufficient quantity of yam.
Attention was therefore turned to the question of spinning and in 1764 a
carpenter named James Hargreaves made the spinning - jenny, which speeded
up the making of yarn. In 1769 a still better machine was invented by Richard
Arkwright, a barber. Arkwright changed his machine to use with water-power
and so it became known as the water-frame, its great advantage over the
spinning- jenny was that it produced stronger yam. In 1779 Samuel Crompton
combined the jenny and the water - frame in his "mule" and added a contrivance
to prevent the frequent breaking of the yam which occurred when spinning with
the jenny. The result was that a yarn much finer and stronger could be
produced. The power - loom made by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 helped to
increase the speed of weaving.
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By the middle of the eighteenth century there was an increased use of iron. In
1779 the world's first iron bridge was made spanning the River Severn. The
development of iron trade was closely associated with the coal industry because
a new method of smelting iron with coal was devised. The great development in
the iron and coal industry took place in the early nineteenth century in places
like South Wales, South Yorkshire and Tyneside regions where coal and iron
were found together, either near the sea or with easy access to it by river or
canal. Inventions connected with this trade were made by people like new
comen and James Watt. In 1705 new comen made a steam engine to pump
water out of coal mines. Later, in 1763, a young mathematical instrument
maker named James Watt perfected this steam engine.
17.3 TRANSPORTATION
The Revolution took place in means of transport also. Before the Revolution
there was no effective highway authority and most foolishly the upkeep of high
roads was entrusted to the parish. Naturally enough the roads were in very bad
condition. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, when goods were produced on
a large scale, the need was felt for transporting goods to cities and seaports.
After 1750 hundreds of Road Acts were passed and many turnpike trustees
formed. Telford made many miles of good roads and many large towns were
reached by coaches. In 1815 Macadam taught the art of road draining and
perfected the surface of the road. By 1840 there were 22,000 miles of good
turnpike roads in England with nearly 8,000 tollgates.
17.4 NAVIGATION
The improvement of inland navigation was as important as the improvement of

roads in opening the way to industrial change. The first half of the 18th century
had been a period of much activity in deepening the navigable rivers. The second
half of the century saw the construction of new artificial waterways. The Duke of
Bridgewater, who is known as "the father of inland navigation", connected his
collieries with Manchester by canal. The canal movement began in the rapidly
developing industrial region of South Yorkshire and West Midlands and soon
spread over the whole country. The canals and the turnpike roads did more than
stimulate the exchange of goods inside the island; they also hastened the growth
of overseas trade. Goods were distributed in much greater quantities throughout
the length and breadth of the country. George Stephenson invented the first
locomotive, and the first railway line between Stockton and Darlington was
opened in 1825, Liverpool and Manchester were linked by railway in 1830;
London and Birmingham in 1838. Steam was also used for water transport. The
first successful steamboat in Europe was Bell's Coment, which began to run
between Glasgow and Greenock in l812. A service was established between
Dublin and Holyhead in 1820. The first steam-boat reached Liverpool from
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America in 1825 and two vessels steamed from the British Isles to New York in
1838. Since that time there has been remarkable progress in all matters
connected with ocean navigation.
17.5 RESULTS-GOOD AND BAD
The Industrial Revolution had good as well as bad results. During the period of
Industrial Revolution the population of England increased to a very great extent.
It is estimated that in 1710 the population of England was five and a half
million; but in 1750 it increased to six millions. During the next fifty years there
was an increase of 50 per cent. Thus the Census of 1801 revealed a population
of nine millions. This was again doubled by 1851 and doubled again by 1901.
Many new industrial towns like Sheffield, Birmingham and Manchester and
Leeds developed with startling rapidity. The people clustered together in these
smoky towns where lack of proper sanitation caused many kinds of diseases.
The Industrial Revolution had yet another bad result although the new methods
led to greatly increased wealth that did not always lead to greater comfort and
happiness. The old personal relations of the employer and the employee which in
earlier days had kept master and worker on fairly friendly terms, now
disappeared in many cases. This does not mean that the Industrial Revolution
was without good results. In the first place England became - the workshop of
the world. The production of goods on a large scale paved the way for fall in
prices. This led to increased demand for goods and in the end there was
employment for more people.
Check your progress

Notes: i) What are the salient features of Industrial Revolution?
ii) Define its uses and abuses.
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LESSON-18
THE METHODIST MOVEMENT
CONTENTS
18.1. Wesley, the preacher
18.2. Whitefield, the great reformer
18.3. Social effects
i) To make the reader to become aware of the various Methodist movements.

Synopsis: Origin - life and achievements of John Wesley George Whitefield the
greatest preacher - social service rendered by the Methodists - division among
them - social effects of the movement – influence on English literature.
18.1 WESLEY, THE PREACHER
In the social history of England, eighteenth century was a period of many

humanitarian movements. The growing humanitarianism of the eighteenth
century was the result of a religious revival brought about by a few Oxford
students. Among them there were two brothers, John and Charles Wesley, the
sons of a Lincolnshire clergyman. Another prominent member of the group was
George Whitefield, the son of a Gloucester inn-keeper. This small society of
young men soon became. So conspicuous by their good method of living that
they were nicknamed Methodists. They lived a strict and ordered life governed by
the rules of the Bible and through their example instilled in others the idea of
piety and morality. They wanted to save their own souls and help one another so
that they might be able to serve God in the right way. They also began to visit
the prisoners in jail, to preach to the poor in Oxford, and to teach poor and
ignorant children of the town. They wanted to show that Christianity was a
religion which could not only be professed but also practiced. They inculcated in
their listeners a sense of sin and consequent repentance. Most of them became
clergymen of the Church of England, and the organizing ability of John Wesley
made him the leader of the movement which started in 1729.
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18.2 WHITEFIELD, THE GREAT REFORMER
George Whitefield (1714 - 1770) was the greatest preacher among them. He gave
a series of sermons to the colliers of Kings wood near Bristol, who were
conspicuously irreligious. They responded to his appeal and became genuinely
religious men. His preaching was attended by ten to twenty thousand people.
His impassioned eloquence had diverse effects on different persons. Some were
moved to hysterical laughter or violent weeping and some others fell to the earth
in an agony of repentance. Wesley also became a famous preacher and in fifty
years of his missionary life he preached forty thousand sermons, travelling many
thousands of miles nearly all on horseback. Throughout his life (1703-1791) of
eighty-eight years Wesley lived ascetically and gave freely of his means to the
poor. When his income was £ 30 a year he managed to live on £ 28 and gave
away the other £ 2 to the poor. When his income was £ 120 he still lived upon £
28 and used the remainder for charitable purposes.
Wesley's organizational ability was shown in many new societies he formed with
their weekly meetings and feasts. Another remarkable thing about their
movement was the employment of members of the laity as preachers and class -
leaders. Some of these lay preachers were very note worthy men. During the
earlier years of the movement all the leaders were fiercely assailed by the mob
and some of their escapes from a violent death seemed almost miraculous. Their
greatest successes were gained in the crowded industrial areas among the
miners and other workers. The least impression was produced upon the
agricultural population. The majority of their converts were drawn from the
middle and lower classes, but there were also some members of the aristocracy
who became their patrons.
Whitefield adopted Calvinistic beliefs and this led to difference between the
leaders and the division of the movement into two branches. The more important
one was that which followed Wesley. Under his skilful control the Methodist
movement began to assume a distinctive form and government, though he
himself protested to the last against any separation from the Church of England.
The conduct of the field preachers was in many respects irregular; they were
clergymen who were not obeying the injunctions of their spiritual masters, but
were acting often in direct opposition to them. Thus the separation of the
Methodists from the Church of England became inevitable. In 1795, four years
after their founder's death, the Wesleyan Methodists became a separate body.
18.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS
The effect of this great religious revival was tremendous on the Church, on
literature and on philanthropy. The Evangelical movement entered the Church
and gave to its members a new spiritual devotion. The attitude of many of the
clergy towards their parishioners was changed completely. Many devout and
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earnest men became preachers of its doctrines and observers of its practices.
Notable among these were many members of the Cambridge University where
the influence of the Evangelical movement was strongly felt. In literature the
movement showed itself chiefly in the production of a number of excellent
humans. With the spread of the Methodist movement a new spirit of kindness
and mercy took possession of people and led to the development of much
notable philanthropy. The establishment of many Sunday schools enabled the
children of the poor to learn to read the Bible. Many benevolent people like
Hannah More of Bristol visited the agricultural poor of the west of England in
their own homes and worked for them and wrote and pleaded on their behalf
with beneficial results. Societies were also established for the purpose of
educating the poor in religion and good manners.
Check your progress

Notes: i) Comment on the reform by the Whitefield.
ii) Comment on the impact of social effects of the Methodist movement.
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LESSON-19
OTHER HUMANITARIAN MOVEMENTS
CONTENTS
19.1. Development on Biological Science
19.2. The English Legal System
19.3. The Great humanitarian movement
19.4. Law Amendment Act
19.5. Commission of Enquiry
19.6. Drunkenness as a social evil
19.7. After effects
i) To sensitize the importance of various humanitarian movements.
Synopsis: Growing concern for the poor in the age of Dr. Johnson -
establishment of lying-in hospitals - introduction of inoculation and vaccination
- Captain Coram and the Foundling Hospital - prison reform - services of
General Oglethorpe - revision of legal system – introduction of police system -
anti- slavery movement - abuses of the workhouse remedied - the Poor Law
Amendment Act - factory legislation – the Salvation Army - propaganda for
teetotalism - Government control on trade.
19.1 DEVELOPMENT ON BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
One of the problems that accompanied the Industrial Revolution was the
problem of health and sanitation. In the industrial towns like Sheffield,
Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds many factories had sprung up and people
clustered around the factories of these smoky towns where there was little
sanitation. This resulted in diseases of many kinds. Even as early as the
beginning of the eighteenth century smallpox had been the most dreaded disease
destructive of beauty and life To counteract the spread of this fatal disease Lady
Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation from Turkey and an inoculation
hospital was set up in London Towards the close of the century Jenner
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discovered vaccination. Another remarkable achievement was the establishment

