LTE: Long Term Evolution

LTE is an acronym for Long Term Evolution. It is an updated version of 3G Technology that will provide
its user a significantly higher data rate for both downloading and uploading. It is a wireless
communications standard developed by 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). Because it
provides significant improvements over 3G communications, hence also referred as 4G. It is estimated
to provide about 10 time higher speed then 3G for mobile devices. LTE is designed based on Internet
Protocol (IP) to support browsing websites, other IP based services and VoIP well. It streams at a speed
of 100 Mbit per second and up to 1GBit per second.

LTE services are currently available in limited geographical areas and are expanding rapidly. New
model Android smartphones are 4G LTE capable.

Features
o LTE uses different LTE frequencies and bands used in different countries which mean it will be
only supported by multi-band phones.
o It will provide upload rates up to 75.4 Mbit/s and download rate 299.6 Mbit/s.
o Support low data transfer latencies.
o It supports in all frequency bands.
o It has a simple architecture.
o It provides inter-operation and co-existence with legacy standards (e.g. GSM/EDGE, UMTS and
CDMA2000) which means user can make a call or transfer data in the absence of LTE network
using any of these networks.
o It has a packet switched radio interface.

Volte: Voice over Long Term Evolution

Volte stands for Voice over Long Term Evolution (LTE). It is a standards-based technology that is
developed to support voice calls over an LTE network. It delivers high-quality voice communication,
video calls, messaging services, and data over 4G wireless network or 4G Long Term Evolution (LTE)
networks for mobile and portable devices.

It defines the standards and procedures for delivering voice communication and data over 4G LTE
networks. When you make a call using VoLTE supported phone, the voice goes over the carrier's high-
speed data network instead of its voice network. Thus, it offers superior call quality, faster call
connectivity, and ability to use voice and high-speed data at the same time. However, you need to use
a phone that supports VolTE, in an area with 4G LTE service, and the person on the other end must
also have the same facilities.

How VoLTE Works?

In VoLTE the call is carried over the IP network provided by the 4G network. It uses your 4G data
connectivity to send data packets for voice calls, e.g., when you make calls using the internet like
whatsup call, skype call, etc.

VoLTE allows carrying voice traffic using IP packets over the IP network (IP to IP based network). It
carries your call as a stream of IP packets over data connections. So, it primarily works on IP-based
networks and only supports packet switching.

Benefits of VoLTE:
o It enables you to use voice and data at the same time.
o It enables high definition (HD) voice calling, a significant improvement over traditional calls made via
cellular networks.
o It connects calls easily and much faster than traditional GSM or CDMA.
o It offers more efficient use of spectrum than the traditional 2G or 3G technology.
It increases battery life as it uses shorter discontinuous reception (DRx) which
improves device power efficiency. 5G vs. 4G | Difference Between
5G and 4G
We are living in a world of technology, and each technology is being upgraded with the passage of
time. Similarly, in Networking and Telecom sector, we have seen various generations like 2G, 3G, 3.5G,
4G, and 5G. However, each upgraded generation contains its benefits over the previous generation.
When we discuss the difference between 5G and 4G, then we usually talk specifically
about connectivity and speed parameters. Connectivity is a standard parameter to evaluate the
strength, quality, and value of any generation. Further, some other parameters like speed, distance and
population density, etc., also define the performance of any internet technology.

The 5G is the latest technology that is evolving in the market with its high speed and reliability,
whereas 4G is used by lots of customers across the world due to its various advantages over previous
generations. There are lots of service providers who provide 5G connectivity but for very small
consumer markets. Many service providers are also integrating and implementing their old versions
into 5G. In this topic, we will discuss various differences between 5G and 4G and the parameters that
make 5G superior to 4G.

What is 5G?
5G is the fifth-generation mobile network technology. 5G are digital cellular networks in which service
area is covered into some small geographical area, these geographical areas called Cells. 5G networks
are designed in a way that they can connect everyone and everything together.

All Analog Signals are converted into a digital signal through ADAC (Analog to Digital converters) in
the form of bits (0 or 1)
All 5G wireless devices are communicated through radio waves in a cell with the help of a local
antenna and Transceivers. These local antennas are connected with the internet and telephone
network via high bandwidth (BW) optical fiber. In a 5G network, frequency is reused in other cells. A 5G
network can serve a million users per square kilometer, while a 4G network can support only 100,000
users per square kilometer. 5G devices are also enabled for 4G LTE network, which means if a user is
moving in such an area where 5G networks are not accessible, then the device will use a 4G LTE
network.

Advantages of 5G
1. Better coverage area, less traffic, and high data speed at the edge of the cell.
2. Provide good efficiency in terms of energy and spectrum.
3. It has multiple data transfer capacities.
4. 5G technologies consume low battery in comparison to 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G.
5. As per security terms, 5G is more secure than the rest.
6. 5G supports the Virtual Private Network (VPN).
7. It has very low latency (time taken by data from origin to destination).
8. 5G regulate the bandwidth requirement according to the application as some application requires low
BW whereas some require High BW.
9. 5G can connect more devices simultaneously than other technologies.

Disadvantages of 5G-
1. 5G requires high investment in infrastructure development, and up-gradation and degradation are also
costly.
2. As 5G provides a high data speed, so it requires more storage capacity in smartphones and also requires
huge battery power.
3. There is no specific standard known for 5G till now as 4G has its VoLTE.
4. Wi-Fi is cheaper and easily feasible, so Wi-Fi is already a better alternative over 5G, which requires high
costs and maintenance than Wi-Fi.
5. As 5G network technologies are under the working mode, so still have lots of drawbacks and will take
time to be operational globally.
What is Latency in 5G
Latency is defined as the time taken by a data packet to move from one place to another or, in simple
words, webpage loading time.

If latency is high, then webpage loading time will also be high, and if latency is low, then loading time
for a webpage will also be low.

5G contains less latency which means 5G having fast response as well as faster load times over the
internet. 5G having 1ms latency while 4G LTE having 50ms.

What is 4G?
4G is the fourth-generation mobile network technology, which is much faster than 3G. It follows the
features of the previous two technologies, such as 2G and 3G. 4G is based upon whatever features 3G
provides but with a much faster speed. Sometimes 4G is also known as 4G LTE, but it is technically
incorrect because LTE is the single type of 4G. It is an advanced technology and adopted by the
majority of mobile network service providers.

4G network ensures the users that whatever task they want to perform with any amount of data, they
can maintain the stable speed approximately everywhere. The 4G wireless network is purely a data
connection, which is an end-to-end protocol connection.

Advantages of 4G
o 4G networks provide flexibility and mobility.
o It is more reliable than other data services.
o With 4G networks, the downloading and uploading speeds can be much faster than the wired or 2G and
3G networks even in rural areas also.
o It works with the same mobile internet connection as our mobile phones and hence does not need a
phone line.
o The 4G networks provide area coverage of more than 30 miles with overlapping network ranges, and it
ensures complete connectivity all the time.
o It provides complete security, privacy, and safety, which is the issue with the Wi-Fi networks. Using 4G,
users who contain sensitive information on their mobile devices can use the internet securely.
o It enables the users to choose many options.
Disadvantages of 4G
o The old devices do not support the 4G network; hence the customer is forced to buy the new device to
make use of the 4G network.
o 4G technology uses various antennas and transmitters, and users would experience poor battery life of
the mobile phone while using this network. So, to use the internet for a longer period, we need to have
more battery power.
o In 4G, it is easier to obtain information from users illegally.
o It may be being attacked with the jamming frequencies; hence the chances of privacy breach are
increased.
o 4G networks need complex hardware.
o If some areas do not yet have a 4G mobile network, then users would be forced to use 3G or Wi-Fi
connectivity. And after using 3G instead of 4G network, users would still have to pay the same amount as
specified by the 4G network plan. This issue can only be resolved if mobile carriers expand their network
coverage to include more regions for the 4G network.
o The 4G networks have higher data prices for the users.
o 4G network needs expensive infrastructure for the operation. 4G is optimal for the data rates but not
necessarily best for the voice services.

