ERA 2002 - Bridge Design Manual

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF
ETHIOPIA
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY
BRIDGE
DESIGN
MANUAL
2002
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL -2002
PREFACE, FOREWORD
&
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
&
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
GLOSSARY
&
ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER 3
LOAD REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER 4
PLANNING STAGE / FEASIBLITY

STUDY / SITE INVESTIGATION
CHAPTER 5
PRELIMINARY DESIGN / LAYOUT OF

BRIDGES AND CULVERTS
CHAPTER 6
SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN
CHAPTER 7
SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN
CHAPTER 8
BRIDGE DETAILS
CHAPTER 9
REINFORCED CONCRETE
CHAPTER 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
CHAPTER 11
OTHER STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

CHAPTER 12
DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES AND

STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 13
APPROXIMATE METHODS OF
ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 14
STRENGTH EVALUATION OF
EXISTING STEEL, CONCRETE AND
MASONRY ARCH BRIDGES
CHAPTER 15
THE QUALITY SYSTEM ISO 9000

CHAPTER 16
CALCULATIONS, DRAWINGS AND

SPECIFICATIONS
APPENDICES
APPENDIX CB
COMPOSITE BRIDGE, 24 M SPAN,

7.32 M WIDTH
APPENDIX EB
STEEL REINFORCED ELASTIC

BEARINGS
APPENDIX GB
16.6 M & 7.32 CLEAR BRIDGE WIDTH

R.C.D. GIRDER SUPERSTRUCTURE
DESIGN BY LRFD METHOD
APPENDIX MB
MASONRY BRIDGE, 12 M SPAN,

7.32 M WIDTH
APPENDIX RB
ROLLER BEARINGS
APPENDIX RW
DESIGN OF R.C. CANTILEVER

RETAINING WALL
APPENDIX SB
6.0 M CLEAR SPAN & 4.50 M CLEAR

BRIDGE WIDTH
SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN BY LRFD
METHOD
APPENDIX TB
12 M SPAN, 4.5 M WIDTH TIMBER

BRIDGE
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Preface
PREFACE
This Bridge Design Manual-2002 is one of the series of “Design Manuals, Standard Contract
Documents and Specifications” prepared under a credit financing of the International
Development Agency (IDA). The consulting services were provided by the Louis Berger
Group, Inc.
This manual has been developed from current international practice appropriately modified
to take account of local experience and conditions. It is written for the practicing Engineer.
ERA formed a Working Group charged with evaluating and commenting upon the draft
manual and guiding the Consultant on the preparation of the final manuals. Members of the
Working Group and the Louis Berger Group/SABA team for this manual consists of the
following:
1. Ato Fesseha Taffese

A/Manager, Design, Research and Network Management Division - Group Chairman
2. Ato Fekadu Haile
Senior Advisor to the General Manager- Group Secretary
3. Mr. Peter Drummond
Road Sector Development Programme Advisor to the General Manager
4. Mr. Brian S. Barr
Rural Roads Coordinator
5. Ato Yemane Shiferaw
Head, Design and Research Branch
6. Ato Girma Worku
Head, Bridges & Structure Branch
7. Ato Yohanese Bantyederu
Engineer from the Design Branch
Mr. Michael S. Nyquist - Louis Berger Group Project Manager

Mr. Lennart Rahm - Louis Berger Group Structural Engineer
Mr. Henok Aberra - SABA PLC Structural Engineer
Companion Documents and Manuals prepared under the same service are the following:
1. Geometric Design Manual-2002

2. Site Investigation Manual-2002
3. Pavement Design Manual Volume I-2002 (Flexible & Gravel)
4. Pavement Design Manual Volume II-2002 (Rigid Pavements)
5. Overlay/Rehabilitation Manual-2002
6. Drainage Design Manual -2002
7. Standard Environmental Procedures Manual-2002
8. Standard Detail Drawings-2002
9. Standard Technical Specifications - 2002
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Preface Bridge Design Manual - 2002
10. Standard Tendering Documents For Road Work Contracts National Competitive
Tendering (NCT) - 2002
11. Standard Bidding Documents For Road Work Contracts
International Competitive Bidding (ICB) - 2002
Appropriate reviews and comments were also provided by agencies and individuals through
ERA’s Project Working Group. The Working Group wishes to acknowledge for the
contributions made by all other specialists within ERA and outside of ERA in the
preparation of these Manuals and Documents.
The layout of this Manual has been arranged with the following hierarchy:
• Chapter
• Major heading or Section (level one)
• Sub-Section within the major heading (level two)
• Sub-sub-Section within the second level subject matter (level three)
All tables are described by number beginning with one (1) at the first of each Chapter.
Figures are described in a similar manner.
Updates:
This manual will be updated and revised from time to time, as deemed appropriate.
Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to the new
policies or revised law of the land, ERA, or that is mandated by the relevant Federal
Government Ministry or Agency, should be amended and incorporated in the manual as soon
as possible after their date of effectiveness.
Other minor changes, not affecting the whole nature of this manual, may be accumulated and
made periodically. When a change is approved, new page(s) instituting the revisions,
together with the revision date, will be issued and inserted in to the relevant Chapters.
All revisions to the Bridge Design Manual will be made strictly in accordance with the
following procedures:
(1) Any proposed change will be submitted by or through the Head of the Design
(Branch, Division) of ERA.
(2) The proposed change, addition, or deletion will be submitted on a Manual Change
form 1-1(see the attached form) and forwarded with an explanation of its need and
purpose.
(3) If the change is approved, the General Manager will sign the Manual Change form
and return a copy to the Head of the Design (Branch, Division), who will arrange for
the change to be incorporated into the Bridge Design Manual.
(4) The Head of the Design (Branch, Division) will re-issue all effected pages of the
manual showing the proper revision date as shown on the Manual Change form.1-1.
Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Preface

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
This area to be competed by the

Head of ERA Design (Branch ,
Division)
MANUAL CHANGE CHANGE NO._____________

(SECTION NO. CHANGE NO.
_____________-
____________
Section
Table Explanation To be deleted To be inserted
Figure
Submitted by: __________________ Approved by: ____________________________
Head of Design (Branch, Divisio ERA General Manager
Date: ___________________ Date: ___________________
Manual change Form 1-1
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

Foreword Bridge Design Manual - 2002
FOREWORD
This is the first comprehensive Bridge Design Manual prepared for the use and technical
guidance of design personnel of the Ethiopian Roads Authority and consultants doing Bridge
Design for the Authority. However, it may also be used as a guide by other agencies
undertaking relevant work in the road sector.
The Ethiopian Roads Authority has prepared this Manual under a credit from the
International Development Agency (IDA) for design of roads in order to standardize design
practices in all ERA design works.
The road network comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate
standards for design, construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of
service. As the length of the engineered road network is increasing, appropriate choice of
methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important.
This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Ethiopia and reflects
ERA’s experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 50 years.
The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by
the concerned bodies with in ERA. However, I will like to emphasize that careful
consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the Manual, and
under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgment in applied
engineering. For simplification in reference this Manual may be cited as “ERA Bridge
Design Manual - 2002.”
It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all users with both a standard reference
and a ready source of good practice for the design of roads, and will assist in a cost effective
operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network.
I look forward to the practices contained in this Manual being quickly adopted into our
operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of our
country.
As this Manual due to Technological development and change, requires periodic updating,
comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual as
feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated.
Tesfamichael Nahusenay
General Manager
Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Bridge Design Manual - 2002 is based on a review of the design standards of several
countries, among which are AASHTO, ITE, FHA and TRB (USA), TRRL (UK), EBCS
(Ethiopia), Swedish standards, Australian Standards and EUROCODE 1,2,3 (Europe).
In the selection of the appropriate bridge standards for Ethiopia, material from these and
other sources have been gleaned and evaluated to determine the set of standards most
appropriate for Ethiopia and Ethiopian conditions.
The authors of the manual are listed in the preface.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface... .....................................................................................................................................i
Foreword...................................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................v
List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................. xii
Glossary ... ..............................................................................................................................xix
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................xxvi
1 Introduction
1.1 Units..................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.2 Conversion Factors: (Metric to/from SI-units) .................................................... 1-2
2 General Requirements
2.1 Design Philosophy ............................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Notations.............................................................................................................. 2-1
2.3 Geometric Requirements ..................................................................................... 2-2
2.4 Minimum Dimensions ......................................................................................... 2-4
2.5 Load Assumptions ............................................................................................... 2-8
2.6 Deflection .......................................................................................................... 2-10
2.7 Design Working Life ......................................................................................... 2-11
2.8 Limit States........................................................................................................ 2-11
2.9 Ductility ............................................................................................................. 2-13
2.10 Redundancy ....................................................................................................... 2-14
3 Load Requirements
3.1 Scope.................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Notations.............................................................................................................. 3-1
3.3 Load Factors and Combinations .......................................................................... 3-4
3.4 Load Factors for Construction Loads .................................................................. 3-9
3.5 Load Factors for Jacking and Posttensioning Forces .......................................... 3-9
3.6 Dead Loads (DC = Structural Component; DW = Wearing Surface;
EV = Vertical Earthfill) ....................................................................................... 3-9
3.7 Earth Loads (EH = Horizontal Earth; ES = Earth Surcharge;
DD = Downdrag) ............................................................................................... 3-10
3.8 Gravity Loads: (LL = Vehicular Live Load; PL = Pedestrian Live Load) ........ 3-10
3.9 Application of Design Vehicular Live Loads .................................................... 3-17
3.10 Fatigue Load ...................................................................................................... 3-19
3.11 Rail Transit Load ............................................................................................... 3-22
3.12 Pedestrian Loads ................................................................................................ 3-22
3.13 Dynamic Load Allowance (IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance) ......... 3-23
3.14 Centrifugal Forces (CE = Vehicular Centrifugal Force) ................................... 3-24
3.15 Braking Force (BR = Vehicular Braking Force) ............................................... 3-25
3.16 Vehicular Collision Force (CT = Vehicular Collision Force) ........................... 3-25
3.17 Water Loads (WA = Water Load and Stream Pressure) .................................... 3-26
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vii

Table of Contents Bridge Design Manual - 2002
3.18 Wind Load (WL = Wind on Live Load; WS = Wind Load on Structure)..........3-29
3.19 Earthquake Effects (EQ = Earthquake)..............................................................3-34
3.20 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge;
Ls = Live Load Surcharge; DD = Downdrag)....................................................3-50
3.21 Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE ........3-68
3.22 Friction Forces: FR.............................................................................................3-70
4 Planning Stage/Feasibility Study/Site Investigation

4.1 General .................................................................................................................4-1
4.2 Site Selection........................................................................................................4-1
4.3 Site Conditions .....................................................................................................4-3
4.4 Cross-Section of River (see ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, ERA Site
Investigation Manual-2002...................................................................................4-4
4.5 Proposed Typical Section of Road .......................................................................4-4
4.6 Sketch of Proposed Bridge and Brief Technical Descriptions of Bridges ...........4-4
4.7 Existing Bridges ...................................................................................................4-5
4.8 Cost/Benefit Analysis and Evaluation..................................................................4-5
4.9 Site Investigation ..................................................................................................4-5
5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts

5.1 General .................................................................................................................5-1
5.2 Basic Information .................................................................................................5-1
5.3 Geometric Requirements ......................................................................................5-4
5.4 Load Assumptions................................................................................................5-4
5.5 Foundations ..........................................................................................................5-4
5.6 Scour/Erosion, Riprap, River Training, Etc. ........................................................5-7
5.7 Substructure/Abutments, Piers, Wingwalls, and Retaining Walls .......................5-9
5.8 Low Level Water Crossings ............................................................................... 5.11
5.9 Frame Bridge......................................................................................................5-14
5.10 Slab Bridge .........................................................................................................5-16
5.11 Girder Bridge......................................................................................................5-17
5.12 Masonry and Concrete Arch Bridges .................................................................5-19
5.13 Prefabricated Bridges .........................................................................................5-20
5.14 Pedestrian Footbridges .......................................................................................5-23
5.15 Cattle Underpasses .............................................................................................5-23
5.16 Other Types of Bridges (Cablestay, Suspension, Truss, Railway) ....................5-23
5.17 Temporary Bridges.............................................................................................5-24
5.18 Backwater...........................................................................................................5-29
5.19 Selection of Bridge Type....................................................................................5-29
5.20 Railings and Parapets .........................................................................................5-31
5.21 Checklist for the Preliminary Design Drawing(s) ..............................................5-31
5.22 Checklist for the Preliminary Design Standards (PDS) .....................................5-33
5.23 Sample Preliminary Design Specifications ........................................................5-35
6 Substructure Design
6.1 Scope......................................................................................................................6-1
6.2 Notation .................................................................................................................6-1
Page viii Ethiopian Roads Authority

6.3 Foundations ........................................................................................................... 6-2

6.4 Pier Design .......................................................................................................... 6-10
6.5 Abutments ........................................................................................................... 6-10
6.6 Wingwall and Retaining Wall Design................................................................. 6-11
6.7 Culverts and Other Buried Structures ................................................................. 6-12
7 Superstructure Design
7.1 Scope ..................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 Notations ............................................................................................................... 7-1
7.3 General .................................................................................................................. 7-2
7.4 Slabs ...................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.5 Girders (Concrete, Steel, Composite Bridges) ...................................................... 7-9
7.6 Trusses (Steel) ..................................................................................................... 7-12
7.7 Arch Bridges and Stone Masonry Piers .............................................................. 7-12
8 Bridge Details
8.1 Scope ..................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 Notation................................................................................................................. 8-1
8.3 Bearings................................................................................................................. 8-2
8.4 Expansion Joints.................................................................................................. 8-18
8.5 Railings ............................................................................................................... 8-19
8.6 Drainage of Bridge Decks ................................................................................... 8-20
8.7 Utilities (Service Ducts, Cables, Etc.)................................................................. 8-20
9 Reinforced Concrete
9.1 Scope ..................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 Notation................................................................................................................. 9-1
9.3 Concrete ................................................................................................................ 9-3
9.4 Reinforcement ....................................................................................................... 9-6
9.5 Prestressing Steel/Post-Tensioning Steel ............................................................ 9-16
9.6 Limit States ......................................................................................................... 9-16
9.7 Shear and Torsion Design ................................................................................... 9-17
9.8 Deformations....................................................................................................... 9-18
9.9 Compression Members........................................................................................ 9-19
10 Structural Steel
10.1 Scope................................................................................................................. 10-1
10.2 Structural Steels ................................................................................................ 10-1
10.3 Steel Design Details.......................................................................................... 10-2
11 Other Structural Materials

11.1 Scope................................................................................................................. 11-1
11.2 Notation ............................................................................................................ 11-1
11.3 Requirements for Timber.................................................................................. 11-1
11.4 Requirements for Stone .................................................................................... 11-5
12 Detail Design of Bridges and Structures

12.1 General.............................................................................................................. 12-1
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Table of Contents Bridge Design Manual - 2002
12.2 Notations .........................................................................................................12-1

12.3 Seismic Design Methods .................................................................................12-4
12.4 Foundations .....................................................................................................12-5
12.5 Retaining Walls .............................................................................................12-13
12.6 Culverts .........................................................................................................12-14
12.7 Substructures for RC Bridges........................................................................12-18
12.8 Superstructure for RC Bridges ......................................................................12-28
12.9 Frame Bridges ...............................................................................................12-42
12.10 Precast Concrete Bridges...............................................................................12-44
12.11 Arch Bridges (Masonry and Concrete) .........................................................12-44
12.12 Composite Steel/Concrete Bridge .................................................................12-48
12.13 Timber Bridges..............................................................................................12-49
12.14 Other Types of Bridges .................................................................................12-51
12.15 Bearing Design ..............................................................................................12-53
12.16 Software for Bridge Design...........................................................................12-55
13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

13.1 General ..............................................................................................................13-1
13.2 Notation .............................................................................................................13-1
13.3 Decks .................................................................................................................13-3
13.4 Beam-Slab Bridges ............................................................................................13-8
13.5 Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges..............................................13-18
13.6 Equivalent Length Factor, K ...........................................................................13-19
13.7 Shear-Sectional Design Model ........................................................................13-19
14 Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel, Concrete and Masonry Arch Bridges

14.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................14-1
14.2 Notations............................................................................................................14-2
14.3 Strength Evaluation of Bridges .........................................................................14-3
14.4 Numerical Examples .......................................................................................14-22
14.5 Masonry Arch Bridge Rating ..........................................................................14-24
15 The Quality System ISO 9000

15.1 General ..............................................................................................................15-1
15.2 Background of the Existing Quality System Standard ISO 9000......................15-4
15.3 Information Publications on Quality System ....................................................15-7
16 Calculations, Drawings and Specifications

16.1 Format of Calculations, Drawings and Specifications ......................................16-1
16.2 Quality Control of Calculations and Drawings .................................................16-4
Page x Ethiopian Roads Authority

APPENDICES
CB Composite Bridge 24.0-m span, 7.32-m width ................................................CB1-CB63
EB Steel Reinforced Elastic Bearings ...................................................................... EB1-EB3
GB Girder Bridge................................................................................................... GB1-GB28
MB Masonry Bridge 12.0-m span & 7.32-m width .............................................. MB1-MB37
RB Roller Bearings...................................................................................................RB1-RB2
RW Design of RC Cantilever Retaining Wall...................................................... RW1-RW12
SB Slab Bridge 6.0-m clear span & 4.5-m width....................................................SB1-SB10
TB Timber Bridge 12.0-m span & 4.5-m width....................................................... TB1-TB5
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xi

List of Illustrations Bridge Design Manual - 2002
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figures
Figure 2-1 Definition of Bridge Dimensions ................................................................. 2-2
Figure 3-1 Moment and Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles to HS20 (truck or lane)
or Two 110 kN Axles at 1.2m .....................................................................3-13
Figure 3-2 Moment and Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles to National Model ...........3-14
Figure 3-3 Moment and Shear Ratios: Notional Model to HS20 (truck or lane) or
Two 110 kN Axles at 1.2m..........................................................................3-14
Figure 3-4 Characteristics of the Design Truck ............................................................3-15
Figure 3-5 Design Tandem Load...................................................................................3-16
Figure 3-6 Debris Raft for Pier Design .........................................................................3-28
Figure 3-7 Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure .....................................3-28
Figure 3-8 Flow Chart for Seismic Design of Bridge Components ..............................3-36
Figure 3-9 Earthquake Zones ........................................................................................3-37
Figure 3-10 Seismic Response Coefficients, CSM for Various Soil Profiles,
Normalized with Respect to Acceleration Coefficient “A”
(CSM on the left axis)...................................................................................3-39
Figure 3-11 Hold down device ........................................................................................3-44
Figure 3-12 Longitudinal loading....................................................................................3-46
Figure 3-13 Effect of Groundwater Table .......................................................................3-52
Figure 3-14 Location of Resultant for Horizontal Earth Pressure...................................3-53
Figure 3-15 Notation for Coulomb at Earth Pressure......................................................3-55
Figure 3-16 Application of Coulomb Earth Pressure Theories in Retaining
Wall Design .................................................................................................3-56
Figure 3-17 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping
Wall with Horizontal Backfill .....................................................................3-57
Figure 3-18 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical
Wall with Sloping Backfill ..........................................................................3-58
Figure 3-19 Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls ..............................3-61
Figure 3-20 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Level Backfill Surface.....3-62
Figure 3-21 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Sloping Backfill Surface .3-62
Figure 3-22 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Broken Back
Backfill Surface ...........................................................................................3-63
Figure 3-23 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by Uniformly Loaded Strip ..............3-64
Figure 3-24 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by a Point Load.................................3-64
Figure 3-25 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by an Infinitely Long Line
Load Parallel to the Wall ............................................................................3-65
Figure 3-26 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by a Finite Line Load
Perpendicular to the Wall ............................................................................3-66
Figure 3-27 Positive Vertical Temperature Gradient in Concrete and Steel
Superstructures ............................................................................................3-69
Figure 4-1 Sketch of Bridge Site .....................................................................................4-9
Page xii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 List of Illustrations
Figure 5-1 Compacted Fill Under a Bridge Footing....................................................... 5-6

Figure 5-2 Two Types of Abutments.............................................................................. 5-9
Figure 5-3 Typical Parallel and 45° Wingwalls Attached to the Abutment .................. 5-10
Figure 5-4 Typical Combined Attached Wingwall and Retaining Wall ....................... 5-11
Figure 5-5 Bed Level Causeways, Common Types ...................................................... 5-13
Figure 5-6 Design Heights of Open Single Span Frame Bridges .................................. 5-15
Figure 5-7 Requirements for Skewed Frame Bridges ................................................... 5-16
Figure 5-8 Sections of Voided (Hollowed) Slab and Ribbed Slab Bridges................... 5-16
Figure 5-9 Typical Elevated Footing with Endwalls ..................................................... 5-17
Figure 5-10 Cross-Reinforced Hinge............................................................................... 5-20
Figure 5-11 Section of a Typical Slab Panel ................................................................... 5-21
Figure 5-12 Section of U-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels.......................................... 5-21
Figure 5-13 Section of a Normal T-Shaped Type of Stressed RC Girder Panel ............. 5-22
Figure 5-14 Section of Stressed I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels............................. 5-22
Figure 5-15 Section of I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panel Bridge for Pedestrians ........ 5-22
Figure 5-16 Typical Sections of Railway Bridges and their Suitable Span Lengths....... 5-25
Figure 5-17 Temporary Bridge on Gabion Abutments.................................................... 5-27
Figure 5-18 Bridge Pier Made of Concrete Rings ................................................................................... 5-28
Figure 5-19 Skewed (Bottom) and Perpendicular (Top) Bridge.............................................................. 5-30
Figure 5-20 Preliminary Design Drawing................................................................................................ 5-36
Figure 6-1 Procedure for Estimating Sliding Resistance for Walls on Clay ................... 6-6
Figure 7-1 Free Body Diagrams ...................................................................................... 7-4

Figure 7-2 Reinforcement Layout.................................................................................... 7-7
Figure 7-3 Definition of the Parameter Xu ..................................................................... 7-10
Figure 8-1 Steel Roller Bearing ....................................................................................... 8-2

Figure 8-2 Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing .................................................................... 8-3
Figure 8-3 Determination of A2 for a Stepped Support ................................................... 8-5
Figure 8-4 Stress-Strain Curves ..................................................................................... 8-13
Figure 8-5 Elastomeric Bearing-Interaction between Compressive
Stress and Rotation Angle............................................................................ 8-15
Figure 8-6 Principle for Multi-Panel Expansion Joint................................................... 8-19
Figure 9-1 Factor kc for Volume to Surface Ratio .......................................................... 9-5
Figure 12-1 Reduced Footings Dimensions .................................................................... 12-5

Figure 12-2 Example of Critical Sections for Shear in Footings .................................... 12-8
Figure 12-3 Coefficient Cd for Trench Installations ...................................................... 12-17
Figure 12-4 Factor ks for Volume-to-Surface Ratio...................................................... 12-19
Figure 12-5 Active Wedge Force Diagram ................................................................... 12-28
Figure 12-6 Recommended Arch Shape........................................................................ 12-45
Figure 12-7 Common Bearing Types ............................................................................ 12-55
Figure 13-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges............ 13-8
Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures ................................................................. 13-12
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xiii

Figure 13-3 Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement ................13-21
Figure 13-4 Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement...........13-22
Figure 13-5 Illustration of Ac .........................................................................................13-24
Figure 13-6 Flow Chart for Shear Design......................................................................13-25
Figure 13-7 Guide to the Selection of Sx .......................................................................13-26
Figure 13-8 Forces Assumed in Resistance Model Caused by Moment and Shear.......13-27
Figure 14-1 Flow Chart for Rating Procedure .................................................................14-8

Figure 14-2 Truck Type 3 Unit Weight = 227 kN .........................................................14-11
Figure 14-3 Truck Type 3-2 Unit Weight = 325 kN......................................................14-12
Figure 14-4 Truck Type 3-3 Unit Weight = 364 kN......................................................14-12
Figure 14-5 The Legal Lane Loading (mainly for large spans) .....................................14-12
Figure 14-6 Flow Chart for Selecting Resistance Factors φ ..........................................14-19
Figure 14-7 Nomogram for Determining the Provisional Axle
Loading of Masonry Arch Bridges before Factoring ................................14-27
Figure 14-8 Arch Dimensions .......................................................................................14-28
Figure 14-9 Span/Rise Factor ........................................................................................14-29
Figure 14-10 Profile Factor .............................................................................................14-30
Figure 14-11 Conversion of Modified Axle Loads to Single Double and Triple Axles .14-35
Figure 14-12 Spandrel Wall Failures ..............................................................................14-39
Page xiv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Tables
Table 2-1 Minimum Dimensions ...................................................................................... 2-4

Table 2-2 Table of Bridge Widths ................................................................................... 2-5
Table 2-3 Vertical Clearance at Design Flood Level (DFL)............................................. 2-6
Table 2-4 Maximum Allowable Slope Grade for Different Slope Materials ................... 2-7
Table 3-1 Limit States....................................................................................................... 3-4

Table 3-2 Load Combinations and Load Factors .............................................................. 3-6
Table 3-3 Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp .............................................................. 3-7
Table 3-4 Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials ........................................ 3-10
Table 3-5 Multiple Presence Factors “m”....................................................................... 3-11
Table 3-6 Fraction of Truck Traffic in a Single Lane, P................................................. 3-20
Table 3-7 Fraction of Trucks in Traffic .......................................................................... 3-20
Table 3-8 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM ....................................................................... 3-23
Table 3-9 Drag Coefficient ............................................................................................. 3-27
Table 3-10 Lateral Drag Coefficient ................................................................................. 3-28
Table 3-11 Values of Vo and Zo for Various Upstream Surface Conditions .................... 3-30
Table 3-12 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s) ...................... 3-31
Table 3-13 Base Wind Pressures, PB (kPa) for Various Angles of
Attack VB = 160 km/h..................................................................................... 3-31
Table 3-14 Wind Components on Live Load.................................................................... 3-32
Table 3-15 Seismic Zones ................................................................................................. 3-37
Table 3-16 Site Coefficients.............................................................................................. 3-38
Table 3-17 Response Modification R-Factors for Substructures...................................... 3-40
Table 3-18 Response Modification R-Factors for Connections........................................ 3-41
Table 3-19 Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects .................................. 3-45
Table 3-20 Regular Bridge Requirements......................................................................... 3-46
Table 3-21 Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to
Reach Minimum Active or Maximum Passive Earth Pressure Conditions.... 3-50
Table 3-22 Typical Coefficients of Lateral Earth Pressure At-Rest (ko) .......................... 3-54
Table 3-23 Friction Angle for Dissimilar Materials ......................................................... 3-55
Table 3-24 Typical Values for Equivalent-Fluid Densities of Soils ................................. 3-59
Table 3-25 Equivalent Height of Soil, heq for Different Wall Heights
Due to Vehicular Loading .............................................................................. 3-67
Table 3-26 Temperature Ranges ....................................................................................... 3-68
Table 3-27 Basis for Temperature Gradients .................................................................... 3-69
Table 5-1 Maximum Design Water Velocity at Different Scour Protections ................... 5-8
Table 5-2 Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring) .............................................. 5-19
Table 5-3 Suppliers of Premade Bridges ........................................................................ 5-26
Table 6-1 Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Shallow Foundations............. 6-3
Table 6-2 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in
Axially Loaded Piles......................................................................................... 6-4
Table 6-3 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in
Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts .......................................................................... 6-5
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xv

Table 6-4 Resistance Factors for Buried Structures ........................................................6-13

Table 6-5 Flexibility Factor Limit ...................................................................................6-14
Table 7-1 Values for Cohesion Factor, c, and Friction Factor, µ ......................................7-5
Table 7-2 Material Properties of Different Arch Bridge Stones......................................7-13
Table 8-1 Permissible Stresses (Mpa) for Filled PTFE Bearings ......................................8-8
Table 8-2 Design Coefficients of Friction – Service Limit State ......................................8-9
Table 8-3 Shear Modulus G.............................................................................................8-10
Table 8-4 Low-Temperature and Minimum Grades of Elastomer ..................................8-11
Table 8-5 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing – Balanced Design .............................8-16
Table 9-1 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder and Cube

Compressive Strength, fck ..................................................................................9-3
Table 9-2 Grades and Classes of Concrete ........................................................................9-3
Table 9-3 Grades of Concrete and Values of fctk and fctm ..................................................9-6
Table 9-4 Tensile Requirements for Reinforcement Bars .................................................9-6
Table 9-5 Cover for Unprotected Main Reinforcing Steel (mm) ......................................9-7
Table 9-6 Classes of Tension Lap Splices .......................................................................9-11
Table 9-7 Resistance Factors ...........................................................................................9-17
Table 10-1 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel ......................................10-2

Table 10-2 Reinforce Factors [ϕ] for the Strength Limit State .........................................10-4
Table 11-1 Timber Stress Values [Mpa]............................................................................11-2

Table 11-2 Characteristic Timber Values for Flexural and Deformation Design .............11-3
Table 11-3 Size Effect Factor, CF, for Sawn Dimension Lumber .....................................11-3
Table 11-4 Deck Factors, CD, for Mechanically Laminated Solid Sawn Lumber Decks..11-4
Table 11-5 Resistance Factors, ϕ, for Wood .....................................................................11-4
Table 11-6 Tolerances for Masonry...................................................................................11-5
Table 11-7 Material Properties of Different Bridge Stones...............................................11-6
Table 12-1 Comparison between Bedrock Acceleration Coefficients...............................12-4

Table 12-2 Factor kh for Relative Humidity ....................................................................12-19
Table 12-3 Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring).............................................12-45
Table 12-4 K-Values for Effective Length of Arch Ribs ................................................12-46
Table 12-5 Suitability of Different Bearing Types ..........................................................12-54
Table 13-1 Equivalent Strips for Different Types of Decks ..............................................13-4

Table 13-2 “L” for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations..............................13-11
Table 13-3 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam ...............13-13
Table 13-4 Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior
Longitudinal Beams ......................................................................................13-14
Table 13-5 Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for Moment in Longitudinal
Beams on Skewed Supports ..........................................................................13-15
Table 13-6 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Transverse Beams for
Moment and Shear.........................................................................................13-15
Page xvi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Table 13-7 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams ................. 13-16
Table 13-8 Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams ................ 13-17
Table 13-9 Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors for Support
Shear of the Obtuse Corner........................................................................... 13-17
Table 13-10 Values of θ and β for Section with Transverse Reinforcement.................... 13-23
Table 13-11 Values of θ and β for Section without Transverse Reinforcement............... 13-23
Table 14-1 Unit Weights of Materials ............................................................................ 14-10

Table 14-2 Condition of Wearing Surface and Impact Value......................................... 14-14
Table 14-3 Reinforcing Steel Yield Stresses .................................................................. 14-14
Table 14-4 Correction Factor for Analysis ..................................................................... 14-16
Table 14-5 Load Factors ................................................................................................. 14-17
Table 14-6 Resistance Factors vs. Condition.................................................................. 14-20
Table 14-7 Resistance Factors φ for All Conditions ....................................................... 14-21
Table 14-8 Reduction Factors for Live Load.................................................................. 14-22
Table 14-9 Centrifugal Distribution Factor Ap ............................................................... 14-25
Table 14-10 Barrel Factor ................................................................................................ 14-31
Table 14-11 Fill Factor ..................................................................................................... 14-31
Table 14-12 Width Factor ................................................................................................ 14-32
Table 14-13 Mortar Factor ............................................................................................... 14-32
Table 14-14 Depth Factor ................................................................................................ 14-32
Table 14-15 Load Capacity and Gross Vehicle Weight Restrictions for
Masonry Arches............................................................................................ 14-36
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xvii

Forms
Form 4-1 Field Visit Investigation Form .....................................................................4-10

Form 4-2 Bridge Inspection Form................................................................................4-11
Form 12-1 Checklist for Piling Design (Driven Piles).................................................12-11

Form 12-2 Checklist for Masonry Piers Design...........................................................12-21
Form 12-3 Checklist for RC Frame Pier Design ..........................................................12-23
Form 12-4 Checklist for Masonry Abutments Design .................................................12-24
Form 12-5 Checklist for RC Abutment Design............................................................12-25
Form 12-6 Checklist for Single Span RC Slab Design ................................................12-34
Form 12-7 Checklist for Single Span RC Deck Girder Design ...................................12-39
Form 12-8 Checklist for Frame Bridge Design............................................................12-43
Form 12-9 Checklist for Masonry Arch Bridge Design...............................................12-46
Form 12-10 Checklist for Prestressed Superstructure Design........................................12-52
Form 12-11 Checklist for Bearing Design .....................................................................12-53
Form 12-12 Checklist for Basic Steps for the Design of Concrete Bridges...................12-58
Page xviii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Glossary
GLOSSARY
Bridges may be categorized according to their main use, such as highway bridges, railway
bridges, pedestrian bridges, etc. They may also be sorted according to the material used in
their construction, such as reinforced concrete bridges, steel bridges, stone bridges, timber
bridges, etc. They may also be sorted into rigid, removable and floating bridges.
In this manual, the type of design is used to categorize the bridges: slab bridges and girder
bridges, which are called framed if the slabs or beams are rigid at the supports, tube bridges,
arch bridges, truss bridges, cable bridges and suspension bridges.
Apart from these means of grouping bridges, there are a great number of combinations and
variations.
The following definitions apply to this manual:
Active Earth Pressure – Lateral pressure resulting from the retention of the earth by a
structure or component that is tending to move away from the soil mass.
Active Earth Wedge – Wedge of earth with a tendency to become mobile if not retained by
a structure or component.
Accidental design situation – Design situation involving exceptional conditions of the
structure or its exposure, e.g. collision, explosion, impact or local failure.
Aeroelastic Vibration – Periodic, elastic response of a structure to wind.
Anchorage – In post-tensioning, a mechanical device used to anchor the tendon to the
concrete; in pretensioning, a device used to anchor the tendon the tendon until the
concrete has reached a predetermined strength and the prestressing force has been
transferred to the concrete; for reinforcing bars, a length of reinforcement, or a
mechanical anchor or hook, or combination thereof, at the end of a bar needed to
transfer the force carried by the bar into the concrete.
Appurtenances – Curbs, parapets, railings, barriers and lighting posts attached to the bridge
deck
Arching Action – A structural phenomenon in which wheel loads are transmitted primary
by compressive struts formed in the slab.
Axle Unit – Single axle or tandem axle.
Band – A strip of laminated wood deck within which the pattern of butt joints is not
repeated.
Basal Heave – The inflation at the bottom of a wall
Bolster – A spacer between a metal deck and a beam.
Bridge – A structure with a of total clear opening above 6.0-m. A structure with a clear span
opening less than that is a culvert. Small bridge 6-15 m, Medium 15-50 m and Large
bridge above 50 m total length.
Bulkhead – A steel element attached to the side of stress laminated timber decks to
distribute the prestressing force and reduce the tendency to crush the wood.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xix

Glossary Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Cellular Deck – A concrete deck with void-ratio in excess of 40 percent.