of lying-in hospital where patients could remain till they were cured. In the
course of 125 years after 1700 not less than 154 hospitals were established.
Some of these hospitals were the outcome of individual initiative, but others
came into existence only because of the co-ordinated voluntary effort and
subscription by many people. Those hospitals were therefore standing
monuments to the munificence and humanitarianism of the people of the period.
It was the growing benevolence of the age that was mainly responsible for the
setting up of the Foundling Hospital. The appalling infant mortality among the
poor and especially among the bastard children moved generous persons like
Captain Coram. He could not endure the sight of babies lying deserted by the
roadside. He worked for the establishment of a hospital for these children. In
this effort he was also assisted by benevolent people like Handel and Hogarth.
After many years his effort was crowned with success and the hospital was
completed and opened in 1745.
Benevolence of soul was characteristic of many in the age of Dr. Johnson. One
such benevolent man was General Oglethorpe who drew the attention of the
public to the scandal of debtor's prisons. In 1729 he induced the Parliament to
enquire into the horrors of the prisons in Fleet Street and Marshalsea where the
jailors tortured debtors to get money from them. Humanitarians like John
Howard and Elizabeth Fry worked for the improvement of the lot of the
prisoners. Yet the English prisons continued to be a national disgrace for the
rest of the century However, these humanitarians were at least able to call the
attention of the public and the Government to the state of things which the
previous generations had simply ignored. The benevolent General Oglethorpe
became the founder and first 'Governor of the new colony of Georgia in American
to which he transplanted many debtors and impoverished people.
19.2 THE ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM
Throughout the eighteenth century the English legal system had remained in the
most chaotic state. The punishment imposed on the culprit was not at all
proportionate to his crime. The cruel code of English law was enlarging the long
list of offences punishable by death and they numbered about two hundred.
Horse stealing, coining and stealing in a shop to the value of five shillings were
all treated alike as capital crimes. The growing humanitarian spirit was so great
that Juries often refused to convict men for minor offences which would lead
them to death. Meanwhile steps were also taken to prevent crimes and riots and
maintain order and peace in society. In 1829 Robert Peel introduced the police
system and in course of time police were established throughout the country.
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19.3 THE GREAT HUMANITARIAN MOVEMENT
Another great humanitarian movement was the anti - slavery propaganda

started by some eminent men like William Wilberforce. Ever after the
establishment of American colonies England was involved in the slave - trade
even as early as 1771 fifty - eight ships sailed from London, twenty-three from
Bristol and one hundred and seven from Liverpool. They transported 50,000
slaves that year. The slave-trade was closely connected with the Textile industry
of Lancashire. The ships from Liverpool carried cargoes of finished Lancashire
cotton goods to Africa, exchanged them for Negroes, took the slaves to America
and returned to England with cargoes of raw cotton, tobacco and sugar. The
planters of the West Indian Islands and the American mainland bought English
cotton goods to clothe their slaves, and the supply of Negro labour from Africa
enabled them to provide the raw materials for the Textile industry in Lancashire.
This trade went on for years together unquestioned by anybody.
One of the first to object to the slave-trade on moral grounds was Dr. Johnson
and another distinguished man who opposed the inhuman practice was Horace
Walpole. Later on the anti-slavery movement started and it gathered momentum
under the dynamic leadership of William Wilberforce. They conducted public
meetings and distributed pamphlets to give the public a true picture of the
sufferings of the slaves. As a result of their efforts the slave-trade was abolished
in 1807. The champions of the movement did not stop their activities with this
initial success. Their idea was to set free all the slaves all over the British
Empire, and to achieve this goal, they continued the anti-slavery propaganda
creating public opinion in favor of their cause. It was achieved in 1833, the year
in which Wilberforce died. The anti-slavery movement had considerable impact
on English social life. It introduced into English life and politics new methods of
agitating and educating public opinion.
19.4 LAW AMENDMENT ACT
Then there was the humanitarian attempt to improve the lot of the labourers
and paupers which culminated in the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act of
1834. From the Tudor time onwards poor laws were being passed from time to
time in different localities to deal with the problem of the paupers. But there
were abuses everywhere. To prevent those abuses the workhouse system was
introduced. According to the new law one who refused to be lodged in one - 'of
the workhouses was not eligible for any relief. Though the system worked well
for some time, it was found unsatisfactory later on. In most cases the officials of
workhouses were guilty of misappropriation. Moreover, the treatment mated to
the inmates of the house was so humiliating that most of the paupers preferred
to keep away from the so-called charitable institutions. In the second half of the
eighteenth century, the problem was intensified in several ways. The rapid
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growth of population kept down the market value of labour. At the same time the
growing demand for the necessaries of life kept the prices high. In other words,
while the wages were low, the prices of essential commodities were high. The
condition of most of the labourers was not in any way better than that of the
paupers. To remedy the situation, the Speenhamland Act was passed in 1795.
According to this law all persons receiving wages below a certain level were to be
given a grant from the relief fund. This Act had disastrous consequences. First of
all, the army of paupers swelled. Secondly, there was no incentive for the
employers to increase the wages. Thirdly, the paupers were better off than many
of the hard-working labourers who had to contribute to the Poor Relief Fund.
19.5 COMMISSION OF ENQUIRY
In 1833 a Commission of Enquiry was appointed to study the working of the

poor laws and report to the Parliament. The Commission which consisted of able
men well qualified for the task made a thorough study of the problem. Their
report brought to light the corrupt practices associated with the poor law
administration. On the basis of this report the Poor Law Amendment Act was
passed in 1834. It was decided that the person receiving relief should not in any
way be better off than the lowest class of labourer living without relief. A new
administrative system was devised according to which the country was divided
into several districts. These divisions had to be administered by the popularly
elected and unpaid representatives forming Boards of Guardians under the
supervision of Commissioners. This arrangement was in many ways a great
success. But even this arrangement in course of time was found to be defective.
There was a provision by which at the discretion of the guardians relief could be
given to those who were not members of the workhouses. But what was expected
to be used rarely was resorted to very frequently, with the result that once again
the problem became complicated.
In 1905 another Commission was appointed. According to the report submitted

by the Commission in 1909 the causes for poverty were drunkenness, disease,
thriftlessness, early and improvident marriages, and casual labour. The
Commission recommended the removal of children from workhouses to separate
institutions from which they could attend schools. They suggested a separate
institution for the aged poor. To reduce the unemployment the labour Exchange
and State Insurance Scheme were recommended.
Another humanitarian movement of the nineteenth century was the salvation

Anny, founded in 1865 by William Booth, popularly own as General Booth. He
was originally a travelling preacher of Methodism, but later he broke from that
Church and started his own mission. He drew the attention of the people to the
degraded section of society namely the homeless and unfed, to the drunkard, the
criminal and the harlot. It was General Booth, who for the first time, emphasized
social work and care for the material conditions of the poor and outcast as being
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an essential part of the Christian mission. He employed novel and sensational

methods which easily captured the imagination of people. To bring street bands
and coloured uniforms into the service of Protestant religion was really
something new. The movement in due course spread to other countries also.
19.6 DRUNKNESS AS A SOCIAL EVIL
Mention must also be made of the movement started for the eradication of
drunkenness which had become a big social evil. It was very often the cause of
much domestic unhappiness and even crime. The movement was known as
Teetotalism or Total Abstinence. Great caricaturists of the time, like Hogarth and
George Cruikshank, helped the movement by drawing many pictures. Himself a
fanatical teetotaler Cruikshank drew a series of horrifying pictures, showing the
progress of the love of liquor from the cradle to the grave. In the years that
followed, an organized propaganda was made against the drinking habits of all
classes by the "Blue Ribbon Anny". They were called so because all these who
took total abstinence pledge wore blue ribbon on their breasts. It must be said to
the credit of the ardent volunteers that the movement had beneficent influence
of the society.
19.7 AFTER EFFECTS
During the period of the Industrial Revolution the policy followed was laissez-
faire. According to this doctrine employers and employees, buyers and sellers
could regulate matters for themselves with little interference from the
Government. The policy had painful effects upon the workers. The poor workers
were not able to bargain with their well-to-do masters. To meet the growing
demand for English goods, production had to be speeded up. So persons of all
ages and both sexes were collected together in the new factories with total
disregard for their health and morals. Work by day and work by night became
inevitable. Women and children had to do work far beyond their intelligence and
strength. To make matters worse, they were not allowed to organize unions to
voice their grievances.
Philanthropists like Sir William Ashley Cooper and religious leaders attempted to
focus the attention of the authorities to the problem. The result of this effort was
that by the beginning of the nineteenth century the House of Commons made
trade unions legal. From then onwards various forms of working class
associations grew up. Naturally enough the labourers were able to fight their
cause more effectively. As a result of the co-ordinated effort of the trade unions a
number of Factory Acts have been passed and many grievances have been
passed and many grievances have been redressed.
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Check your progress

Notes: i) Define the importance of English Legal System.
ii) What is Law Amendment Act?
iii) What is the commission of enquiry?
iv) What are the evil effects of the drunkenness?
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LESSON-20
THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
CONTENTS
20.1. The American Background
20.2. The Navigation Act
20.3. The Stamp Act
20.4. Customs Duty
20.5. Boston Tea Party
20.6. War of Independence
i) To highlight the importance of the American War of Independence.
Synopsis: Introduction - background of American people – causes for the war -

the Navigation Act - the Stamp Act - no taxation without representation - the
Boston Massacre - the Boston Tea Party - the meetings at Philadelphia - the
Declaration of Independence - course of the war - reasons for the English defeat
- conclusion - results of the war.
20.1 THE AMERICAN BACKGROUND
The thirteen British colonies in America were founded by men who in their heart
of hearts loved to lead a life free from persecution and interference of any kind.
Each of these colonies had an independent legislature and a Governor appointed
by the King of England. It was by hard work that the colonists established
themselves in the New World. A natural outcome of this was that there
developed in them a kind of uncompromising spirit of independence. By the
middle of the eighteenth century, the American colonists were not in a mood to
tolerate any interference in their trade with the outside world. When such an
outlook was fast developing in them, British attitude remained unchanged.
Britain still maintained the view that the colonies existed only for the benefit of
the mother-country.
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20.2 THE NAVIGATION ACT
One of the things which irritated the colonists was the Navigation Act by which
all goods to and from the colonies had to be carried in English ships. Foreign
goods could not be imported into the colonies without first being landed in
England, and goods could not be shipped to foreign countries from the colonies
without first being landed in England. More than that, the colonists were
prohibited from making things like hats and woolen or iron goods which might
compete with English industry. But for years together these laws were not
enforced and that gave scope for plenty of smuggling. However, during the time
of George III, special courts were set up to try people who violated the trade laws,
and customs officers were given power to enter and search American homes for
smuggled goods. This infuriated the people.
20.3 THE STAMP ACT
The Seven Years War (1756-1763) between England and France was fought
partly to protect the interests of the colonists. The British Government thought
that the colonists should share the financial burden. So in 1765 George
Greenville, the Prime Minister, got passed in Parliament the Stamp Act.
According to this Act, all documents, licenses and Wills to be valid should have
stamps affixed on them. There was a general outcry of the colonists against the
tax. The day, on which the Act came into force, stamps were burnt in the streets
of New England, while shops closed, church bells tolled and flags flew at half
mast. An American lawyer argued that Parliament had no right to tax the
colonists as they were not represented in the House. The popular slogan was "No
taxation without representation". A few men like William Pitt in England realized
the seriousness of the situation and induced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act.
The Act was withdrawn in 1766.
20.4 CUSTOMS DUTY
In 1767, Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, introduced a new