Feature differences between 4G and 5G

o Speed
The first and important factor in differentiating between 4G and 5G technologies is the speed, and 5G is
expected to be 100 times faster than 4G. Among all the available mobile technologies, the 4G network is
the fastest, but it is slower than 5G. 4G can reach a maximum speed of 100Mbps, but in the real world, it
is a maximum of 35Mbps.
The higher speed of 5G is possible because these networks are built-on super-high frequency airwaves
or high-band spectrum. The higher the frequency, the more data will be transferred. The theoretical
maximum speed of 5G is 20 Gbps, but in the real world, it is from 50Mbs to 3 Gbps.
o Capacity
If there are too many devices that are using a network from one place, then it can cause congestion. It is
because the network infrastructure is not capable of handling mass devices, and hence leads to slower
data speeds even with 4G networks also. This issue will be solved by the 5G technology as it is expected
 to have more capacity compared to 4G. It will allow connecting lots of devices to a network without any
congestion.
o Latency
Latency is the delay or amount of time a network takes for a device to communicate with another device
or with the server. It is measured in milliseconds. The latency is very less in 4G networks, about 50ms, but
in 5G networks, it is virtually zero or about 1ms only.
The 5G network with such low latency will be helpful for real-time gaming, self-driving cars, IOT
applications, etc.
o Technologies
The 4G technology has developed to accommodate different technologies such as LWA(LTE-WLAN) to
support connectivity in dense environments. The 5G technology improves this step to improve the
spectral efficiency and connection quality, mainly in a dense urban environment.
o MachineTypecommunication
5G is designed to work with consumers as well as enterprises. It is capable of Machine-type
communication that is needed by the IOT applications and other M2M-type connected devices. Whereas
in 4G, IOT applications need to work with adapted 2G and 4G technologies.
o Architecture
5G technologies are designed in a way so that they can take benefit of cloud-based or virtual Radio
Access Network (RAN), while 4G technologies are not capable of working with RAN. The radio access
network technology allows enterprises and service providers to set up their own centralized network.
Providers can also take the benefits of localized data centers to provide a faster and more reliable
internet connection to the users.
o DeviceIntelligence
5G networks are comparatively more intelligent compared to 4G. 5G can identify the fixed devices and mobile
devices. It identifies each device with the help of cognitive radio techniques and hence provides the most suitable
delivery channel. It means in 5G, and each user will get a customized internet connection as per their device
compatibility and local reception environment.
o Bandwidth
5G is expected to have more bandwidth compared to 4G. It is because 5G will use the available spectrum
more efficiently compared to 4G. 4G uses a narrow slice of the available spectrum from 600 MHz to 2.5
GHz, whereas 5G is divided into three different bands. Each band contains its own range and speed.
Hence different bands will be used for different use cases, businesses, and enterprises.
Comparison Chart between 4G and 5G

4G Technology 5G Technology

4G stands for the fourth-generation 5G stands for fifth-generation technology.

technology.

The maximum theoretical uploading The maximum uploading speed of 5G technology is 1.25Gbps.
speed of 4G technology is 500Mbps.

The maximum theoretical downloading The maximum downloading speed of 5G is 2.5Gbps.

speed of 4G is 1Gbps.

The latency of 4G is approximately The latency of 5G is approximately 1ms.

50ms.

The 4G network is slow and less 5G is the fastest and most efficient mobile network.
efficient when comparing with the 5G
network.

4G technology is unable to 5G technology is capable of identifying fixed, and mobile devices with
differentiate between fixed and mobile the help of cognitive radio technique, and hence offer the most
devices. suitable delivery channel.

Conclusion
As per the above discussion, we can say that although 4G is broadly used everywhere, due to higher
speed and reliability, the next-generation technology is 5G. As per the expectations, 5G should be the
network that provides the speed and efficiency that everyone needs.

o
 LTE Architecture, LTE System Architecture, LTE
Components
This page offers information about Long Term Evolution (LTE), its architecture and components.
It describes the role of the eNodeB in the network and key concepts such as: E-UTRAN, Uu, X2, S1,
MME/S-GW and EPC.

The LTE network overview

The 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) developed the LTE standard in its Release 8
document series. Releases 9, 10 and 11 bring new features and enhancements, such as: carrier
aggregation, enhanced downlink control channel, advanced MIMO technique and more. Release
12 delivered more enhancements, such as: FDD/TDD carrier aggregation, massive MIMO and
beamforming or enhanced small cells and heterogeneous networks.

LTE uses either Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) or Time Division Duplex (TDD). While FDD makes
use of separate bands to transmit uplink and downlink data, TDD uses time slots on the same
frequency for both uplink and downlink. FDD and TDD LTE networks have been deployed on all
continents.

LTE’s main advantages come from the following features:

• increased carrier capacity of subscribers and coverage within a few decibels of the Shannon limit

• high-speed data rates

• reliable connectivity

• cost-effectiveness

LTE’s performance can reach download rates of up to 299.6 Mbit/s and upload rates of up to 75.4
Mbit/s. It’s RAN latency is lower than 5ms latency for small IP packets in optimal conditions, and
has a 2 up to 4 times improved spectral efficiency than previous communications technologies.

The LTE standard functions under the following parameters:

 Band Uplink
Band number Type MHz Downlink frequency
name frequency
1 FDD 2100 IMT 1920 - 1980

PCS
2 FDD 1900 1850 - 1910 1930 - 1990
blocks A-F

3 FDD 1800 DCS 1710 - 1785 1805 -1880

AWS
4 FDD 1700 blocks A-F 1710 - 1755 2110 - 2155
(AWS-1)

5 FDD 850 CLR 824 - 849 869 - 894

7 FDD 2600 IMT-E 2500 - 2570 2620 - 2690

8 FDD 900 E-GSM 880 - 915 925 - 960

Japan
UMTS 1700 1749.9 -
9 FDD 1800 1844.9 - 1879.9
/ Japan 1784.9
DCS

Extended
10 FDD 1700 AWS 1710 - 1770 2110 - 2170
blocks A-I

1427.9 -
11 FDD 1500 Lower PDC 1475.9 - 1500.9
1452.9

Lower
SMH
12 FDD 700 698 - 716 728 - 746
blocks
A/B/C

Upper
13 FDD 700 SMH block 777 - 787 746 - 756
C

14 FDD 700 Upper 788 - 798 758 - 768

SMH block
 Band Uplink
Band number Type MHz Downlink frequency
name frequency
D

Lower
SMH
17 FDD 700 704 - 716 734 - 746
blocks
B/C

Japan
18 FDD 850 815 - 830 860 - 875
lower 800

Japan
19 FDD 850 830 - 845 875 - 890
upper 800

EU Digital
20 FDD 800 832 - 862 791 - 821
Dividend

1447.9 -
21 FDD 1500 Upper PDC 1495.5 - 1510.9
1462.9

22 FDD 3500 3410 - 3500 3510 - 3600

S-Band
23 FDD 2000 2000 - 2020 2180 - 2200
(AWS-4)

L-Band 1625.5 -
24 FDD 1600 1525 - 1559
(US) 1660.5

Extended
25 FDD 1900 PCS 1850 - 1915 1930 - 1995
blocks A-G

Extended
26 FDD 850 814 - 849 859 - 894
CLR

27 FDD 850 SMR 807 - 824 852 - 869

28 FDD 700 APT 703 - 748 758 - 803

Lower
29 FDD/CA 700 SMH N/A 717 – 728
blocks
 Band Uplink
Band number Type MHz Downlink frequency
name frequency
D/E

WCS
30 FDD 2300 blocks 2305 - 2315 2350 - 2360
A/B

31 FDD 450 452.5 - 457.5 462.5 - 467.5

L-Band
32 FDD/CA 500 N/A 1452 – 1496
(EU)

33 TDD 2100 IMT 1900 – 1920

34 TDD 2100 IMT 010 – 2025

PCS
35 TDD 1900 1850 – 1910
(Uplink)

PCS
36 TDD 1900 930 – 1990
(Downlink)

PCS
37 TDD 1900 (Duplex 1910 – 1930
spacing)

IMT-E
38 TDD 2600 (Duplex 2570 – 2620
Spacing)

DCS-IMT
39 TDD 1900 1880 – 1920
gap

40 TDD 2300 2300 – 2400

41 TDD 2500 BRS / EBS 496 – 2690

42 TDD 3500 3400 – 3600

43 TDD 3700 3600 – 3800

44 TDD 700 APT 703 – 803

 Band Uplink
Band number Type MHz Downlink frequency
name frequency
L-Band
45 TDD 1500 1447 – 1467
(China)

46 TDD 5200 NII 5150 – 5925

Extended
65 FDD 2100 1920 – 2010 2110 – 2200
IMT

Extended
AWS
66 FDD 1700 blocks A-J 1710 – 1780 2110 – 2200
(AWS-
1/AWS-3)

FDD /
67 700 EU 700 N/A 738 – 758
CA

Frequency bands

Tables 5.5-1 and 5.6.1-1 from 3GPP TS 36.101 lists the LTE operating bands and frequencies.