Centrifugal Force – A lateral force resulting from a change in the direction of a vehicle's
movement.
Chord – Top member of a (half-through) truss
Clearance: – The minimum height between the top surface of the roadway or shoulder and
the bottom surface of the superstructure of the bridge.
Clear span – The face-to-face distance between supporting components (=clear opening)
Closed Rib – A rib in an orthotropic deck consisting of a plate forming a trough, welded to
the deck plate along both sides of the rib.
Closure Joint – A cast-in-plac e concrete fill between precast components to provide
continuity.
Combination of actions – Set of design values used for the verification of the structural
reliability for a limit state under the simultaneous influence of different actions.
Combination values – Values associated with the use of combinations of actions to take
account of a reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of the most unfavorable
values of several independent actions.
Compatibility – the equality of deformation at the interface of elements and/or components
joined together.
Component – A structural element or combination of elements requiring individual design
consideration.
Composite Action – A condition in which two or more elements or components are made to
act together by preventing relative moment at their interface.
Composite Construction – Concrete components or concrete and steel components
interconnected to respond to force effects as a unit.
Concrete Cover – The specified minimum distance between the surface of the reinforcing
bars, strands, post-tensioning ducts, anchorages or other embedded items, and the
surface of the concrete.
Continuity – In decks, both structural continuity and the ability to prevent water penetration
without the assistance of nonstructural elements.
Core Depth – The distance between the top of top reinforcement and the bottom of bottom
reinforcement in a concrete slab.
Counter – Diagonal Bracing of a truss
Creep – Time-dependent deformation of concrete under permanent load.
Culvert – A structure with a maximum of 6.0-m total clear opening. A structure with a clear
span opening above that is a bridge.
Deck – A component, with or without wearing surface, that supports wheel loads directly
and is supported by other components.
Deck Joint – A complete or partial interruption of the deck to accommodate relative
moment between portions of a structure.
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Deck System – A superstructure, in which the deck is integral with its supporting
components, or in which the effects or deformation of supporting components on the
behavior of the deck is significant.
Design criteria – The quantitative formulations, which describe for each limit state the
conditions to be fulfilled.
Design Lane – A notional traffic lane positioned transversely on the roadway.
Design span – The center-to-center distance between the adjacent supporting components
(i.e. bearings), taken in the primary direction (= theoretical span length).
Design Water Depth – Depth of water at mean high water.
Design Water flow – The statistical flow, which occurs in a certain design period, usually
every 50 or 100 years.
Design Water level – The statistical water level, which occurs in a certain design period,
usually every 50 or 100 years. Sometimes called highest high water level or
maximum water level.
Design working life – The assumed period for which a structure is to be used for its
intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without substantial repair being
necessary, usually 100-120 years for bridges.
Dynamic Load Allowance – An increase in the applied static force effects to account for the
dynamic interaction between the bridge and moving vehicles.
Effective Length – The span length used in the empirical design of concrete slabs.
Elastic – A structural response in which stress is directly proportional to strain and no
deformation remains upon removal of loading.
Engineer – Person responsible for the design of the bridge
Equilibrium – A state where the sum of forces parallel to any axis and the sum of moments
about any axis in space, are 0.0.
Equivalent Strip – An artificial linear element, isolated from a deck for the purpose of
analysis, in which extreme force effects calculated for a line of wheel loads,
transverse or longitudinal, will approximate those actually taking place in the deck.
Equivalent Fluid – A notional substance whose density is such that it would exert the same
pressure as the soil it is seen to replace for computational purposes.
Extreme – A maximum or a minimum.
Falsework – A framework of wood or steel used to support forms for the construction of RC
slab spans or girders, or to provide temporary support for structural units (stone
masonry arch) during the construction or reconstruction of permanent supports.
Flexural Continuity – The ability to transmit moment and rotation between components or
within a component.
Floorbeam – The traditional name for a cross-beam.
Footprint – The specified contact area between wheel and roadway surface.
Form of structure – The arrangement of structural elements, such as beam, column, arch
and foundation piles. Forms of structure are, for example, frames, suspension bridges.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxi

Frame Action – Transverse continuity between the deck and the webs of cellular cross-
section or between the deck and primary components in large bridges.
Free (clear) opening – Same definition as clear span
Freeboard – The clearance (clear height) between the design water level and the bottom
surface of the superstructure of the bridge.
Friction Pile – A pile whose support capacity is derived principally from soil resistance
mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
Frontwall – The part of a frame bridge below the bridge deck; or the abutment facing the
opening (stem).
Global – Pertinent to the entire superstructure or to the whole bridge. The opposite to local.
Glued Laminated Deck Panel – A deck panel made from wood laminations connected by
adhesives.
Governing Position – The location and orientation of a transient load to cause extreme force
effects.
Gusset plate – Plate material used to interconnect vertical, diagonal and horizontal truss
members at a panel point.
Inelastic – The structural response in which stress is not directly proportional to strain and
deformation may remain upon removal of loading.
Influence Surface – A continuous or discretized function over a bridge deck whose value at
a point, multiplied by a load acting normal to the deck at that point, yields the force
effect being sought.
Interface – The location where two elements and/or components are in contact.
Internal Composite Action – The interaction between a deck and a structural overlay.
Isotropic Plate – A plate having essentially identical structural properties in the two
principal directions.
Isotropic Reinforcement – Two identical layers of reinforcement, perpendicular to and in
touch with each other.
Lateral – Any horizontal or close to horizontal direction.
Laminated Deck – A deck consisting of a series of laminated wood elements that are tightly
abutted along their edges global analysis.
Lever Rule – The statical summation of moments about one point to calculate the reaction at
a second point.
Liquefaction – The loss of shear strength in a saturated soil due to excess hydrostatic
pressure. In saturated, cohesionless soils, such a strength loss can result from loads
that are applied instantaneously or cyclicly, particularly in loose fine to medium
sands that are uniformly graded.
Load – The effect of acceleration, including that due to gravity, imposed deformation, or
volumetric change.
Load arrangement – Identification of the position, magnitude and direction of a free action.
Page xxii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Load case – Compatible load arrangements, sets of deformations and imperfections

considered simultaneously with fixed variable actions and permanent actions for a
particular verification.
Local Analysis – An in-depth study of strains and stresses in or among components using
force effects obtained from global analysis.
Maintenance – The total set of activities performed during the working life of the structure
to preserve its function.
Megagram (Mg) – 1 000 kg = 1.0 metric ton (a unit of mass).
Mode of Vibration – A shape of dynamic deformation associated with a frequency of
vibration.
Moisture Content – An indication of the amount of water contained in the wood, usually
expressed as a percentage of the mass of the oven dry wood
Net Depth – The depth of concrete, excluding the concrete placed in the corrugations of a
metal formwork.
Nominal Load – An arbitrarily selected design load level.
Normally Consolidated Soil – A soil for which the current overburden pressure is the
greatest that has been experienced.
Open Grid Floor – A metal grid floor net filled or covered with concrete.
Open Rib – A rib in an orthotropic deck consisting of a single plate or rolled section welded
to the deck plate.
Orthotropic – A plate having significantly different structural properties in the two
principal directions.
Over consolidated Soil – A soil that has been under greater overburden pressure than
currently exists.
Overconsolidation Ratio – OCR = Maximum Preconsolidation Pressure
Overburden Pressure
Partial Composite Action – A condition in which two or more elements or components are
made to act together by decreasing, but not eliminating, relative movement at their
interface, or where the connecting elements are too flexible to fully develop the deck
in composite action.
Passive Earth Pressure – Lateral pressure resulting from the earth's resistance to the lateral
movement of a structure or component into the soil mass
Permanent Loads – Loads and forces that are, or are assumed to be, constant upon
completion of construction.
Permit Vehicle – Any vehicle whose right to travel is administratively restricted in any way
due to its weight or size.
Post-Tensioning Duct – A form device used to provide a path for post-tensioning tendons
or bars in hardened concrete.
Primary Direction – In isotropic decks: direction of the shorter span; in orthotropic decks:
direction of the main load carrying elements.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxiii

Point Bearing Pile – A pile whose support capacity is derived principally from the
resistance of the foundation material on which the tip rests.
Reliability – Reliability covers safety, serviceability and durability of a structure.
Reliability Index – A quantitative assessment of safety expressed as the ratio of the
difference between the mean resistance and mean force effect to the combined
standard deviation of resistance and force effect.
Resistance – Mechanical property of a component, a cross-section, or a member of a
structure, e.g. bending resistance, buckling resistance.
Roadway – The portion of the highway within the limits of construction and all structures,
ditches, channels and waterways that are necessary for the correct drainage thereof.
Roadway Width – Clear space between barriers and/or curbs.
Scupper – Drain outlet in bridge deck without (sand) trap.
Segmental concrete bridge – A concrete bridge made up of individual elements, either
precast or cast-in place, and posttensioned together to act as a monolithic unit under
loads.
Setting Temperature – A structure's average temperature, which is used to determine the
dimensions of a structure when a component is added or set in place.
Serviceability limit states – States, which correspond to conditions beyond which specified
service requirements for a structure or structural element are no longer met.
Shear Key – A preformed hollow in the side of a precast component filled with grout or a
system of match-cast depressions and protrusions in the face of segments that is
intended to provide shear continuity between components.
Shoulder – The portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, for emergency use and for lateral support of
base and surface courses.
Skew or skew angle – The acute angle between two centerlines which cross.
Sidewalk – The portion of the roadway constructed primarily for the use of pedestrians and
or bicycles.
Span length – For simple spans: the distance center to center of supports but need not
exceed clear span plus thickness of slab. For members that are not built integrally with their
supports: the clear span plus the depth of the member but need not exceed the distance
between centers of supports
Spandrel walls – The sidewalls parallel to the alignment, resting on the arch barrel (arch
ring).
Stage Construction – Construction taking place over fixed and distinct time frames.
Strategic bridges – Bridges across wide, flowing rivers (Blue Nile, Awash, Omo) which
cannot easily be replaced by a temporary bridge such as a 40 m span double Bailey
truss bridge.
Strategic roads – Important roads very far away from parallel, alternative roads (e.g.- the
Addis-Gondar road).
Strength – Mechanical property of a material, usually given in units of stress.
Page xxiv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Structure – Organized combination of connected parts designed to provide some measure of

rigidity or a construction works having such an arrangement. Bridges, culverts, catch
basins, inlets, retaining walls, buildings, steps, fences, service pipes, underdrains,
foundation drains and other features that may be encountered in the work and are not
otherwise classed herein.
Structural system – The load-bearing elements of a building or civil engineering works and
the way in which these elements function together.
Substructure – The part of a structure that is below the bearings of simple and continuous
spans, skewbacks of arches and top of footings of rigid frames, together with the
back walls, wingwalls and wing protection railings.
Superstructure – Structural parts of the bridge that provide the horizontal span.
Surcharge – A load used to model the weight of earth fill or other loads applied to the top of
the retained material.
Tandem – Two closely spaced axles, usually connected to an under-carriage, which aids in
distributing the load equally.
Tendon – A high-strength steel element used to prestress the concrete.
Total (overall) bridge length – The distance between the rear ends of the wingwalls or
abutments and shall be measured parallel to the alignment between the rear ends of the
wingwalls or abutments.
Transient design situation – Design situation which is relevant during a period much
shorter that the design working life of the structure and which has a high probability
of occurrence. It refers to temporary conditions of the structure, of use, or exposure,
e.g. during construction or repair.
Ultimate limit states – States associated with collapse, or with other similar forms of
structural failure. They generally correspond to the maximum load-carrying
resistance of a structure or structural part.
Wall Friction Angle – An angle whose arctangent represents the apparent friction between a
wall and a soil mass.
Wheel – Single or dual tire at one end of an axle.
Wheel Line – A transverse or longitudinal grouping of wheels.
Work – All the work specified, indicated, shown or contemplated in the Contract to
construct the improvement, including all alterations, amendments or extensions thereto made
by contract change order, supplemental agreement or other written orders by the Engineer.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxv

Abbreviations Bridge Design Manual - 2002
ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

AISC - American Institute of Steel Construction
ASA - American Standards Association
ASTM - American Society for Testing Materials
CAPWAP - Case Pile Wave Analysis Program
DIM - Dimensionless
EBCS - Ethiopian Building Code Standard
ENR - Engineering News Formula
ERA - Ethiopian Roads Authority
ISO - International Standard Organization
MEXE - Military Engineering Experimental Establishment
PTFE - Polytetrafluorethylene (also known as Teflon)
QSA - Quality & Standardization Authority of Ethiopia
SI - The International System of Units
UDL - Uniform Distributed Load
Page xxvi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 1
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
These Standards deal with small and medium sized structures and shall be used for all
structures within the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) throughout the country.
These Standards are based mainly on the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2nd edition,
1998, with modifications to Ethiopian conditions, requirements and applicable laws of the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
As a supplement to these Standards for structures not mentioned here (such as prestressed
bridges, large bridges, certain steel bridges, composite bridges, aluminum bridges, etc.),
the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, 2nd edition 1998 or later editions may be used but
only together with Chapter 3: Load Requirements in these Specifications.
The Bridge Design Manual is written for the practicing engineer and describes current,
mandated and recommended practice in selected aspects of bridge engineering. These are
based on mathematical calculations, and the Ethiopian terrain, experience and research,
and have the support of the Ethiopian Roads Authority. It closely follows American
practice and is based mainly on the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 1998 Second
Edition, SI Units, of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.
These Specifications are based primarily on the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specification 2nd Edition 1998 which replaces the AASHTO Standard Specification for
Highway Bridges, 16th ed. 1996. The latter specs may however be used during a transition
period of 3 years up to December 31, 2003, after which this Bridge Design Manual
(LRFD Code) shall govern.
The LRFD method was introduced by AASHTO in the USA in 1994. A similar method
has been used for bridge design in parts of Europe since 1988, and, without load reduction
factors, for building design at the Addis Ababa University since 1985.
These Specifications shall govern over the Ethiopian Building Code Standard (at present
EBCS Nos. 1,2,3,5,7 and 8, 1995). EBCS shall be used as a compliment to these
Specifications.
Required loads, dimensions and methods are summarized generally in Chapters 2, 3, and
6-11. The remaining chapters are generally concerned with recommended practices. It is
the purpose of this manual to provide all the necessary procedural guidance, dimensions,
and materials advice to enable a civil engineer with some field experience to prepare
appropriate preliminary and detailed designs for small and medium sized bridges.
The manual deals with all stages of bridge design from planning and site investigation to
preliminary and detailed design. A main feature is the preliminary design stage, as it is
anticipated that it will become more common to bid only with the preliminary layout
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-1

Chapter 1
Introduction Bridge Design Manual - 2002
drawings, leaving final design to the bidder/constructor. Therefore, the preliminary design
stage must contain some minimum requirements, which are described in chapters 4 and 5.
The manual covers the entire design process in terms of both the:
Time-related process, proceeding from feasibility study through preliminary design
and final design to bridge inspection and strength evaluation of old bridges; and
Total design from foundations to superstructure to bearings and railing.
1.1 UNITS
SI Units shall be used in accordance with ISO 1000, for all calculations. Units in brackets
are not SI-units, but are often used together with, or instead of, SI-Units.
Length m (mm, km)

Area m2 (mm2, km2)
Volume m3 (l, where 1000 liters = 1 m3)
Time s (h, where 1 hour = 3600 seconds)
Temperature K (°C, where 1 °C = 1 K)
Pressure Pa, kPa, MPa (1 N/m2 = 1 Pa)
Energy J (kWh, where 1 kWh = 3,6*106 J)
Forces and loads kN, MN
Density, Unit Mass kg/m3
Unit weight kN/m3
Stresses and strengths kPa, MPa, GPa (kN/m2, MN/m2, GN/m2)
Moments kNm (MNm)
Velocity m/s (km/h)
Flow m3/s (l/s)
1.2 CONVERSION FACTORS: (METRIC TO/FROM SI-UNITS)
FORCE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

1 kp (kilopound) = 9,81 N 1oC = 1o K
KP MP N KN MN
1 0,001 10 0,01 10-5
1000 1 104 10 0,01
-4
0.1 10 1 0,001 10-6
100 0.1 1000 1 0,001
105 100 104
1000 1
Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 1
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Introduction
FORCE MOMENT
1kpm = 9,81 Nm
Pressure (1Pa = 1 N/m2)

1 kp/cm2 (at) = 98,07 * 103 Pa
1 Kp/mm2 = 9,807 * 106 Pa
kp/mm2 kp/cm2 kPa MPa

kN/m2 MN/m2
1 100 104 10
0,01 1 100 0.1
10-4 0.01 1 0,001
0.1 10 1000 1

Chapter 2
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 General Requirements
2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
2.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
GENERAL
These Specifications correspond with the latest EUROCODE philosophy. The

Specifications are to be applied together with a suitable high class Quality System (see
Chapter 15: The Quality Control System ISO 9000) within the Contractor's organization.
The Contractors or Consultants who do not have such a Quality System are not pre-
qualified for design and construction of Structures.
The LRFD design method has been taught in Addis Ababa University since 1985, and it
has been used for bridges in Europe for over 10 years and in USA for over 4 years. The
method corresponds well with the idea that the Contractor provides a "function", which
could consist of a complete bridge across a certain waterway that should be able to carry
certain specified loads for a certain design working life period, usually 100 years. As long
as the required function will be achieved, the designer is allowed to use almost any
method of analysis, which satisfies the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and
utilizes stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials, including, but not limited to:
• classical force and displacement methods

• finite difference method
• finite element method (FEM)
• folded plate method
• finite strip method
2.2 NOTATIONS
Qi = force effect
Rf = factored resistance
Rn = nominal resistance
ηD = a factor relating to ductility
ηi = load modifier: a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance
ηI = a factor relating to operational importance
ηR = a factor relating to redundancy
γi = load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
ϕ = resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
µ = ductility factor
∆u = deformation at ultimate
∆y = deformation at the elastic limit

Chapter 2
General Requirements Bridge Design Manual - 2002
2.3 GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS
Geometric requirements are the requirements of the process whereby the layout of the
bridge through the terrain is designed to meet the needs of the road users. Appropriate
standards and combinations of geometric design elements should fulfill the following
objectives:
• Topography, land use and physical features
• Environmental considerations
• Road safety considerations
• Economic and financial considerations
2.3.1 DEFINITIONS
Free (clear) opening is the face-to-face distance between supported components.

It shall be measured perpendicular to the supports. If the supports are not parallel, the free
opening is the least distance between them, see Figure 2-1.
Total (overall) bridge length is the distance between the rear ends of the wingwalls or
abutments.
It shall be measured parallel to the alignment between the rear ends of the wingwalls or
abutments.
Figure 2-1 Definition of Bridge Dimensions
Span length Alignment of Road
Free opening
Overall length of bridge

Chapter 2
Span length should be:

• For simple spans: the distance center to center of supports but need not exceed clear
span plus thickness of slab.
• For members that are not built integrally with their supports: the clear span plus the
depth of the member but need not exceed the distance between centers of supports.
Span length should give the placing of the piers regardless of type or dimensions selected
at a later stage.
It is normally measured at the alignment and given as stations.
Theoretical span length is the distance between the center of bearings. At the abutments
or at special wide piers it will be better to give the dimension from face to face of the pier
or abutment front wall.
2.3.2 CHOICE OF A BRIDGE SITE
The choice of location of bridges shall be supported by analyses of alternatives with

consideration given to economic, engineering, social, and environmental concerns as well
as costs of maintenance and inspection associated with the structures and with the relative
of the above-noted concerns.
Attention, commensurate with the risk involved, shall be directed toward providing for
favorable bridge locations that:
• Fit the conditions created by the obstacle being crossed
• Facilitate practical cost effective design, construction, operation, inspection and
maintenance
• Provide for the desires level of traffic service and safety
• Minimize adverse highway impacts.
2.3.3 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS TO BE MADE FOR BRIDGE DESIGN
Structural types, span lengths, and materials shall be selected with due consideration of
projected cost. The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the
bridge should be considered. Regional factors, such as availability of material, fabrication,
location, shipping, and erection constraints, shall be considered.
If data for the trends in labor and material cost fluctuation are available, the effect of such
trends should be projected to the time the bridge will likely be constructed. Cost
comparisons of structural alternatives should be based on long-range considerations,
including inspection, maintenance, repair, and/or replacement. Lower first cost does not
necessarily lead to lowest total cost.
2.3.4 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

Consideration shall be given to safe passage of vehicles on or under a bridge. The hazard
to errant vehicles within the clear zone should be minimized by locating obstacles at a
safe distance from the travel lanes.

Chapter 2
2.4 MINIMUM DIMENSIONS
The minimum dimensions listed in Table 2-1 shall be used in bridge design and
construction.
Dimension
Footing depth ≥ 0.25 m
Stem and Head wall/ballast wall of abutment thickness ≥ 0.25 m
Bearing shelf of abutment or pier ≥ 0.40 m
Wingwall thickness ≥ 0.20 m
Pier columns in water, thickness ≥ 0.50 m
Pier walls thickness ≥ 0.30 m
Concrete deck depth, excluding any provision for grinding and sacrificial ≥ 175 mm
surface
Concrete deck for pedestrians bridge ≥ 150 mm
Table 2-1: Minimum Dimensions
In designing expansion joints in bridge decks, an additional 20-mm space shall be added
to the calculated expansion. If the total height of the substructure exceeds 8 m, then 30
mm shall be added for exceptional movements such as settlement. Edge beams of bridge
decks shall not be less than 0.35 m wide and 0.4 m deep.
Arch barrels of stone masonry shall have a thickness at the crown of not less than 0.5 m
unless otherwise shown in the detail design and after testing of the material.
2.4.1 WIDTH OF BRIDGE DECK
The width of the bridge should correspond with the roadway or carriageway width as
determined according to the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2: Summary
of Standards and Departures from Standards, Section 2.2: Design Standards. The width
is to be measured between the inside of the railings − or the curbs.
Clear width of bridge is defined as the distance between the inside of the outer railings
including walkways, island/refuge and similar. If the width will vary along the bridge all
dimensions should be given.
If not otherwise stated in the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, a one-lane bridge
shall not be less than 4.2 m wide and a two-lane bridge not less than 7.0 m wide. The
dimensions for a one-lane bridge are based on the current ERA standard Bailey Bridge
width used for one-lane road.
The dimensions of 7.30m for a two-lane bridge are based on trucks with widths of 2.4m
meeting, providing 0.7m clearance between vehicles and at the sides, the greater clearance
allowing a higher average speed.

Chapter 2
At higher design speed, and/or in the vicinity of densely populated areas, a bridge
allowing for the shoulder width should be considered. Here the bridge width becomes
10.30 meters (7.30 meters plus 2 x 1.5 shoulders or side walks). This allows for opposing
trucks and pedestrians to meet safely. This width is recommended for bridges nearer than
5 km to a town/village of at least 10,000 inhabitants.
All dimensions are valid regardless of the length of the bridge, due to safety reasons.
For pedestrian overpasses, the minimum width is 3.0 m, which can accommodate three
pedestrians, or a bicycle and a pedestrian in width. See Table 2-2 for a listing of bridge
configurations and corresponding widths.
Application Width (m)

Two-lane in “urban” area 10.30
Two-lane in “rural” area 7.30
Single Lane 4.20
Pedestrian Overpass 3.0
Table 2-2 Table of Bridge Widths
2.4.2 PEDESTRIAN LANE WIDTHS
When pedestrians coexist with dense and high speed traffic, segregated pedestrian lane
(footway) protected by a barrier (railing) with end treatment having protection for both
pedestrians and vehicles is recommended. Such one pedestrian lane shall not be less than
1.5 m wide. A pedestrian walkway should permit two pedestrians to meet comfortably,
which translates to 2x0,6 m width plus 0.3m clearance equals 1.5m. For safety
considerations, the height of the pedestrian railings along the footways shall be 1m by
means of a top rail made of steel pipes and the height of the traffic railing shall be 0,8m
by means of a steelrail or concrete barrier. Traffic railing shall be as per ERA standard
detail drawing B34 and B35 or another approved railing. Pedestrian railing shall be
designed to resist a specified vertical and transversal load w. Minimum value for w shall
be 800 N/linear meter.
2.4.3 OVERALL LENGTH OF BRIDGE AND SPAN LENGTH
For smaller bridges, the ground slopes at the abutments will often affect the overall length
of the bridge. Therefore it could be more economical to use some sort of retaining wall at
the abutments such as stone masonry walls, gabions and reno mattresses, concrete block
wall, etc. This will make the bridge shorter and, most probably, more economic.
Underpasses require a certain width for safety reasons, unless guardrails are applied
alongside the underpass road. The distance from the roadway edge to the front wall of the
abutment or the pier shall be 1.5m (see ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 6:
Cross Section Elements, Section 6.7: Clear Zone).

Chapter 2
Bridges over rivers will normally require a certain opening of hydraulic reasons.
Regarding the calculation of water flow and water levels, see the ERA Drainage Design
Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges, Section 8.7: Examples. Especially at high design water
velocity, the basic rule is: with more constriction due to numerous and thicker piers, the
backwater increases. Therefore, a longer span length could be preferable. It should be
remembered that in some cases a footpath for local residents or a trail for wildlife and/or
livestock exists along the waterline near the structure. Whether they should be elevated
above the high water level all the time of the year depends on the frequency of use.
Sometimes aesthetical reasons require a larger opening than necessary.
2.4.4 DESIGN DEPTH OF SUPERSTRUCTURE AND FREE BOARD HEIGHT
According to the ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 9: Vertical Alignment,

Section 9.11: Vertical Clearances, the clear height of roads shall normally be 5.1 meters
for underpasses.
Design depth of superstructure is the thickness of the superstructure excluding the

pavement thickness. Normally it will be measured in middle of the span. The design depth
is a very important parameter for the construction work. A minimal depth is not always
the most economical solution, although it sometimes has an aesthetical value. If a thin
superstructure is selected, a deflection analysis should be made.
The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the
floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of sedimentation
under or downstream of the bridge. Therefore, the freeboard above the design water level
should not be less than in Table 2-3 below, unless more reliable data are provided in the
calculations according to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges,
Section 8.7: Examples.
Discharge Q (m3/s) Vertical clearance (m)

0 - 3.0 0.3
3.0 - 30.0 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
> 300 1.2
Table 2-3 Vertical Clearance at Design Flood Level (DFL)
These clearance measurements should be increased on rivers with a history of unusually

large floating debris or for navigational requirements. The backwater effect (afflux)
should be calculated for all bridges with a design water velocity exceeding 1.0 m/s.
2.4.5 MINIMUM CLEARANCE ABOVE WATER, ROADS AND RAILWAYS
Bridges above water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table
2-3 unless a refined hydraulic analysis have been made. For arched structures, the

Chapter 2
clearance shall be measured at the quarter points of the span. Above roadways, the
clearance shall be at least 5.1 m according to the Geometric Design Manual-2002,
Chapter 9: Vertical Alignment, Section 9.11: Vertical Clearances. Light superstructures
(i.e. timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc) above roadways shall have a clearance height
of at least 5.3 m.
Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles should not be less than 2.4 m. For cattle and
wildlife underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal
plus 0.5 m and for horse-riding the clear height should not be less than 3.4 m. Bridges
above railways shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1 m - if not otherwise stated -
to facilitate future electrification.
2.4.6 CROSSFALL AND EMBANKMENT SLOPE
For adequate dewatering while minimizing the use of materials for the bridge deck, a
crossfall of 2% (1 to 50), as well as longitudinal slope/grade of 1% (1 to 100), should be
provided. Sometimes this is not achievable at transitions to skews. In these cases a close
cooperation with the road designer should be established in order to find an acceptable
solution. The bridge crossfall need not be related to the carriageway crossfall, unless high
speed comfort and safety make it necessary. The difference in crossfalls can be realized
in a transition before the bridge.
Drain outlets should be placed away from bearings, footpaths and other sensitive details.
A scour protection of at least 1.0 m2 should be placed under each outlet.
Embankment slopes above the design water level (DWL) should be protected from
scour/erosion with at least 0.5 m of stones sized 0 - 100 mm (d50 ≥ 70 mm), if no
calculation of scour is made. The maximum allowable slope inclinations for some sorted
friction soil materials are shown in Table 2-4 below.
Slope material Max. slope H:V (angle) Design Water Velocity (m/s)
Gravel (d50 ≥ 70 mm) 1.7 : 1 (30°) ≤ 2 m/s
Boulders (d50 ≥ 300 mm) 1.4 : 1 (35°) ≤ 2 m/s
Boulders (d50 ≥ 300 mm) 1.7 : 1 (30°) > 2 m/s
Table 2-4 Maximum Allowable Slope Grade for Different Slope Materials
2.4.7 ACCESSIBILITY FOR INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

Accessibility for inspection and maintenance should always be considered. All important
parts of the superstructure, as well as bearings and normally visible parts of the
substructure should be accessible for inspection and maintenance. In box girders and
similar structures, an interior height of at least 1.0-m should be provided. At bearings
1.0m from the ground to lower side of beams should also apply. Beams or girders with a
stem deeper than 1.6 m should normally be provided with a platform for maintenance and
inspection.