series of customs duties on paper, paints, glass and tea. Once again there were
riots, public meetings, pamphlets and newspapers contained inflammatory
leading articles. The resentment was so strong that in 1769 a mob in Rhode
Island burnt the British revenue ship. In 1770 Lord North foolishly enough
repealed all duties except that on tea. The people took advantage of the
weakness of the Government and the soldiers in Boston were the victims of all
kinds of insults. On a wintry day in 1770, the soldiers fired on the
demonstrating crowd and as a result five people were killed. The American
newspapers called it the "Boston Massacre".
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20.5 BOSTON TEA PARTY
Most of the tea drunk in the colonies was smuggled Dutch Tea. In 1773 the East
India Company, the chief importer of tea to Great Britain, had with it an
immense quantity of tea. Lord North allowed the Company to sell its tea in
America. Though this tea was cheaper than the smuggled tea, the Americans
considered it as interference in their trade. So when the ships carrying the
Company's tea arrived in Boston, local men disguised as Red Indians, got into
the ships and threw the tea into the sea. This event was known as the Boston
Tea Party.
The British Government at once adopted repressive measures. The Boston

harbor was closed to trade and the Charter of Massachusetts cancelled. At the
same time the colonists felt that it was high time for them to fight for their
independence. The representatives of all colonies, except Georgia, for the first
time in American history, met at Philadelphia in 1774. This gathering, called the
First Continental Congress, included many distinguished men like George
Washington of Virginia. They issued a Declaration of Rights and agreed to meet
again in 1775. Meanwhile, the patriots of the States were preparing for war. The
newly appointed Governor in Boston, General Gage, came to know that the
colonists were gathering arms at Concord, a place about twenty miles north-
west. He sent troops to confiscate the arms, but by the time they reached
Concord the arms had disappeared. On their return journey the troops became
the target of attacks by colonists who had risen in rebellion and suffered heavy
losses. With this the American War of Independence had begun.
20.6 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
In the beginning the odds were against the colonists. The most important
drawback of America was that she did not have a regular army. So the Second
Continental Congress met at Philadelphia in 1775 and organized an army with
George Washington as Commander-in-Chief. Though the colonial army suffered
some initial defeats, the soldiers gained experience and in the end were able to
defeat the more powerful British army. The autocratic George III had hired
20,000 German soldiers to fight the rebels. Enraged by this, the Congress met
again at Philadelphia and issued the unanimous Declaration of Independence on
4th July 1776. It was drawn up by Thomas Jafferson. Justifying the revolution
the Declaration says, "We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are
created equal, that they are endowed by the Creator with some inalienable
rights; that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness, that to
secure these rights Governments are instituted among men, deriving their just
powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government
becomes destructive to these ends it is the right of the people to alter or abolish
it and institute a new government". In the same year the American army under
Washington defeated the English army at Trenton and a few days afterwards at
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Princeton. A year later in October 1777, the English army under Burgoyne was
forced to surrender at Saratoga. In 1778 France joined the American side, but in
that year and in the year following no decisive fighting took place. In 1780 the
British began to win a series of victories in the South, even beyond South
Carolina. However, 1781 was a bad year for the British. General Cornwallis who
had won a number of victories against the colonists was forced to surrender to
the American army at Yorktown. The last blow came when other European
countries, Spain and Holland, joined hands with the Americans and Russia and
other powers formed an Armed Neutrality against Britain.
The most important reason for the defeat of the British was that the British
Government had to conduct its campaigns from 3,000 miles away. Normally, it
took at least three months for a message and its answer to cross the Atlantic.
Secondly, the area of fighting was large and the British soldiers had little-
experience of warfare in colonial conditions. Another thing which accounted for
the British defeat was the fact the Lord North, the then Prime Minister of
England, was not competent to manage the situation. The European force,
particularly France, turning against Britain was a blow too much for her to
stand. Above all the colonists were able to find in George Washington one of the
outstanding leaders of modem times.
By the peace treaty signed in 1783 at the palace of Versailles in France, George
III recognized the independence of the American colonies. In many respects the
American Revolution was one of the most important events in the history of the
modern world. It brought into existence a great new nation and a Government
which claimed to represent the will of the people rather than the wishes of a
king. The French soldiers who fought on the American side took with them the
idea of a representative government to the continent where kings ruled as
representatives of God on earth. The leaders of the French Revolution which
broke out in another six years drew inspiration for their course of action from
the American example. The Americans were the first to show in practice that a
revolution is justified to alter a form of government which has become
unpopular. The American Revolution had its impact on British politics also. The
autocratic king and the selfish politicians of the aristocracy were not allowed to
have the monopoly of power. Their handling of the American problem was an
eye-opener to the common people. It was evident that there aristocrats were first
and foremost concerned about keeping themselves in power and that they were
not in the least interested in the well-being of the common man. People were
convinced that any improvement in their lot in life depended solely on their
active participation in the administration of the country. So they started
agitating for Parliamentary reform.
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Check your progress

Notes: i) What are the salient features of American War of Independence?
ii) Write short notes on:
a. The Stamp Act
b. Customs Duty
c. Boston Tea Party
d. The impact of American War of Independence.
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LESSON-21
ENGLAND AND IRELAND
CONTENTS
21.1. The Irish Background
21.2. Society of United Irishman
21.3. Catholic Emancipation Act
21.4. Riots and Agitations
21.5. Irish Republican Army
i) To make the learners to become aware of Irish Republic Background

ii) To highlight the incompatible attitude between England and Ireland
Synopsis: The Irish background - English intrusions into Ireland - conquest of

Ireland by Oliver Cromwell - conquest by William - inspired by the French
Revolution - the Society of United Irishmen - the Act of Union - Catholic
Emancipation Act - Irishmen emigrating to other countries - Home Rule Bill -
opposition from the Protestants of Ulster - the First World War - revolt in 1916 -
proposal for the division of Ireland - the Irish Free State - part played by De
Valera - Ireland becoming a full-fledged Republic.
21.1 THE IRISH BACKGROUND
Ireland was converted to Christianity as early as in 432 by St. Patrick, the

patron saint of the country. It was in the twelfth century that Ireland was
presented to Henry II of England by Pope Adrian IV, who claimed to be the
Emperor of all Christendom. From then down to the time of Henry VIII the King
of England was called Lord of Ireland; but he ruled the land through a Lord
Deputy who was assisted by a secretary. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth
some famous Englishmen like Edmund Spenser and Sir Walter Raleigh owned
big plantations in the country. They had also other longstanding associations
with the land. The Faerie Queen, the first English epic, was written by Spenser
while staying in his estate at Kilcolman. Potato cultivation was introduced into
Ireland by Sir Walter Raleigh who brought it from America.
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Ireland was a Roman Catholic country and so the people in general did not like
the Protestant intrusions and quite often rose in rebellion. As a matter of fact on
several occasions, Queen Elizabeth had to resort to repressive measures with the
result that many of the natives were killed. When James I became King, he
arranged for a large number of English and Scotch Protestants to settle in
Ireland. He drove the native Irish from their lands in eastern Ulster and gave
them to Protestants. That is why the north-east of Ireland is even today mainly
Protestant. After the execution of Charles I, the people of Ireland supported his
son Charles II, for this reason Oliver Cromwell took revenge on them by
conquering the entire country in 1649.
Forty years later James II, the displaced monarch of England, was welcomed by
Roman Catholic Ireland. This provoked William, who succeeded James as King
of England and waged wars against the country. At last on 1st July 1690, James
was defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne. Thus once again the country
was conquered and imperialistic England imposed her supremacy on Ireland
much against the will of the people. Not only that the Catholics who supported
James were deprived of their, lands and political rights. For the next hundred
years and more, only Protestants were allowed to rule the country. It was really
strange that even during the period of self-government from 1782 to 1800; the
Irish Parliament was exclusively Protestant in composition.
21.2 SOCIETY OF UNITED IRISHMAN
Towards the end of the eighteenth century inspired and aided by the French
revolutionaries the Society of United Irishmen was formed, with the object of
fighting for the inclusion of men of all creeds in the Irish Parliament. In 1768, a
number of rebellions broke out in various parts of the country. As they were ill-
planned and ill-conducted, it was easy for the Government to put down the
risings within a few days. At the same time it was becoming more and more,
evident that the unjust treatment of the vast majority of the Catholic population
could not go on for long. William Pitt the Younger, the then Prime Minister,
therefore conceived the grand idea of bringing all three countries namely,
England, Scotland and Ireland under one Parliament. He set about working for
the realization of this goal. The Catholic section en bloc supported the scheme
and the reluctant Protestant section was bribed into agreement. Accordingly, the
Act of Union was passed in 1800. Ireland was to be represented in the House of
Commons by one hundred elected members and in the House of Lords by
twenty-eight elected peers and four bishops. The Protestant Church of Ireland
was joined to that of England and the two were to be known as the United
Church of England and Ireland. The administration of Ireland was entrusted to
the Viceroy and his Chief Secretary, either or both of them might be members of
the British Cabinet.
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21.3 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION ACT
It was understood at the time of Union that the disabilities of the Catholics
would be soon removed. To fulfill his promise pitt introduced the Catholic
Emancipation Bill in Parliament but George III refused to give his consent,
saying that it was against the bath he had taken at the time of his coronation.
Finding himself in an awkward situation Pitt resigned and once again the
Catholic problem was shelved for the time being. The situation of the Irish
Catholics was really very funny. They were allowed to vote but their Catholic
representatives could not become members of Parliament. It took many years for
the English to understand the absurd it of this law. The famous Irish lawyer and
patriot Daniel O'Connell, for instance was elected by a vast majority but he
could not take his seat in Parliament just because he was a Catholic. However,
better sense prevailed in the course of time and to the relief of all the Catholic
Emancipation Act was passed in 1829. Thus the Catholics were entitled to sit in
Parliament.
21.4 RIOTS AND AGITATIONS
Eradication of political disabilities did not usher in an era of financial prosperity