Worldwide, LTE networks run on many bands and across a wide range of frequencies.

LTE networks use bandwidths between 1.4 to 20 Mhz.

Modulation schemes

LTE uses the following inner modulation schemes:

• Downlink: QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 256-QAM (Release 12)

• Uplink: QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM (depending on the UE)

A lower QAM is more robust against noise and interference, while a higher QAM offers a higher
data rate.

The components of the LTE network

 A standard LTE system architecture consists of an Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access
Network, more commonly known as E-UTRAN, and the System Architecture Evolution, also known
as SAE. SAE’s main component is the Evolved Packet Core, also known as an EPC.

The E-UTRAN is comprised of:

• User Equipment (UEs)

• evolved Node B basestations (eNodeBs)

• the Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA)

The EPC is comprised of:

• the Mobility Management Entity (MME)

• the Serving Gateway (SGW)

• the Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW)

• the Home Subscriber Server (HSS)

• the Access Network Discovery and Selection Function (ANDSF)

• the Evolved Packet Data Gateway (ePDG)

All these components will be described in depth in the following sections.

The EPC
The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is the LTE core network. It is comprised of components that have
the following functions: mobility management, authentication, quality of service, routing upload
and download IP packets, IP address allocation, and more.

The EPC has a “flat” IP architecture that allows the network to handle a great amount of data
traffic in an efficient and cost-effective manner.

The sections below will describe the EPC’s main elements.

 The MME

The Mobility Management Entity (MME) handles all of the signaling exchanges between the UEs
and the EPC, as well as those between the eNodeBs and the EPC. The signaling performed by the
MME is also known as the NAS (Non-Access Stratum) signaling, as it done through the NAS
protocol. The MME connects to the eNodeB through the S1-AP interface and performs
authentication. It connects to the HSS and requests the authentication information for the
subscriber trying to connect to the network.

The MME has the following functions:

• Authentication – enables UEs to authenticate to the network by exchanging authentication information

between the UE and the HSS.

• Mobility management – allows the subscriber’s mobility within the network or across networks.

• Location update – keeps track of the subscriber’s location within the network, and of it’s current state.

• Bearer establishment – establishes bearers by deciding on a gateway router to the Internet if there are
more gateways available.

• Handover support – enables handover between eNodeBs (for handover on the S1 interface)

The MME is also responsible for allocating a gateway router to the Internet if there are more
available.

While the eNodeB itself has handover capabilities, the MME transmits handover messages
between eNodeBs when the X2 interface is not available.

The NAS signaling terminates at the MME and it is also responsible for generation and allocation
of temporary identities to UEs. It checks the authorization of the UE to camp on the service
providers Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) and enforces UE roaming restrictions. The MME is
the termination point in the network for ciphering/integrity protection for NAS signaling and
handles the security key management.

The MME also supports lawful interception of signaling. It provides the control plane function for
mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access networks with the S3 interface terminating at the MME
from the SGSN. The MME also terminates the S6a interface towards the home HSS for roaming
UEs.
The S-GW

The S-GW (Serving Gateway) acts like an anchor for handover between neighboring eNodeBs
routes and routes all the user data packets. The S-GW also handles mobility between LTE and
other CS networks.

For idle state UEs, the S-GW maintains the UEs’ context, and generates paging requests when the
UE receives downlink data.

The S-GW also performs replication of the user traffic in case of lawful interception.

The P-GW

The P-GW (Packet Data Network Gateway) ensures the UE’s connectivity to external packet data
networks, acting like the point of exit and entry of traffic for the UE. A UE can be connected to
more than one P-GW while accessing multiple PDNs.

The P-GW handles policy enforcement, user by user packet filtering, charging support, lawful
interception and packet screening. It also acts like Another key role of the P-GW is to act as the
anchor for mobility between 3GPP and non-3GPP technologies such as WiMAX and 3GPP2 (CDMA
1X and EvDO).

The HSS

The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) is a central database that contains user-related and
subscription-related information. The functions of the HSS include mobility management, call
and session establishment support, user authentication and access authorization. The HSS is
based on the Home Location Register (HLR) and the Authentication Center (AuC) of 2G and 3G
networks.

The PCRF

The Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF), is a combination of the Charging Rules Function
(CRF) and the Policy Decision Function (PDF), and ensures the service policy and sends Quality of
Service (QoS) information for each session begun and accounting rule information. These
policies are enforced in the eNodeB.
 The PCEF

The Policy and Charging Enforcement Function (PCEF) performs policy enforcement and service
data flow detection, allowing data flow through the implemented P-GW. It is also responsible for
the QoS on IP packets in the P-GW. The PCEF enforces rules that allow data packets to pass
through the gateway.

The role of the eNodeB

The eNodeB is a part of the E-UTRAN radio access network and is the component that allows UEs
to connect to the LTE network. An eNodeB typically communicates with the UE, with other
eNodeBs, and with the EPC through various interfaces: the Uu, X2 and S1. To learn more about
these interfaces go to the section Interfaces of the eNodeB.

The eNodeB performs the following functions:

• Radio resource management, which includes:

• radio bearer control – is responsible for the setup, maintenance and the release of radio bearers
and its resource configuration
• mobility management – handles the radio resource management for UEs in both idle and
connected modes
• admission control – allows or denies radio bearer setup requests
• dynamic resource allocation, covering the release and allocation of radio resources in both the
user plane and the control plane

• Routing of user plane packets towards the S-GW

• MME selection, which includes:

• enabling the UE to be served by an MME while the UE is in the “attach” procedure

• enabling the UE to be served by a different MME while being in a network
• the establishment of the route towards an MME, based on the information provided by the UE
when the routing information is not available

• Packet compression and ciphering, which includes:

 • encryption and decryption of packets through ciphering algorithms
• header compression for downlink packets and header decompression for uplink packets

• Message scheduling and transmission, which includes:

• the transmission of paging messages, OM messages or broadcast information via the Uu interface
• the reception of broadcast information and paging messages from an MME and the OM messages
from the operation and maintenance center

Interfaces of the eNodeB

LTE-Uu

The LTE-Uu is the radio interface that connects the UEs to the eNodeBs eNodeB with the UE. It
handles all the signaling messages between the eNodeB and the MME as well as the data traffic
between the UE and the S-GW.

The protocol stack has two planes:

• the user plane – carries the data streams of interest to the user and distinguishes data streams to and
from the circuit-switched, packet-switched and broadcast control domains

• the control plane – carries the network’s signaling messages

The user plane protocol stacks of the LTE-Uu are:

• PDCP

• RLC

• MAC

• PHY

For the control plane, the protocol stack is comprised of:

• NAS

• RRC

• RLC

• MAC
• PHY

For a more detailed explanation of all these protocols, go to the

[/An_introduction_to_LTE##TheE-UTRANprotocolstack E-UTRAN protocol stack] section.

S1

The S1 interface is described in the 3GPP TS 36.410 specification.

The S1 interface connects the E-UTRAN and the EPC for both the user and the control planes. It
has two parts: the S1-AP, belonging to the control plane and the S1-U (GTP-U), belonging to the
user plane.

The S1-AP connects the eNodeB to the MME and is based on IP transmission. It transmits
signaling messages of the radio network layer of the E-UTRAN through the Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP)/IP stack.

Therefore, when the eNodeB has to connect to an MME, it does so through the S1 interface
seeking each MME node in the corresponding pool area. The next step is that of setting up the
Transport Network Layer (TNL). One eNodeB and one MME can set up a single Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP) connection. Once the TNL has been established, the eNodeB starts
an S1 interface, which has the purpose of managing the configuration data for the operation
exchange between the ENB and the MME.