Chapter 2
2.4.8 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CRITERIA
All structures including bridges should be designed according to the principle of material
recycling. The impact on nature should be minimized during design by selecting material
with well known physical and chemical parameters, not only during the construction time,
but also during the whole lifetime of the bridge and later when replaced. Details of the
bridge should be designed in such a way that they could be reused or recycled. Research
has indicated that up to 30 % of the ballast in a new concrete mix may consist of crushed,
old concrete. A steel bridge girder could be reused again in another bridge or in an
industrial building.
Before an unknown material is used it should be environmentally checked, preferably

with the help of a LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) analysis, which means that the
environmental impact during the whole lifetime − from quarrying and manufacturing to
transport and dismantling of the material is evaluated. Unknown material is to be
compared with well-known material before it is used.
2.5 LOAD ASSUMPTIONS
2.5.1 GENERAL
The load bearing capacity of an existing bridge is determined by a classification

calculation together with a field inspection to determine the condition of the bridge. Since
fully loaded lorries run on every road in Ethiopia, from minor feeder-roads to trunk roads
and highways, there should be only one traffic load applied throughout the country,
otherwise there is a great risk of failure for bridges and culverts on minor roads.
For existing bridges, the Design Vehicle load should be HS-25 (instead of HS-20)
according to results from several Axle Load Studies. Before a major repair or
reconstruction such as widening of a bridge starts, the actual load bearing capacity should
be determined before the design. Using the methodologies suggested in Chapter 14:
Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges, the decision can be made
whether any strengthening is necessary together with the major construction work.
In the case of replacement of the superstructure, the new superstructure should be

designed according to Chapter 7: Superstructure Design. The remaining parts of the
substructure should also be reclassified.
In the case of new bridge construction, the HL-93 load (Ref. 1), consisting of a “Design
Truck" and a lane load at the same place, shall be specified. This load cannot be
compared with the "HS-25 design truck" without calculations, because the load factor
method is quite different from the earlier empirical methods.
2.5.2 TRAFFIC LOAD
In an Axle Load Control Survey in Ethiopia in 1998 (Ref 2), it was found that some 22 %
of the heavy trucks were overloaded. One vehicle had an axle load of 275 kN (27.5 tons),

Chapter 2
which is however still less than “the ultimate limit load” (145 kN + 4.3 * 9.3 kN/m lane
load) * 1.75 = 323 kN.
The maximum tandem axle load for one of the trucks was 215 kN/axle, which also is less
than “the ultimate limit load” (110 kN + 4.3 * 9.3 kN/m lane load) * 1.75 = 262 kN. The
axle load of the other trucks were below 201 kN (20 tons).
The maximum total tandem truck weight in the same report was 320 kN (32 000 kg) plus
a trailer of the same weight. This corresponds quite well with European results.
The design vehicle live load for Ethiopia is therefore the HL-93 load, which also
includes a lane load of 9.3 kN/m. This makes the total load (405 kN) some 25% greater
than the older AASHTO-based HS-20 design vehicle (72000 lbs. = 326.9 kN), which has
been used by ERA in the past.
The "design tandem" for Ethiopia represents exceptional loading and is recommended as
2 nos. of 110 kN axles, excluding Dynamic Load Allowance (according to Ref. 1). This
results in a "safety factor" of some 45% for overloaded vehicles, which is deemed
sufficient. This tandem load shall be applied for military vehicle loading, and for strategic
bridges. The Military Authorities should be contacted periodically as the loads may
change from time to time. Generally, strategic bridges are bridges across wide, flowing
rivers (Blue Nile, Awash, Omo) which cannot easily be replaced by a temporary bridge
such as a 40 m span double Bailey truss bridge. Strategic roads with strategic bridges are
important roads very far away from parallel, alternative roads (e.g.- the Addis-Gondar
road).
2.5.3 LOADS ON AREAS OTHER THAN TRAFFIC LANES
If bridge walkways and islands/refuges are not fully separated from the roadway, they
should be regarded as a part of the roadway and designed for the same load. This will
allow changing these to highway lanes in the future with a very limited cost. In such cases
where the walkways and islands/refuges are to be designed to full traffic loads, this should
be stated in the “Preliminary Design Specifications” (PDS) (see Chapter 5: Preliminary
Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts).
2.5.4 ACCIDENTAL LOADS
Collision loads are given in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
To prevent collisions at underpasses the piers should preferably be placed at least 10 m

away from the traffic lane or be protected by a protection wall. A railing is not sufficient
to prevent the risk of collision. If such a wall is not applied, the pier shall be designed for
collision loads.
Light superstructures such as timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc should be protected by
raising the vertical clearance height to 5.3 m.

Chapter 2
2.5.5 OTHER LOADS
The extreme daily temperature range varies between 20°C and 40°C, but is close to
30°C for most places in the country, and this value is used in the EBCS (Ref. 3).
Regarding wind loads, the maximum wind speed is measured by the National
Meteorological Services Agency every 4 hours at certain scattered places. This does not
allow the development of a "Maximum Wind Chart" for the country. The total impact of
Wind load on a common bridge structure is limited to a few percent of all loads and 40
m/s (145 km/h) is selected as the design value.
2.6 DEFLECTION
The criteria in this section shall be considered mandatory. In applying these criteria, the
vehicular load shall include the dynamic load allowance and the following principles may
apply:
• When investigating the maximum absolute deflection, all design lanes should be
loaded, and all supporting components should be assumed to deflect equally;
• For composite design, the design cross-section should include the entire width of the
roadway and the structurally continuous portions of the railings and sidewalks;
• When investigating maximum relative displacements, the number and position of
loaded lanes should be selected to provide the worst differential effect;
• The live load portion of Load Combination Service I of Table 3-1 should be used,
including the dynamic load allowance, IM;
• The live load shall be taken from Chapter 3: Load Requirements;
• For skewed bridges, a right cross-section shall be used, and for curved and curved
skewed bridges, a radial cross-section shall be used.
In the absence of other criteria, the following deflection limits shall be considered for
concrete, and/or steel construction:
• Vehicular load, general .................................................. ................. Span/500
• Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads .................................. ................. Span/800
• Vehicular load on cantilever arms.................................. ................. Span/300
• Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads on cantilever arms.... ................. Span/400
• Uplift of a free end of the bridge deck …………………………….. ≤ 5 mm.
(ex:. A span of 16.4m may not deflect more than 16400/500=32mm, due to vehicular
loads)
Excessive deformation can cause premature deterioration of the wearing surface and
affect the performance of fasteners, but limits on the latter have not yet been established.

Chapter 2
2.7 DESIGN WORKING LIFE
Concrete, stone and steel bridges shall be designed for 100 years working life. Concrete
and Steel culverts with an opening or diameter less than 2.0 m and all timber bridges shall
be designed for 50 years working life.
2.8 LIMIT STATES
2.8.1 GENERAL
Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of
constructibility, safety, and serviceability, with due regard to issues of inspectibility,
economy, and aesthetics, as specified in Chapters 3 – 11.
Regardless of the type of analysis used, Equation 2.1 shall be satisfied for all specified
force effects and combinations thereof. Equation 2.1 below is the basis of the LRFD
methodology. Each component and connection shall satisfy Equation 2.1 for each limit
state, unless otherwise specified. For service and extreme event limit states, resistance
factors shall be taken as 1.0, except for bolts, for which the provisions of Chapter 8:
Bridge Details apply. All limit states shall be considered of equal importance.
Σ ηi γi Qi ≤ ϕ Rn = Rf (2.1)
Where:
for loads for which a maximum value of γi is appropriate:
ηi = ηD ηR ηI ≥ 0.95 (2.2)
for loads for which a minimum value of γi is appropriate:

ηi = 1 ≤ 1.0 (2.3)
ηD ηR ηI
Where: ηi = load modifier: a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational

importance
γi = load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
Qi = force effect
ϕ= resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal
resistance (see chapters 5,6,7 8, 10 and 12).
ηD = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below
ηR = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
ηI = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below
Rf = factored resistance: ϕRn

Chapter 2
Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the
margin of safety of bridges. Whereas the first two directly relate to physical strength, the
last concerns the consequences of the bridge being out of service. The grouping of these
aspects on the load side of Equation 2.1 is, therefore, arbitrary. However, it constitutes a
first effort at codification. In the absence of more precise information, each effect, except
that for fatigue and fracture, is estimated as ±5 percent, accumulated geometrically, a
clearly subjective approach. With time, improved quantification of ductility, redundancy,
and operational importance, and their interaction and system synergy, shall be attained,
possibly leading to a rearrangement of Equation 2.1, in which these effects may appear on
either side of the equation or on both sides.
2.8.2 SERVICE LIMIT STATE
The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress, deformation, and crack
width under regular service conditions. The service limit state provides certain experience
related provisions that cannot always be derived solely from strength or statistical
considerations.
2.8.3 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE
The fatigue limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress range as a result of a single
design truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles.
The fatigue limit state is intended to limit crack growth under repetitive loads to prevent
fracture during the design life of the bridge.
The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set of material toughness requirements of the
Technical Specifications.
2.8.4 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
The strength limit state shall be taken to ensure that strength and stability, both local and
global, are provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that a
bridge is expected to experience in its design life.
Extensive distress and structural damage may occur under strength limit state, but overall
structural integrity is expected to be maintained.
2.8.5 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES
The extreme event limit state shall be taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge
during a major earthquake or flood, possibly under scoured conditions.
Extreme event limit states are considered to be unique occurrences whose return period
shall be significantly greater than the design life of the bridge.

Chapter 2
2.9 DUCTILITY
The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme
event limit states prior to failure.
It shall be assumed that the requirements for ductility are satisfied for a concrete structure
in which the resistance of a connection is not less than 1.3 times the maximum force
effect imposed on the connection by the inelastic action of the adjacent components.
Energy-dissipating devices shall be accepted as means of providing ductility.
For the strength limit state:
ηD ≥ 1.05 for non-ductile components and connections

ηD = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these
Specifications
ηD ≥ 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing
measures have been specified beyond those required by these
Specifications
For all other limit states:
ηD = 1.00
The response of structural components or connections beyond the elastic limit can be
characterized by either brittle or ductile behavior. Under repeated seismic loading, large
reversed cycles of inelastic deformation dissipate energy and have a beneficial effect on
structural survival.
If, by means of confinement or other measures, a structural component or connection

made of brittle materials can sustain inelastic deformations without significant loss of
load-carrying capacity, this component can be considered ductile. Such ductile
performance shall be verified by testing.
In order to achieve adequate inelastic behavior the system should have a sufficient
number of ductile members and either:
• Joints and connections that are also ductile and can provide energy dissipation without
loss of capacity, or
• Joints and connections that have sufficient excess strength so as to assure that the
inelastic response occurs at the locations designed to provide ductile, energy
absorbing response.
Statically ductile, but dynamically non-ductile response characteristics should be avoided.

Examples of this behavior are shear and bond failures in concrete members and loss of
composite action in flexural components. Experience indicates that typical components
designed in accordance with these provisions generally exhibit adequate ductility.

Chapter 2
Connection and joints require special attention to detailing and the provision of load
paths.
The minimum ductibility factor as an assurance that ductile failure modes will be obtained
shall be defined as follows:
µ = ∆u /∆y (2.4)
Where: ∆u - deformation at ultimate

∆y - deformation at the elastic limit
The ductility capacity of structural components or connections may either be established

by full- or large-scale testing or with analytical models based on documented material
behavior. The ductility capacity for a structural system shall be determined by integrating
local deformations over the entire structural system.
The special requirements for energy dissipating devices are imposed because of the
rigorous demands placed on these components.
2.10 REDUNDANCY
Multiple load-path structures should be used unless there are compelling reasons not to
use them. Main elements and components whose failure is expected to cause the collapse
of the bridge shall be designated as failure-critical and the associated structural system as
non-redundant. Alternatively, failure-critical members in tension shall be designated
fracture-critical.
Those elements and components whose failure is not expected to cause collapse of the
bridge shall be designated as nonfailure-critical and the associated structural system as
redundant.

ηR ≥ 1.05 for nonredundant members
= 1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
≤ 0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy
ηR = 1.00
For each load combination and limit state under consideration, member redundancy
classification (redundant or non-redundant) should be based upon the member
contribution to the bridge safety.
OPERATIONAL IMPORTANCE
This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states only. Some
bridges or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of operational
importance.

Chapter 2
Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense

requirements. The commentary in Chapter 3: Load Requirements provides some guidance
on selecting importance categories as they relate to design for earthquakes. This
information can be generalized for other situations.
Three levels of importance are specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements with respect to
seismic design: "critical," "essential," and "other." For the purposes of this Chapter,
bridges classified as "critical" or "essential" in Chapter 3: Load Requirements should be
considered of "operational importance."

ηl ≥ 1.05 for important bridges
= 1.00 for typical bridges
≤ 0.95 for relatively less important bridges
ηl = 1.00
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications: SI Units, 2nd Edition, 1998.

Washington: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
2. O’Sullivan and Graham, “Axle Load Control Survey,” 1998.
3. Building Code of Ethiopia (EBCS), Volume 1 “Basis of Design and Actions on
Structures,” 1995.

Chapter 3
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Load Requirements
3 LOAD REQUIREMENTS
3.1 SCOPE
This section specifies minimum requirements for loads and forces, the limits of their
application, load factors, and load combinations used for the design of new bridges. The
load provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing bridges.
The design shall be done under the most unfavorable load requirements.
A minimum load factor is specified for force effects that may develop during
construction.
This section includes, in addition to traditional loads, the force effects due to collisions,
earthquakes, and settlement and distortion of the structure.
Vehicle collisions, earthquakes, and aeroelastic instability develop force effects that are
dependent upon structural response. Therefore, such force effects cannot be determined
without analysis and/or testing.
With the exception of segmental concrete bridges, construction loads are not provided.
3.2 NOTATIONS
a = length of uniform deceleration at braking (mm)

A = seismic acceleration coefficient
ADTT = average daily truck traffic
b = braking force coefficient
C = unit cohesion (MPa); coefficient to compute centrifugal forces
CD = drag coefficient (s2 N/mm4)
CL = lateral drag coefficient
CSm = elastic seismic response coefficient for the mth mode of vibration
DE = minimum depth of earth cover (mm)
FSBH = factor of safety against basal heave
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
H = final height of retaining wall (mm); notional height of earth pressure diagram
(mm)
heq = equivalent height of soil for vehicular load (mm)
i = angle of fill to horizontal (°)
k = coefficient of earth pressure
ka = coefficient of active lateral earth pressure
kh = coefficient of lateral earth pressure
ko = coefficient of earth pressure at rest
kp = coefficient of passive pressure
ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge
m = multiple presence factor
OCR = overconsolidation ratio
p = pressure of flowing water (MPa); basic earth pressure (MPa); fraction of truck
traffic in a single lane; load intensity (MPa)
P = concentrated wheel load (N); live load intensity; load (N)
Pa = apparent earth pressure (MPa); force resultant per unit width of wall (N/mm)

Chapter 3
Load Requirements Bridge Design Manual - 2002
PB = base wind pressure corresponding to a wind speed of 160 km/h (MPa)

PD = design wind pressure (MPa)
Ph = horizontal component of force per unit length of wall due to earth pressure
(N/mm)
PL = lateral water pressure (MPa)
PN = normal component of wind pressure (MPa)
PP = passive earth pressure (MPa)
Pv = vertical component of force per unit length of wall due to earth pressure (N/mm)
Q = load intensity (N/mm)
q = generalized load
qs = maximum applied surcharge (MPa)
R = radius of curvature (mm); seismic response modification factor; radial distance
from point of load application to a point on the wall
S = coefficient related to site conditions for use in determining seismic loads
SU = undermined shear strength of cohesive soil (MPa)
Tm = period of vibration for mth mode (s)
t = thickness of deck (mm)
v = highway design speed (m/s); Poisson’s Ratio (DIM)
V = design velocity of water (m/s)
VB = base wind velocity taken as 160 km/h
VDZ = design wind velocity at design Elevation Z (km/h)
V0 = friction velocity, a meteorological wind characteristic for various upwind
surface characteristics (km/h)
V10 = wind speed at 10 m above low ground or water level (km/h)
w = width of clear roadway (mm); width of pier at level of ice action (mm);
3
density of water (kg/m )
X = horizontal distance from back of wall to point of load application (mm); pier
nose inclination in degrees
X1 = distance from the back of the wall to the start of the line load (mm)
X2 = length of the live load (mm)
Z = structure height above low ground or water level > 10 m; depth below surface of
soil (mm); depth from the ground surface to a point on the wall under
consideration (mm); vertical distance from point of load application to the
elevation of a point on the wall under consideration (mm)
Zo = friction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic(m)
z = depth below surface of backfill (mm)
α = constant for terrain conditions in relation to wind approach; angle between
foundation wall and a line connecting the point on the wall under consideration
and a point on the bottom corner of the footing nearest to the wall (RAD)
B = notional slope of backfill (DEG)
β = safety index; slope of backfill surface behind retaining wall (DEG)
γ = density of materials (kg/m3); density of soil (kg/m3); load factor for limit state
under consideration
γs = density of soil (kg/m3)
γ's = effective soil density (kg/m3)
γEQ = load factor for live load applied simultaneously with seismic loads
γeq = equivalent-fluid density (kg/m3)
γi = load factor
γP = load factor for permanent loading
γSE = load factor for settlement

Chapter 3
γTG = load factor for temperature gradient

∆ = movement of top of wall required reaching minimum active or maximum
passive pressure by tilting or by lateral translation (mm)
∆P = constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge (MPa)
∆ph = horizontal pressure distribution (MPa)
δ = friction angle between fill and wall (DEG); angle between foundation wall and a
line connecting the point on the wall under consideration and a point on the
bottom corner of the footing furthest from the wall (RAD)
ι = tire contact length
η = load modifier specified in Chapter 2: General Requirements
θ = angle of wind direction (DEG); angle of backfill of wall to the vertical (DEG);
angle between direction of stream flow and the longitudinal axis of pier (DEG)
ϕ = resistance factors
ϕf = angle of internal friction of drained soil (DEG)
ϕ/ = effective angle of internal friction (DEG)
NOTATIONS ON LOAD AND LOAD DESIGNATION
The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered:
• Permanent Loads
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DD = downdrag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
• Transient Loads
BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure

Chapter 3
3.3 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS
GENERAL
The total factored force effect shall be taken as:

Q = Σηiγi Qi (3.1)
where:
ηi= load modifier (see Chapter 2: General Requirements)
Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
γi = load factors specified in Tables 3-2 and 3-3 below
Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy Equation 3.1 for the applicable
combinations of factored extreme force effects as specified at each of the limit states
presented in Table 3-1:
Table 3-1 Limit States
STRENGTH Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.
I
A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load combinations, specified for
uniform temperature (TU), creep (CR), and shrinkage (SH), used when calculating force
effects other than displacements at the strength limit state, represents an expected
reduction of these force effects in conjunction with the inelastic response of the
structure. The calculation of displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than
1.0 to avoid undersized joints and bearings.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified special design or
II permit vehicles, without wind.
The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the bridge unless so
assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes should be assumed to be occupied
by the vehicular live load as specified herein. For bridges longer than the permit
vehicle, the presence of the design lane load, preceding and following the permit load in
its lane, should be considered.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 km/h.
III
Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore, high winds prevent the
presence of significant live load on the bridge.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect ratios.
IV
The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of trying out
various combinations of load and resistance factors on a number of bridges and their
components. Combinations that yield a safety index close to the target value of β = 3.5
are retained for potential application. From these are selected constant load factors γ
and corresponding resistance factors ϕ for each type of structural component reflecting
its use.
This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of bridges with spans
not exceeding 60 m. For the primary components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and
live load force effects is rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors
different from those found acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. It is
believed to be more practical to investigate one additional load case than to require the
use of two sets of resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength Load
Combination I, depending on other permanent loads present. For bridges with up to
180 m spans, Load Combination IV will govern where the dead load to live load force
effect ratio exceeds 7.0.

Chapter 3
STRENGTH Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 90 km/h
V (25 m/s) velocity
EXTREME Load combination including earthquake
EVENT I
This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major flood and an
earthquake occurring at the same time is very small. Therefore, consideration of basing
water loads and scour depths on mean discharges shall be warranted. Live load
coincident with an earthquake is discussed elsewhere in this chapter.
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with a 90 km/h
(25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to deflection
control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to
control crack width in reinforced concrete structures. This load combination should also
be used for the investigation of slope stability.
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this load

combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in prestressed concrete
components.
SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures (as in
Ref 25), and it is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view of load
level, this combination is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and
Strength I Limit States.
SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures with the
objective of crack control.
The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among other things, exclusion
weight limits. The statistical significance of the 0.80 factor on live load is that the event
is expected to occur about once a year for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for
bridges with more than two traffic lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single
traffic lane.
FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational vehicular live
load and dynamic responses under a single design truck having a constant axle spacing
of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found to be
representative of the truck population with respect to a large number of return cycles of
stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements, components, and connections.
The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as
specified in Table 3-2. All relevant subsets of the load combinations shall be
investigated. For each load combination, every load that is indicated to be taken into
account and that is germane to the component being designed, including all significant
effects due to distortion, shall be multiplied by the appropriate load factor and multiple
presence factor specified in Table 3-5, if applicable. The products shall be summed as
specified in Equation 2.1 and multiplied by the load modifiers.
The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each
load combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.
In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value
shall be applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the
load factor that produces the more critical combination shall be selected from Table 3-3.

Chapter 3
Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a

component or bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for that permanent load shall
also be investigated.
The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU),
Creep (CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for deformations and the smaller values
for all other effects.
Load DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of

Combination DD IM CR these at a
DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
Limit State EL EQ CT
STRENGTH 1 γp 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH II γp 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
STRENGTH III γp - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
STRENGTH IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW γp - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH V γp 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
EXTREME γp γEQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.0 -
EVENT I 0
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
ONLY
Ref (24)
Where (see following text):
BR = vehicular braking force FR = friction

CE = vehicular centrifugal force IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
CR = creep LL = vehicular live load
CT = vehicular collision force LS = live load surcharge
DC = dead load of structural components PL = pedestrian live load
DD = downdrag SE = settlement
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities SH = shrinkage
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TG = temperature gradient
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting TU = uniform temperature
from the construction process WA = water load and stream pressure
EQ = earthquake load WL = wind on live load
ES = earth surcharge load WS = wind load on structure
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
Table 3-2 - Load Combinations and Load Factors

Chapter 3
Type of Load Load Factor (γp)

Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
• Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
• Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
• Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
• Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert
• Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
Ref (24)
Table 3-3 Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp
The evaluation of overall stability of earth slopes with or without a foundation unit
should be investigated at the service limit state based on the Service I Load Combination
and an appropriate resistance factor. In lieu of better information, the resistance factor,
ϕ, shall be taken as:
• When the geotechnical parameters are well defined, and the slope does not support or
contain a structural element.. .............................................................................ϕ = 0.85
• When the geotechnical parameters are based on limited information, or the slope
contains or supports a structural element ......................................................... ϕ = 0.65
For structural (steel) plate box structures with a depth of soil layer of 0.4 - 1.5 m, the live
load factor for the vehicular live loads (LL) and dynamic allowance (IM) shall be taken
as 2.0.
This chapter reinforces the traditional method of selecting load combinations to obtain
realistic extreme effects and is intended to clarify the issue of the variability of permanent
loads and their effects. The Designer may determine that not all of the loads in a given
load combination apply to the situation under investigation. It is recognized herein that
the actual magnitude of permanent loads may also be less than the nominal value. This
becomes important where the permanent load reduces the effects of transient loads.
In the application of permanent loads, force effects for each of the specified six load
types should be computed separately. It is unnecessary to assume that one type of load
varies by span, length, or component within a bridge. For example, when investigating
uplift at a bearing in a continuous beam, it would not be appropriate to use the maximum
load factor for permanent loads in spans that produce a negative reaction, and the

Chapter 3
minimum load factor in spans that produce a positive reaction. Consider the investigation
of uplift. Where a permanent load produces uplift, that load would be multiplied by the
maximum load factor, regardless of the span in which it is located. If another permanent
load reduces the uplift, it would be multiplied by the minimum load factor, regardless of
the span in which it is located. For example, at Strength I Limit State where the
permanent load reaction is positive and live load can cause a negative reaction, the load
combination would be:
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)

If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).
For each force effect, both extreme combinations may need to be investigated by
applying either the high or the low load factor as appropriate. The algebraic sums of these
products are the total force effects for which the bridge and its components should be
designed.
Water load and friction are included in all strength load combinations at their respective
nominal values.
For creep and shrinkage, the specified nominal values should be used. For friction,
settlement, and water loads, both minimum and maximum values need to be investigated
to produce extreme load combinations.
The load factor for temperature gradient should be determined on the basis of the:
• Type of structure and
• Limit state being investigated.
Open girder construction and multiple steel box girders have traditionally, but perhaps
not necessarily correctly, been designed without consideration of temperature gradient,
i.e., γTG = 0.0.
The load factor for temperature gradient, γTG, and settlement, γSE, should be considered
on a project specific basis. In lieu of project-specific information to the contrary, γTG
shall be taken as:
• 0.0 at the strength and extreme event limit states,
• 1.0 at the service limit state when live load is not considered, and
• 0.50 at the service limit state when live load is considered.
For segmentally constructed bridges, the following load combination shall be

investigated at the service limit state:
DC+ DW+ EH + EV+ ES+WA+ CR+SH + TG + EL (3.2)
The load factor for live load in Extreme Event Load Combination I, γEQ, shall be
determined on a project specific basis.
Application of Turkstra's rule for combining uncorrelated loads indicates that γEQ = 0.50
is reasonable for a wide range of values of average daily truck traffic (ADTT).
A load factor for passive earth pressure is not given in Table 3-3 because, strictly
speaking, passive earth pressure is a resistance and not a load.

Chapter 3
3.4 LOAD FACTORS FOR CONSTRUCTION LOADS
Load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances shall not be taken to be
less than 1.25.
Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the load factor for construction loads, for equipment
and for dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The load factor for wind shall not be
less than 1.25. All other load factors shall be taken as 1.0.
The load factors presented here should not relieve the contractor of responsibility for
safety and damage control during construction.
3.5 LOAD FACTORS FOR JACKING AND POSTTENSIONING FORCES

3.5.1 JACKING FORCES
Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the design forces for jacking in service shall not be
less than 1.3 times the permanent load reaction at the bearing, adjacent to the point of
jacking. The point of jacking shall be assumed to be 0.5 m from the center of the bearing,
if nothing else is stated on the drawing. A minimum height and width of 450 mm shall be
provided for jacking.
Where the bridge will not be closed to traffic during the jacking operation, the jacking
load shall also contain a live load reaction consistent with the maintenance of traffic plan,
multiplied by the load factor for live load. This special case shall be stated at the
preliminary and detailed drawings or in the Preliminary Design Specifications (PDS).
3.5.2 FORCE FOR POSTTENSIONING ANCHORAGE ZONES

The design force for posttensioning anchorage zones shall be taken as 1.2 times the
maximum jacking force.
3.6 DEAD LOADS (DC = STRUCTURAL COMPONENT; DW = WEARING SURFACE; EV =

VERTICAL EARTHFILL)
Permanent loads consist of dead loads and earth loads. Dead load shall include the weight
of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities attached thereto, earth
cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.
In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in Table 3-4, shall be
used for dead loads.
The table below provides traditional densities. The density of granular materials depends
upon the degree of compaction and water content. The density of concrete is primarily
affected by that of the aggregate, which varies by location and design.
Densities shown with the units kg/m3 and kg/mm are in mass units, not force units. To
convert to force units of N/m3 multiply by the gravitation constant g = 9.81 m/sec2 and
collect the units kgm/sec2 as a Newton, as shown in the table.

Chapter 3
MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)

Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10
Table 3-4 Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials
3.7 EARTH LOADS (EH = HORIZONTAL EARTH; ES = EARTH SURCHARGE; DD =

DOWNDRAG)
Earth pressure, earth surcharge, and downdrag loads shall be as specified in this chapter,
in section 3.20.
3.8 GRAVITY LOADS: (LL= VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD; PL= PEDESTRIAN LIVE LOAD)
3.8.1 VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD
Number of Design Lanes
Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking the integer part of
the ratio w/3000, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or
barriers. Possible future changes in the physical or functional clear roadway width of the
bridge should be considered.
In cases where the traffic lanes are less than 3.0 m wide, the number of design lanes shall
be equal to the number of traffic lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be taken as
the width of the traffic lane.
Wherever possible, bridges should be built to accommodate the standard design lane and
appropriate shoulders as specified in chapter 2 section 2.3 of this manual.
Multiple Presence of Live Load
The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the fatigue limit state for which
one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes. Where the single-lane
approximate distribution factors in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis are
used, other than the lever rule and statical method, the force effects shall be divided by
1.20.