for the common folk of Ireland. Frequent failure of the potato crop and in
particular the famine in 1845-46 raked up the old unhealed wounds. There were
frequent riots and agitations throughout the length and breadth of the country.
More than that, throughout the nineteenth century the country was in a state of
disintegration. A good number of the peasants who formed the backbone of the
country had left the land. It is estimated that after 1846 about two and a half
million people had left for the United States. Of the large number still left at
home many were neck deep in debts to their landlords. The laws governing land
were so very complicated and unfavorable to the poor peasants that they disliked
the entire class of landlords. In very many places the landlords became the
target of attack by the masses. England's unsympathetic attitude no doubt
added to the confusion in the country. In short security of life had become a
thing of the past. It was in such circumstances that the Irish representatives in
the House of Commons formed the Irish Nationalist Party, ready to fight to the
last for Home Rule. William Gladstone was the first Englishman to realize that
the sole remedy for Ireland's malady was the granting of Home Rule. Prompted
by this conviction, in 1886 he introduced the Home Rule Bill in Parliament; but
sadly enough after a prolonged debate the Bill was put to the vote, only to be
defeated by a narrow majority. The Second Home Rule Bill introduced by him
during his second Ministry in 1893 also met with a similar fate.
Meanwhile, tension was mounting and everywhere in the country there was
lawlessness. Once again the Nationalist Party in Parliament pressed for Home
Rule. Asquith, who understood the seriousness of the situation, introduced the
Third Home Rule Bill. Though the House of Lords rejected it three times, it was
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at last passed in 1914 by consent of the Crown and Commons. Before the Act
could come into force another unexpected problem cropped up. The people of
Ulster, mainly Protestants, for reasons of their own, opposed the Home Rule Act.
At this juncture the First World War broke out and the Act was suspended for
the time being.
21.5 IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY
An Irish political party called "Sinn Fein" was working for the creation of an Irish
Republic and had organized a widely-spread force known as the Irish Republican
Army. Brimming with bitterness and discontent in 1916 the people rose in
rebellion. The revolt was ruthlessly put down by the combined effort the State
police and the special force named the "Black and Tans" formed for the purpose
of counteracting the Irish Republican Army. At the ensuring election in 1918
Sinn Fein managed to get as many as seventy seats. They refused to sit in the
English Parliament and set up their own assembly known by the Irish name of
"Dail Eireann". They went one step further and hoping that it would help to
expedite Irish freedom sent their own representatives to the Peace Conference
held in Paris after the War. But the Conference which restored the freedom of
many other nations failed to do the same for Ireland. Naturally enough the
insurgents were forced to resort to violence once again. For the next two years
Ireland was terrorised by the two rival armies. At long last on 6th December
1921 an agreement was reached whereby the country was divided. The six
counties of Ulster in the north obtained a Parliament of their own but remained
a part of the United Kingdom. Southern Ireland became the Irish Free State
enjoying Dominion Status like Canada or Australia. The extremists headed by
De Valera were not satisfied with the arrangement; what they wanted was an
Ireland completely free from any connection with England. Unfortunate Ireland,
which had been oppressed and suppressed by foreigners for centuries together,
once again had to wade through blood before she could become free. It was the
extremists who finally won the fight. In 1930 the unflinching and tireless fighter
Eamon De Valera assumed office as President, and in a manner for which there
is no precedent in modem history 'declared by force the Irish Free State a full-
fledged Republic called "Eire".
Check your progress

Notes: i) Write short notes on:
a. Society of United Irish Men
b. Catholic Emancipation Act
ii) What impression do you get about the Irish Republican Army?
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LESSON-22
EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
CONTENTS
22.1. Causes for the French Revolution
22.2. Anti – Corn Law League
22.3. First Reform Bill
22.4. Effects of the French Revolution
i) To provide the antecedent for the French Revolution

ii) Impact derived from the French Revolution
Synopsis: Causes for the French Revolution - happenings during the Revolution
- effects of the Revolution - the National Debt -adding to the problem of
unemployment - passing of the Corn Law -Anti Corn Law League - repeal of Corn
Law - the Battle of Peterloo - Manchester massacre - Reform Bill of 1832 - Army
and Navy becoming national institutions - how French Revolution influenced
English literature.
22.1 CAUSES FOR THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
France was for years ruled by despots like Louis XIV. The kings ruled the
country as they liked without caring for the good of the common people. As a
result of this indifference of the autocratic monarchs there was famine and
suffering all over the country. The popular upsurge against the tyranny of Kings
culminated in the abolition of monarchy and the establishment of the French
Republic. This great political event of far-reaching consequences is called the
French Revolution. The French Revolution started with the breaking open of the
State -prison "Bastille" on 14th July 1789. The reign terror that followed the
beheading of King Louis XVI and his Queen ended only when Napoleon became
Emperor in May 1804. In 1793 England was forced to declare war against the
French Revolution because the French revolutionary rulers offered to help all
nations who wished to follow the example of the French and overthrow their
Kings. The war continued up to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 when Lord
Wellington inflicted a crushing defeat on Napoleon.
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This prolonged war of twenty years had lasting effects on England. The most
important and immediate effect was the huge national Debt. It has been
estimated that the cost of the war-from the beginning to the end was nearly
£1,000,000,000. The nation, which consisted of nineteen million people, had to
pay annually a large amount by way of interest. In 1815 the country had to raise
£74,000,000 by taxation alone.
The peace that followed the war was the cause of a fall in the prices of coal and
iron. Many men employed in the industry were thrown out of their jobs. After the
signing. Of the peace treaty nearly half a million soldiers, sailors and others who
had been engaged directly in the war were dismissed from active service. They
added to the already swelling army of the unemployed. Thus the problem of
unemployment became much more acute than before.
22.2 ANTI – CORN LAW LEAGUE
During the twenty years of war there was no import of European corn into
England and this caused- the price of corn to go high. But the agricultural lords
stood to benefit by this. However, after the restoration of peace, the free flow of
European corn was resumed which brought down the price of English corn. This
was resented by the English agriculturists and so to protect their interest the
Corn Law was passed in 1816. This had disastrous effects on the poor and
especially in the time of famine. Their sufferings led to the formation of the Anti-
Corn Law League, It was this association that was ultimately responsible for the
repeal of the Com Law in 1846 by the then Prime Minister Robert Peel.
22.3 FIRST REFORM BILL
There was widespread discontent among poor people on account of various

factors like low wages, high price of com, and unemployment. There were fierce
riots in many places and the Government authorities tried to put down these
riots with an iron hand. In 1819 the magistrates of Manchester foolishly
attempted to arrest a radical leader known 'as Orator Hunt at a large gathering
in St. Peter's Field. On meeting - with resistance from the crowd the Government
officer ordered a cavalry charge upon the unarmed mob. Eleven persons were
killed and six hundred wounded. The event popularly called the Battle of
Peterloo or the Manchester massacre was used by agitators to embarrass the
Government. To get their grievances redressed the poor agitated for
parliamentary reform and after much opposition from the lords the first Reform
Bill was passed in 1832.
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22.4 EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Another effect of the French Revolution was that both Navy and Army were
recognized as National institutions. The Battle of Trafalgar, won by Lord Nelson
during the Revolutionary War (in 1805) highlighted the greatness of the English
Navy. The victory was commemorated by renaming a part of London as Trafalgar
Square where the statue of Nelson stands on a lofty, column. Trafalgar Square,
with its 51.5 metre column topped by the statue of Admiral Horatio Nelson
looking out to the River Thames, is one of the favorite tourist spots in London. It
is the traditional end of most protest marches and rallies in the capital. With the
victories of Lord Wellington at Waterloo in 1815 on land the army became
popular as it had never been before. Barracks were built to house the troops and
the haphazard billeting of soldiers in public houses came to an end. This was
done to the great relief of both the civilian population and the soldiers
themselves.
The French Revolution was a source of inspiration to many English writers for
writing some of their best known works. Thus Edmund Burke was inspired to
write his famous book 'Reflections on the French Revolution'. Written in a style
that is unique, Burke questions the propriety of the action of the revolutionaries
in doing away with monarchy and making the National Assembly all powerful.
He expresses the opinion that defective institutions of the old regime should
have been reformed and not destroyed. In reply to this was written 'Rights of
Man' in two volumes by Thomas Paine. In the first part of the book he upholds
the idea that the Constitution of a country is an act of the people constituting
the government and in the absence of such a written Constitution government is
tyranny. Thus Paine takes pains to justify the French Revolution and traces the
circumstances leading to the Declaration of the Rights of Man by the National
Assembly. The second part of the book consists of proposals to improve the
condition of Europe and England. These proposals, though considered to be too
revolutionary in those days, were taken seriously and implemented by the
democratic governments in various countries of the world. Notable among these
proposals are: a large reduction of administrative expenditure and taxation,
provision for the aged poor, family allowances, allowances for the education of
the poor, maternity grants, funeral grants, a graduated income-tax, and
limitation of armaments by treaty.
Another work of literary importance inspired by the same political event is the
'French Revolution' by Thomas Carlyle. though considered by some as a very
partial view of the Revolution, it is no doubt the poetic unrolling of a great
historical melodrama illustrating the Nemesis that comes upon the oppression of
the poor. The book also contains a gallery of magnificent pen portraits of
historical figures like Mirabeau, Lafayette, Danton, and Robespierre. 'A Tale of
Two Cities' by Charles Dickens is yet another book which gives a true picture of
Paris and London during the time of the French Revolution.
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The French Revolution ushered in a new era in the history of English literature.
Coming when it did, English Romanticism should be considered as a by-product
of the great political event. Romanticism or the Romantic Movement started
when Wordsworth and Coleridge together published the Lyrical Ballads in 1798.
Wordsworth discarded the artificial style and showed by practice that beautiful
poems could be written on ordinary subjects and in ordinary language. The
movement was completed by younger poets like Byron, Shelley and Keats.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Identify the causes for the French Revolution
ii) What are the effects of French Revolution?

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LESSON-23
THE REFORM BILLS
CONTENTS
23.1. Parliamentary Democracy in England
23.2. First Reform Bill
23.3. House of Commons
23.4. People’s Charter
24.5. Second Reform Bill
24.6. Third and Fourth Reform Bills
i) To sensitize the learners towards the events leading to Reform Bills
Synopsis: Introduction - Parliamentary democracy in England the result of a

political evolution - causes for parliamentary reform – defective old system of
election - how the first Reform Bill was passed - provisions of the First Reform
Act - its results - the Chartist movement - the second Reform Act, The third,
fourth and fifth Reform Acts - conclusion - the result of all these Acts.
23.1 PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY IN ENGLAND
Parliamentary democracy in England was the result of a process of political

evolution. It was not .all on a sudden, as in India, that all the adults in England
got the right of vote. It took nearly a century for the right of vote to be extended
to more and more people to end in what is today called adult franchise.
23.2 FIRST REFORM BILL
There were several reasons for the passing of the first Reform Bill in 1832. The
most important was that the principle of distribution of seats in Parliament was
found to be defective. According to the age long arrangement each borough and
county was allowed to send two representatives to Parliament. But during the
long period of the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions these boroughs were
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thinly populated as the people migrated to the industrial towns, seeking