As seen in the figure above, the S1 Application Protocol (S1-AP) is above the SCTP. Since there is
not any other intermediary protocol between S1-AP and SCTP, the stack is simpler.

The S1-U connects the eNodeB to the S-GW through the GTP/UDP5/IP stack.

In the user plane, the S1-U (GTP) is based on the GTP/UDP5/IP protocol stack from previous
UMTS and GPRS networks. The GPRS Tunnelling Protocol User plane (GTP-U) is responsible for
tunnelling the user plane bearers, acts as a reference point for inter-eNodeB handover, and
allows intra-3GPP mobility.
 X2

The X2 interface provides connectivity between two or more eNodeBs. There are two parts of the
X2 interface, the X2-C, the interface between the control planes of eNodeBs, and the X2-U, the
interface between the user planes of eNodeBs. The X2-C and the X2-U have the same structure as
the S1 interface. as seen below. The only difference consists of the X2-AP replacing the S1-AP.

Two or more eNodeBs can exchange signalling information through the X2 interface. The main
roles of the X2 interface are the following:

• Mobility management

• Load management

• Inter-cell interference management

• Inter-eNodeB handover

• Tracing function

• X2 interface management and error handling

Two or more eNodeBs exchange information related to load, interference or handover.

KPI-related measurements

The key performance indicators (KPIs) in an LTE radio access network offer information related
to the subscriber’s connection quality and the network’s performance. These indicators allow the
network to offer subscribers a better service quality, and ensures an efficient resource
allocation.

The eNodeB reports performance measurements. Network element managers calculate and
analyze the performance measurements into KPIs.

To find out more about the network management system please refer to Operations and
Management section.

The E-UTRAN

The E-UTRAN (Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network) is comprised of UEs and
eNodeBs. The UE can be a device such as: mobile phone, laptop, tablet, computer, etc., used by
an subscriber for communication.

Its radio interface is the E-UTRA, the Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access.

The E-UTRA

The E-UTRA is the air interface of an LTE network and is the equivalent of he UTRA air interface in
UMTS networks.

The E-UTRA enables a latency decrease, allows high bandwidth capabilities and is optimized for
packet data.

The E-UTRA uses Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) in the downlink and
Single-Carrier Frequency-Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) in the uplink. OFDM splits data into
small sub-carriers on neighboring frequencies, over a single channel. OFDM handles phenomena
such as interference, noise or multipath significantly more efficiently than other modulation
methods.
 SC-FSMA is also a frequency division multiple access scheme and usually represents and
alternative to OFDM. Its main advantage is a lower peak-to-average power ration, which is
proven to be more efficient in networks where the transmit power is most important.

The E-UTRA also uses the MIMO technology and enables the simultaneous support of more users
and a lower processing power required for each UE. In the case of a 2×2 MIMO antenna system,
the two transmitters send different parts of the same data stream simultaneously, while the
receivers have to piece them back together.

The E-UTRAN protocol stack

There are various protocol layers in the E-UTRAN:

• Radio Resource Control (RRC)

Handles the broadcast system information related to the access stratum and transport of the non-access
stratum (NAS) messages, paging, establishment and release of the RRC connection, security key
management, handover, UE measurements related to inter-system (inter-RAT) mobility, QoS, etc.

• Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP)

Provides transport of its data with ciphering and integrity protection. For the IP layer’s transport of IP
packets, with ROHC header compression, it provides ciphering, duplicate detection and retransmission of its
own SDUs during handover (the last two functions depend of the RLC mode in-sequence delivery).

• Radio Link Control (RLC)

Transports the PDCP’s PDUs. Depending on this mode it can provide: ARQ error correction,
segmentation/concatenation of PDUs, reordering for in-sequence delivery, duplicate detection etc.

• Medium Access Control (MAC)

Offers a set of logical channels to the RLC sublayer that it multiplexes into the physical layer transport
channels. It also manages the HARQ error correction, handles the prioritization of the logical channels for
the same UE and the dynamic scheduling between UEs, etc.

• Physical layer

Carries all the information from the MAC transport channels over the air interface. It takes care of the link
adaptation (AMC), power control, cell search (for initial synchronization and handover purposes) and other
measurements (inside the LTE system and between systems) for the RRC layer.

The interfacing layers to the EUTRAN protocol stack are:

• Non Acess Stratum (NAS)

 Is the protocol between the UE and the MME on the network side (outside of E-UTRAN). It is responsible for
some of the following functions: mobility management, UE authentication and security control.

• Internet Protocol (IP)

this picture you can find the functional protocol split between the UE, the eNodeB and the MME in the
control plane.

Here is the the functional protocol split between the UE, the eNodeB and the MME in the user plane.

Channel Architecture

There are three main layers of channels in the LTE architecture:

• Logical channels
Dend data from the RLC to the MAC layer

• Transport channels
Send the the logical channel data from the MAC to the PHY

• Physical channels

Send the physical channel data from the PHY to the UE

The E-UTRAN downlink channels

Logical channels

• Paging Control Channel (PCCH)

Broadcasts notifications related to paging information and system information changes. This channel is
typically used for paging when the UE’s location is unknown by the network.

• Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

Transmits system control information.

• Common Control Channel (CCCH)

Transmits control information between the UE and the core network when there is not an RRC connection
between them.

• Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)

Broadcasts control information between the UE and the core network when there is an RRC connection
between them.

• Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH)

Transmits user information and is assigned to a single UE.
• Multicast Control Channel (MCCH)
Sends data traffic from the network to the UE.

• Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH)

Sends data from the core network only to the UEs that receive Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service
(MBMS).

Transport Channels
• Paging Channel (PCH)
Transmits the cell’s coverage area, supports UE discontinuous reception; carries PCCH information.

• Broadcast Channel (BCH)

Transmits the cell’s coverage area; carries BCCH information.

• Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH)

Sends downlink data, and supports dynamic link adaptation, H-ARQ, dynamic and semi-persistent resource
allocation, MBMS transmission and UE discontinuous reception; it is shared by multiple logical channels to
transmit their information (BCCH, CCCH, DCCH, DTCH, MCCH, MTCH).

• Multicast Channel (MCH)

Sends the cell’s coverage area, supports semi-persistent resource allocation and Multicast/Broadcast Single
Frequency Network (MBSFN) transmission; carries MCCH and MTCH information.

Physical channels
• Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH)
Broadcasts the basic system information within the eNodeB that allow UEs to access the network. It
transmits parameters in a Master Information Block that is 14 bits each and is split into four 10 ms frames,
thus being repeated every 40 ms; carries BCH information.

• Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH)

Handles the L1 data traffic transmission. The data is transmitted in transport blocks once every 1 ms. It also
transmits paging messages or system information blocks; carries DL-SCH and PCH information.

• Physical Multicast Channel (PMCH)

Transmits Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Services (MBMS); carries MCH information.

• Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH)

Responsible for handling downlink allocation information, uplink allocation grants for the terminal, paging
indications or system information.

• Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH)

 Carries the acknowledgement signals from the uplink transmissions.

The E-UTRAN uplink channels

Logical channels

• Common Control Channel (CCCH)

Transmits control information between the UE and the core network when there is not an RRC connection
between them.

• Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)

Broadcasts control information between the UE and the core network when there is an RRC connection
between them.

• Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH)

A channel dedicated to a single UE that transmits user data.

Transport channels
• Random Access Channel (RACH)
Sends a small amount of data and information about state changes.

• Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH)

Offers support for beamforming and supports H-ARQ, dynamic link adaptation and dynamic and semi-
persistent resource allocation; carries information from multiple logical channels (CCCH, DCCH, DTCH).

Physical channels
• Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH)
Does the initial access when the UE losses its uplink synchronization; carries RACH information.

• Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH)

Carries the L1 uplink transport data with the control information; carries UL-SCH information.

• Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH)

Carries control information.

Operations and Management

The Operations and Management (OAM) is a fundamental piece of the LTE network. Operations
and Management’s architecture is specified in the 3GPP specifications.
 The OAM network has five main functions related to:

• fault

• configuration

• accounting

• performance

• security

The three main entities of the OAM architecture are:

• network elements
manage multiple eNodeBs

• element managers (EM)

manage a collection of elements of the same type (MMEs, S-GWs, P-GWs, etc.)