Chapter 3
The extreme live load force effect shall be determined by considering each possible
combination of number of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor specified
in Table 3-5. For the purpose of determining the number of lanes when the loading
condition includes the pedestrian loads specified later in this chapter combined with one
or more lanes of the vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one
loaded lane.
The m-factors specified below shall not be applied in conjunction with approximate load
distribution factors specified in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis, except
where the lever rule is used or where special requirements for exterior beams in beam-
slab bridges is applied.
Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65
“m”
Table 3-5 Multiple Presence Factors "m"
The multiple presence factors have been included in the approximate equations for
distribution factors in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis, both for single and
multiple loaded lanes. The equations are based on evaluation of several combinations of
loaded lanes with their appropriate multiple presence factors and are intended to account
for the worst case scenario. Where use of the lever rule is specified the Designer must
determine the number and location of vehicles and lanes, and, therefore, must include the
multiple presence. Stated another way, if a sketch is required to determine load
distribution, the Designer is responsible for including multiple presence factors and
selecting the worst design case. The factor 1.20 from Table 3-5 has already been included
in the approximate equations and should be removed for the purpose of fatigue
investigations.
The value of m for a single vehicle was estimated at 1.2 on the basis of statistical
calibration of these Specifications. When a single vehicle is on the bridge, it may be
heavier than each one of a pair of vehicles and still have the same probability of
occurrence.
The consideration of pedestrian loads counting as a "loaded lane" for the purpose of
determining a multiple presence factor (m) is based on the assumption that simultaneous
occupancy by a dense loading of people combined with a 75-year design live load is
remote. For the purpose of this provision, it has been assumed that if a bridge is used as
a viewing stand for eight hours each year for a total time of about one month, the
appropriate live load to combine with it would have a one-month recurrence interval.
This is reasonably approximated by use of the multiple presence factors, even though
they are originally developed for vehicular live loads.
Thus, if a component supported a sidewalk and one lane, it would be investigated for the
vehicular live load alone with m = 1.20, and for the pedestrian loads combined with the
vehicular live load with m = 1.0. If a component supported a sidewalk and two lanes of
vehicular live load, it would be investigated for:

Chapter 3
• One lane of vehicular live load, m = 1.20;

• The greater of the more significant lane of vehicular live load and the pedestrian
loads or two lanes of vehicular live load, m = 1.0 applied to the governing case; and
• Two lanes of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads, m = 0.85.
The multiple presence factor of 1.20 for a single lane does not apply to the pedestrian
loads. Therefore, the case of the pedestrian loads without the vehicular live load is a
subset of the second bulleted item.
The multiple presence factors in Table 3-5 were developed based on an ADTT of 5000
trucks in one direction. The force effect resulting from the appropriate number of lanes
shall be reduced for sites with lower ADTT as follows:
• If 100 ≤ ADTT ≤ 1000; 95 % of the specified force effect shall be used; and
• If ADTT < 100; 90 % of the specified force effect shall be used.
This adjustment is based on the reduced probability of attaining the design event during a
75-year design life with reduced truck volume.
3.8.2 DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD
Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges or incidental structures, designated

HL-93, shall consist of a combination of the:
• Design truck or design tandem (see following), and
• Design lane load (see following)
Consideration should be given to site-specific modifications to the design truck, design

tandem, and/or the design lane load under the following conditions:
• The roadway is expected to carry unusually high percentages of truck traffic;
• Flow control, such as a stop sign, traffic signal, or control booth, causes trucks to
collect on certain areas of a bridge or to not be interrupted by light traffic; or
• Special industrial loads are common due to the location of the bridge.
• See also further discussion in this subchapter.
The live load model, consisting of either a truck or tandem coincident with a uniformly
distributed load, was developed as a notional representation of shear and moment
produced by a group of vehicles routinely permitted on highways under exclusions to
weight laws. The vehicles considered to be representative of these exclusions are called
exclusion vehicles. The load model is called "notional" because it is not intended to
represent any particular truck. The exclusion load is the load produced by an exclusion
vehicle.
Except as modified in the following subchapter, each design lane under consideration
shall be occupied by either the design truck or tandem, coincident with the lane load,
where applicable. The loads shall be assumed to occupy 3 m transversely within a design
lane.

Chapter 3
The "span" is the length of the simple-span or of one of each of the two continuous
spans. The comparison is in the form of ratios of the load effects produced in either
simple-span or two-span continuous girders. A ratio greater than 1.0 indicates that one or
more of the exclusion vehicles produces a larger load effect than the HS20 loading. The
figures indicate the degree by which the exclusion loads deviate from the HS loading of
designation, e.g., HS25.
The following nomenclature applies to Figures 3-1 through 3-3, which show results of
live load studies involving two equal continuous spans or simple spans:
M POS 0.4L = positive moment at 4/10 point in either span

M NEG 0.4L = negative moment at 4/10 point in either span
M SUPPORT = moment at interior support
Vab =shear adjacent to either exterior support
Vba = shear adjacent to interior support
Mss = midspan moment in a simply supported span
Figures 3-1 shows moment and shear comparisons between the envelope of effects
caused by several truck configurations representative of the exclusion vehicles and the
HS20 loading, either the HS20 truck or the lane load, or a load consisting of two 110 kN
axles 1.2 m apart. In the case of negative moment at an interior support, the results
presented are based on two identical exclusion vehicles in tandem and separated by at
least 15.0 m.
Figure 3-1 Moment and Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles to HS20 (truck or lane)
or Two 110 kN Axles at 1.2m

Chapter 3
Figure 3-2 shows comparisons between the force effects produced by a single exclusion
truck per lane and the notional load model, except for negative moment, where the
tandem exclusion vehicles were used.
Figure 3-2 Moment and Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles to Notional Model
In the case of negative moment at a support, the provisions of the following subchapter
dealing with the application of Design Vehicular Live Loads, requiring investigation of
90% of the effect of two design trucks, plus 90 % of the design lane load, have been
included in Figure 3-3. Compared with Figure 3-1, the range of ratios can be seen as
more closely grouped:
• Over the span range,
• Both for shear and moment, and
• Both for simple-span and continuous spans.
The implication of close grouping is that the notional load model with a single-load
factor has general applicability.
Figure 3-3 shows the ratios of force effects produced by the notional load model and the
greatest of the HS20 truck or lane loading, or Alternate Military Loading.
Figure 3-3 Moment and Shear Ratios: Notional Model to HS20 (truck or lane) or
Two 110 kN Axles at 1.2 m.

Chapter 3
In reviewing Figure 3-3, it should be noted that the total design force effect is also a
function of load factor, load modifier, load distribution, and dynamic load allowance.
3.8.3 DESIGN TRUCK
The weights and spacings of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as specified in
Figure 3-4. A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as specified in the following
subchapter on Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance.
Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas
4.3 m
4.3 –9.0 m
1.8 m
3.000 mm
Figure 3-4 Characteristics of the Design Truck
Except as specified in following subchapters on the application of Design Vehicular Live

Loads and Fatigue Loads, the spacing between the two 145 kN axles shall be varied
between 4.3 and 9.0 m to produce extreme force effects.
3.8.4 DESIGN TANDEM
The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges (see Chapter 2: General Requirements)
shall consist of a pair of 110 kN axles spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of
wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as
specified in a following subchapter. The spacing and loading is illustrated in Figure 3-5.

Chapter 3
110 kN
1.2 m
110 kN
1.8 m
Figure 3-5 Design Tandem Load
3.8.5 DESIGN LANE LOAD
The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly distributed in the
longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be
uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load
shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.
3.8.6 TIRE CONTACT AREA
The tire contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tires shall be assumed to be a
single rectangle, whose width is 500 mm and whose length (ι) in mm shall be taken as:
ι = 2.28 x 10-3 γ (1 + IM/100) P (3.3)
where: γ = load factor for the limit state under consideration.

IM = dynamic load allowance percent
P = 72.5 kN for the design truck and 55 kN for the design tandem
The implication of extending the length of the tire patch by the load factor is that the
contact pressure remains nearly constant as load varies.
The tire pressure shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. The
tire pressure shall be assumed to be distributed as follows:
• On continuous surfaces, uniformly over the specified contact area, and
• On interrupted surfaces, uniformly over the actual contact area within the footprint
with the pressure increased in the ratio of the specified to actual contact areas.
However, for all concrete decks including composite decks the length 200 mm shall be
used in Equation 3.3.
3.8.7 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS THROUGH EARTH FILLS
Where the depth of fill is less than 600 mm, the effect of the fill on the distribution of
live load shall be neglected.
Where the depth of fill exceeds 600 mm, wheel loads shall be considered to be uniformly
distributed over a rectangular area with sides equal to the dimension of the tire contact
area, as specified above, and increased by either 1.15 times the depth of the fill in select
granular backfill, or 1.0 times the depth of the fill in all other cases. The provisions of

Chapter 3
the present sub section on Multiple Presence of Live Load, and Application of Design
Vehicular Live Loads (sub-section n°3.9) shall apply.
Where such areas from several wheels overlap, the total load shall be uniformly
distributed over the area.
For single-span culverts, the effects of live load shall be neglected where the depth of
fill is more than 2.4 m and exceeds the span length; for multiple span culverts, the effects
shall be neglected where the depth of fill exceeds the distance between faces of end
walls.
Where the live load and impact moment in concrete slabs, based on the distribution of the
wheel load through earth fills, exceeds the live load and impact moment calculated
according to Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis, Section 13.5: Equivalent
Strip Widths for Slab-type Bridges, or a more refined method, the latter moment shall be
used.
This approximation is similar to the 60° rule found in many texts on soil mechanics.
This provision applies to relieving slabs below grade and to top slabs of box culverts.
3.9 APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS
3.9.1 GENERAL
The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load are superimposed in order to obtain
extreme values.
Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the larger of the
following:
• The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load, or
• The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in the
subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load above, combined with the effect of the
design lane load, and
• For both negative moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform load on
all spans, and reaction at interior piers only, 90% of the effect of two design trucks
spaced a minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of
the other truck, combined with 90% of the effect of the design lane load. The distance
between the 145 kN axles of each truck shall be taken as 4.3 m.
Axles that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration shall be
neglected.
Both the design lanes and the 3m loaded width in each lane shall be positioned to
produce extreme force effects. The design truck or tandem shall be positioned
transversely such that the center of any wheel load is not closer than:
• For the design of the deck overhang - 300 mm from the face of the curb or railing,
and
• For the design of all other components - 600 mm from the edge of the design lane.

Chapter 3
Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or parts thereof, that contribute to
the extreme force effect under consideration, shall be loaded with the design lane load.
The lane load is not interrupted to provide space for the axle sequences of the design
tandem or the design truck; interruption is needed only for patch loading patterns to
produce extreme force effects.
The notional design loads were based on the information described in the above
subchapter Design Vehicular Live Load, which contained data on vehicles weighing up to
about 490 kN. Where multiple lanes of heavier versions of this type of vehicle are
considered probable, consideration should be given to investigating negative moment and
reactions at interior supports for pairs of the design tandem spaced from 8 m to 12 m
apart, combined with the design lane load specified in subchapter Design Lane Load
above. This is consistent with above subchapter Design Vehicular Live Load, and should
not be considered a replacement for the Strength II Load Combination.
Only those areas or parts of areas that contribute to the same extreme being sought
should be loaded. The loaded length should be determined by the points where the
influence surface meets the centerline of the design lane.
Where a sidewalk is not separated from the roadway by a crashworthy traffic barrier,
consideration should be given to the possibility that vehicles can climb up the sidewalk.
3.9.2 LOADING FOR OPTIONAL LIVE LOAD DEFLECTION EVALUATION
The criteria for live load deflection shall be considered optional. These provisions permit
but do not encourage its use. If the owner chooses to invoke deflection control, the
deflection should be taken as the larger of:
• That resulting from the design truck alone, or
• That resulting from 25 % of the design truck taken together with the design lane load
In deflection control, the following principles shall apply:

• When investigating the maximum absolute deflection, all design lanes should be
loaded, and all supporting components should be assumed to deflect equally
• When investigating maximum relative displacements, the number and position of
loaded lanes shall be selected to provide the worst differential effect
• The live load portion of Load Combination Service I shall be used, including the
dynamic load allowance, IM
Note that live load deflection is a service issue, not a strength issue. Experience with
bridges designed under previous Specifications indicated no adverse effects of live load
deflection. Therefore, there appears to be little reason to require that the past criteria be
compared to a deflection based upon the heavier live load required by these
Specifications.
The provisions of this subsection are intended to produce apparent live load deflections
similar to those used in the past. The current design truck is identical to the HS-20 truck
of past Standard Specifications. For the span lengths where the design lane load controls,
the design lane load together with 25% of the design truck, i.e., three concentrated loads
totaling 80 kN, is similar to the past lane load with its single concentrated load of 80 kN.

Chapter 3
3.9.3 DESIGN LOADS FOR DECKS, DECK SYSTEMS, AND THE TOP SLABS OF BOX CULVERTS
This subchapter clarifies the selection of wheel loads to be used in the design of bridge
decks, slab bridges, and top slabs of box culverts.
The design load is always an axle load; single wheel loads should not be considered.
Where the approximate strip method is used to analyze decks and top slabs of box
culverts, force effects shall be determined on the following basis:
• Where primary strips are transverse and their span does not exceed 4.6m, the
transverse strips shall be designed for the wheels of the 145 kN axle.
• Where primary strips are transverse and their span exceeds 4.6m, the transverse strips
shall be designed for the wheels of the 145 kN axle and the lane load.
• Where primary strips are longitudinal, the transverse strips shall be designed for all
loads specified in above subchapter Design Vehicular Live Load, including the lane
load.
Where the refined methods are used, all of the loads specified in above subchapter
Design Vehicular Live Load, including the lane load, shall be considered.
Deck systems, including slab-type bridges, shall be designed for all of the live loads
specified in above subchapter Design Vehicular Live Load, including the lane load.
Wheel loads shall be assumed equal within an axle unit, and amplification of the wheel
loads due to centrifugal and braking forces need not be considered for the design of
decks.
It is theoretically possible that an extreme force effect could result from a 145 kN axle in
one lane and a 220 kN tandem in a second lane, but such sophistication is not warranted
in practical design.
3.9.4 DECK OVERHANG LOAD
For the design of deck overhangs with a cantilever, not exceeding 1.8 m from the
centerline of the exterior girder to the face of a structurally continuous concrete railing,
the outside row of wheel loads shall be replaced with a uniformly distributed line load of
15 kN/m intensity, located 0.3 m from the face of the railing.
Structurally continuous barriers and edge-beams have been observed to be effective in

distributing wheel loads in the overhang. Implicit in this provision is the assumption that
the 110 kN half weight of a design tandem is distributed over a longitudinal length of 7.6
m, and that there is a cross beam or other appropriate component at the end of the bridge
supporting the barrier which is designed for the half tandem weight. This provision does
not apply if the barrier is not structurally continuous.
3.10 FATIGUE LOAD
Since the fatigue and fracture limit state is defined in terms of accumulated stress-range
cycles, specification of load alone is not adequate. Load should be specified along with
the frequency of load occurrence.

Chapter 3
For the purposes of this chapter, a truck is defined as any vehicle with more than either
two axles or four wheels.
3.10.1 MAGNITUDE AND CONFIGURATION
The fatigue load shall be one design truck or axles thereof specified in above subchapter
Design Truck, but with a constant spacing of 9.0 m between the 145 kN axles. The
dynamic load allowance specified in the following subchapter of that name shall be
applied to the fatigue load.
3.10.2 FREQUENCY
The frequency of the fatigue load shall be taken as the single-lane average daily truck
traffic (ADTTSL). This frequency shall be applied to all components of the bridge, even
to those located under lanes that carry a lesser number of trucks.
In the absence of better information, the single-lane ADTT shall be taken as:
ADTTSL = P * ADTT (3.4)

where:
ADTT= the number of trucks per day in one direction averaged over the design life
ADTTSL = the number of trucks per day in a single-lane averaged over the design life
P = taken as specified in Table 3-6 below:
Number of Lanes P
Available to Trucks
1 1.00
2 0.85
3 or more 0.80
Table 3-6 Fraction of Truck Traffic in a Single Lane, P
The single-lane ADTT is that for the traffic lane in which the majority of the truck traffic
crosses the bridge. On a typical bridge with no nearby entrance/exit ramps, the shoulder
lane carries most of the truck traffic.
Since future traffic patterns on the bridge are uncertain, the frequency of the fatigue load
for a single lane is assumed to apply to all lanes.
The ADTT can be determined by multiplying the ADT by the fraction of trucks in the
traffic. In lieu of site-specific fraction of truck traffic data, the values of Table 3-7 shall
be applied for routine bridges. The table is based on traffic counts at seven locations in
the country:
Class of Highway Fraction of Trucks in Traffic

Rural Highway 0.40
Urban Highway 0.30
Other Rural Roads 0.45
Other Urban Roads 0.35
Table 3-7 Fraction of Trucks in Traffic

Chapter 3
3.10.3 LOAD DISTRIBUTION FOR FATIGUE
Refined Methods
• A refined method is any method of analysis that satisfies the requirements of

equilibrium and compatibility and utilizes stress-rain relationships for the proposed
materials, including, but not limited to:
• Classical force and displacement methods: a method of analysis in which the
structure is divided into components whose stiffness can be independently calculated.
Equilibrium and compatibility among the components is restored by determining the
interface forces.
• Finite difference method: a method of analysis in which the governing differential
equation is satisfied at discrete points on the structure.
• Finite element method: a method of analysis in which a structure is discretized into
elements connected at nodes, the shape of the element displacement field is assumed,
partial or complete compatibility is maintained among the element interfaces, and
nodal displacements are determined by using energy variational principles or
equilibrium methods.
• Folded plate method: a method of analysis in which the structure is subdivided into
plate components, and both equilibrium and compatibility requirements are satisfied
at the component surfaces.
• Finite strip method: a method of analysis in which a structure is discretized into
parallel strips. The shape of the strip displacement field is assumed and partial
compatibility is maintained among the element interfaces. Model displacement
parameters are determined by using energy variational principles or equilibrium
methods.
• Grillage analogy method: a method of analysis in which all or part of the
superstructure is discretized into orthotropic components that represent the
characteristics of the structure.
• Series or other harmonic methods: a method of analysis in which the load model is
subdivided into suitable parts, allowing each part to correspond to one term of a
convergent infinite series by which structural deformations are described.
• Yield line method: a method of analysis in which a number of possible yield line
patterns are examined in order to determine load-carrying capacity.
The Designer shall be responsible for the implementation of computer programs used to
facilitate structural analysis and for the interpretation and use of results. The choice of the
Refined Method will depend on the computer program.
If it were assured that the traffic lanes would remain as they are indicated at the opening
of the bridge throughout its entire service life, it would be appropriate to place the truck
at the center of the traffic lane that produces maximum stress range in the detail under
consideration. But because future traffic patterns on the bridge are uncertain and in the
interest of minimizing the number of calculations required of the designer, the position of
the truck is made independent of the location of both the traffic lanes and the design
lanes.
Where the bridge is analyzed by any refined method, a single design truck shall be
positioned transversely and longitudinally to maximize stress range at the detail under
consideration, regardless of the position of traffic or design lanes on the deck.

Chapter 3
Approximate Methods (see chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis)
Where the bridge is analyzed by approximate load distribution, the distribution factor for
one traffic lane shall be used.
3.11 RAIL TRANSIT LOAD
Where a bridge also carries rail-transit vehicles, the Owner of the Railway shall specify
the transit load characteristics and the expected interaction between transit and highway
traffic.
If rail transit is designed to occupy an exclusive lane, transit loads should be included in
the design, but the bridge should not have less strength than if it had been designed as a
highway bridge of the same width.
If the rail transit is supposed to mix with regular highway traffic, the Owner should
specify or approve an appropriate combination of transit and highway loads for the
design. Transit load characteristics may include:
• Loads,
• Load distribution,
• Load frequency,
• Dynamic allowance, and
• Dimensional requirements.
3.12 PEDESTRIAN LOADS
A pedestrian load of 4.0 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m
and considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.
See the provisions of above subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load for applying the
pedestrian loads in combination with the vehicular live load. Usually the 4 kN/m2 load
will allow for small cars to pass. To avoid accidents for bridges wider than 2.4 m,
provision shall be make for an additional axle load.
Where sidewalks, pedestrian, and/or bicycle bridges are intended to be used by

maintenance and/or other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be considered in the
design. If unknown, at least one movable axle load of 70 kN acting together with the
pedestrian load shall be applied. The dynamic load allowance need not be considered for
these vehicles.
In half-through-trusses of steel, the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be
designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a
permanent load for the Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly.

Chapter 3
3.13 DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE (IM = VEHICULAR DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE)
3.13.1 GENERAL
Unless otherwise permitted in subchapters Buried Components and Wood Components

below, the static effects of the design truck or tandem, other than centrifugal and braking
forces, shall be increased by the percentage specified in Table 3-8 for dynamic load
allowance.
The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).
The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane
load.
Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
• Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
• All Other Limit States 33%
Table 3-8 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM
Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:
• Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
• Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.
The dynamic load allowance shall be reduced for components, other than joints, if
justified by sufficient evidence, but in no case shall the dynamic load allowance used in
design be less than 50% of IM in the table above.
The dynamic load allowance (IM) in Table 3-8 is an increment to be applied to the static
wheel load to account for wheel load impact from moving vehicles.
Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall be attributed to two sources:
• Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface
discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delaminations, and
• Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to
long undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill,
or to resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge
and vehicle. The frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.
Field tests indicate that in the majority of highway bridges, the dynamic component of
the response does not exceed 25% of the static response to vehicles. This is the basis for
dynamic load allowance with the exception of deck joints. However, the specified live
load combination of the design truck and lane load, represents a group of exclusion
vehicles that are at least 4/3 of those caused by the design truck alone on short and
medium-span bridges. The specified value of 33% in Table 3-8 is the product of 4/3 and
the basic 25%.

Chapter 3
This subchapter recognizes the damping effect of soil when in contact with some buried
structural components, such as footings. To qualify for relief from impact, the entire
component must be buried. For the purpose of this chapter, a retaining type component
is considered to be buried to the top of the fill.
3.13.2 BURIED COMPONENTS
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken
as:
IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0% (3.5)

Where:
DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)
3.13.3 WOOD COMPONENTS
Wood structures are known to experience reduced dynamic wheel load effects due to
internal friction between the components and the damping characteristics of wood.
For wood bridges and wood components of bridges, the dynamic load allowance values
specified in Table 3-8 shall be reduced to 70 % of the values specified therein for IM.
3.14 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES (CE= VEHICULAR CENTRIFUGAL FORCE)
Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or
tandem and the factor C, taken as:
C = 4 v2 (3.6)
3 g*R
where: v = highway design speed (m/s)

g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
Highway design speed shall not be taken to be less than the value specified in the
Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Design Controls & Criteria, Section 5.8:
Design Speed. The multiple presence factors specified above in subchapter Multiple
Presence of Live Load shall apply. Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a
distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.
Lane load is neglected in computing the centrifugal force, as the spacing of vehicles at
high speed is assumed to be large, resulting in a low density of vehicles following and/or
preceding the design truck.
The specified live load combination of the design truck and lane load, however,
represents a group of exclusion vehicles that produce force effects of at least 4/3 of those
caused by the design truck alone on short and medium-span bridges. This ratio is
indicated in Equation 3.6. Thus, the provision is not technically perfect, yet it reasonably
models the representative exclusion vehicle traveling at design speed with large
headways to other vehicles. The approximation attributed to this convenient
representation is acceptable in the framework of the uncertainty of centrifugal force from
random traffic patterns.

Chapter 3
3.15 BRAKING FORCE (BR= VEHICULAR BRAKING FORCE)
Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration (retardation), the braking
force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:
b = v2 (3.7)
2ga
where
a = the length of uniform deceleration.
Calculations using a braking length of 122 m and a speed of 90 km/h (25 m/s) yield b =
0.26 for a horizontal force that will act for a period of about 10 seconds. The factor "b"
applies to all lanes in one direction because all vehicles may have reacted within this time
frame. Only the design truck or tandem are to be considered because other vehicles,
represented by the design lane load, are expected to brake out of phase.
Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem
per lane placed in all design lanes which are considered to be loaded in accordance with
above subchapter Number of Design Lanes, and which are carrying traffic headed in the
same direction. These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at the level of the
roadway surface in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects. All design
lanes shall be simultaneously loaded for bridges likely to become one-directional in the
future.
The multiple presence factors specified in above subchapter Multiple Presence of Live
Load shall apply.
3.16 VEHICULAR COLLISION FORCE (CT= VEHICULAR COLLISION FORCE)
3.16.1 PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES
For the purpose of this subchapter, a barrier shall be considered structurally independent
if it does not transmit loads to the bridge.
The provisions of this subchapter need not be considered for structures which are
protected by:
• An embankment;
• A structurally independent, crashworthy ground mounted 1.4-m high barrier, located
within 3.0 m from the component being protected; or
• A 1.1-m high barrier located at more than 3.0 m from the component being protected.
• In order to qualify for this exemption, the engineer shall approve that such barrier
shall be structurally and geometrically capable of surviving a vehicular collision.
Full-scale crash tests have shown that some vehicles have a greater tendency to lean over
or partially cross over a 1.1-m high barrier than a 1.4-m high barrier. This behavior
would allow a significant collision of the vehicle with the component being protected if
the component is located within a meter or so of the barrier. If the component is more
than about 3.0 m behind the barrier, the difference between the two barrier heights is no
longer important.

Chapter 3
3.16.2 VEHICLE AND RAILWAY COLLISION WITH STRUCTURES
Unless protected as specified above, abutments and piers located within a distance of 6.0
m to the edge of roadway, or to the centerline of a railway track, shall be designed for an
equivalent static force of 1800 kN, which is assumed to act in any direction in a
horizontal plane, at a distance of 1.2 m above ground.
It is not the intent of this provision to encourage unprotected piers and abutments within
the setbacks indicated, but rather to supply some guidance for structural design when it is
deemed totally impractical to meet the requirements given above.
The equivalent static force of 1800 kN is based on the information from full-scale crash
tests of barriers for redirecting 360 kN tractor-trailers and from analysis of other truck
collisions. The 1800 kN train collision load is based on physically unverified analytical
work. For individual column shafts, the 1800 kN load should be considered a point load.
For wall piers, the load shall be considered to be a point load or shall be distributed over
an area deemed suitable for the size of the structure and the anticipated impacting
vehicle, but not greater than 1.5 m wide by 0.6 m high. These dimensions were
determined by considering the size of a truck frame
3.16.3 VEHICLE COLLISION WITH BARRIERS
The railing shall be either an ERA Standard Railing (see Standard Detail Drawings-
2002, Chapter 2: Guardrail Drawings and Chapter 7: Bridge Drainage, Drawing B-34)
or any other railing approved by ERA.
3.17 WATER LOADS (WA= WATER LOAD AND STREAM PRESSURE)
3.17.1 STATIC PRESSURE
Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is
retaining the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of water above
the point of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity =
9.81 m/s2).
p = γ * g * z * 10-9 (3.8)
where p = static pressure (Mpa)
γ = density of water (kg/m3)
z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Design water levels for various limit states shall be as specified and/or approved by ERA.
If nothing else is stated, the assumed water level at the service limit state shall be the
design level and the strength limit state 20%, or at least 0.2 m, above the design level.
3.17.2 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum of the vertical components
of static pressures, as specified above, acting on all components below design water
level.

Chapter 3
For substructures with cavities in which the presence or absence of water cannot be
ascertained, the condition producing the least favorable force effect should be chosen.
3.17.3 STREAM PRESSURE
Longitudinal
For the purpose of this chapter, the longitudinal direction refers to the major axis of a
substructure unit.
The pressure of flowing water acting in the longitudinal direction of substructures shall
be taken as:
p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2 (3.9)
where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table 3-9
V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and
service limit states and for the check flood in the extreme event limit
state (see ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Hydrology).
Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8
Ref (15)
Table 3-9 Drag Coefficient
The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure
and the projected surface exposed thereto.
Floating logs, roots, and other debris may accumulate at piers and, by blocking parts of
the waterway, increase stream pressure load on the pier. Such accumulation is a function
of the availability of such debris and level of maintenance efforts by which it is removed.
It shall be accounted for by the judicious increase in both the exposed surface and the
velocity of water.
The following provision (Ref. 2) shall be used as guidance in the absence of site-specific
criteria:
• Where a significant amount of driftwood is carried, water pressure shall also be

allowed for on a driftwood raft lodged against the pier. The size of the raft is a matter
of judgment, but as a guide, Dimension A in Figure 3-6 should be half the water
depth, but not greater than 3m. Dimension B should be half the sum of adjacent span
lengths, but no greater than 14 m. Pressure shall be calculated using Equation 3.8,
with CD = 0.5.

Chapter 3
Figure 3-6 Debris Raft for Pier Design
Lateral
The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to water flowing at an

angle, θ, to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see Figure 3-7) shall be taken as:
PL = 5.14 x 10-4CLV2 (3.10)
where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)

CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table 3-10 below.
Figure 3-7 Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure
Angle, θ, between direction of flow and CL

longitudinal axis of the pier
0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
≥30o 1.0
(Ref 15)
Table 3-10 Lateral Drag Coefficient
The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the
surface exposed thereto.
3.17.4 CHANGE IN FOUNDATIONS DUE TO LIMIT STATE FOR SCOUR
The provisions of the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges, Section
8.5: Bridge Scour and Aggradation shall apply.

Chapter 3
The consequences of changes in foundation conditions resulting from the design flood
for scour shall be considered at strength and service limit states. The consequences of
changes in foundation conditions due to scour resulting from the check flood for bridge
scour and from extreme storm winds shall be considered at the extreme event limit states.
Statistically speaking, scour is the most common reason for the failure of highway
bridges in Ethiopia. The stability of abutments in areas of turbulent flow shall be
thoroughly investigated. Scour is not a force effect, but by changing the conditions of the
substructure it may significantly alter the consequences of force effects acting on
structures.
3.18 WIND LOAD (WL= WIND ON LIVE LOAD; WS= WIND LOAD ON STRUCTURE)
3.18.1 HORIZONTAL WIND PRESSURE
General
Pressures specified herein shall be assumed to be caused by a base design wind velocity,
VB, of 160 km/h (= 45 m/s).
Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed on the area exposed to the wind.
The exposed area shall be the sum of areas of all components, including floor system and
railing, as seen in elevation taken perpendicular to the assumed wind direction. This
direction shall be varied to determine the extreme force effect in the structure or in its
components. Areas that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration
shall be neglected in the analysis.
For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above low ground or water level, the
design wind velocity, VDZ (km/h), at design elevation, z, should be adjusted according to:
ªV10 º ª Z º (3.11)
VDZ = 2.5 * Vo « » In « »
¬VB ¼ ¬ Zo ¼
where: V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level (km/h)
VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h (45 m/s) at 10 m height, yielding design
pressures specified in following subchapters Wind Pressure on Structures
and Vertical Wind Pressure
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated as measured from
low ground, or from water level, > 10 m (m)
Vo = friction velocity, a meteorological wind characteristic taken, as specified in
Table 3-11, for various upwind surface characteristics (km/h)
Zo = friction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic taken
as specified in Table 3-11 below (m)
V10 shall be established from:
• Basic Wind Speed charts available from National Meteorological Services Agency
for various recurrence intervals,
• Site-specific wind surveys, or
• In the absence of better criterion, the assumption that V10 = VB =145 km/h (= 40 m/s)
shall be used for small and medium sized bridges.