employment. But these pocket boroughs and rotten boroughs, as they were
called, continued to send the same number of representative to Parliament. At
the same time the big industrial towns did not have any representation. The
qualification for a person to have the right of vote was not just. The custom in
the earlier centuries was that any free-holder, having an income of forty shillings
a year, could vote at Parliamentary elections. In the early part of the nineteenth
century such a man was not wealthy and yet he continued to enjoy the same
right. At the same time big tenant farmers holding land for long leases did not
have any right of vote at all. This meaningless practice caused a lot of discontent
among people. There was unemployment in the country. The price of com was
high on account of the Com Law passed in 1815 to protect English agriculture.
This caused a lot of suffering to poor people. It was felt that the only remedy for
such a sorry state of affairs was more reasonable representation of people in
Parliament. So there was widespread agitation in the country for Parliamentary
reform. But it was only after a long period of struggle that this long expected
Parliamentary reform could be effected.
In 1831 in the time of William IV, the Prime Minister Earl Grey introduced a
Reform Bill in Parliament. After the three readings in the House of Commons the
Bill was sent to the House of Lords for its approval. The Lords opposed it and on
that account Earl Grey resigned. This led to the unpopularity of the lords. The
king then asked the Duke of Wellington to be ‘Prime Minister, but the strange
thing was that the Duke was not able to get people to join his ministry.
According to the Duke's advice Grey was recalled to form a ministry. Once again
Grey introduced the Reform Bill. The King, who was in favour of the Reform Bill,
saw to it that about a hundred refractory Lords absented themselves from the
House and the Bill was passed on 7th June 1832.
23.3. HOUSE OF COMMONS
The following were the provisions of this epoch making Reform Bill. Fifty-six
rotten boroughs having a population of less than two thousand were deprived of
representation in Parliament. Thirty-two boroughs having less than 4,000 people
were given only one seat each. Sixty-five seats were given to new boroughs,
twenty-two receiving two members each and twenty-one, one member each.
Sixty-five seats were added to English counties, eight seats to Scottish counties
and five seats to Irish counties. The franchise was also extended to all the
householders in towns who paid ten pounds annual rent and in the counties to
all who held I a forty-shilling freehold or were ten-pound copy-holders or fifty-
pound lease-holders. The newly constituted House of Commons consisted of 658
members.
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According to this Act the King and the Lords lost much of their power but the
middle classes, got great authority. As the property qualification for franchise
was lowered, the number of voters became much larger. About 220,000 received
the right of vote. This increased the electorate by one-half. Most of the newly
enfranchised were residents of towns and this helped the Whigs to become more
powerful. Moreover, the Reform Bill also showed that people, through protested
organisation, could change the laws to conform to the demands of the moment.
23.4 PEOPLE’S CHARTER
When it was announced that the Reform Bill had become law, the bells were
rung and bonfires were burned everywhere as if a great victory had been won for
the people. All sorts of benefits were expected, but the wages continued to be low
and food was dear. A new party called the Chartists arose and their activities
were known as the Chartist movement. This movement had great influence over
the workmen in the towns. The Chartists drew up a plan for a more thorough
reform of the Parliament and called it the People's Charter. This Charter
demanded six things: manhood suffrage, vote by secret ballot, annual
parliaments, election districts equal in numbers of voters, abolition of property
qualification for members of Parliament and regular payment for the members of
Parliament. At that time the Whigs as well as the Tories were shocked by the
radical nature of these demands and tried to put down the movement by
imprisoning the leaders. However, most of these demands were conceded in
course of time.
24.5 SECOND REFORM BILL
After the death of the orthodox-minded palmerston, Gladstone introduced the

second Reform Bill, but owing to opposition from some of the Liberals the Bill
was defeated in the House of commons itself. However, some years later in 1867,
Benjamin Disraeli introduced the Bill in Parliament and it was passed. The
second Reform Bill had the following results: In counties the franchise
qualification was lowered. This increased the county electorate from 540,000 to
790,000. In towns the franchise was given to all male householders and lodgers
paying ten pounds as rent. This Act was certainly as improvement on the earlier
one. According to the second Act all workmen who lived in towns got the
franchise. However, the agricultural laborers and miners who formed a
substantial section remained without the right to vote..
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24.6 THIRD AND FOURTH REFORM BILLS
The third Reform Act was passed in 1884, when Gladstone was Prime Minister.
According to this Act franchise was extended to the householders in the counties
also. The Redistribution Act which he got passed in due course abolished small
rotten boroughs and fifty-two seats were redistributed. England was divided into
electoral districts. With the passing of this third Reform Bill the power of
controlling the Government passed over to the people and thus Britain became
what is called a democracy.
The fourth Reform Act of 1918 gave the right of vote to all men aged twenty-one
and all women aged twenty-five and above. This age difference was abolished in
1928, and thus the equality of woman to man was officially acknowledged.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Write short notes on:
a. People’s Charter
b. The Reform Bills
ii) What are the effects salient features of Parliamentary Democracy in

England?
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LESSON-24
THE VICTORIAN AGE
CONTENTS
24.1. General Features
24.2. People’s Carter
24.3. The Anti-Corn Law League
24.4. Progress in Medical Science
24.5. Social and Scientific Advancements
24.6. Impact of the Crimean War
24.7. Literature
i) To highlight the importance of administration by Queen Victoria
Synopsis: Introduction - general features - the early part of her rule marked by
some troubles - People's Charter - circumstances leading to the repeal of the
Corn Law - the great exhibition - progress in physical as well as medical science
- the Oxford movement.
Florence Nightingale and modem nursing - Queen Victoria becoming Empress of

India - great output of literature - the great Prime Ministers and their
Parliamentary reforms - conclusion.
24.1 GENERAL FEATURES
On 20th June 1837, early in the morning the eighteen year old Princess Victoria
was roused from bed in Kensington Palace to be told by the Lord Chamberlain
and the Archbishop of Canterbury that she was the Queen of England.
Assuming that responsible office at so tender an age Queen Victoria became
more popular than any other British monarch and lived long enough to be
affectionately called “grand-mamma” by her millions of subjects all over the
Empire) Counselled and assisted first by her handsome husband Prince Albert
and afterwards by able and sagacious Prime Ministers like Robert Peel, Palmers
ton, Gladstone and Disraeli, it was her good fortune to preside over some of the
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epoch-making events in the history of mankind. Her long reign of sixty-four

years witnessed the introduction of the penny post, the telegraph: he telephone,
and the extension of franchise to more and more sections of people The affection
she had won was so great that all the three jubilees of her coronation were
celebrated with spontaneous enthusiasm in all parts of the Empire finally, when
she died at the ripe old age of eighty-three, on 22nd January 1901, her death was
mourned by people all over the world.
24.2 PEOPLE’S CARTER
The early part of her rule was not without trouble. One of the things which
disturbed the peace of the period was the Chartist movement or Chartism, which
was essentially a movement for increasing the rights of the people. The gulf of
difference between the haves and the have-nots was the root cause of this
radical movement) When the nation as a whole was wealthy the lot of the
working class was miserable. This situation was exploited by some of the well-
intentioned but revolutionary men like Feargus O'Connor. After organizing a
number of associations all over the country he drew, up a Charter called the
People's Charter. It contained six demands: universal suffrage, voting by ballot,
annual parliaments, payment of members, abolition of property qualification for
members of Parliament, and equal electoral districts. This Charter presented to
Parliament on 12th July 1839 in the shape of a cylinder, 4 feet in diameter, was
so shocking to Whigs as well as Tories that it was unanimously turned down.
This led to sporadic violence in many parts of the country. Stern steps were
taken by the Government; the leaders were arrested and imprisoned or
transported to distant places. Apparently the movement was a failure, but in
course of time most of its demands were conceded one after another.
24.3 THE ANTI-CORN LAW LEAGUE
The formation of the Anti-Corn Law League and its activities was the cause of
much headache to the administrators of England in the first half of the
nineteenth century. Right from the beginning of the eighteenth century Corn
Laws were passed from time to time in order to encourage English agriculture-
However, the Corn Law passed in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars caused much
suffering to the working classes whose purchasing power was low on account of
low wages In order to eradicate the sufferings of these people (the first Anti-Com
Law League was founded in 1839. Its leader was the benevolent Richard Cobden,
son of a Sussex farmer) With the idea of mobilizing public opinion meetings were
held throughout the length and breadth of the country and within a few years
there was a popular appeal for the repeal of the Corn Law. Failure of the potato
crops in 1845 and in the year following caused indescribable suffering to the
poor peasants. Prompted by humanitarian considerations, the Prime Minister
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Robert Peel repealed the Corn Law in 1846. Peel was a Tory and as such he was
expected to protect the interests of the agricultural landlords. Hence the Tories
were terrified by the Act and in fury voted him out of power. Peel fell never to rise
again. Though he never occupied the ministerial chair he had by his benevolent
Act, already secured a place in the heart, of every common man whose misery he
had mitigated.
In spite of these isolated disturbances, there was peace and prosperity in the
country as a whole. (The Great Exhibition of 1851, the first of its kind ever
conducted, was a clear evidence of what years of peace and hard work could
achieve. It was conducted in the Crystal Palace, a huge iron structure covered by
nine hundred thousand square feet of glass. In that one spot people were able to
sea artistic works and raw materials gathered from every corner of the Empire
and the world. It was estimated that about six million people came to visit this
exhibition which lasted for nine months.
24.4 PROGRESS IN MEDICAL SCIENCE
The Victorian Age was a period of remarkable progress in physical, as well as