• network managers (NMs)

manage multiple element managers

The element management system (EMS) is responsible of the functions of each network element.
However, the EMS does not manage the traffic between network elements.

The EMS is the key element for enforcing LTE quality of service (QoS) demands.

The network management system (NMS) offers a wide array of network management information,
ranging from the elements’ capabilities, automation, malfunction information, etc.

The element management system scales up with the increase of LTE network components, and
can be integrated to work with OSS and BSS systems.

KPI measurements

KPIs are indicators allow the network to offer subscribers a better service quality, and ensures
an efficient resource allocation. Overall, KPIs are responsible with evaluating the LTE network’s
performance.
 As specified in the 3GPP TS 32.451 document,there are several types of KPI parameters that are
integral to any LTE network, depending on the target they measure:

• Accessibility

• Retainability

• Integrity

• Availability

• Mobility

Others can be added depending on the the network’s need, such as:

• Utilization

• Traffic

• Latency
Accessibility

Accessibility is a measurement that allows operators to know information related to the mobile
services accessibility for the subscriber. The measurement is performed through E-UTRAN’s E-
RAB service.

Retainability

Retainability measures how many times a service was interrupted or dropped during use, thus
preventing the subscriber to benefit from it or making it difficult for the operator to charge for
it. Therefore, a high retainability is very important from a business stand point.

The measurement is performed through E-UTRAN’s E-RAB service.

Integrity

Integrity measures the high or low quality of a service while the subscriber is using it.

The measurement is performed through E-UTRAN’s delivery of IP packets.

Availability

Availability measures a service’s availability for the subscriber.

The measurement is performed by determining the percentage of time that the service was
available for the subscribers served by a specific cell. The measurement can also aggregate data
from more cells or from the whole network.

Mobility

Mobility measures how many times a service was interrupted or dropped during a subscriber’s
handover or mobility from on cell to another.

The measurement is performed in the E-UTRAN and will include Intra E-UTRAN and Inter RAT
handovers.
 What Is 5G Network
Architecture?
The 3GPP standards behind 5G network architecture were
introduced by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), the
organization that develops international standards for all mobile
communications. The International Telecommunications Union
(ITU) and its partners define the requirements and timeline for
mobile communication systems, defining a new generation
approximately every decade. The 3GPP develops specifications
for those requirements in a series of releases.

The “G” in 5G stands for “generation.” 5G technology architecture

presents significant advances beyond 4G LTE (long-term
evolution) technology, which comes on the heels of 3G and 2G. As
we describe in our related resource, The Journey to 5G, there is
always a time period during which multiple network generations
exist at once. Like its predecessors, 5G must co-exist with
previous networks for two important reasons:

1. Developing and deploying new network technologies takes

an enormous amount of time, investment and collaboration
of major entities and carriers.
2. Early adopters will always want to get their hands on new
technologies as quickly as possible, whereas those who
have made major investments in large deployments with
existing network technologies, such as 2G, 3G and 4G LTE,
want to make use of those investments for as long as
possible, and certainly until the new network is fully viable.
(Note that 2G and 3G networks are being sunset to make
room for 5G deployment.
In summary, 5G technology offers three principle advantages:

• Faster data transmission speed, up to multi-Gigabit/s

speeds.
• Greater capacity, fueling a massive amount of IoT devices
per square kilometer.
• Lower latency, down to single-digit milliseconds, which is
critically important in applications such as connected
vehicles in ITS applications and autonomous vehicles, where
near instantaneous response is necessary.

5G Design and Planning Considerations

The design considerations for a 5G network architecture that
supports highly demanding applications is complex. For example,
there is no one-size-fits all approach; the range of applications
requires data to travel distances, large data volumes, or some
combination. So 5G architecture must support low, mid and high-
band spectrum – from licensed, shared and private sources – to
deliver the full 5G vision.

For this reason, 5G is architected to run on radio frequencies

ranging from sub 1 GHz to extremely high frequencies, called
“millimeter wave” (or mmWave). The lower the frequency, the
farther the signal can travel. The higher the frequency, the more
data it can carry.
There are three frequency bands at the core of 5G networks:

• 5G high-band (mmWave) delivers the highest frequencies of

5G. These range from 24 GHz to approximately 100 GHz.
Because high frequencies cannot easily move through
obstacles, high-band 5G is short range by nature. Moreover,
mmWave coverage is limited and requires more cellular
infrastructure.
• 5G mid-band operates in the 2-6 GHz range and provides a
capacity layer for urban and suburban areas. This frequency
band has peak rates in the hundreds of Mbps.
• 5G low-band operates below 2 GHz and provides a broad
coverage. This band uses spectrum that is available and in
use today for 4G LTE, essentially providing an LTE 5g
architecture for 5G devices that are ready now. Performance
of low-band 5G is therefore similar to 4G LTE, and supports
use for 5G devices on the market today.

In addition to spectrum availability and application requirements

for distance vs. bandwidth considerations, operators must
consider the power requirements of 5G, as the typical 5G base
station design demands over twice the amount of power of a 4G
base station.

Considerations for Planning and

Deploying 5G Applications
Systems integrators, and those developing and deploying 5G
applications for the verticals we’ve discussed, will find that it is
important to consider trade-offs.
For example, here are examples of some of the key
considerations:

• Applications that are optimized for mmWave will not

operate as expected within buildings and when extended
range is required. Optimal use cases include 5G cellular
telecommunications in the 24- to 39-GHz bands, police radar
in the Ka-band (33.4- to 36.0-GHz), scanners in airport
security, short-range radar in military vehicles and
automated weapons on naval ships to detect and take down
missiles.
• What kind of throughput will be required? For autonomous
vehicles and intelligent transportation systems (ITS)
applications, the devices and connectivity must be
optimized for speed. Near real time communications –
measured in millionths of a second – are critical for vehicles
and devices to “make decisions” on turning, accelerating
and braking, and the lowest possible latency is mission
critical for these applications.
• Video and VR applications, by contrast, must be optimized
for throughput. Video applications such as medical imaging
can ultimately take full advantage of the massive amounts
of data that 5G networks can support.
For 5G to deliver its full vision, the network infrastructure needs
to evolve as well. The following diagram illustrates the migration
over time, as well as Digi's 5G product plans.

The earliest uses of 5G technology will not be exclusively 5G but

will appear in applications where connectivity is shared with
existing 4G LTE in what is called non-standalone (NSA) mode.
When operating in this mode, a device will first connect to the 4G
LTE network, and if 5G is available, the device will be able to use
it for additional bandwidth. For example, a device connecting in
5G NSA mode could get 200 Mbps of downlink speed over 4G LTE
and another 600 Mbps over 5G at the same time, for an aggregate
speed of 800 Mbps.

As more and more 5G network infrastructure goes online over the

next several years, it will evolve to enable 5G-only stand-alone
mode (SA). This will bring the low latency and ability to connect
with massive numbers of IoT devices that are among the primary
advantages of 5G.

Core Network
In this section we will provide a 5G core architecture overview
and describe the 5G core components. We will also show how 5G
architecture compares to the current 4G architecture.

The 5G core network, which enables the advanced functionality

of 5G networks, is one of three primary components of the 5G
System. The other two components are 5G Access network (5G-
AN) and User Equipment (UE). The 5G core uses a cloud-aligned
service-based architecture (SBA) to support authentication,
security, session management and aggregation of traffic from
connected devices, all of which requires the complex
interconnection of network functions, as shown in the 5G core
diagram.

The components of the 5G core architecture include:

• User plane Function (UPF)

• Data network (DN), e.g. operator services, Internet access or
3rd party services
• Core Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF)
• Authentication Server Function (AUSF)
• Session Management Function (SMF)
• Network Slice Selection Function (NSSF)
• Network Exposure Function (NEF)
• NF Repository Function (NRF)
• Policy Control function (PCF)
• Unified Data Management (UDM)
• Application Function (AF)

The 5G network architecture diagram below illustrates how these

components are associated.

4G Architecture Diagram
When 4G evolved from its 3G predecessor, only small incremental
changes were made to the network architecture. The following
4G network architecture diagram shows the key components of a
4G core network:

In the 4G network architecture, User Equipment (UE) like

smartphones or cellular devices, connects over the LTE Radio
Access Network (E-UTRAN) to the Evolved Packet Core
(EPC) and then further to External Networks, like the Internet.
The Evolved NodeB (eNodeB) separates the user data traffic
(user plane) from the network’s management data traffic (control
plane) and feeds both separately into the EPC.