Chapter 3
The following descriptions are for the terms "open country" and "suburban" in
Table 3-11:
• Open Country: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less
than 10 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.
• Urban and Suburban: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain
with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family or larger
dwellings. Use of this category shall be limited to those areas for which
representative terrain prevails in the upwind direction at least 500 m.
CONDITION OPEN COUNTRY URBAN AND SUBURBAN

Vo (km/h) 13.2 17.6
Zo (m) 70 1000
Table 3-11 Values of Vo and Zo for Various Upstream Surface Conditions
Base design wind velocity varies significantly due to local conditions. For small and/or
low structures, wind usually does not govern. For large and/or tall bridges, however, the
local conditions should be investigated.
Pressures on windward and leeward sides are to be taken simultaneously in the assumed
direction of wind.
Typically, a bridge structure should be examined separately under wind pressures from
two or more different directions in order to ascertain those windward, leeward, and side
pressures producing the most critical loads on the structure.
The suggested wind speed V10 = 40 m/s should be compared with the Ethiopian Building
Code Standard, where V10 = 150 km/h (42 m/s) is used for the highest mountaintops. The
National Atlas of Ethiopia shows that the western parts of the country (Bahar Dar,
Nekemte, Gore, Jima, Awasa and Goba) have a wind speed (V10) that never exceeds 15
knots (equal to 30 m/s or 105 km/h). However, since the National Meteorological
Services Agency has collected wind data only every 4 hours it is not certain that the
maximum wind speeds are given at the meteorological stations. Therefore, it is
recommended to make separate observations for large or wind-sensitive bridges.
Equation 3.12 below is based on boundary layer theory combined with empirical
observations and represents the most recent approach to defining wind speeds for various
conditions as used in meteorology. In the past, an exponential equation was sometimes
used to relate wind speed to heights above 10 m. This formulation was based solely on
empirical observations and had no theoretical basis.
α
ªZ º
VDZ = CV10 * « » (3.12)
¬10¼
The purpose of the term C and exponent "α" was to adjust the equation for various
upstream surface conditions, similar to the use of Table 3-11 (further information can be
found in Refs. 11 and 21).

Chapter 3
Wind Pressure on Structures: WS
For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the wind load on
structures shall be neglected.
For large and/or light bridges the following shall apply. If justified by local conditions, a
different base design wind velocity shall be selected for load combinations not involving
wind on live load. The direction of the design wind shall be assumed horizontal, unless
otherwise specified in the following subchapter Aeroelastic Instability. In the absence of
more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:
2
ªVDZ º
2
PD = P B « V DZ
» = PB 25600 (3.13)
¬ VB ¼
Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table 3-12 (kPa):
STRUCTURAL COMPONENT WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa

Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable
Table 3-12 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)
The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m2 in the plane of a windward chord
and 2.2 kN/m2 in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch components, and not
less than 4.4 kN/m2 on beam or girder components.
Wind tunnel tests shall be used to provide more precise estimates of wind pressures. Such
testing should be considered where wind is a major design load.
Where the wind is not taken as normal to the structure, the base wind pressures, PB, for
various angles of wind direction shall be taken as specified in Table 3-13 and shall be
applied to a single place of exposed area. The skew angle shall be taken as measured
from a perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The wind direction for design shall be that
which produces the extreme force effect on the component under investigation. The
transverse and longitudinal pressures shall be applied simultaneously.
(kPa) Columns and Arches Girders

Skew Angle of Wind, Lateral Longitudinal Lateral Load Longitudinal
Degrees Load Load Load
0 3.6 0 2.4 0
15 3.4 0.6 2.1 0.3
30 3.1 1.3 2.0 0.6
45 2.3 2.0 1.6 0.8
60 1.1 2.4 0.8 0.9
Table 3-13 Base Wind Pressures, PB (kPa) for Various Angles of Attack VB=160
km/h.

Chapter 3
For trusses, columns, and arches, the base wind pressures specified in Table 3-13 are the
sum of the pressures applied to both the windward and leeward areas.
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied directly to the substructure shall be
calculated from an assumed base wind pressure of 1.9 kPa. For wind directions taken
skewed to the substructure, this force shall be resolved into components perpendicular to
the end and front elevations of the substructure. The component perpendicular to the end
elevation shall act on the exposed substructure area as seen in end elevation, and the
component perpendicular to the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas and shall be
applied simultaneously with the wind loads from the superstructure.
Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WL
When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be applied to both structure
and vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an interruptible, moving
force of 1.5 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m above, the roadway and shall be
transmitted to the structure.
When wind on vehicles is not taken as normal to the structure, the components of normal
and parallel force applied to the live load shall be taken as specified in Table 3-14 with
the skew angle taken as referenced normal to the surface.
Skew Angle (Degrees) Normal Component (kN/m) Parallel Component (kN/m)

0 1.46 0
15 1.28 0.18
30 1.20 0.35
45 0.96 0.47
60 0.50 0.55
Table 3-14 Wind Components on Live Load
Based on practical experience, maximum live loads are not expected to be present on the
bridge when the wind velocity exceeds 90 km/h. The load factor corresponding to the
treatment of wind on structure only in Load Combination Strength III would be
(90/145)2*1.4 = 0.54, which has been rounded to 0.5 in the Strength IV Load
Combination. This load factor corresponds to 0.3 in Service 1.
The 1.5 kN/m wind load is based on a long row of randomly sequenced passenger cars,
commercial vans, and trucks exposed to the 90-km/h design wind (25 m/s). This
horizontal live load, similar to the design lane load, should be applied only to the
tributary areas producing a force effect of the same kind.
3.18.2 VERTICAL WIND PRESSURE
Unless otherwise determined in following subchapter Aeroelastic Instability, a vertical

upward wind force of 1.0 kPa (kN/m2) times the width of the deck, including parapets
and sidewalks, shall be considered a longitudinal line load. This force shall be applied
only for large and/or other than concrete bridges. It shall be applied only for limit states
that do not involve wind on live load, and only when the direction of wind is taken to be
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge. This lineal force shall be applied at

Chapter 3
the windward quarter-point of the deck width in conjunction with the horizontal wind
loads specified in the previous subchapter Horizontal Wind Pressure.
The intent of this subchapter is to account for the effect resulting from interruption of the
horizontal flow of air by the superstructure. This load is to be applied even to
discontinuous bridge decks, such as grid decks. This load may govern where
overturning of the bridge is investigated.
3.18.3 AEROELASTIC INSTABILITY
General
Aeroelastic force effects shall be taken into account in the design of bridges and
structural components that are wind-sensitive. For the purpose of this chapter, all bridges,
and structural components thereof with a span length to width or depth ratio exceeding
30.0 shall be deemed wind-sensitive.
The vibration of cables due to the interaction of wind and rain shall also be considered.
Because of the complexity of analyses often necessary for an in-depth evaluation of

structural aeroelasticity, this subchapter is intentionally kept to a simple statement. Many
bridges, decks, or individual structural components have been shown to be aeroelastically
insensitive if their length-to-width or length-to-depth ratios are under about 30.0, a
somewhat arbitrary value helpful only in identifying likely wind-sensitive cases.
Aeroelastic Phenomena
The aeroelastic phenomena of vortex excitation, galloping, flutter, and divergence shall
be considered where applicable.
Control of Dynamic Responses
Bridges and structural components thereof, including cables, shall be designed to be free
of fatigue damage due to vortex-induced or galloping oscillations. Bridges shall be
designed to be free of divergence and catastrophic flutter up to 1.2 times the design wind
velocity applicable at bridge deck height. Slender structures and/or railway bridges shall
be checked for oscillations.
The self-frequency of any component or the whole bridge shall normally be less than 3.5
Hz.
Cables in stayed-girder bridges have been successfully stabilized against excessive
dynamic responses by attaching automotive dampers to the bridge at deck level or by
cross-tying multiple cable-stays.
Wind Tunnel Tests
Representative wind tunnel tests shall be used to satisfy the requirements of subchapters
Aeroelastic Phenomena and Control of Dynamic Responses.

Chapter 3
Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil engineering structures is a highly
developed technology, which shall be used to study the wind response characteristics of a
structural model or to verify the results of analysis (Ref. 21).
3.19 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS (EQ= EARTHQUAKE)
3.19.1 GENERAL
Earthquake loads shall be taken to be horizontal force effects determined on the basis of
the elastic response coefficient, Csm, specified in the Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient
section of this subchapter, and the equivalent weight of the superstructure, adjusted by
the response modification factor, R, specified in the Response Modification Factor
section of this subchapter.
The provisions herein shall apply to bridges of conventional slab, beam girder, box
girder, and truss superstructure construction with spans not exceeding 150 m. These
provisions need not be applied to completely buried structures.
Seismic effects for box culverts and buried structures need not be considered, except
where they cross active faults.
The potential for soil liquefaction and slope movements shall be considered.
Earthquake loads are given by the product of the elastic seismic response coefficient Csm
and the equivalent weight of the superstructure. The equivalent weight is a function of
the actual weight and bridge configuration and is automatically included in both the
single-mode and multimode methods of analysis specified in subchapter Analysis for
Earthquake Loads below.
These Specifications establish design and detailing provisions for bridges to minimize
their susceptibility to damage from earthquakes. A flow chart summarizing the
earthquake design provision is presented in Figure 3-8.
The design earthquake motions and forces specified herein are based on a low probability
of their being exceeded during the normal life expectancy of a bridge. Bridges that are
designed and detailed in accordance with the provisions of these Specifications may
suffer damage, but should have low probability of collapse due to seismically induced
ground shaking.
The principles used for the development of these Specifications are:
• Small to moderate earthquakes should be resisted within the elastic range of the
structural components without significant damage.
• Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and forces should be used in the design
procedures.
• Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes should not cause collapse of all or part of
the bridge. Where possible, damage that does occur should be readily detectable and
accessible for inspection and repair.

Chapter 3
3.19.2 ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT
The coefficient, "A", to be used in the application of these provisions shall be determined
from the contour map of Ethiopia in Figure 3-9. Linear interpolation shall be used for
sites located between contour lines or between a contour line and a local maximum or
minimum.
Special studies to determine site- and structure-specific acceleration coefficients shall be

performed if any one of the following conditions exist:
• The site is located close to an active fault.

• Long-duration earthquakes are expected in the region.
• The importance of the bridge is such that a longer exposure period (and, therefore,
return period) should be considered.
The effect of soil conditions at the site are considered in the following subchapter entitled
Site Effects: Soil Profiles.
3.19.3 IMPORTANCE CATEGORIES
For the purpose of Section 3.10: Earthquake Effects, ERA or those having jurisdiction
shall classify the bridges within Zone 4 (mainly Rift Valley) into one of three importance
categories as follows:
• Critical bridges,
• Essential bridges, or
• Other bridges.
The basis of classification shall include social/survival and security/defense

requirements. In classifying a bridge, consideration should be given to possible future
changes in conditions and requirements.
Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency
vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a
475-year return period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after
the design earthquake and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense
purposes immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event.
These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.

Chapter 3
APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS
PRELIMINARY PLANNING AND DESIGN
DETERMINE - Acceleration coefficient

- Seism ic Perform ance Zone
Figure 3-9 and Table3-15
Yes SEISMIC
ZONE 1-3 ?
No
DETERMINE - Bridge Importance Category

- Site Coefficient
DETERMINE RESPONSE MODIFICATION

FACTORS
Table 3-17 and 3-18
SINGLE SPAN Yes

BRIDGE ?
No
SEISMIC ZONE 1-3

SEISMIC ZONE 4
ANALYSIS FOR
EARTHQUAKE LOADS
DETERMINE DESIGN DETERMINE DESIGN DETERMINE DESIGN

FORCES AND DESIGN FORCES AND DESIGN FORCES AND DESIGN
DISPLACEMENTS FORCES
DISPLACEMENTS DISPLACEMENTS
Article 3.10.9.3
DESIGN BRIDGE COMPONENTS
RESIZE No IS BRIDGE Yes

COMPONENTS ADEQUATE ?
SEISMIC DESIGN
COMPLETE
Seismic Design of Bridge Comp onents
Superstructure Com ponents
Chapter 9: Reinforced Concrete Chapter 10: Structural Steel

Seism ic Provisions Seism ic Provisions
Extrem e Event Limit State: Table 3-1 Extrem e Event Limit State: Table 3-1
General: Zone 4: Bracing Mem bers Bolts in Bearing

Chapter 9 Table 3-2
Tension Members Com pression
Substructure Components
Foundations Piers
Abutments W alls
Section 12-4 Section 6-4
Section 6-5 Section 6-6 and 12-3
Mononobe-Okabe
Spread Footing Piles Pseudo-Static Approach
Section 12-7
Figure 3-8 Flow Chart for Seismic Design of Bridge Components (Ref. 25)

Chapter 3
(Ref. 23)
Figure 3-9 Earthquake Zones (Note: In zone 1-3 A≤0.07 and in zone 4 A≤0.10)
3.19.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE ZONES
Each bridge shall be assigned to one of the seismic zones in accordance with Table 3-15
below:
EBCS zone from Figure 3-9 Acceleration Coefficient

1 A ≤ 0.03
2 0.03 < A ≤ 0.05
3 0.05 < A ≤ 0.07
4 0.07 < A ≤ 0.10
Table 3-15 Seismic Zones

Chapter 3
These seismic zones, from the Ethiopian Building Code Standards (Ref. 23) have a
reference return period of 100 years. They reflect the variation in seismic risk across the
country and are used to permit different requirements for methods of analysis, minimum
support lengths, column design details, foundation and abutment design procedures.
The zones 1-2 with a ground acceleration less than 0.05*g are considered as low
seismicity zones. In general, the ground acceleration tends to coincide with the actual
peak for moderate-to-high magnitude of medium-to-long distance events.
3.19.5 SITE EFFECTS: SOIL PROFILES
Site effects shall be included in the determination of seismic loads for bridges. Site
effects on structural response are due to the soil conditions. Four soil profiles are used in
these Specifications to define a site coefficient used to modify the acceleration
coefficient.
The site coefficient, S, is used to include the effect of site conditions on the elastic
seismic response coefficient as specified in the following subchapter.
The site coefficient, S, specified in Table 3-16 (below), shall be based upon soil profile
types defined below.
Site Soil Profile Type

Coefficient I II III IV
S 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Table 3-16 Site Coefficients
In locations where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the
soil profile type, or where the profile does not fit any of the four types, the site coefficient
for Soil Profile Type II shall be used.
A soil profile shall be taken as Type I if composed of rock of any description, either
shale-like or crystalline in nature, or stiff soils where the soil depth is less than 60 m, and
the soil types overlying the rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays.
These materials shall be characterized by a shear wave velocity greater than 765 m/s.
A profile with stiff cohesive or deep cohesionless soils where the soil depth exceeds 60 m
and the soil types overlying the rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays
shall be taken as Type II.
A profile with soft to medium-stiff clays and sands, characterized by 9 m or more of soft
to medium-stiff clays with or without intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless
soils shall be taken as Type III.
A profile with soft clays or silts greater than 12 m in depth shall be taken as Type IV.
These materials shall be characterized by a shear wave velocity of less than 152 m/s and
might include loose natural deposits or manmade, nonengineered fill.

Chapter 3
3.19.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT
Unless specified otherwise as exceptions in this subchapter, the elastic seismic response
coefficient, Csm, for the mth mode of vibration shall be taken as:
1.2AS
Csm = ≤ 2. 5A (3.14)
Tm 2 / 3
where:Tm = period of vibration of the mth mode (s)
A = acceleration coefficient specified in Table 3-15
S = site coefficient specified in Table 3-16
The determination of the period of vibration, Tm, should be based on the nominal,
unfactored mass of the component or structure.
The elastic seismic response coefficient shall be normalized using the input ground
acceleration "A” and the result plotted against the period of vibration. Such a plot is
given in Figure 3-10 for different soil profiles, based on 5 % damping.
An earthquake may excite several modes of vibration in a bridge and, therefore, the
elastic response coefficient should be found for each relevant mode.
The structure is analyzed for these seismic forces in the single-mode method. In the
multimode method, the structure is analyzed for several seismic forces, each
corresponding to the period and mode shape of one of the fundamental modes of
vibration, and the results are combined using acceptable methods, such as the root-mean-
square method.
Figure 3-10 Seismic Response Coefficients, Csm for Various Soil Profiles,
Normalized with Respect to Acceleration Coefficient "A" (Csm on the left
axis)

Chapter 3
Exceptions to the application of Equation 3.14 are as follows:
• For bridges on soil profiles III or IV, Csm need not exceed 2.0*A.
• For soil profiles III and IV, and for modes other than the fundamental mode, that
have periods less than 0.3 s, Csm shall be taken as:
Csm = A (0.8 + 4.0*Tm) (3.15)
• If the period of vibration for any mode exceeds 4.0 s, the value of Csm for that mode
shall be taken as:
Csm = 3AS (3.16)

Tm4/3
3.19.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS
To apply the response modification factors specified herein, the structural details shall
satisfy the provisions of seismic hooks, shall have a minimum reinforcement of at least
0.25 % in both directions for Zone 4, and shall have additional pile reinforcement
according to Section 6.3: Footings on Piles.
Except as noted herein, seismic design force effects for substructures and the connections
between parts of structures shall be determined by dividing the force effects resulting
from elastic analysis by the appropriate response modification factor, R, as specified in
Tables 3-17 and 3-18, respectively.
As an alternative to the use of the R-factors, specified in Table 3-18 for connections,
monolithic joints between structural members and/or structures, such as a column-to-
footing connection, shall be designed to transmit the maximum force effects that can be
developed by the inelastic hinging of the column or multicolumn bent they connect as
specified hereinafter in section on Longitudinal Restrainers.
If an inelastic time history method of analysis is used, the response modification factor,
R, shall be taken as 1.0 for all substructure and connections.
Substructure Importance Category

Critical Essential Other
Wall-type piers – larger dimension 1.5 1.5 2.0
Reinforced concrete pile bents
• Vertical piles only 1.5 2.0 3.0
• With battered piles 1.5 1.5 2.0
Single columns 1.5 2.0 3.0
Steel or composite steel and concrete pile bents
• Vertical pile only
• With battered piles 1.5 3.5 5.0
1.5 2.0 3.0
Multiple column bents 1.5 3.5 5.0
Table 3-17 Response Modification R-Factors for Substructures

Chapter 3
Connection All Importance Categories

Superstructure to abutment 0.8
Expansion joints within a span of the superstructure 0.8
Columns, piers, or pile bents to cap beam or superstructure 1.0
Columns or piers to foundations 1.0
Table 3-18 Response Modification R-Factors for Connections
These Specifications recognize that it is uneconomical to design a bridge to resist large

earthquakes elastically. Columns are assumed to deform inelastically where seismic
forces exceed their design level, which is established by dividing the elastically
computed force effects by the appropriate R-factor.
R-factors for connections are smaller than those for substructure members in order to
preserve the integrity of the bridge under these extreme loads. For expansion joints
within the superstructure and connections between the superstructure and abutment, the
application of the "R" factor results in force effect magnification. Connections that
transfer forces from one part of a structure to another include, but are not limited to, fixed
bearings and shear keys. For one-directional bearings, these R-factors are used in the
restrained direction only. In general, forces determined based on plastic hinging will be
less than those given by using Table 3-18, resulting in a more economical design.
Seismic loads shall be assumed to act in any lateral direction. The appropriate R-factor
shall be used for both orthogonal axes of the substructure.
A wall-type concrete pier shall be analyzed as a single column in the weak direction if all
the provisions for columns are satisfied.
Usually the orthogonal axes will be the longitudinal and transverse axes of the bridge. In
the case of a curved bridge, the longitudinal axis shall be the chord joining the two
abutments. Wall-type piers shall be treated as wide columns in the strong direction,
provided the appropriate R-factor in this direction is used.
3.19.8 COMBINATION OF SEISMIC FORCE EFFECTS
The elastic seismic force effects on each of the principal axes of a component resulting
from analyses in the two perpendicular directions shall be combined to form two load
cases as follows:
• 100 % of the absolute value of the force effects in one of the perpendicular directions
combined with 30 % of the absolute value of the force effects in the second
perpendicular direction, and
• 100 % of the absolute value of the force-effects in the second perpendicular direction
combined with 30 % of the absolute value of the force effects in the first
perpendicular direction.

Chapter 3
3.19.9 CALCULATION OF DESIGN FORCES
General
For single-span bridges, regardless of seismic zone, the minimum design connection
force effect in the restrained direction between the superstructure and the substructure
shall not be less than the product of the site coefficient, the acceleration coefficient, and
the tributary permanent load.
Seat widths at expansion bearings of multispan bridges shall either comply with the
minimum displacement requirements in the following subchapter entitled Analysis for
Earthquake Loads, or longitudinal restrainers complying with subchapter entitled Hold-
Down Devices shall be provided.
Special attention should be paid to certain substructures such as piers.
This subchapter refers to superstructure effects carried into substructure. Abutments on

multispan bridges, but not single-span bridges, and retaining walls are subject to
acceleration-augmented soil pressures as specified in the subchapter entitled Effect of
Earthquake, below. Wingwalls on single-span structures are not fully covered at this
time, and the Designer should use judgment in this area.
Seismic Zone 1-3 in Figure 3-9
For bridges on sites in Zones 1-3 where the acceleration coefficient is less than 0.025 and
the soil profile is either Type I or II, the horizontal design connection force in the
restrained directions shall not be taken to be less than 0.1 times the vertical reaction due
to the tributary permanent load and the tributary live loads assumed to exist during an
earthquake.
For all other sites in Zones 1-3, the horizontal design connection force in the restrained
directions shall not be taken to be less than 0.2 times the vertical reaction due to the
tributary permanent load and the tributary live loads assumed to exist during an
earthquake.
For each uninterrupted segment of a superstructure, the tributary permanent load at the
line of fixed bearings, used to determine the longitudinal connection design force, shall
be the total permanent load of the segment.
If each bearing supporting an uninterrupted segment or simply-supported span is

restrained in the transverse direction, the tributary permanent load used to determine the
connection design force shall be the permanent load reaction at that bearing.
Each elastomeric bearing and its connection to the masonry and sole plates shall be
designed to resist the horizontal seismic design forces transmitted through the bearing.
For all bridges in Seismic Zones 1-3 and all single span bridges, these seismic shear
forces shall not be less than the connection force specified herein.
These provisions arise because seismic analysis for bridges in Zone 1-3 is generally not
required. These default values are used as minimum design forces in lieu of rigorous

Chapter 3
analysis. The division of Zone 1-3 at an acceleration coefficient 0.025 for sites with
favorable soil condition is an arbitrary expedience intended to provide some relief to
parts of the country with very low seismicity.
If each bearing supporting a continuous segment or simply supported span is an

elastomeric bearing, there are no restrained directions due to the flexibility of the
bearings.
The magnitude of live load assumed to exist at the time of the earthquake should be
consistent with the value of γeq used in conjunction with Table 3-2.
Seismic Zone 4
Single span structures need not to be designed according to seismic analysis.

Multispan structures in Seismic Zone 4 (in Figure 3-9 above) shall be analyzed
according to single mode analysis or uniform load elastic method, or for irregular
essential and all critical bridges according to multimode elastic method.
Except for foundations, seismic design forces for all components, including pile bents
and retaining walls, shall be determined by dividing the elastic seismic forces, obtained
from previous subchapter Combination of Seismic Forces Effects, by the appropriate
response modification factor, R, specified in Table 3-16.
Seismic design forces for foundations, other than pile bents and retaining walls, shall be
determined by dividing elastic seismic forces, obtained from previous subchapter
Combination of Seismic Forces Effects, by half of the response modification factor, R,
from Table 3-16, for the substructure component to which it is attached. The value of
R/2 shall not be taken as less than 1.0.
Where a group load other than EXTREME EVENT 1, specified in Table 3-1, governs the
design of columns, the possibility that seismic forces transferred to the foundations shall
be larger than those calculated using the procedure specified above, due to possible
overstrength of the columns, shall be considered.
Longitudinal Restrainers
Friction shall not be considered an effective restrainer. Restrainers shall be designed for a
force calculated as the acceleration coefficient times the permanent load of the lighter of
the two adjoining spans or parts of the structure.
If the restrainer is at a point where relative displacement of the sections of superstructure

is designed to occur during seismic motions, sufficient slack shall be allowed in the
restrainer so that the restrainer does not start to act until the design displacement is
exceeded.
Where a restrainer is to be provided at columns or piers, the restrainer of each span shall
be attached to the column or pier rather than to interconnecting adjacent spans.

Chapter 3
Hold-Down Devices
For Seismic Zone 4, hold-down devices shall be provided at supports and at hinges in
continuous structures where the vertical seismic force due to the longitudinal seismic
load opposes and exceeds 50 %, but is less than 100 %, of the reaction due to permanent
loads. In this case, the net uplift force for the design of the hold-down device shall be
taken as 10 % of the reaction due to permanent loads that would be exerted if the span
were simply supported.
If the vertical seismic forces result in net uplift, the hold-down device shall be designed
to resist the larger of either:
• 120 % of the difference between the vertical seismic force and the reaction due to
permanent loads, or
• 10 % of the reaction due to permanent loads.
Sliding
plates
Clearance
Anchorage Bolts
Figure 3-11 Example of hold-down device for expansion bearing:

Principle and Picture
3.19.10 ANALYSIS FOR EARTHQUAKE LOADS
General
Minimum analysis requirements for seismic effects shall be as specified in Table 3-19.
For the modal methods of analysis specified in this subchapter, the elastic design
spectrum shall be that given by Equation 3.14.
Bridges in Seismic Zone 1-3 need not be analyzed for seismic loads, regardless of their
importance and geometry. However, the minimum requirements, as specified herein and
in previous subchapter Calculation of Design Forces shall apply.
Single-Span Bridges
Seismic analysis is not required for single-span bridges, regardless of seismic zone.

Chapter 3
Connections between the bridge superstructure and the abutments shall be designed for
the minimum force requirements as specified in previous subchapter Calculation of
Design Forces.
Minimum seat width requirements shall be at least 500 mm at each abutment.
Multispan Bridges
For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified below:
Seismic Single-Span Multispan Bridges

Zone Bridges Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *
4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM
Ref. 23
Table 3-19 Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects
in which:
* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)
UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method
The selection of the method of analysis depends on seismic zone, regularity, and
importance of the bridge.
Regularity is a function of the number of spans and the distribution of weight and
stiffness. Regular bridges have less than seven spans, no abrupt or unusual changes in
weight, stiffness, or geometry; and no large changes in these parameters from span to
span or support-to-support, abutments excluded. They are defined in Table 3-20.
Any bridge not satisfying the requirements of Table 3-20 is considered to be "irregular".
A more rigorous analysis procedure shall be used in lieu of the recommended minimum.
Sometimes special types of substructures (high masonry piers) need to be designed for
seismic load.
A curved bridge shall be analyzed as if it were straight, provided all of the following
requirements are satisfied:
• The bridge is regular as defined in Table 3-20, except that for a two-span bridge the
maximum span length ratio from span to span must not exceed 2;
• The subtended angle in plan is not greater than 90°, and
The span lengths of the equivalent straight bridge are equal to the arc lengths of the
curved bridge.
If these requirements are not satisfied, then curved bridges must be analyzed using the
actual curved geometry.