medical science. Henry Bessemer's process which made possible the mass
production of steel and Michael Faraday's discoveries of electrical power added
much to the material prosperity of the period. The use of chloroform in medical
practice by Simpson in 1847, and the anti-septic surgery developed by Joseph
Lister came as great relief to the suffering humanity) However, the very same
science which was responsible for a lot of physical comfort was also the cause of
long lasting spiritual discomfort. In 1859 Charles Darwin, the great scientist of
the day, published "The origin of species". It brought forth a rather shocking
theory that man and all other species of life had evolved from a common source.
It was a bolt from the blue and clashed with the Biblical account of the creation
of man and in turn led to a bitter battle of words between churchmen and
scientists.
24.5 SOCIAL AND SCIENTIFIC ADVANCEMENTS
Along with these social and scientific advancements there was going on a
religious movement similar to the Methodist movement, started by the Wesley
brothers in the previous century. '\This was the Oxford Movement, otherwise
known as the Tractarian Movement, inaugurated by John Henry Newman and a
few other Oxford scholars in 1833. Its main object was to counteract the
latitudinarianism and irreligiousness of the intellectuals of the day. Having as
his goal the revival of the religious fervour of pre-Reformation days, Newman
began to study the history of the Church which naturally led him to the
conclusion that the Church of England, founded on the Thirty-nine Articles, was
out of tune with the Church established as early as the sixth century. According
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to Newman the only remedy for the spiritual malady was a return to the practice
of sacraments and rituals of the early Church. He explained his ideas in a series
of sermons and articles. The response was immediate and encouraging. Long
forgotten medieval religious ceremonies were revived and attendance at Church
service also considerably increased. But Newman's quest for truth came to an
end only when he was received into the Roman Catholic Church on 9th October
1845. Those who failed to appreciate his sincerity described him as a deserter
and betrayer. Stung to the quick by the unkind remarks of Charles Kingsley, he
wrote his famous autobiography, "Apologia Pro Vita Sua", in which he defended
his conversion to the Catholic faith as a natural consequence of his conviction.
Written with utmost simplicity and sincerity it is one of the great spiritual
autobiographies, second only to Confessions of St. Augustine. The limpid
clearness of its style is rarely surpassed in Eng1ish, prose. Newman's conversion
was followed by a regular stream of conversions to the Roman Catholic Church.
After repeated requests to Rome the long-suppressed Catholic hierarchy was re-
established on St. Michael's Day (Sept. 29) in 1850 with Cardinal Wiseman, also
a Protestant convert, as its head having supervisory power over twelve other
dioceses. The head-quarters of the revived hierarchy were Westminster.
24.6 IMPACT OF THE CRIMEAN WAR
The Crimean War which came to an end with the Treaty of Paris in 1856 was an
unhappy episode in the otherwise glorious Victorian Age. However, it was not
without doing some good to humanity at large. Modem nursing as a respectable
organisation had its origin when Miss Florence Nightingale with a band of thirty-
eight co-workers came to the rescue of the wounded soldiers in the hospital at
Scutari. When the war was over in the light of her experience at Scutari she
played a prominent part in reorganising the Anny Medical Department. Coming
from a respectable family and related to many such families she brought a new
dignity to the nurse's profession which was till then rather looked down upon by
most people. With the opening 'of the Nightingale Training School for Nurses in
1860, she became the founder of modem nursing.
The Crimean War was followed by trouble in India. For various reasons, in 1857,
the Indian soldiers rose in rebellion at Meerut and very soon it spread to Delhi
also. Within the short span of a month or two the rebellion was put down; but at
the same time it was an eye-opener to the British Government. It became clear
enough that the East India Company was not competent to administer its vast
territories in India and therefore the Government at home took a bold step by
transferring political power completely from the Company to the Crown. Twenty
years later, on 1st January 1877, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India,
and a Proclamation to that effect was read in a great Assembly at Delhi.
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24.7 LITERATURE
In no other period of English history was there such an output of literature as in

the Victorian Age. Poetry, Prose, novel, history and painting and writing on
painting-all these were produced in large quantities. Alfred Tennyson who
became the Poet Laureate in 1850 was the greatest poet of the day; Robert
Browning, famous for his dramatic monologues, was his nearest rival. Other
poets of the period, but of lower calibre, were Matthew Arnold, Swinburne, Dante
Gabriel Rossetti, his sister Christina Rossetti, Fitzgerald, William Morris,
Arthur Clough and Coventry Patmore) Great among the prose writers were
Carlyle, Macaulay, Ruskin, Newman and many others. However, the most
outstanding literary contribution of the period was the novel. As far as the novel
was concerned it was an age of giants. Charles Dickens, William Makepeace
Thackaray. George Eliot, Anthony Trollope, the politician-novelist Benjamin
Disraeli, Wilkie Collins, Charles Kingsley, Charlotte Bronte and her sister Emily
Bronte, to mention only a few, were the great novelists. The Decline and Fall of
the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon and "The History of England" by
Babington Macaulay were monumental works in history, William Turner, the
master of water colour painting, and George Cruikshank, the caricaturist, were
among the great painters of the early Victorian Age. John Ruskin, the famous
prose writer, wanted to be a painter but he became a very successful critic of
painting. In the mid-Victorian period there was a distinguished school of artists
known as the pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, who wanted to revive the art forms
which existed in European art before the time of Raphael.
The latter half of Queen Victoria's reign was noted for many reforms in the field
of both politics and education. The Reforms Act of 1867 and 1884 extended the
right of vote to larger and larger sections of society. This in turn necessitated
reforms in the educational system of the country. The educational reforms
effected by Gladstone eradicated some of the anomalies which had become a
stumbling block in the path of progress of the nation. The only problem which
Gladstone failed to solve, because of lack of co-operation from the House of
Lords, was Home Rule for 'Ireland. At any rate, speaking on the whole, the
Victorian Age was a period of peace and prosperity.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Define :
a. People’s Charter
ii) Impact of Social and Scientific Advancements
iii) It is a ripe age for literature to shine?
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LESSON-25
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN THE VICTORIAN ENGLAND
CONTENTS
25.1. Importance of Education
25.2. Role of Dr.Arnold
25.3. Gladstone’s Education Act
25.4. Test Act of 1871
25.5. The Royal Commission
i) To provide the learners, the basic importance of Education in England

Synopsis: Introduction - realization of the importance of education - the different
kinds of schools in the earlier period - development in Secondary Education of
the well-to-do. Dr.Arnold and his education reforms - circumstances drawing the
attention of the Government - Gladstone's Education Act of 1870 - The Test Act
of 1871 - study of professional subjects-establishment of London and other
universities - development of women's education - introduction of competitive
examinations – rise in school attendance - establishment of Board of Education
– County Councils given the power to provide for Primary and Secondary
Education - conclusion.
25.1 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
Importance of education was not fully realized by the people of England before
the nineteenth century. This is evident from the fact that there was no uniform
system for the whole country. Different sections of people followed different
systems and standards and obviously development of education in the country
was retarded.
In the earlier period there were many kinds of schools in England. There were
public schools which provided education at a high charge for the upper and
middle classes. For the benefit of the poor the National Society, under the
guidance of the Church of England, conducted schools where the pupils had to
pay only small fees. In addition to these Church schools there was a large
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number of private schools for all classes of people. The Dissenters and the
Roman Catholics were shut out from the Government schools, either by law or
by custom. So they were forced to run their own institutions, some of which
were well conducted but very expensive. Some of the private schools were cheap
but they were scandalously managed. It is one such school, "Do-the-boys Hall",
which Dickens has described in his famous novel "Nicholas Nickleby". Most of
the private village schools were far below the standard. Unfortunately enough
there was no central authority to control the educational activities of the
country. Speaking in general, Primary Education of the poor was neglected in
England throughout the eighteenth century and in the early part of the
nineteenth century.
25.2 ROLE OF DR.ARNOLD
Though education of the masses was neglected, the Secondary Education of the
well-to-do underwent remarkable development. Children of the upper and
middle classes went to the public schools which were founded by Kings and
town corporations in the earlier centuries. These schools were the training
grounds for the ruling classes. The Duke of Wellington was believed to have said
that the Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton. Whether this
story was true or not it was a fact that every Englishman of eminence was an old
student of one of the public schools such as Eton, Harrow or Winchester. But
unfortunately, these schools became notorious for indiscipline. However a
change for the better was brought about by Dr. Arnold, the illustrious
headmaster of Rugby and father of the poet Matthew Arnold.
The great educationist was headmaster of Rugby for full fourteen years from
1828 to 1842. He emphasized the study of religion and introduced the
monitorial system for maintaining discipline among students. Another good
thing that he did was the introduction or organized games. As a matter of fact so
much importance was given to games that it gave room for critics to say they toil
at games and play with books. This system of education meant for the over-all
development of the personality of the student was universally copied in other
public schools and later in the schools established by the Government.
25.3 GLADSTONE’S EDUCATION ACT
One thing that helped the Government to think of a uniform system of Primary
Education in England was the passing of the Second Reform Bill in 1867.
According to the Act, a large section of the working class got the right of vote.
Robert Lowe, who vehemently opposed the Bill sarcastically said, "We must
educate our masters". All right-thinking people were convinced that education of
the masses was necessary to make democracy a success. The outcome of this
conviction was Gladstone's Education Act of 1870. The Act made provision for
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the establishment of a School Board in every district. It was the duty of the
Board to provide education for children between the ages of five and twelve. This
education was cheap but not free; one-third of the expenses would come from a
Government grant of money, one-third from a local tax which each School Board
had power to collect and the remaining third was to come from school fees. Thus
for the first time in the history of England a national system of education was
set on foot.
25.4 TEST ACT OF 1871
The education Act of 1870 was followed by many other Acts which brought
about revolutionary changes in the University Education as well. Hither to the
custom was that anyone aspiring to get an academic post either at Oxford or
Cambridge has first to pass a religious test. By the Test Act of 1871 this practice
was abolished, with the result that in the last three decades of the nineteenth
century most of the staff of the two Universities were laymen. More than that,
the study of physical sciences was introduced and there were eminent men of
science like Clerk Maxwell and J.J. Thomson at Cambridge. In the industrial
centres new Universities were founded to encourage the study of professional
subjects. Thus the University of London was established in 1836, and other
Universities of Manchester, Liverpool, Newcastle and Cardiff followed. All these
institutions were the outcome of progress in scientific and technical education
which characterized the middle of the nineteenth century. There was a separate
college for scientific instruction which became in 1890 the Royal College of
Science.
Meanwhile, sufficient attention was given to women's education also. In 1848

Queen's College for women was established and was quickly followed by Bedford
College, Cheltenham College and several good private schools. Some of the
examinations of Oxford and Cambridge were opened to girls as well as boys. The
newly-formed Universities opened their classes to both men and women. London
University gave its degrees to women for the first time in 1879.
There was one more reform which gave a boost to that development of education
in the Victorian period. Gladstone abolished patronage in all public offices and
made competitive examination the normal entrance to the Civil Service. Trained
intellect was henceforth to be a youngman's best passport, instead of social
patronage or fashionable friends.
The year- 1870 was a turning point in the educational history of England. Ever
after that Elementary Education made remarkable progress. Between 1870 and
1890 the average school attendance rose from one and a quarter to four and a
half millions.
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25.5 THE ROYAL COMMISSION
A Royal Commission was appointed to study the system of education in the

country. In 1895 the Commission reported that the system working in England
was defective in many respects, when compared to the highly centralized and
efficient German system. To remedy the situation the Board of Education was
established in 1899. Three years later something more effective was done by the
then Prime Minister Arthur James Balfour. In fact his education Act of 1902 laid
the foundations for education in Britain during the twentieth century. The
School Boards were abolished and the power to provide for education, both
Primary and Secondary, was given to the elected County Councils and certain
large Borough Councils. Private agencies were compelled to bring their schools
upto a certain standard of efficiency, to become eligible for financial assistance
from the Government. Thus a great step forward was taken towards the
establishment of a uniform national system of education.
Check your progress

Notes: i) What do you mean by Gladstone’s Education Act ?
ii) Comment on the role played by the Royal Commission
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LESSON-26
MEANS OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
CONTENTS
26.1. Social life during nineteenth century
26.2. The Railways
26.3. The English Shipping
26.4. The Penny Post
26.5. Electric Telegraph
26.6. The Telephone
i) To provide the learners about the various facts of Transport and