5G Architecture Diagram
5G was designed from the ground up, and network functions are
split up by service. That is why this architecture is also called 5G
core Service-Based Architecture (SBA). The following 5G
network topology diagram shows the key components of a 5G
core network:
Here's how it works:

• User Equipment (UE) like 5G smartphones or 5G cellular

devices connect over the 5G New Radio Access Network to
the 5G core and further to Data Networks (DN), like the
Internet.
• The Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF) acts
as a single-entry point for the UE connection.
• Based on the service requested by the UE, the AMF selects
the respective Session Management Function (SMF) for
managing the user session.
• The User Plane Function (UPF) transports the IP data traffic
(user plane) between the User Equipment (UE) and the
external networks.
• The Authentication Server Function (AUSF) allows the
AMF to authenticate the UE and access services of the 5G
core.
• Other functions like the Session Management Function
(SMF), the Policy Control Function (PCF), the Application
Function (AF) and the Unified Data Management
(UDM) function provide the policy control framework,
 applying policy decisions and accessing subscription
information, to govern the network behavior.

Difference between 4G and 5G Network

Architecture
In a 4G LTE network architecture, the LTE RAN and eNodeB are
typically close together, often at the base or near the cell tower
running on specialized hardware. The monolithic EPC on the
other hand is often centralized and further away from the
eNodeB. This architecture makes high-speed, low-latency end-to-
end communication challenging to impossible.

Another benefit of these smaller, more specialized 5G core

components running on common hardware is that networks now
can be customized through network slicing. Network slicing
allows you to have multiple logical “slices” of functionality
optimized for specific use-cases, all operating on a single physical
core within the 5G network infrastructure.

A 5G network operator may offer one slice that is optimized for

high bandwidth applications, another slice that's more optimized
for low latency, and a third that's optimized for a massive number
of IoT devices. Depending on this optimization, some of the 5G
core functions may not be available at all. For example, if you are
only servicing IoT devices, you would not need the voice function
that is necessary for mobile phones. And because not every slice
must have exactly the same capabilities, the available computing
power is used more efficiently.
5G Architecture and the Cloud and the
Edge

Let's talk about edge computing within the 5G network

architecture.
One more concept that distinguishes 5G network architecture
from its 4G predecessor is that of edge computing or mobile edge
compute. In this scenario, you can have small data centers
positioned at the edge of the network, close to where the cell
towers are. That's very important for very low latency and for high
bandwidth applications that are carrying the same content.

For a high bandwidth example, think of video streaming services.

The content originates in a server that's sitting somewhere in the
cloud. If people are connected to a cell tower and let's say, 100
people are streaming a popular TV program, it’s more efficient to
have that content as close to the consumer as possible, right
there on the edge, ideally on the cell tower.

The user streams this content from a storage media that is on the
edge rather than having to stream and transfer this information
and backhaul it for 100 people from the central location on the
cloud. Instead, using the 5G structure, you can bring to content to
the tower just once and then distribute it out to your 100
subscribers.

The same principle applies in applications requiring two-way

communication where low latency is needed. If a user has an
application running at the edge, then the turnaround time is
much faster because the data doesn't have to traverse the
network.

In the 5G network structure, these edge networks can also be

used for services that are provided on the edge. Since it's possible
to virtualize these 5G core functions, you could have them
running on a standard server or data center hardware and have
fiber running to the radio that sends out the signal. So the radio is
specialized, but everything else is pretty standard.

Today, 4G LTE is still growing. It provides excellent speed and

sufficient bandwidth to support most IoT applications today. 4G
LTE and 5G networks will co-exist over the next decade, as
applications begin to migrate and then 5G networks and
applications eventually supersede 4G LTE.

Devices Using 5G
5G will evolve over time, and 5G devices will follow suit. Early
products will be “5G-ready”, which means that these products
have the processing power and Gigabit Ethernet ports needed to
support the higher bandwidth 5G modems and 5G extenders now
on the horizon.

Later 5G products will have 5G modems directly integrated and

have a faster multi-core processor, 2.5 or even 10 Gigabit Ethernet
interfaces and Wi-Fi 6/6E radios. These product changes will drive
the cost of 5G products up but are required to handle the
additional speed and lower latency that 5G networks will offer.

How is 5G disruptive technically?

Technological disruption aspects:
We will look into the impact of new technologies in 5G, based on the
Henderson-Clark model. As per IEEE analysis, for high data rates and
lower latency, 5G network design needs some significant modifications,
which can be considered disruptions. For example –
1. Introduction of a new waveform which is no doubt a disruptive change.

2. Introduction of new types of nodes which is architectural disruptions.

3. Change in node and architectural level which is a radical change.

Additionally, IEEE suggests that five technologies will lead to the above
changes, which are basically playing disruptive technologies in the 5G
revolution.

1. Device-centric architectures

If we perform a 5G vs. 4G comparison, then in 5G opportunities, there

won’t be any base-station-centric architecture of cellular systems. Instead,
it will be device-centric architecture where concepts of uplink, downlink,
control, and data channels must be considered for better information
routing between the 5G network nodes.

2. Millimetre Wave (mmWave) communication

One of the purposes of 5G is to use a massive range of frequency bands for
the flexibility of use cases and open up the scope for wide bandwidth.
Furthermore, 5G targets from low to the very high-frequency range –

1 .Low Band (Sub 1 GHz) – Low-frequency cells for coverage layer.

2. High Bands (1 GHz to 6 GHz) – High-frequency cells or capacity

layer for smart cities, vehicle monitoring, transport management

3. Very High Bands (Above 6 GHz and mmWave) – High

throughput Hotspots For example, for large a scale events where thousands
of users need to be covered, vehicle communication, etc.

Though spectrum is scarce for microwave frequency, mmWave, an

enormous spectrum is possible due to its high-frequency range, which is
almost from 3- 300 GHz.

Now there are few challenges associated with mmWave-

Hardware challenge due to the high power consumption of mmWave.

As conventional microwave theory does not hold good for antenna without
further advancement of semiconductor technology.

Propagation is another concerning area when dealing with mmWave.

Sensitivity to the blockage between microwave and mmWave differs
significantly and thus for density.

Antenna array has a significant role for mmWave. In this case, adaptive
array processing algorithms are required for noise-free and blockage free
communication.

Thus to overcome the challenges mentioned above, some radical changes in

the existing architecture are required, and so mmWave is a disruptive
technology for 5G.

3. Massive-MIMO

Massive-MIMO, or large scale antenna systems, proposes a large number of

antennas at base stations, which is indeed scope for scalability, unlike 4G.
However, it demands major architectural, deployment, and design changes,
which is a real challenge from the development and implementation point
of view. Hence, although massive MIMO adoption could be a major leap for
the 5G, it needs many experiments, studies, and overcoming challenges.

4. Smarter devices

Earlier generations of cellular networks had complete control over

infrastructure based on design. However, this approach will change in the
case of 5G, and it will stress more on smarter devices. Mainly three
different types of design philosophy will be incorporated into more
intelligent devices –

1. Device-to-Device (D2D)

2. Local caching

3. Advanced interference rejection

The implementations mentioned above mainly require node level changes,

but it has also change requirements at the architectural level.

5. Native support for Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication

Indigenous support inclusion of M2M communication in 5G needs to

satisfy three fundamentally different classes of low-data-rate services
support:

1. A massive number of low-rate devices

2. Sustainment of a minimum data rate in virtually all circumstances

3 . Very-low-latency data transfer

Addressing the above requirements in 5G requires new ideas and methods

at both the component and architectural level.
How disruptive is 5G for mobile
business models?
It is expected that the footsteps of 5G will significantly change the
horizontal and vertical business model in the mobile sector. There will be
radical changes and advancements for both consumers and suppliers from
the supply and demand perspective. First, if we consider the supply end,
there will be fast and robust network connectivity in the form of a 5G
network; besides, it will facilitate a single network with various facilities.
Second, from demand perspectives, there will be a complete digital
transformation for diverse communication functions.