Chapter 3
Parameter Value
Number of Spans 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum subtended angle for a curved bridge 90o 90o 90o 90o 90o
Maximum span length ratio from span to span 3 2 2 1.5 1.5
Maximum bent/pier stiffness ratio from span to -- 4 4 3 2
span, excluding abutments
Table 3-20 Regular Bridge Requirements
Single-Mode Methods of Analysis (SM)
Either of the two single-mode methods of analysis specified herein (Single-Mode Method
of Spectral Analysis and Uniform Load Method) shall be used where appropriate.
The Single-Mode Method of Spectral Analysis (SM) shall be based on the fundamental
mode of vibration in either the longitudinal or transverse direction. This mode shape shall
be found by applying a uniform horizontal load to the structure and calculating the
corresponding deformed shape. The natural period shall be calculated by equating the
maximum potential and kinetic energies associated with the fundamental mode shape.
The amplitude of the displaced shape shall be found from the elastic seismic response
coefficient, Csm, specified in previous subchapter Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient,
and the corresponding spectral displacement. This amplitude shall be used to determine
force effects.
The steps described below shall be followed:
Step 1
Calculate the static displacements Vs(X) due to an assumed uniform loading Po as shown
in figure 3-12.
Figure 3-12

Chapter 3
Step 2
Calculate factors α, β and γ as:
α = ³ Vs(x)dx
β = ³ W(x) Vs(x)dx
γ = ³ W(x) Vs²(x)dx
where:
Po = a uniform load arbitrarily set equal to 1.0 (N/m)

Vs(x) = deformation corresponding to Po (m)
W(x) = nominal, unfactored dead load of the bridge superstructure and tributary
substructure (N/m)
The computed factors α, β and γ have units of (m²), (N.m) and (N.m²) respectively.
Step 3
Calculate the period of the bridge as:
2π γ
Tm =
31.623 Pogα
Where:
g = acceleration of gravity (N/S²)
Step 4
Using Tm and Equation 3.14, calculate Csm
Step 5
Calculate the equivalent static earthquake loading pe(x) as:
βCsm
pe(x) = W(x) Vs(x)
γ
where:
Csm = the dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient given by Equation 3.14
pe(x) = the intensity of the equivalent static seismic loading applied to represent the
primary mode of vibration (N/m)

Chapter 3
Step 6
Apply loading pe(x) to the structure, and determine the resulting member force effects.
Uniform Load Method (UL)
The Uniform Load Method (UL) shall be used on the fundamental mode of vibration in
either the longitudinal or transverse direction. The period of this mode of vibration shall
be taken as that of an equivalent single mass-spring oscillator. The stiffness of this
equivalent spring shall be calculated using the maximum displacement that occurs when
an arbitrary uniform lateral load is applied to the bridge. The elastic seismic response
coefficient Csm, specified in previous subchapter Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient,
shall be used to calculate the equivalent uniform seismic load from which seismic force
effects are found.
It is essentially an equivalent static method of analysis that uses a uniform lateral load to
approximate the effect of seismic loads. The method is suitable for regular bridges that
respond principally in their fundamental mode of vibration. Whereas all displacements
and most member forces are calculated with good accuracy, the method is known to
overestimate the transverse shears at the abutments by up to 100 percent. If such
conservatism is undesirable, then the single-mode spectral analysis method specified
above is recommended.
The steps described below shall be followed:
Step 1
Calculate the static displacements vs(x) due to an assumed uniform load po, as known in
Figure 3.12. The uniform loading po is applied over the length of the bridge; it has units
of force/unit length and may be arbitrarily set equal to 1.0. The static displacement vs(x)
has units of length.
Step 2
Calculate the bridge lateral stiffness, K, and total weight, W, from the following
expressions:
poL
K=
Vs, MAX
W = ³ w(x)dx
where:
L = total length of the bridge (m)
Vs, MAX = maximum value of vs(x) (m)
W(x) = nominal, unfactored dead load of the bridge superstructure and tributary
substructure (N/m)
The weight should take into account structural elements and other relevant loads
including, but not limited to, pier caps, abutments, columns, and footings. Other loads,
such as live loads, may be included. Generally, the inertia effects of live loads are not
included in this analysis; however, the probability of a large live load being on the bridge

Chapter 3
during an earthquake should be considered when designing bridges with high live-to-
dead load ratios that are located in metropolitan areas where traffic congestion is likely to
occur.
Step 3
Calculate the period of the bridge, Tm, using the expression:
Tm = 2π W
gK
where:
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s²)
Step 4
Calculate the equivalent static earthquake loading pe from the expression:
pe = CsmW
gK
where:
Csm = the dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient given by Equation 3.14
Pe = equivalent uniform static seismic loading per unit length of bridge applied to
represent the primary mode of vibration (N/m)
Step 5
Calculate the displacements and member forces for use in design either by applying pe to
the structure and performing a second static analysis or by scaling the results of the first
step above by the ration pe/po.
Multimode Spectral Method
The Multimode Spectral Analysis Method (MM) shall be used for bridges in which
coupling occurs in more than one of the three coordinate directions within each mode of
vibration. As a minimum, linear dynamic analysis using a three-dimensional model shall
be used to represent the structure.
The number of modes included in the analysis should be at least three times the number
of spans in the model.
The elastic response spectrum as specified in previous subchapter Elastic Seismic
Response Coefficient shall be used for each mode.
The member forces and displacements may be estimated by combining the respective
response quantities (moment, force, displacement, or relative displacement) from the
individual modes by the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC) method.
Member forces and displacements obtained using the CQC combination method are
generally adequate for most bridge systems (Wilson et al. 1981).
3.19.11 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY BRIDGES AND STAGE CONSTRUCTION
Any bridge or partially constructed bridge that is expected to be temporary for more than
five years shall be designed using the requirements for permanent structures and shall not

Chapter 3
use the provisions of this Chapter. The option to use a reduced acceleration coefficient is
provided to reflect the limited exposure period.
The requirement that an earthquake shall not cause collapse of all or part of a bridge, as
stated in the beginning of this Section 3.19: Earthquake Effects, shall apply to temporary
bridges expected to carry traffic. It shall also apply to those bridges that are constructed
in stages and expected to carry traffic and/or pass over routes that carry traffic. The
acceleration coefficient given in previous subchapter Acceleration Coefficient shall be
reduced by a factor of not more than 2 in order to calculate the component elastic forces
and displacements. Acceleration coefficients for construction sites that are close to
active faults shall be the subject of special study. The response modification factors given
in previous subchapter Response Modification Factors shall be increased by a factor of
not more than 1.5 in order to calculate the design forces. This factor shall not be applied
to connections as defined in Table 3-18.
The minimum seat width in zone 4 shall be at least 0.6 m for all temporary bridges and
staged construction.
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE (EH = HORIZONTAL EARTH PRESSURE; ES = EARTH SURCHARGE;

LS = LIVE LOAD SURCHARGE; DD = DOWNDRAG)
3.20.1 GENERAL
Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:
• Type and density of earth, • Location of groundwater table,

• Water content, • Earth-structure interaction,
• Soil creep characteristics, • Amount of surcharge, and
• Degree of compaction • Earthquake effects.
Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be designed for at-rest earth
pressure. Walls that can move away from the soil mass should be designed for pressures
between active and at-rest conditions, depending on the magnitude of the tolerable
movements. Movement required to reach the minimum active pressure or the maximum
passive pressure is a function of the wall height and the soil type. Some typical values of
these mobilizing movements, relative to wall height, are given in Table 3-21:
Values of ∆/H
Type of Backfill Active Passive
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05
Table 3-21 Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to Reach

Minimum Active or Maximum Passive Earth Pressure Conditions (Ref 5)

Chapter 3
Where:
∆ = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or maximum passive

pressure by tilting or lateral translation (mm)
H = height of wall (mm)
For walls that are backfilled with cohesive materials, the effects of soil creep should be
taken into consideration in estimating the design earth pressures.
Under stress conditions close to the minimum active or maximum passive earth
pressures, the cohesive soils indicated in Table 3-21 creep continually, and the
movements shown produce active or passive pressures only temporarily. If there is no
further movement, active pressures will increase with time, approaching the at-rest
pressure, and passive pressures will decrease with time, approaching values on the order
of 40 % of the maximum short-term value.
3.20.2 COMPACTION
Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of

one-half the height of the wall, taken as the difference in elevation between the point
where finished grade intersects the back of the wall and the base of the wall, the effect of
additional earth pressure that shall be induced by compaction shall be taken into account.
The heavier the equipment used to compact the backfill, and the closer it operates to the
wall, the larger are the compaction-induced pressures. The magnitude of the earth
pressures exerted on a wall by compacted backfill can be minimized by using only small
rollers or hand compactors within a distance of one-half wall height from the back of the
wall.
3.20.3 PRESENCE OF WATER
Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water pressure on walls should be

eliminated through use of free-draining (rapid-draining) backfill material and/or the use
of weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel drains, perforated drains, or geofabric
drains that provide drainage.
If the retained earth is not dewatered, the effect of hydrostatic water pressure shall be
added to that of earth pressure as indicated in Figure 3-13. In cases where water is
expected to pond behind a wall, the wall shall be designed to withstand the hydrostatic
water pressure plus the earth pressure. Submerged densities of the soil shall be used to
determine the lateral earth pressure below the groundwater table.
If the groundwater levels differ on opposite sides of the wall, the effects of seepage on
wall stability and the potential for piping shall be considered. Pore pressures behind the
wall shall be approximated by flow net procedures or various analytical methods and
shall be added to the effective horizontal stresses in determining total lateral earth
pressures on the wall.

Chapter 3
Figure 3-13 Effect of Groundwater Table
3.20.4 EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKE
The effects of probable amplification of active earth pressure and/or mobilization of

passive earth masses by earthquake shall be considered.
The Mononobe-Okabe method for determining equivalent static fluid pressures for
seismic loads on gravity and semigravity retaining walls is presented under Section 12.5:
Substructures for RC Bridges. The Mononobe-Okabe analysis is based, in part, on the
assumption that the backfill soils are not susceptible to liquefaction.
Where soils are subject to both saturation and seismic or other cyclic/instantaneous loads,
special consideration should be given to addressing the possibility of soil liquefaction.
3.20.5 EARTH PRESSURE: EH
Basic Earth Pressure
Basic earth pressure (p, in MPa) shall be assumed to be linearly proportional to the depth
of earth and taken as:
p = kh*γs*g*z *10-9 (3.17)
where: kh = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ko, specified in Table 3-22, for
walls that do not deflect or move, or ka, specified in Equations 3.20 and 3.26,
and ka, specified in Equation 3.28, for walls that deflect or move sufficiently to
reach minimum active conditions.
z = depth below the surface of earth (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Unless otherwise specified, the resultant lateral earth load due to the weight of the
backfill shall be assumed to act at a height of 0.4*H above the base of the wall, where H
is the total wall height measured from the surface of the ground to the bottom of the
footing.

Chapter 3
The triangular distribution of lateral earth pressure is a simplification of the actual

nonlinear distribution depicted in Figure 3-14. Two factors contribute to the nonlinear
behavior: (1) arching due to shear stresses in the soil at the foundation level and on the
plane above the wall heel, and (2) compaction-induced lateral earth pressure in the
backfill. When the backfill moves laterally with the wall, it does not move freely on a
frictionless horizontal plane at the foundation level.
Shear stresses exist in the soil at this level. Shear stress can also exist on the vertical
plane above the wall heel. Together, these shear stresses tend to reduce the lateral earth
pressure at the bottom of the wall. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as soil
arching. Compaction-induced lateral earth pressures are most significant near the top of
the wall. The combination of these two effects is shown by the nonlinear curve in Figure
3-14. The resultant of the lateral earth force Ph can be obtained from the simplified
triangular distribution. However, to be equivalent to the actual nonlinear distribution in
moment calculations, the location of the resultant must be raised from 0.33*H to 0.4*H
(Refs. 20 and 22).
Figure 3-14 Location of Resultant for Horizontal Earth Pressure
At-Rest Pressure Coefficient, k0.
For normally consolidated soils, the coefficient of lateral at-rest earth pressure shall be
taken as:
ko = 1-sinϕf (3.18)
where: ϕf = friction angle of drained soil

ko = coefficient of earth pressure at rest for overconsolidated soils
For overconsolidated soils, the coefficient of lateral at-rest earth pressure shall be
assumed to vary as a function of the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) or stress history, and
shall be taken as:
ko = (1 - sinϕf) (OCR)sinϕf (3.19)
where: OCR = overconsolidation ratio
Values of ko for various overconsolidation ratios, OCR, shall be taken from Table 3-22.
Silt, lean clay, and highly plastic clay should not be used for backfill where free-draining
granular materials are available.

Chapter 3
Soil type Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure, ko

OCR = 1 OCR = 2 OCR = 5 OCR = 10
Loose sand 0.45 0.65 1.10 1.60
Medium Sand 0.40 0.60 1.05 1.55
Dense Sand 0.35 0.55 1.00 1.50
Silt (ML) 0.50 0.70 1.10 1.60
Lean Clay (CL) 0.60 0.80 1.20 1.65
Highly Plastic Clay (CH) 0.65 0.80 1.10 1.40
(Ref 5)
Table 3-22 Typical Coefficients of Lateral Earth Pressure At-Rest (ko)
For typical cantilevered walls over 1.5 m high with structural-grade backfill, calculations
indicate that the horizontal movement of the top of the wall due to a combination of
structural deformation of the stem and rotation of the foundation is sufficient to develop
active conditions.
Active Pressure Coefficient, ka
Values for the coefficient of active pressure shall be taken as:
ka = sin2 (θ + ϕ/) (3.20)

Γ* sin2θ sin (θ - δ)
in which:
2
Γ = 1 + sin (ϕ + δ) sin (ϕ/ - β)

/
(3.21)
sin (θ - δ) sin (θ + β)
where: δ = friction angle between fill and wall taken as specified in Table 3-23 (°)
β = angle of fill to the horizontal as shown in Figure 3-15 (°)
θ = angle of backfill of wall to the vertical as shown in Figure 3-15 (°)
ϕ/ = effective angle of internal friction (°)
Interface Materials Friction

Angle, δ
Mass concrete on the following foundation materials:
• Clean sound rock 35°
• Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand 29 to 31°
• Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand, silty or clayey 24 to 29°
gravel
• Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand 19 to 24°
• Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 17 to 19°
• Very stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated clay 22 to 26°
• Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay 17 ton 19°
Masonry on foundation materials has same friction factors

Chapter 3
Steel sheet piles against the following soils:

• Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with spalls 22°
• Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill 17°
• Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay 14°
• Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 11°
Formed or precast concrete(concrete sheet piling) against following soils:
• Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with spalls 22 to 26°
• Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill 17 to 22°
• Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay 17°
• Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 14°
Various structural materials:
• Masonry on masonry, igneous, and metamorphic rocks:
• Dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock 35°
• Dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock 33°
• Dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock 29°
• Masonry on wood in direction of cross grain 26°
• Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks 17°
Table 3-23 Friction Angle for Dissimilar Materials
For conditions that deviate from those described in Figure 3-15, the active pressure shall
be calculated by using a trial procedure based on wedge theory.
Figure 3-15 Notation for Coulomb at Earth Pressure
The values of ka determined from Equation 3.20 are based on the Coulomb earth pressure
theories. The theories are applicable for design of retaining walls. In general, Coulomb
wedge theory applies to gravity, semigravity, and prefabricated modular walls with
relatively steep back faces and to concrete cantilever walls with short heels.
For the cantilever wall in Figure 3-16, the earth pressure is applied to a plane extending
vertically from the heel of the wall base, and the weight of soil to the left of the vertical
plane is considered as part of the wall weight.

Chapter 3
Figure 3-16 Application of Coulomb Earth Pressure Theories in Retaining

Wall Design (Ref. 3)
Passive Pressure Coefficient, kp
For noncohesive soils, values of the coefficient of passive pressure shall be taken from
Figure 3-15 for the case of a sloping or vertical wall with a horizontal backfill or from
Figure 3-16 for the case of a vertical wall and sloping backfill. For conditions that
deviate from those described in Figures 3-17 and 3-18, the passive pressure shall be
calculated by using a trial procedure based on wedge theory. When wedge theory is
used, the limiting value of the wall friction angle should not be taken larger than one-half
the angle of internal friction, ϕ.
For cohesive soils, passive earth pressures, Pp (MPa) shall be estimated by:
Pp = kp * γs * g * Z_* 10 −9 + 2 * c * kp (3.22)
where: γs = density of soil (kg/m3)

Z = depth below surface of soil (mm)
c = unit cohesion (MPa)
kp = coefficient of passive pressure specified in Figures 3-17 and 3-18, as
appropriate
The movement required to mobilize passive pressure is approximately 10 times as large

as the movement needed to reduce earth pressure to the active values. The movement
required to mobilize full passive pressure in loose sand is approximately 5 % of the
height of the face on which the passive pressure acts. For dense sand, the movement
required to mobilize full passive pressure is smaller than 5 % of the height of the face on
which the passive pressure acts. For poorly compacted cohesive soils, the movement
required to mobilize full passive pressure is larger than 5 % of the height of the face on
which the pressure acts. Wedge solutions are inaccurate and unconservative for larger
values of wall friction angle.

Chapter 3
Figure 3-17 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping
Wall with Horizontal Backfill

Chapter 3
Figure 3-18 : Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical
Wall with Sloping Backfill
Equivalent-Fluid Method of Estimating Earth Pressures
The equivalent-fluid method shall not be used where the backfill is not free-draining. If
this criterion cannot be satisfied, the provisions of previous subchapter Presence of Water
and above sections Basic Earth Pressure and Active Pressure Coefficient shall be used to
determine horizontal earth pressure.

Chapter 3
Where the equivalent-fluid method is used, the basic earth pressure, p (MPa), shall be
taken as:
p = γeq *g *Z *10-9 (3.23)
where: γeq = equivalent-fluid density of soil, not less than 480 (kg/m3)
The resultant lateral earth load due to the weight of the backfill shall be assumed to act at
a height of 0.4H above the base of the wall, where H is the total wall height measured
from the surface of the ground to the bottom of the footing. In the analysis of undrained
cohesive backfills, the earth pressure shall be calculated using equivalent-fluid pressure.
Typical values for equivalent-fluid densities for design of a wall of height not exceeding
6.0 m shall be taken from Table 3-24 below, where:
∆ = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or maximum

passive pressure by tilting or lateral translation (mm)
H = height of wall (mm)
i = angle of fill to the horizontal (°)
Level Backfill Backfill with i = 25o (≈1:2)

Type of Soil
At-Rest ∆/H = 1/240 At-Rest ∆/H = 1/240
γeq(kg/m )
3
γeq(kg/m )
3
γeq(kg/m )
3
γeq(kg/m3)
Loose sand or gravel 880 640 1040 800
Medium dense sand or gravel 800 560 960 720
Dense sand or gravel 720 480 880 640
Compacted silt (ML) 960 640 1120 800
Compacted lean clay (CL) 1120 720 1280 880
Compacted fat clay (CH) 1280 880 1440 1040
Table 3-24 Typical Values for Equivalent-Fluid Densities of Soils
The magnitude of the vertical component of the earth pressure resultant for the case of
sloping backfill surface shall be determined as:
Pv = Ph tan i (3.24)
where: Ph = 0.5 γeq * g* H2* 10-9 (3.25)
Values of the density of equivalent fluids are given for walls that can tolerate very little
or no movement as well as for walls that can move as much as 25 mm in 6m. The
concepts of equivalent-fluid densities have taken into account the effect of soil creep on
walls.

Chapter 3
The specification of data for ML, CL, and CH soils in Table 3-24 is not intended to
encourage use of these soils behind walls. In some circumstances, these soils are
economically unavoidable; data is given for such cases.
In this context, the terms "free-draining" and "rapid-draining" are synonymous. If the
backfill qualifies as free-draining, water is prevented from creating hydrostatic pressure.
The values of equivalent-fluid density presented in Table 3-24 for ∆/H = 1/240 represent
the horizontal component of active earth pressure based on Rankine earth pressure
theory. This horizontal earth pressure is applicable for cantilever retaining walls for
which the wall stem does not interfere with the sliding surface defining the Rankine
failure wedge within the wall backfill (Figure 3-15). The horizontal pressure is applied to
a vertical plane extending up from the heel of the wall base, and the weight of soil to the
left of the vertical plane is included as part of the wall weight.
For the case of a sloping backfill surface in Table 3-24, a vertical component of earth
pressure also acts on the vertical plane extending up from the heel of the wall.
Apparent Earth Pressures for Anchored Walls
Assumed earth pressure distributions, other than those herein, shall be permitted if they
are consistent with the expected wall deflections.
In the development of lateral earth pressures, the method and sequence of construction,
the rigidity of the wall/anchor system, the physical characteristics and stability of the
ground mass to be supported, allowable wall deflections, anchor spacing and prestress,
and the potential for anchor yield should be considered.
For anchored walls with one level of anchors, the earth pressure shall be assumed linearly
proportional to depth, and the provisions of above sections At-Rest Pressure Coefficient,
Active Pressure Coefficient, and Passive Pressure Coefficient, shall apply.
For anchored walls with two or more levels of anchors, the earth pressure shall be
assumed constant with depth. For walls constructed from the top down, the earth
pressure resultant, Pa shall be determined using Formula 3.26 below:
Pa = 0.65*10-9* ka * γ's * g H2 (3.26)
where: H = final wall height (mm)

ka = active earth pressure coefficient = tan2 (45-ϕf/2)
γ's = effective density of soil (kg/m3)
For walls constructed in fill from the bottom up, the total magnitude of the uniform,
rectangular distribution shall be assumed equal to 130 % of a triangular distribution
determined in accordance with the provisions of Active Pressure Coefficient.
In developing the design pressure for an anchored wall, consideration shall be given to
wall displacements that may affect adjacent structures and/or underground utilities.

Chapter 3
Several suitable apparent earth pressure distribution diagrams are in common use for the
design of anchored walls. They all tend to confirm the presence of higher lateral
pressures near the top of the wall than would be predicted by classical earth pressure
theories. These higher pressures are due to the constraint provided by the upper level of
anchors and to a generally uniform pressure distribution with depth.
The settlement profiles in Figure 3-19 are recommended (Ref. 6) to estimate ground
surface settlements adjacent to braced or anchored excavations caused during the
excavation and bracing stages of construction. Significant settlements may also be caused
by other construction activities, e.g., dewatering or deep foundation construction within
the excavation, or by poor construction techniques, e.g., during soldier pile, lagging, or
anchor installation. The field measurements used to develop Figure 3-17 have been
screened to preclude movements caused by other construction activities or poor
construction techniques. Therefore, such movements should be estimated separately.
Where noted in the definition of the various curves in Figure 3-17, the factor of safety
against basal heave, FSBH shall be taken as:
FSBH = 5.1 Su (3.27)

γs g H*10-9 + qs
where: Su = undrained shear strength of cohesive soil (MPa)

H =height of wall (mm)
qs = surcharge pressure (MPa)
CURVE I=Sand
CURVE II=Stiff to very hard clay
CURVE III=Soft to medium clay, FSBH = 2.0
CURVE IV=Soft medium clay, FSBH = 1.2
Figure 3-19 Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls
Earth Pressures For Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls
The resultant force per unit width, Pa (N/mm) behind an MSE wall, shown in Figures
3-20 through 3-22, as acting at a height of h/3 above the base of the wall and parallel to
the slope of the backfill, shall be taken as:
Pa = 0.5*10-9 γs g h2 ka (3.28)
Where: γs = density of backfill (kg/m3)

Chapter 3
h = notional height of horizontal earth pressure diagram shown in Figures 3-

18 to 3-20 (mm),
ka = active earth pressure coefficient specified Equation 3.20 with the angle of
backfill slope, β, taken as specified in Figures 3-19 and 3-20 and the angle
δ taken as 0.0.
The at-rest earth pressure coefficient, ko, for determining safety against structural failure
shall be taken as:
ko = 1-sin ϕf (3.29)
The restrictions on the angle δ and the angle of action of the soil pressure resultant
specified in this chapter reduce the Coulomb earth pressure theory to the Rankine
theory, which is the basis of MSE wall design.
Figure 3-20 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Level Backfill Surface
Figure 3-21 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Sloping Backfill Surface

Chapter 3
Figure 3-22 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Broken Back Backfill Surface
In this context, the terms “safety against structural failure” and “Internal stability” are
synonymous.
3.20.6 SURCHARGE LOADS: ES AND LS
Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant horizontal earth pressure, ∆p (MPa),

shall be added to the basic earth pressure. This constant earth pressure shall be taken as:
∆p = ks qs (3-30)
where: ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge

qs = uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of the active earth wedge
(MPa)
When the uniform surcharge is produced by an earth loading on the upper surface, the
load factor for both vertical and horizontal components shall be taken as specified in
Table 3-3 for earth surcharge.
For active earth pressure conditions, ks shall be taken as ka, and for at-rest conditions, ks
shall be taken as ko. Otherwise, intermediate values appropriate for the type of backfill
and amount of wall movement shall be used.
The horizontal pressure distribution, ∆ph (MPa), on a wall resulting from a uniformly
loaded strip parallel to the wall shall be taken as:
∆ph = 2p (α - sin α cos (α + 2δ)) (3.31)

π
where: p = load intensity (MPa)

α = angle specified in Figure 3-23 (in radians)
δ = angle specified in Figure 3-23 (in radians)

Chapter 3
Wall movement needed to mobilize extreme active and passive pressures for various
types of backfill can be found in Table 3-20.
Figure 3-23 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by Uniformly Loaded Strip
The horizontal pressure distribution, ∆ph (MPa), on a wall resulting from a point load
shall be taken as:
∆ph = P 3ZX2 - R(1-2v) (3.32)

πR2 R3 R+Z
where: P = load (N)

R = radial distance from point of load application to a point on the wall as
specified in Figure 3-24 (mm)
X = horizontal distance from back of wall to point of load application (mm)
Z = vertical distance from point of load application to the elevation of a point
on the wall under consideration (mm)
v = Poisson's Ratio (DIM)(see Chapter 9: Reinforced Concrete)
Figure 3-24 Horizontal Pressure on a Wall Caused by a Point Load

Chapter 3
The horizontal pressure, ∆ph (MPa), resulting from an infinitely long line load parallel to
a wall shall be taken as:
∆ph = 4Q X2Z (3.33)

π R4
where: Q = load intensity in N/mm
All other notation is as defined above and shown in Figure 3-25.
Figure 3-25 Horizontal Pressure on a Wall Caused by an Infinitely Long Line Load
Parallel to the Wall
The horizontal pressure distribution, ∆ph (MPa), on a wall resulting from a finite line load
perpendicular to a wall shall be taken as:
∆ph = Q 1 - 1-2v - 1 + 1-2v (3..34)

πZA3 A+Z B3 B+ Z
X2 X1
in which:
2
§Z ·
A = 1 + ¨¨ ¸¸ (3.35)
© X2 ¹
2
(3.36)
§Z ·
B = 1 + ¨¨ ¸¸
© X1 ¹
Where: X1 = distance from the back of the wall to the start of the line load as specified
in Figure 3-26 (mm)
X2 = length of the live load (mm)
Z = depth from the ground surface to a point on the wall under consideration
(mm)
v = Poisson’s Ratio (DIM)
Q = load intensity (N/mm)

Chapter 3
Figure 3-26 Horizontal Pressure on a Wall Caused by a Finite Line Load

Perpendicular to the Wall
Equations 3.31, 3.32, 3.33, and 3.34 are based on the assumption that the wall does not
move. For very flexible walls, this assumption can be very conservative.
Live Load Surcharge: LS
A live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular load is expected to act on the
surface of the backfill within a distance equal to the wall height behind the back face of
the wall. If the surcharge is for a highway, the intensity of the load shall be consistent
with the provisions of previous section Design Vehicular Live Load. If the surcharge is
for other than a highway, ERA shall specify and/or approve appropriate surcharge loads.
The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load surcharge shall be estimated as:
∆p = k*γs*g*heq *10-9 (3.37)
where: ∆p = constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge (MPa)

γs = density of soil (kg /m3)
k = coefficient of earth pressure
heq = equivalent height of soil for the design truck (mm)
Equivalent heights of soil, heq, for highway loadings shall be taken from Table 3-25.
Linear interpolation shall be used for intermediate wall heights.
The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between the surface of the backfill and
the bottom of the footing.

Chapter 3
Wall Height (mm) heq (mm)

≤1500 1700
3000 1200
6000 760
≥9000 610
Table 3-25 Equivalent Height of Soil, heq for Different Wall Heights Due to
Vehicular Loading
The load factor for both vertical and horizontal components of live load surcharge shall
be taken as specified in Table 3-2 for live load surcharge.
The tabulated values for heq were determined by evaluating the horizontal force against
the wall from the pressure distribution produced by the vehicular live load of previous
section Design Vehicular Live Load. The pressure distributions were obtained from
elastic half-space solutions with Poisson’s ratio of 0.5.
The values for heq given in Table 3-25 are generally greater than the traditional 610 mm
of earth load. The traditional value corresponds to a 90 kN single-unit truck, formerly
known as an H10 truck (Ref. 16). In part, this explains the increase in heq.
Reduction of Surcharge
If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a structural slab, which is also supported
by means other than earth, an appropriate reduction in the surcharge loads shall be
permitted.
3.20.7 REDUCTION DUE TO EARTH PRESSURE
For culverts and bridges and their components, where earth pressure may reduce effects
caused by other loads and forces, such reduction shall be limited to the extent that earth
pressure can be expected to be permanently present. In lieu of more precise information,
a 50 % reduction shall be used but need not be combined with the minimum load factor
specified in Table 3-3.
This provision is intended to refine the traditional approach in which the earth pressure is
reduced by 50 % in order to obtain maximum positive moment in top slab of culverts
and frames. It permits more precise estimates of force effects to be obtained where earth
pressures are present.
3.20.8 DOWNDRAG
Force effects due to downdrag on piles or drilled shafts resulting from settlement of the
ground adjacent to the pile or shaft shall be determined as a reversed skin friction by
using any relevant design method approved by ERA, such as the β-method. For end
bearing shafts, the load factor shall be reciprocal of the resistance factor used for the
specific method used (See Chapter 6: Substructure Design).

Chapter 3
The methods used to estimate downdrag loads are the same as those used to estimate skin
friction. The distinction between the two is that downdrag acts downward on the sides of
piles or piers and loads the foundation, whereas skin friction acts upward on the sides of
the piles or piers and, thus, supports the foundation. Downdrag is, therefore, a load, and
skin friction is a resistance.
The downdrag should be specified by the Soil Engineer in the Soil Investigation Report
as stated in the ERA Soils and Materials Investigation Manual-2002.
3.21 FORCE EFFECTS DUE TO SUPERIMPOSED DEFORMATIONS: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE
3.21.1 GENERAL
Internal force effects in a component due to creep and shrinkage shall be considered.
The effect of temperature gradient should be included where appropriate. Force effects
resulting from resisting component deformation, displacement of points of load
application, and support movements shall be included in the analysis.
3.21.2 UNIFORM TEMPERATURE (TU: TEMPERATURE RANGES, SETTING TEMPERATURE, AND

SEASONAL TEMPERATURE)
In the absence of more precise information, the temperature ranges shall be as specified
in Table 3-26. The difference between the extended lower or upper boundary and the
base construction temperature assumed in the design shall be used to calculate thermal
deformation effects.
STEEL OR ALUMINUM CONCRETE WOOD

-5o to 50oC 5o to 35oC 0o to 35oC
Table 3-26 Temperature Ranges
In the Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), the daily temperature range 30°C is
used all over the country for concrete.
Setting temperature is used in installing expansion bearings and deck joints. The
setting temperature of the bridge, or any component thereof shall be taken as the actual
air temperature averaged over the 24-hour period immediately preceding the setting
event.
Where required, and in the absence of local data, seasonal temperature variation, as
indicated by the maximum and minimum air temperatures for a given location shall be
taken from the nearest place on the National Atlas of Ethiopia 1988, or later editions,
from the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
3.21.3 TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
For the purpose of this subchapter, positive temperature values shall be taken as specified
for various deck surface conditions in Table 3-29. Negative temperature values shall be
obtained by multiplying the values specified in Table 3-27 by -0.30 for plain concrete
decks and -0.20 for decks with an asphalt overlay.

Chapter 3
The vertical temperature gradient in concrete and steel superstructures with concrete
decks shall be taken as shown in Figure 3-27.
Dimension "A” in Figure 3-25 shall be taken as:

• For concrete superstructures that are 400 mm or more in depth - 300 mm
• For concrete sections shallower than 400 mm - 100 mm less than the actual depth
• For steel superstructures, the distance "t" shall be taken as the depth of the concrete
deck
Temperature value T3 shall be taken as in Table 3-27 below, unless a site-specific study
is made to determine an appropriate value, but it shall not exceed 5oC.
Where temperature gradient is considered, internal stresses and structure deformations

due to both positive and negative temperature gradients shall be determined.
Zone T1 (oC) T2 (oC) T3(°C)

1 (Lowland, below +1 500 m level) 30 8 0
2 (Highland, above +1 500 m level) 35 10 5
The temperatures given in this table form the basis for calculating the change in temperature with
depth in the cross-section, not absolute temperature.
Table 3-27 Basis for Temperature Gradients
Figure 3-27 Positive Vertical Temperature Gradient in Concrete and Steel

Superstructures
Temperature gradient is included in various load combinations in Table 3-2. This does
not mean that it need be investigated for all types of structures. If experience has shown
that neglecting temperature gradient in the design of a given type of structure has not lead
to structural distress, ERA may choose to exclude temperature gradient. Multi-beam
bridges are an example of a type of structure for which judgment and past experience
should be considered.