Communication
Synopsis: Introduction - remarkable improvement in social life in the nineteenth
century - railways the most important means of transport-part played by George
Hudson in popularising the railway - popularity of the bicycle - development in
English shipping - introduction of penny post - inauguration of the electric
telegraph - invention of the telephone- conclusion.
26.1 SOCIAL LIFE DURING NINETEENTH CENTURY
There was a remarkable improvement in the social life of England during the
nineteenth century. Exchanging social visits, visiting relatives and friends in
near and distant places; going to holiday or health resorts and above all
communicating with kith and kin through letters became a regular feature of
English social life during the period. All this was possible because of the
tremendous progress in the means of transport and communication.
26.2 THE RAILWAYS
The most important means of transport in the Victorian period was the railway.
It was the outcome of experiments conducted to find the best method of moving
coal from the mines to places where it was required. As Trevelyan puts it "the
railways were England's gift to the world" George Stephenson invented the first
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railway engine which he named "Active" and the first railway line between
Stockton and Darlington was opened on 27th September 1825. A few years later
he invented a more powerful engine which could pull the train at a speed of
thirty miles per hour. In those days it was so great a speed that the engine was
called “Rocket". The new engine was used to pull the train along the railway
connecting Liverpool and Manchester which was opened on 15th September
1830. It was at the opening of this railway that a former Cabinet Minister
William Huskisson was killed. Thus it turned out to be not only the inauguration
of the fast moving train but also of railway accidents. Within a decade longer
railways were built. London was connected by railway with Birmingham,
Brighton and Manchester in 1838.
The interval of thirty-five years between the first two Reform Bills was the
Railway age. Great improvements took place in this field during this period.
Fast-moving engines were invented and better compartments and other facilities
were provided. Many railway companies were started, the most important of
which was the one started by George Hudson, who was popularly known as the
Railway King In about fifty years England was covered with a network of
railways. In 1843 there were about 2,000 miles of railway in Great Britain but
the coverage rose to 5,000 in another very short period of five years. In 1860 the
mileage was just over 10,000 miles, but in 1890 it was nearly 20,000 miles.
Meanwhile the Government also took various measures to ensure efficient
administration of the department. In 1844 the Cheap Trains Act compelled the
railway companies to run at least one train a day in each direction at a
reasonable fare of one penny a mile. In 1873 to the Board of Trade was attached
a Railway Commission which had power to fix the rates for the carriage of goods
and merchandise. In subsequent years other effective steps also have been
taken.
The popularity of the railway sounded the death-knell of roads and canals. The
public mail coach and the heavy family coach disappeared from the roads.
However, they continued to exist on by-roads connecting the railway stations
and the towns. The roads regained their importance only when the motor
vehicles came into use. One thing that helped the roads to regain their long lost
importance was the fashionable use of the bicycle. Of course, the common use of
the motor car and motor-bicycle was yet to come when Queen Victoria died in
1901.
26.3 THE ENGLISH SHIPPING
The rapid growth of the railway was accompanied by the development of English
shipping. Iron instead of wood was used for the making of ships and steam replaced
sails. As early as 1847, the English steamships were few and small, but in the eighteen-
fifties and sixties big ocean-going ships were made. They were made first of iron and
afterwards of steel and were increasingly propelled by steam. In 1855 a third of the
world's sea-going ships were on the British register.
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26.4 THE PENNY POST
An outstanding development in the means of communication was the

establishment of the penny post in 1840. It was the result of the unselfish and
tireless efforts of Sir Rowland Hill who was originally a teacher by profession.
Prior to the introduction of the penny post sending letters was a costly affair and
something which the poor could not afford. The Government revenue too was
small. Rowland Hill's proposals were based on the following: a lower rate of
postage would increase the revenue of the State by increasing the volume of
mail; all postage rates should be the same without regard to distance, and all
mail should be prepaid. In connection with the last principle he suggested a
device which was subsequently known as the postage stamp. In putting his
programme into effect he had to face a lot of opposition from the indifferent
statesmen and uninformed civil servants. Carlyle, in one of his letters to his
mother, expressed anxiety that the art of letter writing would deteriorate.
Nevertheless the system was a boon to many. It enabled the poor for the first
time in the history of mankind to communicate with their loved ones from whom
they were separated. When the new postal system proved to be a success in
England it was initiated in every civilized country in the world.
26.5 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH
The same decade witnessed the inauguration of the electric telegraph which was
based on the invention of Samuel Morse. After many initial difficulties he was
able to build in 1843 the first telegraph line in the United States from Baltimore
to Washington. The next year he sent the first message on this line: "What hath
God wrought". As telegraph lines spread, the inventor was amply rewarded by
many Governments of Europe. The electric telegraph originated as an adjunct of
the new railway system. By about 1848 over 1,800 miles of railways were
already equipped with telegraph wires. The Electric Telegraph Company formed
in 1846 had seventeen offices in London by 1854. The first successful' cable was
laid in 1866 and in the eighteen-seventies Steams and Edison developed
methods of sending more than one: message over the wire at the same time.
26.6 THE TELEPHONE
The telephone, the most popular and easiest means of communication, was
invented by Alexander Graham Bell, a naturalised American. In 1856 he
exhibited an apparatus embodying the results of his studies in the transmission
of sound by electricity, and this invention with modifications constitutes the
modem telephone. Two years later when Graham Bell visited England, he
demonstrated his invention before Queen Victoria. Partly because of the
patronage given by her, the first telephone exchange was opened in London in
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1879 with seven or eight subscribers. Several telephone companies were

organized in Great Britain in the course of the next few years. As the
potentialities of telephone communication began to be appreciated the
Government gradually took over the service. It is today one of the easiest means
of communications.
Check your progress

Notes: i) Write short notes on :
a) The Penny Post
b) The Telegraph
ii)
Attempt an essay on the importance of Transport and
Communication
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LESSON-27
THE WORLD WARS AND SOCIAL SECURITY
CONTENTS
27.1. An Age of Progress and Disaster
27.2. Effects of the First World War
27.3. Revolutionary changes in Civil Life
27.4. Second World War and its Effects
27.5. As a Welfare State
i) To highlight the readers about the cases and effects of the two World Wars
Synopsis: Introduction - the first half of the twentieth century a period of

progress and disaster - the two world wars and the world organizations - social
levelling up - death duty - mass production of clothes and its effects on society -
the part played by educational institutions - changes in the fashions of dress -
difficulty to get doll1estic servants - nationalisation of the Bank of England - the
various measures taken by the Labour Government to bring about 'social
levelling up and security - the successive Governments following the policy.
27.1 AN AGE OF PROGRESS AND DISASTER
The first half of the twentieth century was a period of great progress everywhere,
especially in England. The development of science and technology helped a lot to
make man's life more easy and comfortable. But this progress was matched by
disasters of the highest magnitude. In the first quarter of the century, for the
first time in the history of mankind, was fought the First World War which
brought about the holocaust of innumerable human lives and paralysed the
normal life of people all over the world. After the First World War which came to
an end in 1918, thanks to the efforts of Woodrow Wilson, the then President of
U.S.A., the League of Nations was established. It was hoped that the existence of
such a world body would help to prevent the recurrence of war. But the
happenings that followed belied the hope of mankind. Within twenty years,
which may be a long period in the life of an individual but infinitesimally small
one in the history of the world, a more fierce war broke out and ravaged the
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earth for more than six years. The war ended in 1945. Then was established a
more comprehensive and effective world body, namely the United Nations
Organisation. It was meant to act as a mediator between warring nations. The
U.N.O. is only an apology for a world government. In the strict sense, it cannot
be called a government because it lacks coercive power, i.e., it does not have the
power to punish an erring member. Nevertheless it has played a prominent part
to prevent large-scale war on several occasions.
27.2 EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
The Second World War has often been described as a war of liberation. This is
true, to a large extent, because it brought centuries-old colonial rule to an end
and paved the way for many nations to become independent, enjoying full
sovereignty. Thus the age-long Imperialism was gone and a new era of
democracy was ushered in.
Both these wars brought about great changes both in England and abroad. One
of the effects of the First World War was the social levelling up. After the war the
class feeling was not so acute as it was before. This was partly the result of
soldiers of different social ranks sharing the common camp life during war-time.
The wealthy upper class could no longer enjoy all their luxuries as the State
imposed on them many taxes like the Death Duty. Slowly they lost the social
and political leadership which they had been enjoying for generations. Another
thing that helped the social levelling-up was the mass production of clothes.
This mass production of clothes enabled the working man's wife to follow the
fashions of the ladies of rank. Improved purchasing power also allowed the
working man to buy ready-made suits. The educational institution played an
effective role in realizing the social goal of a classless society. In the post-war
period the sons of workers were found in increasing numbers as scholars and
students in Oxford, Cambridge, London and other Universities. No longer after
1919 could it be said that the British Universities were reserved for the sons of
the middle and upper classes.
27.3 REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES IN CIVIL LIFE
The post-war period witnessed revolutionary changes in the fashions of dress.

Women's dresses were no longer designed to conceal feminine charms. Petticoats
and ankle-length dresses gave way to transparent under-garments and skirts
reaching only up to the knees. Smart young men wore Oxford bags, i.e.
shapeless balloon-like trousers which covered practically the entire shoe.
A very striking social change was that it was not so easy to get domestic
servants. This was mainly because of the trend of working - class women to
move from domestic into factories and offices. And naturally enough the lawyers'
and doctors' wives had to do a greater share of domestic work than they had
been required to do before the war.
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27.4 SECOND WORLD WAR AND ITS EFFECTS
The Second War which changed the face of the earth also brought a change in
the people's ways of living and thinking. In post-war England an earnest attempt
was made by the successive Governments to reduce the gap between the rich
and the poor to the minimum. The grand old theory of laissez-faire was given up
and the State embarked upon an ambitious and bold Policy of nationalisation.
The Bank of England was taken from its 17,000 stock – holders, who were duly
compensated, and put under the control of a Board of Governors appointed by
the Government. Coal, gas, wireless and air transport were similarly brought
under the State control was exercised in the agricultural methods and
marketing, in the establishment of factories, and the supply of raw materials. All
this the Government ventured to do because the general feeling was that without
State interference the lot of the less privileged section of society could not be
improved. The Government could undertake any step to ameliorate the lot of the
poor only if it had control over the sources of income.
Soon after the Second World War a general election was held in 1945 and the
Labour Party with Clement Attlee as Prime Minister came into power. The
Labour Government passed a number of Acts to ensure social security and
welfare for the majority of people of the country. According to the Family
Allowance Act an allowance was given to families with two or more children of
school-going age. In 1946, the National Insurance Act was passed according to
which the contributions by workers and employers were raised. The retirement
pensions were also increased. These steps helped to reduce the perpetual worry
about an uncertain future.
27.5 AS A WELFARE STATE
Another bold step which the Labour Government undertook was the passing of
the National Health Service Act. Free medical help was available to all except a
few; for optical and dental treatment the patients were expected to give a certain
percentage of the cost. This system was a boon to millions of people and
needless to say that it helped to improve the health of the general public.
A third benevolent Act which the Attlee Government passed was the National
Assistance Act. A National Assistance Board was established whose duty was to
supplement the income of needy families. More poor people were given
educational facilities.
In 1950 the Labour Ministry went out of power. But the successive Conservative
Governments followed the policy inaugurated by the Labour Government. Thus
the Conservative Ministry under the leadership of Anthony Eden set up the
Slum Clearance Scheme. Afterwards the Macmillan Ministry set up the Housing
Corporation. Thus the way was prepared for England to become a welfare State.
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Check your progress
Notes: i) What are the cases and effects of the First and Second World Wars
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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LESSON-28
TRADE UNIONISM IN ENGLAND
CONTENTS
28.1. Trade Union in England
28.2. Passing of Combination Laws
28.3. Grand General Union
28.4. Trade Union Act of 1871
28.5. Trade Union in Sixties and Seventies
28.6. Impact of Trade Unions
i) To sentisize learners in epitomy of Trade unionism in England
Synopsis : Introduction - definition of the term - small secret unions of the