There will be higher competition from the mobile operator and supplier
end, and communications products will become more commoditized. For
technical facilitation, more regulatory changes are expected to be
implemented mainly for radio access networks (RAN).

Operational disruptions related to 5G

According to the survey, the primary operational challenge related to 5G is
the lack of 5G-enabled devices. Though companies have already started
producing 5G-capable phones, the main struggle here is to identify the
network mapping to install 5G equipment. Additionally, the expense of
making such devices and the lack of back-end infrastructure for supporting
the radio network is another largest obstacle.

5G has many evolutionary potential too

The 5th generation of network or 5G is a combination of technologies and
methods expected to meet the extreme performance and capacity of a
mobile network. From a user perspective, one can expect ‘no latency,
gigabit experience’ as per the theoretical claim. In a nutshell, 5g network
features are expected to provide:

-Faster download and upload speeds up to 20 Gbps

-Terminal localization within 1 meter

-Smoother streaming of online content with less than 1ms

latency
-Higher-quality voice and video calls

-More reliable mobile connections where mobility is expected as

fast as at 500 km/hour

-More than a trillion of connected IoT devices or M2M (Machine

to machine) connectivity

-Connectivity of 20 million of user devices

-Expansion of advanced technologies – including self-driving

cars and smart cities

Hence, 5G will connect more devices to the 5G network, and the network
will perform everything better than 4G. Also, 5G devices are expected to
support five times better battery life than 4G.

5G technology is driven by 8 specification

requirements:

• Up to 10Gbps data rate - > 10 to 100x speed improvement over

4G and 4.5G networks
 • 1-millisecond latency
• 1000x bandwidth per unit area
• Up to 100x number of connected devices per unit area
(compared with 4G LTE)
• 99.999% availability
• 100% coverage
• 90% reduction in network energy usage
• Up to 10-year battery life for low-power IoT device

How fast is 5G?

5G speed tops out at 10 gigabits per second (Gbps).
5G is 10 to x100 faster than what you can get with 4G.

What makes 5G faster? Good question!

According to communication principles, the shorter the frequency, the
larger the bandwidth.
Using shorter frequencies (millimeter waves between 30GHz and
300GHz) for 5G networks is why 5G can be faster. This high-band 5G
spectrum provides the expected boost in speed and capacity, low
latency, and quality.
However,5G download speed may differ widely by area.
According to the February 2020 issue of Fortune Magazine, average
5G speed measures done in Q3/Q4 2019 range from:
 • 220 megabits per second (Mbps) in Las Vegas,
• 350 in New York,
• 380 in Los Angeles,
• 450 in Dallas,
• to 550 Chicago,
• and over 950 in Minneapolis and Providence, approximately.
That's 10 to 50 times more than 4G LTE.

5G speed can vary widely based on your proximity to a 5G tower and

the surrounding environment. Close to a 5G tower with a clear line of
sight, you could experience speeds surpassing 1000 Mbps—nearly
tenfold the rates of 4G. However, these speeds can diminish as the
distance from the tower increases or if obstacles interfere with the
signal.
What Is a 6G Network?
A 6G network is defined as a cellular network that operates in untapped radio
frequencies and uses cognitive technologies like AI to enable high-speed, low-
latency communication at a pace multiple times faster than fifth-generation
networks. 6G networks are currently under research and development, yet to
be released.
6G is the sixth-generation mobile system standard currently being developed for
wireless communications over cellular data networks in telecommunications. It is
the successor, or the next bend in the road, after 5G and will likely be much faster.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standardizes wireless
generations every decade. Typically, they are denoted by a gap in the “air interface,”
which signifies a shift in transmissions or coding. This is implemented so that older
devices cannot be updated to the newer generation since doing so would generate a
limitless quantity of “noise” and “spectrum pollution.”
Typically, subsequent generations (i.e., the next G) use much more sophisticated
digital encoding that outdated computers cannot achieve. They depend on broader
airwave bands that governments did not previously make accessible. Additionally,
they have immensely complex antenna arrays that were previously impossible to
construct. Today, we are in the fifth generation. The first standard for 5G New Radio
(NR) was developed in 2017 and is presently being implemented globally.
According to a report titled “6G The Next Hyper-Connected Experience for All,” the
ITU will start work in 2021 to create a 6G mission statement. The standard will likely
finish by 2028 when the first 6G devices are available. Around 2030, deployment will
be close to ubiquitous.

How will 6G work?

The exact working of 6G is not yet known, as the specification is yet to be fully
developed, finalized, and released by the ITU. However, depending on previous
generations of cellular networks, one can expect several core functionalities.
Primarily, 6G will operate by:
• Making use of free spectrum: A significant portion of 6G research

focuses on transmitting data at ultra-high frequencies. Theoretically,

5G can support frequencies up to 100GHz, even though no frequency

over 39GHz is currently utilized. For 6G, engineers are attempting to

transfer data across waves in the hundreds of gigahertz (GHz) or

terahertz (THz) ranges. These waves are minuscule and fragile, yet

there remains a massive quantity of unused spectrum that could allow

for astonishing data transfer speeds.

• Improving the efficiency of the free spectrum: Current wireless

technologies permit transmission or reception on a specific frequency

at the same time. For two-way communication, users may divide their

streams as per frequency (Frequency Division Duplex or FDD) or by

defining time periods (Time Division Duplex or TDD). 6G might boost

the efficiency of current spectrum delivery using sophisticated

mathematics to transmit and receive on the same frequency

simultaneously.

• Taking advantage of mesh networking: Mesh networking has been a

popular subject for decades, but 5G networks are still primarily based on

a hub-and-spoke architecture. Therefore, end-user devices (phones)

link to anchor nodes (cell towers), which connect to a backbone. 6G

might use machines as amplifiers for one another’s data, allowing each

device to expand coverage in addition to using it.

• Integrating with the “new IP:” A research paper from the Finnish 6G

Flagship initiative at the University of Oulu suggests that 6G may use a

new variant of the Internet Protocol (IP). It compares a current IP

packet in IPv4 or IPv6 to regular snail mail, complete with a labeled

envelope and text pages. The “new IP” packet would be comparable to a
 fast-tracked courier package with navigation and priority information

conveyed by a courier service.

6G will rely on the selective use of different frequencies to evaluate absorption and
adjust wavelengths appropriately. This technique will leverage the fact that atoms
and molecules produce and absorb electromagnetic radiation at certain
wavelengths, and the emissions and absorption frequencies of any particular
material are identical.

When will 6G become available?

As mentioned earlier, The commercial debut of 6G internet is anticipated to go live
around 2030-2035. In addition to the ITU, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE), a non-profit society for technology standardization, ratifies this
dateline in its peer-reviewed paper titled “6G Architecture to Connect the Worlds.”
The paper states, “2030 and beyond will offer a unique set of challenges and
opportunities of global relevance and scale: We need an ambitious 6G vision for the
communications architecture of the post-pandemic future to simultaneously enable
growth, sustainability as well as full digital inclusion.”
While there have been some preliminary conversations to characterize the
technology, 6G research and development (R&D) efforts began in earnest in 2020.
The 6G Flagship initiative combines studies on 6G technologies across Europe.
Japan is committing $482 million to the expansion of 6G in the next few years. The
country’s overarching objective is to showcase innovative wireless and mobile
technologies by 2025. In Russia, the R&D institution NIIR and the Skolkovo
Institute of Science and Technology produced a 2021 estimate predicting the
availability of 6G networks by 2035.
American mobile providers are advancing their individual 6G innovation roadmaps.
Importantly, AT&T, Verizon, and T-Mobile are spearheading the Next G Alliance,
an industry initiative. In May 2021, the Next G Alliance initiated a technical work
program to develop 6G technology.

Why is 6G necessary?
Given that the ink is yet to fully dry on 5G deployments (and even 4G penetration
remains low in remote regions), one may ask why 6G efforts are necessary. Its
primary focus is to support the 4th Industrial Revolution by building a bridge
between human, machine, and environmental nodes.
In addition to surpassing 5G, 6G will have a range of unique features to establish
next-generation wireless communication networks for linked devices by
using machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI). This will also benefit
emerging technologies like smart cities, driverless cars, virtual reality, and
augmented reality, in addition to smartphone and mobile network users.
It will combine and correlate different technologies, like deep learning with big data
analytics. A substantial correlation between 6G and high-performance computing
(HPC) has been observed. While some IoT and mobile data may be processed by edge
computing resources, the bulk of it will require much more centralized HPC capacity
— making 6G an essential component.