Chapter 3
Redistribution of reactive loads, both longitudinally and transversely, should also be

calculated and considered in the design of the bearings and substructures.
The temperature gradient given herein is based on studies of concrete superstructures

(Ref. 9), and steel superstructures (Ref. 1).
The data in Table 3-27 does not make a distinction regarding the presence or lack of an
asphaltic overlay on decks. Field measurements have yielded apparently different
indications concerning the effect of asphalt as an insulator or as a contributor. Therefore,
any possible insulating qualities have been ignored herein.
3.21.4 DIFFERENTIAL SHRINKAGE
Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains between concretes of different age and
composition, and between concrete and steel or wood, shall be determined in accordance
with the provisions of Section 9.3: Reinforced Concrete/Shrinkage and Creep.
The designer may specify timing and sequence of construction in order to minimize
stresses due to differential shrinkage between components.
3.21.5 CREEP
Creep strains for concrete shall be in accordance with the provisions of Section 9.3:
Reinforced Concrete/Shrinkage and Creep. In determining force effects and deformations
due to creep, dependence on time and changes in compressive stresses shall be taken into
account.
3.21.6 SETTLEMENT
Force effects due to extreme values of differential settlements among substructures and
within individual substructure units shall be considered. Force effects due to settlement
shall be reduced by considering creep.
3.22 FRICTION FORCES: FR
Forces due to friction shall be established based on extreme values of the friction
coefficient between the sliding surfaces. Where appropriate, the effect of moisture and
possible degradation or contamination of sliding or rotating surfaces upon the friction
coefficient shall be considered.
Friction coefficients are shown in Table 8-2.

Chapter 3
REFERENCES
1. AUSTROADS. “Bridge Design Code”. Hay Market, Australia, 1992.

2. “Bridge Manual: Design and Evaluation”. Draft. Transit New Zealand, Wellington,
New Zealand, 1991.
3. Caquot, A., and J. Kerisel. “Tables for the Calculation of Passive Pressure, Active
Pressure and Bearing Capacity of Foundations”. Gauthier-Villars, Libraire du
Bureau des Longitudes, de L'Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, 1948.
4. Clough, G. W., and Y. Tsui. "Performance of Tied-Back Retaining Walls." Journal
of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. GT 12,1974, pp.
1259-1273.
5. Clough, G. W., and J. M. Duncan. "Earth Pressures." Chapter 6, Foundation
Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed. H. Y. Fang, ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York,
1991.
6. Clough, G. W., and T. D. O'Rourke. "Construction Induced Movements of In-Situ
Walls." In Proc. of the 1990 Specially Conference on Design and Performance of
Earth Retaining Structures, 1990, pp. 439-470.
7. Cohen, H. “Truck Weight Limits: Issues and Options”. Special Report 225. TRB,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1990.
8. “Design of Highway Bridges”. CAN/CSA-S6-88. Canadian Standards Association,
Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, 1988.
9. Imbsen, R.A., D.E. Vandershaf, R.A. Schamber, and R.V. Nuft. “Thermal Effects in
Concrete Bridge Superstructures”. NCHRP Report 276. TRB, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., 1985.
10. Kulicki, J. M., and D. R. Mertz. "A New Live Load Model for Bridge Design." In
Proc. of the 8th Annual International Bridge Conference, June 1991, pp. 238-246.
11. Liu, H. “Wind Engineering: A Handbook for Structural Engineers”, Prentice Hall:
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1991.
12. “Loads and Forces on Bridges”. Preprint 80-173. ASCE National Convention,
Portland, Oregon, April 14-18, 1980.
13. “Minimum Design Loads for Building and Other Structures”. ASCE Standard ASCE
7-88. ASCE, New York, New York, 1988.
14. Nowak, A. S. “Calibration of LRFD Bridge Design Code”. NCHRP Project 12-33.
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1992.
15. “Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code”. Highway Engineering Division, Ministry of
Transportation and Communications, Toronto, Canada, 1991.
16. Peck, R. B., W. E. Hanson, and T. H. Thornburn. “Foundation Engineering”. 2nd ed.
Wiley: New York, 1974
17. Poulos, H. G., and E. H. Davis. “Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics”.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.: New York, 1974.
18. Ritter, M. A. “Timber Bridges: Design, Construction, Inspection and Maintenance”.
Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1990.
19. Schnabel, Jr., H. “Tiebacks in Foundation Engineering and Construction”. McGraw-
Hill Book: New York, 1982, 171 pp.
20. Sherif, M. A., I. Ishibashi, and C. D. Lee. "Earth Pressures Against Rigid Retaining
Walls," Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 108, GT5,1982,
pp. 679-695.
21. Simiu, E. "Logarithmic Profiles and Design Wind Speeds." Journal-of the Mechanic
Division, ASCE, Vol. 99, No. EM5, October 1973, pp. 1073-1083.
22. Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck. “Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice”. 2nd ed.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.: New York, 1967, 729 pp.

Chapter 3
23. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS) No. 8: Design of Structures for
Earthquake Resistance.
24. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, SI Units, 2nd edition, 1998.
25. AASHTO, Bridge Construction Specifications, 16th edition, 1996. Washington:
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
26. TRRL, 1992. A design manual for small bridges. Overseas Road Note 9.
Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory.

Chapter 4
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Planning Stage/Feasibility Study/Site Investigation
4 PLANNING STAGE/FEASIBILITY STUDY/SITE INVESTIGATION

4.1 GENERAL
In this first stage of design the highway engineer identifies a preferred location for the
bridge and decides on the type, size and capacity of the structure. He reaches these
decisions on the basis of field surveys and information concerning:
• the proposed road alignments

• the local terrain and site conditions
• the required design life of the bridge
• the likely traffic volumes
• the resources he has available
The local terrain and site conditions dictate the height, length and number of spans, and
the design of the substructure foundations. The required design life and the resources
available to construct the bridge will influence the choice of materials and building
methods. The traffic predictions enable the engineer to determine the necessary width of
the bridge.
The data required for the Preliminary Design stage, specifically for the geotechnical
analyses, hydraulic design and site investigations, are discussed in Chapter 5:
Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts.
4.2 SITE SELECTION
For the highway engineer, rivers are the most common obstructions needing to be
bridged. Occasionally the highway engineer shall be called upon to design a rail or road
grade-separated crossing. These are relatively simple compared to river crossings
because they involve considerations only of height and span. The design of a river
crossing also has to take hydraulic requirements into account.
There are three initial considerations to bear in mind in selection of the site:
• a bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew angle
above 20° should be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
• its soils must be of sufficient strength to ensure the stability of the structure (the site
selection should if possible be made together with a soils engineer and, for a large
bridge, with a bridge engineer, to minimize costs and select the best site).
• the bridge and its associated works should not have an adverse impact on adjoining
land or buildings, or be susceptible to damage from/to the local environment (an
environmentalist and a hydrologist are advantageous in some cases to avoid these
impacts).

Chapter 4
Planning Stage/Feasibility Study/Site Investigation Bridge Design Manual - 2002
4.2.1 RIVER TYPE
Rivers are classed as either alluvial or incised, as follows.
Alluvial rivers are winding and erode their banks and scour their beds; they have flood
plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to
spread across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing
materials on the banks and transporting quantities of sediment. The main channels and
any of the minor channels can change position and islands can disappear in the course of
a single major flood.
Incised rivers have relatively stable banks and are generally narrower and deeper than
alluvial rivers. Some overtop their banks during flood, but the flow returns to the existing
channel when the flood subsides.
Steeply graded tributary streams flowing into a major river commonly exhibit abrupt
changes in channel width and bed gradient where they enter the main flood plain. These
changes result in the deposition of large quantities of sediment in the form of alluvial
fans of gravel to clay sized debris.
4.2.2 BRIDGE SITES
In selecting the location for small- or medium-sized bridges (below 50 m length), the
engineer often has to reach a compromise between the easiest river crossing and the
shortest road alignment. The choice of location then becomes an economic decision. The
most economic bridge site and the one that has potentially the longest service life is a
location that:
• is on a straight reach of the river

• is beyond the disturbing influence of larger tributaries
• has well defined banks
• has reasonably straight approach roads
• permits as perpendicular a crossing as possible
• has a good foundation condition.
The site shall also allow the gradient of the approach roads to be appropriate to the types
of vehicles likely to travel on the road and to conform to the ERA Geometric Design
Manual-2002, Chapter 9: Vertical Alignment. It should offer vertical curves and sight
distances suitable for the design speed of vehicles using the bridge.
A bridge aligned at right angles to the river results in the shortest superstructure. A
skewed bridge requires more material and is more complicated to design and construct.
If a skew is unavoidable the angle should preferably not exceed 20°, due to the increased
cost, and the abutments and piers should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of
flow during maximum flood (see following section: Site Conditions), which may not be
the same as during normal flow.
Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the
channel flow within the bridge waterway opening.

Chapter 4
4.3 SITE CONDITIONS
Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he needs to obtain field
information on the local terrain and river conditions in addition to the soil information
and hydraulic data that are outlined in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, chapter
5: Hydrology. The key points of field information relate to:
• the catchment area of the river

• water levels
• navigational and other clearance requirements
4.3.1 CATCHMENT AREA
Usually the road plans with contours are not prepared at this early stage, which makes it
necessary to use the topographical maps available in the country. The Ethiopian Mapping
Authority has prepared maps to scale 1:250 000 for the whole country. In addition to that
there are also maps to scale 1:50 000 available for large areas of the country shown in the
current "Map Catalogue" published by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority. The area west
of Goba–Korem and south of Gondar–Korem is mainly covered by 1:50 000 topographic
maps. These are especially suited for the planning stage to calculate catchment areas,
possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries, and other uses.
The extent of the river catchment area determines the area to be included in plans and
sections, and can be used to estimate flow volumes (see ERA Drainage Design Manual-
2002, Chapter 4: Hydrographic Survey). Using maps or aerial photographs to an
appropriate scale, the catchment area can be marked and its size calculated, using
transparent squared graph paper or a planimeter.
4.3.2 WATER LEVELS
Information is needed on the highest known flood level, the ordinary flood level and the
low water level at the proposed site. The historical flood level/ highest-known flood
level (HFL) should be determined by calculation and supplemented with local
observation and inquiries in the locality (see also the ERA Drainage Design Manual-
2002, Chapter 5: Hydrology). The silt marks that high floods generally leave on tree
trunks and rocks remain visible for several years. If there are old trees at the site vicinity,
they should be examined for the presence of small twigs left adhering to the bark at high
water levels. It is usually helpful to ask people who have been living in the area for a
long time about their recollections of particularly high floods, with a caution that this
source of information is variable in reliability. It is usually better to make such inquiries
by talking to people individually rather than in groups.
The normal high water level, the ordinary flood level (OFL), is the level to which the
river normally rises during the wettest part of the year.
The normal low water level, the low water level (LWL), is the level prevailing in the
river during dry weather. If there is little or no flow in dry weather, the period during
which the riverbed remains dry should be noted.

Chapter 4
4.4 CROSS-SECTION OF RIVER (SEE ERA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL-2002, ERA SITE
INVESTIGATION MANUAL-2002)
In order to develop a sketch for a large bridge, cross sections of the waterway at the
approximate proposed crossing are essential. The cross sections should extend at least 20
m in length beyond the assumed high water mark, or 2 m vertically above the same.
4.5 PROPOSED TYPICAL SECTION OF ROAD
The proposed typical section of the road is based on parameters including ADT (Average
Daily Traffic) and/or road classification as developing in the ERA Geometric Design
Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Design Controls and Criteria and will be obtained from the
road engineer. The width of the bridge should be somewhat wider than the roadway, in
order to allow the vehicles to pass the bridge without retardation of speed, for safety, and
for pedestrian requirements as specified in Chapter 2, Table 2-2 of this manual.
4.6 SKETCH OF PROPOSED BRIDGE AND BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF BRIDGES
The result of the planning stage conducted by the bridge engineer (or by the road
engineer for small and sometimes medium sized bridges) should be a sketch of the
proposed bridge(s) containing the following information essential for the subsequent
preliminary design stage (see Figure 4-1 at end of chapter, and Chapter 5: Preliminary
Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts, Section 5-21: Checklist for the Preliminary
Design).
• waterway name
• direction of flow
• direction of north
• the direction and name of the nearest town and/or project beginning and end of
project
• width of road
• proposed clear width of bridge
• proposed inclination of embankment slopes
• overall proposed length of bridge
• span lengths
• clearance heights
• type of bearings (fixed/expandable)
• proposed position of fixed bearings,
• quantity of flow
• design water velocity (the calculated velocity at the statistical flow at design year)
• design water level (the highest statistical level at design year)
• normal water level
• (statistically) lowest water level (at design year),
• cross section of the waterway in the alignment, spot levels of the river bed and
the surrounding ground in the area,
• crossfall of bridge deck
• proposed grade of bridge
• angle of skew and proposed angle of abutments and piers
• the approximate horizontal alignment of the road approaches and the bridge

Chapter 4
• the stations of the piers and abutments

• towns adjacent to the bridge
• bench mark used, and its location and elevation
4.7 EXISTING BRIDGES
If any part of a bridge must be replaced, needs widening, or to be exchanged for a new
bridge, the existing bridge shall be inspected, and data on the bridge shall be collected.
Regarding a Checklist for existing structures (Ref. 3), see Form 4-2. For the strength
evaluation rating of existing bridges, refer to Chapter 14: Strength Evaluation of Existing
Steel and Concrete Bridges.
If a junior engineer is performing the field inspection, the result should always be
verified with a senior bridge engineer to determine whether further inspection is needed,
and what maintenance has to be accomplished to secure the bridge in the future.
4.8 COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
It is most common that two to five different alignments are compared and evaluated from
technical, economical, environmental, and other points of view, to select the most
beneficial alignment(s). This shall be performed either by hand or by a computer
program. The preliminary cost of the bridges shall be calculated by unit cost, per m2 of
bridge deck.
Several computer programs are available. An example is a computer program developed

in 1993-98 by the Overseas Centre Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in Berkshire,
United Kingdom is "RTIM3 - Road Transport Investment Model". It is widely used to
carry out cost benefit analysis on road construction, upgrading and maintenance projects
in developing countries. The program runs on a microcomputer and operates as a series
of linked compiled spreadsheets for traffic flow, road deterioration, and vehicle operating
costs and economic analysis. The program is supported by an interactive ”Help” facility
and a users manual.
4.9 SITE INVESTIGATION
4.9.1 GENERAL
Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The
most complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for
personal inspection by someone experienced in bridge and drainage design.
There are several criteria that should be established before making the field visit. Does
the magnitude of the project warrant an inspection, or can the same information be
obtained from maps, aerial photos, or by telephone calls? What kind of equipment
should be taken, and most important, what exactly are the critical items at this site?
Factors that most often need to be confirmed by field inspection (see Form 4-1) are:
• high-water marks or profiles and related frequencies.

• selection of roughness coefficients,

Chapter 4
• evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions,

• flow concentration (main stream),
• observation of land use and related flood hazards, and
• geomorphic relationships and soil conditions
An actual visit to the site where the project will be constructed shall be made before any
design is undertaken. This shall be combined with a visit by others, such as the roadway
designers and soil investigators, environmental reviewers, and local officials. The
designer may visit the site separately, however, because of interests which are different
from the others, and the time required to obtain the data as warranted below.
It may not be possible to survey the entire watershed, therefore a sample area may have
to be studied. It is important to set out the exact field needs by a checklist before the trip
is made to ensure that all information needed is collected and all important areas are
visited (see Form 4-1).
4.9.2 HYDROLOGY
Information required by the designer for analysis and design include not only the
physical characteristics of the land and channel, but all features that can effect the
magnitude and frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These
data may include climatological characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream
gauging records, high water marks and the sizes and past performances of existing
structures the vicinity. The exact data required will depend upon the methods utilized to
estimate discharges, frequencies, and stages. It should be noted that much of the
hydrologic data would not be used during the planning and location phase. However, it is
important at this stage to emphasize the need for such data, because of the time necessary
for collection and evaluation of such data. By starting this process during the planning
and location stage, delays during the design stage should be minimized.
The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis.
The field collection will consist mainly of interviews with local people, maintenance
personnel, and local officials who may have recollections of past flood events in the area.
In some cases, if a stream gauging station is on the stream under study, close to the
crossing site, and has many years of measurements, this shall be the only hydrologic data
needed. These data should be analyzed to ensure stream flows have not changed over the
time of measurement due to watershed alterations such as the construction of a large
storage facility, diversion of flow to another watershed, addition of flow from another
watershed, or development which has significantly altered the runoff characteristics of
the watershed.
High-water marks are often the only data of past floods available. When collected, these
data should include, when possible, the date and elevation of the flood event. In the
search for marks local people could be of great help. The cause of the high-water mark
should also be noted, often the mark is caused by unusual debris build-up rather than an
inadequate structure, and designing roadway or structure to such an elevation could lead
to an unrealistic, uneconomical design. High-water marks can be identified in several
ways. Small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant-grass or
similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high-water indicators.
Beware however that grass, bushes, and tree branches could be bent over during flood

Chapter 4
flows and spring up after the flow has passed, which may give a false reading of the high
water elevation.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are
needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these
characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey
of the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream
network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general
geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps.
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage
values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values
using methods outlined in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5:
Hydrology, Section 5.6: Hydrologic Procedure.
Rainfall records are available from the Ethiopian Meteorological Services Agency
(Weather Bureau). This data should be used to supplement, update, and refine the data
developed and presented in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002 (Appendix B:
Rainfall Data).
4.9.3 LAND USE
Field visits including discussions with local residents can yield information not elsewhere
available. If there are wildlife or livestock tracks or paths crossing the proposed roadway
alignment it would be wise to provide for the passing of the animals under the bridge if
possible. This may keep accidents with animals down once the road is in use.
The types and extent of vegetal cover should be noted since it affects the velocity and
quantity of runoff. It also affects the quality of the water.
In order to make a study of the water resources of the area, an environmental team should
obtain those data commensurate with the needs to evaluate the highway impacts on the
surface water. A coordination meeting with representatives of the various environmental
disciplines concerned is often beneficial at this stage. Data may need to be collected on
such facts as fish and wildlife, vegetation and the quality of the water. A judgment may
need to be made on aesthetic values. Detailed test on environmental concerns and
coordination in presented in given in the ERA Standard Environmental Methodologies
and Procedures Manual-2002.
Land use and vegetal cover information shall be determined to the extent needed for
preliminary design from soils and land use maps, but with rapidly changing land uses, a
more accurate survey will be achieved from aerial photographs and field visits.
To determine the disturbance and interference factor it should be noted whether the
upstream land areas include farming, cattle and/or fishing activities.
If the roadway, the bridge site and especially the upstream land-areas are influenced by
villages, houses, etc this should be noted at the site.

Chapter 4
4.9.4 OTHER STRUCTURES
All existing structures along the stream that could possibly be affected by or affect the
new bridge, such as old bridges, dams and irrigation channels, shall be investigated as to
size, location, type and condition. This can be a valuable indicator when selecting the
size and type of any new structure. Data to be obtained on existing structures includes
such parameters as size, type, age, existing flow line elevation, and condition,
particularly in regards to the channel. Scour holes, erosion (around the abutments or just
upstream or downstream), or abrupt changes in material gradation or type can all indicate
a structure too small for the site. With knowledge of flood history, the age and overall
substructure condition may also aid in determining if the existing structure is too small.
If a structure is relatively new, information may still be available on a previous structure,

and why it had to be replaced. When structures upstream or downstream of the site under
study exist, they should always be inventoried for the factors just discussed. In addition
to highway structures, any other crossings, which might exist, should be investigated.
4.9.5 SAMPLING AND SOIL INVESTIGATION
Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in
cooperation with the soil investigators. Samples as specified in ERA Site Investigation
Manual-2002, Chapter 3: Preliminary Design, Section 3.3: Sampling Program:
Earthworks and subgrade soils should be collected, marking the station number where
they are collected.
In this early stage, the soil investigation could be very brief, since the final alignment of
the roadway is not yet decided. The most probable location should be investigated to get
a general view of the soil conditions.
If the conditions are complex or if there is only one possible bridge site the investigations
could preferably be extended. This work should be made under the guidance of a
geotechnical engineer. See also the ERA Soils and Materials Investigation Manual-2002.
4.9.6 FIELD SKETCHING AND PHOTOS
It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate
water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very
rough dimensions with approximate measurements (see Figure 4-1).
As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as
well as along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the
streambed and banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in
the vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale
or grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.
4.9.7 CHECK LIST OF SITE INVESTIGATION
A form or checklist that can be used by the field investigator/designer in identifying and
cataloging field information is shown on (Form 4-1). A checklist for Inspection of
existing bridges is shown in (Form 4-2).

Chapter 4
Figure 4-1: Sketch of Bridge Site

Chapter 4
Form 4-1 FIELD VISIT INVESTIGATION FORM
• PROJECT:…………..................................................………………......……………… Date: …................……….
Inv. by ……….........................…………………………….........................… Site Situated @ STA: .................……….
• WATERWAY: Name: .............................................................................. Direction of flow: ....................................
High Water Mark:... ...................... Level: +...............Side Slopes: ..................................degrees: ............

Diversions/ Flow concentration / Flood Hazards year, level: .............................................................................................
% Grade of Stream: ......... Channel, Base: ……(m) Height of Banks:…...... (m) Manning's Value n=..................
Crossing angle (estimated): …………degrees Meandering: ……………………………………(show figure below)
Bottom/Base material............................................................ Material on channel side: ......................... n=..........
Up or Downstream Restriction (debris/sedimentation/scour/soil mtrl.): ............................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................................
• STRUCTURES : Bridges/ Buildings upstream and downstream: ............................................. @ M up/down:.......
Type: ..........................................................................................Piers: Type: ............................................................
Abutment Types: ........................................Width: ...............(m) Size of Spans: ...................................................
Clear Height: ……(m) @............; ............m@..............; .............m@ .............; Total water width at HWL:............(m);
(Overflow? Year? Level: +...) .............................................................................................................................................
• MISC. Land Uses upstream and downstream: ..............................................................................................................
Vegetation (Location, Type, Name): ...................................................................................................................................
Wildlife (Paths, Traces, Type, Name): ...............................................................................................................................
• Soil Conditions: .......................................................................................................... at Roadway STA: .....................
Sample no: ............. @ STA: .............; Sample no: ............ @ STN: ................; Sample no: ............ @ STA: ................;
• Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ................... Photos no:..........@STA:............... Shows: .........................
Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ..................... Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: .........................
• REMARKS:
........................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
(please, make simple plan sketch incl. water shores/Rd alignment and continue the text on back side of this page, if
needed)

Chapter 4
Form 4-2 BRIDGE INSPECTION FORM

Page 1(3)
Bridge Number:……………. Name ……………………………………. Crossing……………………

At STA. kilometer…………. on the…………………………….. to…………………………………road
Instruction from the Engineer to the Inspector.……….…………… ………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
View of bridge looking from above:
Notes from the Inspector to the Engineer:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Inspected by ……………………………...……………Date…………… No of pages in report………..

Report accepted by…………….…………………… Date …………… (Including sketches, notes, etc)
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS (from the Inventory)

No Span…………………..Running surface…………………………… Deck……….……………………
Pier(s)………………….…………………….. Abutments……………………………………………….…..
Problem How Bad? How Much?

Handbook (2)
A lot
CONCRETE OR MASONRY
No
yes
Not very bad
Bad
Not much
Some
PARAPETS Note or sketch

reference
POSSIBLE PROBLEM
Cracking?
Spalling
Corrosion of reinforcement?
Poor Concrete?
Movement or bending of
parapet?
Deterioration of the bricks or
stonework?
MAIN CONCRETE BEAMS

Cracking
Spalling
Corrosion of reinforcement
Poor concrete?
Notes:

Chapter 4
Page 2(3)
SUPERSTRUCTURE Problem How Bad? How Much?
Handbook (2)
SPAN NO……………. Note or sketch
No
Yes
Not very bad
Bad
Very serious
Not Much
Some
A lot
reference
POSSIBLE PROBLEM
STEEL GIRDERS & BRACING

Deterioration of paint / galvanizing?
Bends in webs, flanges, stiffeners
Loose bolts or rivets
Water coming through the deck
SUPER STRUCTURE
Impact damage to beams, girders,
trusses or bracing?
STEEL TRUSSES
Deterioration of paint or galvanizing
Corrosion?
Bends in truss members?
Bent or damaged joints?
Bent or damaged bracings
Loose bolts or rivets?
Cracking of steel members
TIMBER BEAMS AND

TRUSSES
Decay
Insect attack?
Splitting of timber?
Separation of laminations on glue
laminated beams?
Loose or corroded nails spikes or
fixing wires?
BEARING S
ABUTMENT NAME…………
Debris or vegetation around
bearings?
Bad drainage of bearing shelf?
Not enough room for the bridge span
to move?
Bearing not seated properly
Damaged bedding mortar?
Damage or loose earthquake
restraints
RUBBER BEARINGS
Splitting, tearing or cracking of
rubber
Damaged or loose bolts or pins at
fixed bearings?

Chapter 4
Page 3(3)
Problem How Bad? How Much?
(2)
Handbook page
BEARINGS Note or sketch
No
Yes
Not very bad
Bad
Very serious
Not Much
Some
A lot
reference
POSSIBLE PROBLEM
METAL BEARINGS
Parts not properly seated?
Parts not free to move
Sliding surfaces damaged?
Cracks or bends in metal parts?
Corrosion of metal parts
MASONRY ARCH ES
Change of shape of arch ?
Cracking of arch barrel/ring
Cracking or bulging of spandrel
walls
Spandrel wall separating from
arch
Spalling of stones or bricks
Poor pointing?
Water leaking through arch?
Scour under arch foundations?
ABUTMENTS, WINGWALLS
AND RETAINING WALLS
Erosion or scour near abutment?
Movement of abutment or
retaining wall
Water leaking down through the
expansion joint?
Cracking of concrete?
Spalling?
Poor concrete?
PIERS (Concrete and masonry)

PIER NO………..
Scour near base of pier?
Movement of pier?
Vegetation growing on pier?
Water leaking past expansion
joint?
Poor concrete?
Cracking ?
Deterioration of masonry?
Poor pointing of masonry?
Additional Notes:

Chapter 4
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 2nd edition, 1998.

2. TRRL, 1992. A design manual for small bridges. Overseas Road Note 9. Crowthorne:
Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
3. TRRL Overseas Road Note No 7, Vol. 2, ”Bridge Inspectors Handbook", Crowtorne
Berkshire UK, 1988, Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
4. TRRL Overseas Road Note No 9, ”A Design Manual for Small Bridges", Crowtorne
Berkshire UK, 1992, Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
5. Brokonstruktion - en handbok (Bridge Design − A Handbook), Publ. no 1996:63,
Swedish Roads Authority (Vagverket), Borlange 1996. In Swedish.
6. Design Standard, Ethiopian Roads Authority, compiled May 1993 (1961 - 1989)
7. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 1: Highway Structures: Approval
Procedures and General Design, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London.
8. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 3: Highway Structures: Inspection and
Maintenance, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London.
9. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 1 Basis of Design and Actions
on Structures, 1995.
10. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 2 Structural Use of Concrete,
1995.
11. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 3 Design of Steel Structures,
1995.
12. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 5 Utilization of Timber, 1995.
13. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 7 Foundations, 1995.
14. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 8 Design of Structures for
Earthquake Resistance, 1995.

Chapter 5
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts
5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN/LAYOUT OF BRIDGES AND CULVERTS
5.1 GENERAL
Preliminary bridge design is a part of the road design. The site for a bridge is usually
governed by engineering, economic, social, environmental, aesthetic and safety
considerations.
The “best” preliminary bridge layout is not always the optimized solution. Because many
factors are contradictory, the material, labor, and construction prices may vary from the time
of preliminary design to actual construction. Also competition between bidders may result in
completely new layouts. Sometimes bidders have their own falsework, moulding formwork,
building methods and machines, which are not anticipated by ERA. This has to be
considered at the bidding procedure.
Subsequent to the Planning Stage (see Chapter 4: Planning, Feasibility, and Site
Investigation), the alignment of the road should have been selected from the different
proposed alternatives. The bridge designer may then propose the stations and approximate
size of the footings for a more detailed geotechnical survey. Then the type and approximate
depth of foundation shall be selected.
The layout will begin with an estimation of possible loads, such as traffic loads, earth
pressure, earthquake loads, temperature movements, etc. (see Chapter 3: Load
Requirements). The second step will be to consider in what way these loads affect the bridge.
Then, with the result from the soil investigation and in cooperation with the geotechnical
surveyor, the static system can be selected.
Once the bridge layout has been determined, a cost estimation should be made and compared
with that from the planning stage. The selected bridge type should then be evaluated in terms
of economics, aesthetics, constructability, maintenance, and environment.
The bridge is normally shown on a layout drawing with plan, elevation and section. The
main dimensions should be given. Other necessary technical information shall be given in
the Preliminary Design Specification (PDS) for the particular bridge (see Chapter 16:
Calculations, Drawings, and Specifications).
5.2 BASIC INFORMATION
5.2.1 TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP
For the preparing of the Preliminary Design Drawings, the part of the road plan covering the
bridge site should be reproduced at scale 1:100 or 1:250. It should include levels with
contours at a one-meter interval from the field survey. It should also show:

Chapter 5
Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts Bridge Design Manual - 2002
• Proposed roadway including stations.

• The waterlines, and rivers with direction of flow indicated.
• Direction of north and if possible the coordinates.
• Islands or rock outcrops in the waterway.
• Name of the streams and of the road
• Other structures, which may affect the bridge such as buildings, walls, adjacent roads,
railways, electric power and telephone posts and drainage channels/ditches.
• Placement, levels and dimensions for ducts and cables.
5.2.2 SURVEYING, BENCHMARKS, AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER DEPTHS
Normally the ground at the bridge site should be surveyed along the road centerline, at 25 m
increments, up to at least 20 m left and right from the alignment with 5 meters interval. All
break points shall be surveyed. At larger bridges this should be modified according to the
bridge designer. The length of the bridge survey should cover at least 20 m beyond the high-
water-mark (HWM), or 2 m vertically above the HWM.
At rivers the leveling should include profile and cross sections of the river according to the
ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 4: Hydrologic Survey, Section 4.4: Data on
streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and wetlands. The skew angle of the main stream should be
indicated to analyze possible erosion problems. In rivers with deposits of silty loose material,
the underlying harder strata should be measured if possible.
The water level at the time of survey shall be indicated to compare it with the theoretically
calculated levels determined as per the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5:
Hydrology. Visible traces of high water marks shall be surveyed and indicated.
A benchmark should be positioned as close to the bridge as possible. It shall however be

placed sufficiently far from the site such that it will remain undamaged during and after the
construction work. The ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 4: Survey
Requirements, Section 4.7: Benchmarks gives an example of a benchmark. (figure 4.1).
At large rivers there should be one benchmark on each shore above the high-water mark. The
benchmark shall be described on the Preliminary Design Drawing. If a local level system is
used it shall be thoroughly described, and if possible tied to either the BMP, BMS or BMT
Trigonometrical Stations of the Ethiopian Mapping Authority (see ERA Geometric Design
Manual-2002, Chapter 4: Survey Requirements, Section 4.5: Field Surveys). Then the level
for the calculation of the free board clearance can be considered.
Coordinates for the plan of bridge should if possible be according to the 1000 m Universal
Transverse Mercator Grid (UTM Zone 36) or any other current system approved by the
Ethiopian Mapping Authority.