eighteenth century - pioneering work done by Francis Place - the
recommendation made by Joseph Hume - the unions of the first half of the
nineteenth century - amalgamated unions of engineering and other industries -
the Royal Commission of 1867 - the Trade Union Act of 1871 - unions of
agricultural labourers - unions of unskilled workers - union of railway workers -
unions of white-collared employees - formation of federations - alliances and
Trade Union Congress - Conclusion.
28.1 TRADE UNION IN ENGLAND
The very mention of the term ‘trade unionism' may cause the blood pressure to
shoot up in some wealthy business magnates. This is because of the nerve-
racking violent scenes such as slogan shouting, picketing, gherao, dharna and
destruction of public property which are very often associated with the present-
day trade union activities. Nevertheless the Trade Union movement has helped a
lot to mitigate the misery of poor labourers who are not in a position to bargain
on equal terms with their well-to-do masters.
124
Trade unionism in England was the natural outcome of industrialism in that

country. Before the Industrial Revolution there was no or very little chance for
workers to meet and discuss their problems. But after the Industrial Revolution
and establishment of big factories in industrial towns and cities there were very
many opportunities for the labourers to meet and talk about their grievances.
Trade unionism, therefore, can be defined as associations of workers formed
with the purpose of improving the conditions under which work is carried on.
28.2 PASSING OF COMBINATION LAWS
There were some people who did some pioneering work in the field. One such
person was Francis Place, a master-tailor who worked ceaselessly for many
years with a view to securing the repeal of the legislations which were
detrimental to the interests of the workers. In the eighteenth century there were
many small secret trade unions in England. The ruling classes always looked
upon these unions with suspicion and disfavour. Towards of the close of the
century, in the wake of the atrocities committed by the French revolutionaries,
the authorities thought that similar things might happen in England also. So
they wanted to do something to forestall such violent happenings. In 1799 and
1800 Combination Laws were passed by which trade unions were made illegal. It
was -declared, that workers who associated with their fellow workers for
demanding higher wages or shorter hours of work were liable to be sent to
prison. It was against such unjust practices that Francis Place worked. He even
withdrew from his business in order that he might devote his full time to the
task. As a result of his efforts, in 1824 the House of Commons appointed a
committee under the chairmanship of Joseph Hume. Hume recommended that
union for the purpose of bargaining with employers on the subject of wages and
hours of work was justified and accordingly in the very same year an Act was
passed to this effect.
28.3 GRAND GENERAL UNION
After 1824 trade unions were no longer organised in secret. In the next few years
efforts were made to combine small local trade unions in larger organisations.
Thus the Grand General Union of the United Kingdom and the National
Association for the Protection of Labour came into existence. Thanks to the
efforts of the magnanimous Robert Owen, the Grand National Consolidated
Traded Union was formed in the year 1834. The membership of this union was
about one million. Though this union was popular in the beginning, as years
went by, it failed mainly because the method it followed to settle disputes was
general strike. As a result, the labourers began to lose faith in the efficiency of
trade union action. A revival took place in 1843. Fortunately there was a change
for the better with regard to the aim of the unions of this period. General strike
as a weapon to settle disputes fell into disfavour. In 1851 a number of unions in
125
the engineering industry united to form the Amalgamated Society of engineers. It

preferred to settle disputes with employers by negotiation. The society had
substantial funds and therefore was able to maintain a staff of officials. In
course of time in several other industries amalgamated unions were set up on
the model of that of the engineers. One very important feature of the unions of
this period was that they demanded substantial subscriptions from their
members. The members in return were assured of payment in times of sickness
or death and also allowance during strikes and periods of unemployment.
28.4 TRADE UNION ACT OF 1871
Trade unions became active in sixties. But the opponents of the union argued
that the unions destroyed the former kindly relations which had existed between
employers and employees. It was also pointed out that the character of the
workers deteriorated and that workers derived no financial benefit from the
membership of the union. There were also certain anomalies in the actual
working of the unions. So a Royal Commission was set up in 1867 to inquire
into their conduct. On the findings of the Commission certain temporary
legislations were passed by the Parliament. But a legislation which had long
standing - effect was the Trade Union Act passed in the year 1871. According to
the provisions of this Act the working of the union was rationalised. Treasurers
and other officials of a trade union were compelled to render to the union exact
accounts of all the money received by them and they became liable to
prosecution if they were found guilty of misappropriation of party funds.
During the seventies a large number of unions were formed. Perhaps the most
important union of the period was that of the agricultural labourers founded in
1872 by Joseph Arch. But in the next one or two decades the union had its ups
and downs, chiefly because of the hostile attitude of the squires, the clergy and
the farmers. Any way after the First World War the National Union of
agricultural workers came into existence.
28.5 TRADE UNION IN SIXTIES AND SEVENTIES
During the sixties and seventies trade unionism was popular only among the
skilled workers. In the next ten years or so efforts were made to extend the
union movement among the unskilled workers also. A match workers' strike was
organized by Annie Besant in 1888 and it had the desired effect of getting
concessions from their employers. Similarly in 1889 the union of gas workers
was formed and a substantial reduction in their hours of work followed. In the
very same year the dock workers of the London Port embarked on a strike which
lasted for many days and in the end they were able to achieve their aim of
getting a minimum wage of six pence per hour.
126
It took many years for the trade union of railway workers to become effective.
The first railway union was formed in 1871. The Amalgamated Society of Railway
servants was organised in 1890, but only one-seventh of the railway workers
were members of the union. The pitiable thing was that most of the railway
companies refused to recognise the unions. In 1911 a strike occurred and it was
called off only when a promise was given that a Royal Commission would be
constituted to consider the g11evances of the men. The Act of 1921 made it
obligatory that the railway service should be represented by the railway trade
unions.
28.6 IMPACT OF TRADE UNIONS
As things stand today in .the twentieth century trade unionism is not confined
to manual workers. Even white-collared employees such as medical men,
traders, lawyers, journalists, bank clerks and actors have their respective unions
to fight for their rights and privileges.
One of the distinguishing characteristics of the Trade Union movement of recent
years is the formation of large federations and alliances. In England for instance
there are the Miners' Federation, Engineering Federation, and Printing Traders'
Federation. In certain cases unions of allied industries may join together. The
triple alliance of miners, railway workers and transport workers is an example.
Yet another interesting feature of trade unionism of today is the formation of
Trade Union Congress to which are affiliated many unions.
In conclusion it must be stated that the Trade Union movement has done much
to improve the lot in life of the workers. It is now necessary to see that Trade
Union movement does not become harmful. The present-day tendency of the
workers is to do as little work as possible and at the same time demand as much
payment as possible. This is an unhealthy and unreasonable attitude which will
definitely retard or even hamper the progress of the nation. The unions have a
moral obligation to educate the members in this matter.
Check your progress
Notes: i) Write short notes on :
a. Trade Union in England
b. Trade Union Act of 1871
c. Trade Union in Sixties and Seventies
ii) How does England reflect Trade Union?
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BA-English Social History of England

SOCIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND

1.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

i) To introduce the pre – historic England to the readers.

Britain acquired geographical identity as an island around 5000 B.C. In the

Geological, archaeological and philological evidences confirm human existence in

1.3 CELTIC BRITAIN

1.4 ROMAN BRITAIN

2.1 MEDIEVAL BRITAIN

The Norman Conquest in 1066 inaugurated decisive changes in the history of

2.1.1. Early Norman Period

2.1.2. Early Plantagenet Period

2.1.3. Later Plantagenet Period

Check your progress

2.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

i) To examine Chaucer’s England and its background.

2.1 POLITICAL BACKGROUND

Richard II turned a despot. Henry of Bolingbroke laid a claim to the throne.

2.2 THE HUNDRED YEAR'S WAR

Dynastic ambitions, expansion of territories and the pleasure of plunder usually

copious language of international importance. Chaucer and Wycliffe shaped it

2.3 THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY ENGLISH SOCIETY

Natural calamities are great levelers of injustice, felt or unfelt, protested or

The abrupt reduction of farm labourer by death left English agriculture at

The Peasants’ revolt gained impetus by the encouragement of a parallel religious

2.4 LITERATURE OF THE TIME

2.5 SOCIAL LIFE

2.6 CAXTON’S ENGLAND

Caxton’s England presents a spectacle of savage battles, ruthless executions,

the invention of the Printing-Press. It accelerated the pace of learning, infused a

2.7 POLITICAL BACKGROUND

Henry IV (1399-1413): Henry Bolingbroke assumed the title of Henry IV after

Check your progress

3.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

i) To provide the background on wars of the Roses.

3.1 WARS OF THE ROSES

3.2 FIFTEENTH CENTURY ENGLISH SOCIETY

3.3 CIVIC LIFE

Check your prograess

Notes : i) Explain Wars of the Roses.

ii) Comment on the social life of fifteenth century England.

4.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

4.1 POLITICAL BACKGROUND

4.2 THE RENAISSANCE

4.3 REVIVAL OF LEARNING

In England the influence of the New Learning manifested itself in educational

icebergs of Labrador. 'The travels of Amerigo Vespucci' revealed the Western

“-------the balm, the sceptre, and the ball,

The sword, the mace, the crown imperial,

The intertissued robe of gold and pearl”

4.4 ENGLISH CHURCH

Royal authority and property of the nation in general, expressed themselves in

4.5 THE REFORMATION

The Renaissance scholarship, in due course, became counterproductive, in the

solemnised in the church could not be dissolved. 'Divorce' could be obtained

4.6 THE REACTION

4.7 THE RESULTS

Check your progress:

Notes: i) What is Renaissance?

ii) What aspects of political history do you know about Renaissance?

iii) Give a brief account about Reformation?

5.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

5.1 THE PILGRIMAGE