8 Unique Features of 6G
6G networks may coexist with 5G for a while and will be a significant improvement
over previous generations in several ways. This is because 6G will offer the following
differentiated features:

1. The use of new spectrum bands

Spectrum is an essential component of radio connections. Every new generation of
mobile devices requires a pioneer spectrum to fully leverage the advantages of any
further technological advancement. Reframing the current digital cellular spectrum
from legacy technologies to the next generation will also be a part of this
transformation.
For urban outdoor cells, the newest pioneer spectrum slabs for 6G are anticipated to
be in the mid-bands 7-20 GHz. This would offer larger capacity via extreme Multiple
Input Multiple Output (MIMO), low bands 460-694 MHz for extensive coverage, and
sub-THz spectrums (between 90 GHz and 300 GHz) for peak data speeds surpassing
100 Gbps.
5G-Advanced will extend 5G beyond data transfer and significantly enhance
localization accuracy to centimeter-level precision. Localization will be pushed to
the next level by 6G’s use of a broad spectrum, including new spectral ranges of up
to terahertz.

2. Very high data transfer speeds

5G is scheduled to offer a peak data throughput of 20 Gbps and a user-experienced
data rate of 100 Mbps. However, 6G will deliver a maximum data rate of 1 Tbps.
Similarly, it will raise the data rate experienced by the user to 1 Gbps. Therefore, the
spectral efficiency of 6G will be nearly more than double that of 5G.
Higher spectral efficiency will offer many users instantaneous access to modern
multimedia services. Network operators must redesign their current infrastructure
frameworks to enable higher spectral efficiency.

3. Ultra-low latency network functions

The latency of 5G will be lowered to just one millisecond. Many real-time
applications’ performance will be enhanced by this ultra-low latency. However,
wireless communication technology of the sixth generation will decrease user-
experienced latency to less than 0.1 milliseconds. Numerous delay-sensitive real-
time applications will have better performance and functionality due to this drastic
reduction in latency.
Additionally, decreased latency will allow emergency response, remote surgical
procedures, and industrial automation. Furthermore, 6G will facilitate the seamless
execution of delay-sensitive real-time applications by making the network 100 times
more dependable than 5G networks.

4. Greater support for machine-to-machine (M2M) connections

While 5G addresses both human users and Internet of Things (IoT) use cases, 6G will
focus more on M2M connectivity. Today’s 4G networks support around 100,000
devices per square kilometer. 5G is significantly more advanced, enabling the
connectivity of one million devices per square kilometer. With the advent of 6G
networks, the target of 10 million linked devices per square kilometer is within
reach.
All 6G networks will include mobile edge computing, although it must be added to
current 5G networks. By the time 6G networks are implemented, edge and core
computing will be increasingly assimilated as elements of a unified communication
and compute infrastructure framework.

5. A focus on energy efficiency

As previously discussed, 6G networks will require stronger radio frequencies to meet
the requirement for greater bandwidth. However, one of the challenges is that the
foundational (chip) technology cannot (yet) function energy-efficiently in these
frequency ranges. Therefore, optimizing power consumption will be a key focus area
for 6G developers. Currently, researchers intend to reduce the energy consumption
per bit to lower than one nanojoule (10-9 joules), as per the peer-reviewed paper
titled “From 5G to 6G Technology: Meets Energy, Internet-of-Things and Machine
Learning: A Survey.”

6. Greater network reliability

The 5G-led Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication (URLLC) service will be
further developed and enhanced in 6G. Reliability might be enhanced through
simultaneous transmission, numerous wireless hops, device-to-device connectivity,
and AI/ML. Consequently, 6G will be better than 5G in terms of network penetration
and stability. In addition, 6G will optimize M2M interactions by increasing network
dependability by greater than a hundredfold and decreasing error rates by tenfold
compared to previous generations.

7. The rise of new architectures

5G represents the first solution designed to replace wired connections in corporate
and industrial settings. It is deploying services-led architecture in the core
foundation and cloud-native deployments, which will be expanded to portions of
the radio access network (RAN). It is also anticipated that 6G networks will be
implemented in heterogeneous cloud settings, including a combination of private,
public, and hybrid clouds with a suitable architecture to support this.

8. The use of AI and ML for optimal connectivity

5G will allow artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) technologies to
achieve their full potential. Eventually, AI/ML will be implemented in various
network components, network levels, and network services. From
refining beamforming in the radio tier to planning at the cell site with self-
optimizing networks, AI/ML will assist in achieving superior efficiency at reduced
computational complexity.
6G developers, such as Nokia Bell Labs, want to adopt a blank slate approach to
AI/ML, allowing AI/ML to determine the optimal method of communication
between two endpoints.

Advantages of 6G Networks
6G networks are anticipated to offer the following benefits:

1. Enforces security
Cyberattacks are increasingly focusing on networks of various types. The sheer
unpredictability of these attacks necessitates the implementation of robust security
solutions. 6G networks will have safeguards against threats like jamming. Privacy
concerns must be addressed when creating new mixed-reality environments that
include digital representations of actual and virtual objects.

2. Supports personalization
OpenRAN is a fresh and evolving technology that 5G utilizes. However, OpenRAN
will be a mature technology for 6G. The AI-powered RAN will allow operators of
mobile networks to provide users with a bespoke network experience based on real-
time user data gathered from multiple sources. The operators may further exploit
real-time user data to provide superior services by personalizing quality of
experience (QoE) and quality of service (QoS). The operators may customize several
services using AI.
3. Extends the capabilities of 5G apps
This degree of bandwidth and responsiveness will enhance 5G application
performance. It will also broaden the spectrum of capabilities to enable new and
innovative wireless networking, cognition, monitoring, and imaging applications.
Using orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA), 6G access points will
be able to serve several customers at the same time.

4. Drives the development of wireless sensing technologies

The sampling rate refers to the number of samples obtained from a continuous
signal per second (or as per an equivalent time unit) to form a digital signal. 6G’s
frequencies will allow for much faster sample rates than 5G. Additionally, they will
provide dramatically increased throughput and data rates. Moreover, the utilization
of sub-mm waves (wavelengths lower than 1 millimeter) and frequency selectivity is
expected to accelerate the advancement of wireless sensing technologies.
The network will become a repository of situational data by collecting signals
reflected from objects and detecting their type, shape, relative position, velocity,
and possibly material qualities. Such a sensing method may facilitate the creation of
a “mirror” or digital counterpart of the actual environment. When combined with
AI/ML, this information will provide fresh insights into the physical world, thereby
rendering the network more intelligent.

5. Inspiring new technology innovations

6G will benefit society as a whole since new technological innovations will emerge
to support it. This includes:

• More advanced data centers: 6G networks will generate significantly

more data when compared to 5G networks, and computation will evolve

to ultimately encompass edge and core platform coordination. As a

result of these changes, data centers will need to develop.

• Nano-cores that replace traditional processor cores: Nano-cores are

anticipated to develop as a single computing core that combines HPC

 and AI. It is not necessary for the nano-core to be a tangible network

node. Instead, it might consist of a conceptual aggregation of

computing resources shared by several networks and systems.

6. Saves costs through reduced software dependency

Software-defined operations are already being used by contemporary networks.
Additional 6G components, like the media access control (MAC) and physical (PHY)
layers, will be virtualized. Currently, PHY and MAC solutions require the
deployment of specialized network hardware. Virtualization provided by 6G will
lower the cost of networking equipment. Therefore, an immensely dense 6G rollout
will become economically feasible.

7. Improves cellular network penetration

Among the many advantages of 6G networks is their vast coverage area. This implies
that lesser towers are necessary to cover a given amount of space. This is useful if
you want to construct towers where it showers regularly or where trees and
vegetation abound. Additionally, 6G is intended to support additional mobile
connections beyond 5G. This implies that there will be reduced interference
between devices, resulting in improved service.

8. Optimizes indoor network usage

The majority of cellular traffic today is produced indoors, yet cellular networks were
never built to properly target indoor coverage. 6G overcomes these obstacles using
femtocells (small cell sites) and Distributed Antenna Systems (DASs).