Chapter 5
5.2.3 RIVER DATA
To decide upon the placement of piers, span length and clearance height, as well as
determining needs for realignment of the river and protection against scour/erosion, river
data is required. The following information if appropriate should be given on the preliminary
sketch:
• River basin (discharge area) and area of lakes in km2 (square kilometers).
• Water flow quantities in m3/s (The statistical highest high water flow every 100 years,
design water flow, medium water flow, lowest low water flow and if possible also the
normal high-water flow and normal low water flow).
• The elevations of important areas (fields, etc) upstream the proposed bridge site.
• Cross section of the waterway including river beds at least to 2-m above the high-water
mark.
• Collecting of opening dimensions and levels of adjacent bridges.
• Collection of data from adjacent irrigation projects/channels.
Sources of this information include the National Meteorological Services Agency, the
Ethiopian Mapping Agency, Water Power stations, and the Ministry of Water Resources.
5.2.4 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS
For all bridge types, at least two soil investigation points for each pier, abutment or spread
footing should be made. In depth the borings shall be at least 3.0 m below the anticipated
foundation level or the lower side of the footing. Settlement calculations on footings, in
friction soil or over consolidated clay, should normally be made to the depth of 4 times the
effective width of the footing. See the ERA Soils and Materials Investigation Manual-2002
for details.
5.2.5 BRIDGE REFERENCE NUMBER
Every bridge in Ethiopia is given a unique bridge reference number associated with the road
number (see ERA Geometric Design Manual-2002, Chapter 16: Appendices, Appendix A:
Classification and Description of Roads) which can be obtained from the Bridge Branch of
the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA). All drawings should refer to that number, i.e. “road
number” - "bridge number" – drawing number (A2-45-6).
5.2.6 MISCELLANEOUS
Other information to be collected in an early stage is:
• Type of roadway, type of ditch, typical section, traffic flow and velocity.
• Clearance height and width requirements
• Aesthetical (architectural) requirements
• Environmental requirements
• Type of curbing

Chapter 5
• Type of railings − especially if a railing between the roadway and the walkway is to be
used.
• Existing and planned cables and ducts
• Material to be utilized for bridge slopes. This will give the maximum slope inclinations,
which in turn can give the total length of the bridge.
5.3 GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS
For geometric requirements, refer to Chapter 2: General Requirements.
5.4 LOAD ASSUMPTIONS
For load assumptions, including design vehicle load, traffic load, accidental loads and other
loads, see Chapter 2: General Requirements.
5.5 FOUNDATIONS
5.5.1 GENERAL
The most suitable way of founding a bridge will be determined from the geotechnical survey
in cooperation with the geotechnical engineer.
The foundations and their levels are dependent upon:
• Soil conditions, given the coefficients to calculate the bearing capacity of the soil,
stability and settlement.
• Groundwater level or water level.
• Bridge type.
• Embankments of the adjacent road and the founding of them.
• Construction method.
• Proximity to existing structures.
The selection of foundation type and level depends heavily upon the impact of underground
conditions as indicated by the results of the soil investigation. The demands on the founding
of bridges and access road embankments include a sufficient safety factor and minimal
settlement in order to achieve a maintenance-free and long-life structure. During bridge
design, stability and settlement should always be investigated.
Foundations on rock will usually provide the simplest and most economically favorable
solution, since the size of the footing will be less than that on soil. If the rock is not visible,
investigations should be made in all four corners of the footing. Sometimes investigation pits
are preferred. Bridges should not be placed on loose rock or sloping rock. It is recommended
in such case to remove loose rock and to level the rock surface by blasting or other rock
excavation and thereafter place the footing on compacted fill.

Chapter 5
If the soil consists of thick layers of clay or loose silt, investigations may indicate that the
soil strata are not able to carry the load of the footing. If such layers are less than 3-4 m in
thickness, it is advisable to remove the layers and exchange them with compacted stonefill.
For conditions worse than this, piling is advisable.
Regarding longitudinal settlement, the calculated difference in settlement between two

supports should preferably not exceed 1/500 of the span length. Sometimes the transversal
settlement also has to be considered in the pre-design stage.
The construction method also affects the selection of foundation type. Temporary sheet
piling shall be needed to achieve a certain foundation type or to build foundations close to
existing structures such as railways. Generally the construction method should be considered
before deciding upon foundation types, the placing of the piers, and levels.
5.5.2 SPREAD FOOTINGS ON ROCK
The rock should usually be as horizontal as possible. Where this is not the case, it should be
blasted to achieve a horizontal plane. For sloping rock along a pier it shall be advantageous
to blast the rock in steps similar to a staircase.
A footing directly on rock will result in a very stiff support. In some cases it shall be
advantageous to place the footing on 0.5 m compacted gravel fill in order to have a more
elastic founding. This applies especially to open frame structures with short legs/frontwalls.
It is often not possible to give an exact level of the bottom of the foundation on rocks.
Therefore often the level of the upper side of the footing is given on the “Preliminary Layout
Drawing”
5.5.3 SPREAD FOOTING ON SOIL
The foundation level is dependent on soil bearing capacity, settlement, scour/erosion and the
method of construction. Normally the bottom of the footing shall be given on the
“Preliminary Layout Drawing”.
It has proved practical to extend the footing 0.5 m at concrete piers and 0.3 m at masonry
piers as a cantilever from the face of the pier and 0.3 m at the sides for both types. At work
inside sheet piling it shall be necessary to increase these dimensions. If existing structures
are close to the footing or if the soil is very poor, it shall be necessary to make a rough
calculation of the size of the footing before it is drawn on the “Preliminary Layout
Drawing.”
In case of cohesive type soil or very soft friction soil, the footing should be placed on a bed
of at least 0.3 m compacted gravel fill. If the soil is very soft it is sometimes suitable to
compact the soil in a several meters thick layer with a heavy falling weight (deep
compaction) combined with normal surface compaction. The foundation level shall be raised

Chapter 5
several meters above the water level, as a foundation level above the water is often cheaper
than under the water. If the water surface is close to the foundation level, consideration
should be given whether it is possible to lower the groundwater level temporarily by
pumping to some 0.5 m under the bottom of the footing.
If the foundation level is less than 2 m under the water level it shall be advantageous to cast
the footing above the water. This can be accomplished using watertight sheet piling and an
underwater cast concrete slab heavy enough to resist the buoyancy when the water inside the
piling is pumped dry, before casting the footing itself.
5.5.4 FOOTINGS ON COMPACTED FILL
Sometimes it shall be suitable to raise the footing above the hard soil layer. This consists of
excavating the soft material and replacing it with compacted well-graded stone fill. The
stone size should preferably be 0 - 100 mm (d50 ≥ 70 mm). In that case intensive compaction
should be made in 0.3-0.6 m thick horizontal layers.
Figure 5-1 below shows the normal method of constructing a fill with side supports made out
of quarried stones or similar.
Distances in meters
Figure 5-1 Compacted Fill Under a Bridge Footing

Chapter 5
5.5.5 PILE FOUNDATIONS
Piling should be considered when footings cannot be founded on rock, stiff cohesive, or
granular foundation material at a reasonable expense. At locations where soil conditions
would normally permit the use of spread footings, but the potential for erosion exists, piles
shall be used as a protection against scour.
Piling can be made either with in situ bored piles or with prefabricated (prefab) RC piles. A
typical prefab concrete pile with the dimensions 290x290 mm reinforced with 4ø16 bars
may typically carry 450 - 600 kN in the service limit state. If the soil investigation shows
sulfuric soils, it should be indicated on the “Preliminary Design Drawing” that the concrete
cover of the prefab piles should be at least 45 mm. Cast-in-place concrete piles include piles
cast in driven steel shells that remain in place and piles cast in unlined drilled holes or shafts.
Should the soil investigation show many boulders in the soil, steel piles should be
considered. In some cases with very deep water it shall be suitable to use RC filled steel
pipes with a diameter of 0.6 m. Wooden piles should normally be avoided due to
deterioration and insect problems.
The soil investigation report must clearly indicate:

• if the piles are to be of end bearing type or skin friction type (the latter used where the
hard soil strata is deeper than some 30 m),
• expected overall length of piles,
• the grade of difficulty to perform the piling, especially in water,
• necessary soil parameters for the design
Pile foundations with simultaneous large horizontal load and small vertical load such as
retaining walls, will be large and should therefore be avoided. Often it will then be more
economical to increase the span length (to make the retaining wall smaller) or change the
type of bridge (to one without any retaining wall at all).
5.6 SCOUR/EROSION, RIPRAP, SHEET PILING, RIVER TRAINING, ETC
Scour protection is usually required where a bridge is built across a meandering stream,
when the natural stone protection is removed or when some restriction to the flow of the
design flood occurs at a bridge. Protection measures can take the form of:
• riprap on slopes or river bed

• gabion or Reno mattress aprons or revetments
• sheetpiled walls
• vegetation with deep roots
• river training works
Riprap riverbed protection consists of a carpet of loose stones, heavy enough to resist being
washed away by maximum water velocities during a flood. If the velocity exceeds 1.0 m/s

Chapter 5
this protection should not be installed in a manner which reduces the area of the waterway.
The main advantages of riprap are:
• low construction cost

• material often available close to the site
• a flexible protection
• easy to install and repair with appropriate lifting gear such as tripod, ginpole or tractor-
crane.
The stones should be well-graded. Durable and heavy stones with a cubic shape are
preferred. Flaky stones should be avoided. The thickness of the blanket should be at least
the length of the largest stones and about the nominal mean diameter (d50). If no separate
calculations of scour have been performed, scour protection should always be applied at
least 3 m around piers and abutments with riprap of a minimum stone size according to
Table 5-1 below.
Max. Velocity Max. Velocity Max. Velocity No. of d50 Crushed

at Riverbed at stone slopes at gravel slopes Layers mm Stone
(m/s) 1,5:1 (m/s) 2:1 (m/s) Fraction
(mm)
1,3 0,9 0,8 1 ≥70 0-100
2,2 1,5 1,4 1 ≥200 0-300
3,0 2,0 1,8 2 ≥350 0-500
3,2 2,2 2,0 2 ≥400 0-600
Table 5-1 Maximum Design Water Velocity at Different Scour Protections
Gabions are rectangular baskets made of steel wire mesh with internal tie wires at every
half-meter. They are normally filled at the site with natural or quarried stone. The gabion
structure is more stable and durable if the stones are packed by hand. Standard sizes are 2, 3
and 4 m long by 1 m wide by 0.5 or 1 m high.
Filter blankets should be applied to the back of the gabions or beneath the riprap if the
riverbank consists of fine, non-cohesive material, to prevent such material from being
washed away through the voids in the riprap or gabion lining. The filter blanket can consist
of a 0.5 mm thick polyester non- woven textile carpet (minimum weight 250 g/m2) or
multiple layers of stones with the finest layer closest to the river bank and the coarsest layer
towards the water. The polyester carpet should be protected from sunshine, and should be
placed, overlapped and anchored according to the manufacturer.
Sheet piling of prefabricated RC or steel shall be driven to form a continuous wall. The
resulting wall is less flexible than gabions or riprap and may fail due to movements in the
ground. To withstand the earth pressure it should be designed through calculations. Only
temporary sheet piling shall be made out of wood.

Chapter 5
Vegetation can be used to protect riverbanks. The most successful plants are those found
growing naturally along the river. Plants with deep roots are preferred.
River training works require extensive experience. It is useful to examine other structures in
the area, observe the flow during the rainy season or at flood, and to examine plans and maps
showing how the river shape has progressed, in order to understand where bank
strengthening and guide walls are needed (Ref. 1). For further guidance on river training,
refer to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002.
5.7 SUBSTRUCTURE (ABUTMENTS, PIERS, WINGWALLS, AND RETAING WALLS)
Every bridge is divided into substructure and superstructure. The division is normally made
at the bearings. For frame bridges the limit between substructure and superstructure is at the
joint between the top of the footing and the bottom of the front wall.
An Abutment is a free, independent end of a bridge. It normally carries both the load from the
superstructure and the load from the adjacent road embankment. Wing-walls are sometimes
placed parallel to the roadway in order to minimize the overturning moment of the abutment
(see Figure 5-2).
Many existing abutments and piers in Ethiopia are made of stone masonry or mass concrete.
If an abutment is higher than 8 m, it should preferably be of an open type without a frontwall

under the level 1.5 m below the slope (see Figure 5-2 below). This configuration will reduce
horizontal forces from earth pressure and the traffic load on the embankment. This type of
abutment saves material and therefore more economical than one with a solid front wall.
Piers are normally designed as a wall or as two braced columns. At large bridges a box type
is sometimes used. Piers in high velocity streams should preferably be made as one single
column or as a wall under the normal high water level (HWL), due to increased scour. For
the same reason, such pier walls should if possible be parallel to the main stream flow. The
minimum thickness of piers in water should not be less than 0.6 m or if the design water
velocity (DWV) exceeds 1.5 m/s not less than 0.8 m and if pier height at the same time
exceeds 8 m not less than 1.0 m. Edges should always be rounded at DWV exceeding 1.5
m/s or where debris is expected.
Elevation: Front Wall Section: Open Type
Figure 5-2 Two Types of Abutments

Chapter 5
Wingwalls are made to take the difference in height at the abutments. In wingwalls attached
to the abutment the size of the horizontal main reinforcement in wingwalls should be as
small as possible (≤ ∅ 12 mm) and preferably not exceed ∅ 16 mm, to minimize the width
of the cracks in the face of the wall towards the soil. The front wall should always be made
0.1 m thicker than the wingwall, unless a FEM (Finite Element Modeling) analysis or similar
proves otherwise (See Figure 5-3 below).
The shortest length of a wingwall in a slope is obtained by directing the wingwall to the
bisector (half of the skew-angle, see Figure 5-3). In such case the bottom side of the
wingwall should be parallel to the slope and at least 1.0 m deeper than the slope, measured
perpendicular to the slope surface. If sheet piling is used for the footing, the wingwall will
interfere with it and hence a wingwall parallel to the roadway is preferred.
Figure 5-3 Typical Parallel and 45° Wingwalls Attached to the Abutment
Aesthetically the length of the wingwalls should never exceed the overall width or the span
length. If the design length of the wingwall exceeds 5.0 m, the use of a retaining wall
usually saves material and is therefore more economical (see Figure 5-4). In that case the
attached wingwall should not exceed 3.0 m due to the deflection from earth pressure, which
should match the deflection of the retaining wall. If the wingwall is too short the two
footings may interfere with each other. To minimize the height of the retaining wall it can be
raised to a higher level than the abutment footing by placing it on a compacted stonefill.
Piled retaining walls in slopes should be avoided due to the large horizontal loads, which
makes them very expensive.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-4 Typical Combined Attached Wingwall and Retaining Wall
Examples of retaining wall design are given in the appendix RW: Retaining Wall Design.
5.8 LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS (FORDS, IRISH CROSSINGS, VENTED CAUSEWAYS, ETC)
In favorable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and relatively
simple alternatives to conventional bridges. There are three basic types of low level
crossing:
- Fords (also called Irish crossings) and bed-level causeways, which are in essence
reinforced roadways on the bottom of the stream.
- Vented causeways, where low flow is handled by openings under the roadway level
- Submersible bridges, which are temporarily submersed low bridges.
All types are appropriate for roads with low traffic volumes or where a reasonably short
detour provides access to an all-weather bridge. The crossing should be designed such that
for most of the year the maximum depth of water over the crossing is less than 0.15 m. The
service life of the structure will depend considerably on its hydraulic design as outlined in
the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges.
Fords and bed-level causeways, like conventional bridges, shall be constructed so that they
cause little interference with the design flood. Since all water flowing in the river channel
overtops fords and bed-level causeways, there is no reason to raise the road surface more
than 0.1 m above the streambed.

Chapter 5
Fords (unpaved) are the simplest form of river crossing. They generally are placed where the
stream is wide, shallow and slow, the approach gentle, and the surface firm. Improvements
to the approaches are usually confined to reducing the gradient. The running surface in the
stream can be strengthened and made more driveable by using stones imported and buried
just below the surface (See Refs. 3 and 4). A more durable improvement shall be made to the
running surface by replacing the stones with gabions or reno mattresses. The gabions should
not rise more than 0.10 m above the natural bed level of the river, otherwise they may cause
heavy scour downstream of the crossing.
Bed level causeways (paved) shall be used where the traffic composition or the lack of a
nearby all-weather crossing justifies the expense; a pavement shall be laid on the riverbed.
A bed-level causeway is also called a paved ford, drift, paved dip or Irish bridge (Ref. 5).
Figure 5-5 below illustrates three common designs. Further detail for low-level water
crossings is presented in the Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 7: Bridge Drainage,
drawing BR-36.
Vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably disrupt river flow, and so are liable to
sustain damage or indirectly cause scour to the riverbed or banks, which in turn may affect
the road approaches to the crossing. These bridge types usually present a dry roadway for
ordinary flows and are designed to be overtopped at less than an annual flood, or near the
design flood as determined using the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2:
Standards and Departures from Standard, Section 2.1: Design Storm/Flood..
Vented causeways are built where the river flow is too great for too many days in the year to
allow the traffic to cross a ford or bed level causeway without significant disruptions.
Structures include multiple pipe culverts for low flow and should be designed following the
guidelines in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2: Standards and
Departures from Standard, Section 2.4: Hydraulic Design Elements. However, the design
flood used to calculate the vent/culvert sizes will be less than the annual flood (see ERA
Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 2: Standards and Departures from Standard,
Section 2.1: Design Storm/Flood), provided it is acceptable that the roadway shall be
overtopped for a few days each year during the annual high flood.
Submersible bridges shall be used where the traffic density justifies a dry crossing of a
substantial ordinary flood, but the annual high flood is much greater than this. A submersible
bridge designed to pass the ordinary flood but to be overtopped by the high flood will be
considerably cheaper than a high level, all weather bridge. Submersible bridges have the
advantage of being able to pass a larger flow than the vents of a causeway of the same
height, but are more susceptible to damage by the river. Since the flood horizontal forces on
the piers and bridge decks are quite substantial, submersible bridges should preferably be
designed as multiple box culverts. Because of these difficulties submersible bridges are not
recommended above any foundation other than rock, and even then a vented causeway or a
conventional bridge is likely to be a more durable alternative.
To protect the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls are usually required on both sides
of the roadway and these must continue up the approaches to the height of the design flood.

Chapter 5
It is recommended that curtain walls should be to the minimal depths upstream and
downstream as indicated in Figure 5-5, unless rock is reached before that depth. If the bed is
inerodible, the causeway need not have curtain walls but the bed on both the upstream and
downstream sides of the crossing should be trimmed flat to reduce turbulence.
1.0
2.0
Figure 5-5 Bed Level Causeways, Common Types

Chapter 5
Figure 5-5 type a) shows a section through a basic bed level causeway suitable for light
traffic and maximum water velocity below 2.0 m/sec. The crossing shown in Figure 5-5 type
b) requires good concrete technology and may sustain damage to the apron that is difficult to
repair. Figure 5-5 type c) shows a design employing a good combination of concrete
pavement with flexible protection. Generally, lean concrete is used and slabs are jointed
using crack inducers every 5.0-m.
All low level crossings should have guideposts and a depth gauge to alert the driver to the
placement of the edges of the crossing and the water depth.
Depth gauges should indicate the depth of water at the lowest point of the crossing. Simple
black and white markings at every 0,1 m are best - with an indication of the units used.
Posts should be of concrete 0.3 m in diameter or square, placed within easy vision of the
approach but well away from possible impact damage by vehicles.
Guideposts should be set each side of the roadway between 2 and 4 m apart, depending on
the likelihood of catching floating debris. They should be sufficiently high to be visible
during the highest expected floods and be made of concrete. An additional guide for vehicles
shall be provided by building a ridge down the center of concrete causeways, as shown in
Figure 5-5 type b). This ridge also offers restraint against sideways drifting of vehicles in
strong currents.
5.9 FRAME BRIDGES
A reinforced concrete frame bridge is a simple and economical type of bridge. Its main
feature is a low design height, which is shown in Figure 5-6 below. It can be made in one or
several spans, several spans being a common configuration. The walls should preferably be
of an equal height in order to achieve a balance between the earth pressures. If piled footings
are necessary for an open single span frame bridge (without bottom slab) it is in most cases
favorable to add some beams between the footings to eliminate the horizontal forces from
the earth pressure on the piles.
The most economical span/opening for a single span frame bridge is 6 − 20 m provided that
the height of the walls are more than ¼ of the span length and that the soil is sufficiently
stable, otherwise a slab or a girder bridge is preferred.
The span length of a multiple span frame bridge, such as a double or triple box culvert,
should not exceed 8 − 10 m for each span due to the required footing thickness and because
larger structures are sensitive to movements from earthquakes. Multiple open span frame
bridges (without bottom slabs) should be avoided because they are usually more expensive
than continuous slabs or girders, unless the latter employs a very expensive type of bearings.
The standard Single Box Culvert may also be used as underpasses for pedestrians (internal
height 3.0 m), cattle (internal height 3.0 – 4.0 m) or for traffic (internal height 5.0 m).
Skewed single open frame bridges are quite difficult both to design and construct; therefore
3-span slab bridges are more preferable. For a one lane bridge with a skew angle exceeding

Chapter 5
20° or a two-lane bridge with a skew angle exceeding 30° the design criteria according to
Figure 5-7 below should be checked. Otherwise the earth-pressure might cause the bridge to
“rotate” horizontally due to sliding and the sharp corners might have resulting uplift forces.
In such cases the bridge and especially the deck should be designed with a refined method
such as FEM-analysis or the finite strip method.
A Girder Frame Bridge is an open single span frame bridge with girders under the bridge
deck. It is economical for span lengths between 18 − 25 m in non-earthquake areas, under
the same provisions as the single span frame bridge above.
Figure 5-6 Design Heights of Open Single Span Frame Bridges (H= Height of wall)

Chapter 5
θ
l
a > 0.3 * b
θ = skew angle
b = length of front wall
l = length of edge beam
a
b
Figure 5-7 Requirements for Skewed Frame Bridges
Regarding the detailed design of frame bridges see section 12.7.
5.10 SLAB BRIDGES
Single span slab bridges are perhaps the most common bridges in Ethiopia. They can be
economical for spans from 1 m to 18 m. Above 15 m they should preferably be ribbed as
shown in Figure 5-8 below. Instead of ribs there are several types of prefab forms (Texaspan,
etc) that can be used by contractors, if the designer has considered that particular type.
SLAB
VOIDED SLAB
RIBBED SLAB
Figure 5-8 Sections of Voided (Hollowed) Slab and Ribbed Slab Bridge Decks
Normally the slab is made with a uniform depth over the whole bridge. The required design
depth is usually 5.5 - 6 % of the span length, due to the width of the cracks. If stressed
reinforced concrete is used, the design depth shall be reduced to 4.5 % of the span length.
The abutments at single or double span slab bridges should preferably be placed
perpendicular to the bridge in order to avoid a skew in earth pressure, which may cause skew
in the abutment front wall.

Chapter 5
The abutments shall be designed as simple walls if an end-wall with at least 1.5-m height is
provided at each end of the slab. The end-wall must be designed for all the longitudinal
forces from the superstructure as well as part of the earth pressure, and the wingwalls are
fixed, supported in the end-wall. If the Slab Bridge is continuous and long, the active earth
pressure on the end-wall may turn into a passive earth pressure, where the much larger kp-
coefficient should be used in the design of the end-wall. Recent results show that raised piled
footings “hidden” behind a rather high (approx. 3 - 3.5 m) end-wall, deleting all horizontal
forces on the footing, has proved to be economical (see Figure 5-9).
The piers are usually designed as walls. At skewed slab bridges it is however sometimes
favorable to use one thick column if the width of the bridge is not more than 8 m. In such
cases a check for punching of the slab above the column should always be made. Sometimes
the top of the column can be tapered to avoid or minimize the punching reinforcement.
Figure 5-9 Typical Elevated Footing with Endwalls
5.11 GIRDER BRIDGES
A girder bridge is usually used for a single span bridge, or non-continuous girders for a
multi-span bridge, in earthquake areas. They shall be used for span lengths between 12 - 20
m. Outside of earthquake zones, continuous girder bridges are preferred. In this case the
exterior span length should be approximately 0.8 times the interior span. The LRFD design
method usually minimizes materials used if the number of girders/beams is minimized. The
cantilever should preferably not exceed 40 % of the spacing of the girders, or 2.8 m for a
two-lane bridge.

Chapter 5
The design depth of a normal girder bridge may vary between 7-10% of the span length
depending on the number of beams used. If possible, a high stem of beam is preferred to a
certain extent, both technically and economically. For construction reasons however, the
height should be minimized. Esthetically a short bridge with a high superstructure close to
the water surface should be avoided. Here a slender structure (slab) is more appealing.
Regarding endwalls, the same restraints mentioned for slab bridges applies to girder bridges,
as long as the total length of the continuous superstructure does not exceed 70-90 m.
RC Box girder bridges are sometimes used for span lengths of between 30 - 90 m, especially
if a slender structure is desired or for curved bridges with small horizontal curves where a
great resistance to torsion is required. The interior height should not be less than 1.0 m and a
0.6-m wide manhole is required for maintenance reasons.
Steel girder bridges are most favorable over deep or muddy waters since scaffolding from
the ground is not necessary. The scaffolding is braced from the bottom flanges of the steel
beams. Cost competitiveness versus a concrete bridge depends almost solely on the steel
price compared to the concrete price, but also on the availability of competent welders, sizes
of workshops and similar.
Today rolled beams of 1.1-m height made of high quality steel shall be obtained from some
of the largest steel plants. Such beams may span some 20m, and for composite bridges they
may span 24m. However the most economical construction would be to import high tensile
steel plates with a thickness between 10 mm (webs) and 50 mm (flanges) and fabricate the
beams in local workshops. This however requires highly trained and licensed welders. The
limited transportation facilities in the country make it practical to fabricate relatively short
bridge pieces in the workshop and assemble them at the site.
Steel box girders are quite complicated sections and should be considered only if most of the
requirements for steel girder bridges above are fulfilled.
Composite steel girder bridges will be used more in the future due to new research results on
the interaction between the steel beams and the concrete bridge decks through shear
connectors (studs). These are some 200 mm high with diameter ∅ 19, 22 or 25 mm welded
to the top of the upper flange, which should be at least 20 mm thick. The reduction in
material use is quite remarkable and makes steel bridges more competitive, although the
design calculations are somewhat more difficult. The design depth of the superstructure is
reduced to some 4 - 6 % of the span length. Since the weight is much less, this type of bridge
can be used to replace an old concrete bridge, especially if the live load is increased. If an
end-wall type of bridge is used, the overall length of the continuous bridge deck should not
exceed 80 - 100 m due to temperature movements, which create a large passive earth
pressure at the end-walls.
The most common construction methods are either to lift the steel beams with one or more
cranes from one or both the river shores, or to slide the steel structure on temporary sliding
bearings from one abutment. The launching forces should be considered as Construction
load.

Chapter 5
5.12 MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCH BRIDGES
Stone masonry arch bridges were dominant in Ethiopia prior to the 1950s. If made from
granite or similar hard stone they may withstand any standard highway loading. In Europe
several 2000 year-old bridges are still in use. This type of bridge may still be preferred
where weather-resistant rocks shall be obtained, provided that the ground will not allow any
horizontal gliding between the footing and the soil, and that skilled masons are to be found.
Granites can be found mainly west of Nakemte, in Tigray, in the southwestern regions, and
south of Dodola where however there are very few bridges. For most small and medium
sized bridges (below 50 m length) the hardest types of basalt stone, sandstone and limestone
can also be used, and therefore nearly the whole country could make use of stone masonry
bridges. Hard burned clay stones (called clinker) could also be utilized for this type of
bridge.
At span lengths over 20 - 25 m it is often advantageous to apply secondary arches on top of

the main arch barrel. This requires both skilled and experienced designers and contractors.
Regarding the structural design of this type of bridge it should be noted that temperature
forces and settlement might cause pressure on the under side of the arch barrel at the crown
and pressure on the topside of the arch barrel at the abutments.
The preliminary main dimensions of the arches should be as in Table 5-2 below:
Span opening (m) 8 9 10 12 15 20

Thickness at crown (top) m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.86 0.90
Thickness at abutment m 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.35
Table 5-2 Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring)
Skewed arch bridges are very complicated both to construct and design (with Finite Element
Modeling, FEM-analysis) and should therefore be avoided. For detailed design see
subchapter 12.7.
Concrete arch bridges should preferably be designed with 3 hinges (joints) in order to
minimize stresses in the arch barrel. This applies especially for earthquake zones.
The design and construction of the hinges requires special skill and experience. The
simplest type is the cross-reinforced hinge shown in Figure 5-10 at right. The highest
accuracy is needed in placing the bars. The joint must be waterproofed and sealed to avoid
corrosion.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-10 Cross-Reinforced Hinge
5.13 PREFABRICATED BRIDGES
Prefabricated bridges usually have the following advantages:

• Falsework is not needed, e. g. crossing waterways or deep gorges.
• The erection time is reduced, which could be useful if there is no other place to cross the
river.
• The same formwork made out of steel plate can be used over and over again, which
reduces the need for timber formwork.
• Usually quality is high since the personnel in a pre-casting factory perform the same type
of work repeatedly, compared to temporary laborers at a bridge site.
Due to transport and lifting difficulties the weight of each panel should not exceed 20 tons
(200 kN) and the length should be less than 12 -20 m unless adequate hauling devices are
prevalent. Prestressed RC beams up to some 35 m length may however be used for bridges.
The available design depth should be at least 5% of the span length.
Sometimes prefabricated bridge deck panels are used together with composite steel or RC
girders. In such cases the transversal joints should be made to interact with each other.
Recent research has shown that high tensile steel dowels are most suitable to withstand the
fatigue load.
Prefab slab bridges shall be used for culverts up to 6-m spans. See Figure 5-11.

Chapter 5
T1 and T2 vary depending on

the span length
Distances in millimeters
Figure 5-11 Section of a Typical Slab Panel
Prefab Girder bridges could be made of U-shaped panels as shown in Figure 5-12 or of T-
shaped panels of stressed RC according to Figure 5-13. Another very common shape is the I-
shaped beam panel shown in Figure 5-14. This type may also be used for pedestrian bridges
with a slight alteration, as in Figure 5-15.
Figure 5-12 Section of U-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels

Chapter 5
Figure 5-13 Section of a Normal T-Shaped Type of Stressed RC Girder Panel
Figure 5-14 Section of Stressed I-Shaped Figure 5-15 Section of I-Shaped Type of
Type of RC Girder Panels RC Girder Panel Bridge for Pedestrians

Chapter 5
Bridge Design Manual-2002 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges And Culverts
5.14 PEDESTRIAN FOOTBRIDGES
Pedestrian footbridges are different from other bridges only regarding live loads and widths.
5.15 CATTLE UNDERPASSES
The dimensional requirements of cattle underpasses are given in subchapter 2.5: Minimum
Clearance above Waterways, Roads, and Railways. In all other respects, they are the same
as standard single box or slab culverts, with the most favorable design including fill with
gravel to a depth of 0.2m on the bottom slab. Sometimes guiding cattle fences are need at
both ends of the culvert for road safety. Drainage by open channels is required from the
lowest point.
5.16 OTHER TYPES OF BRIDGES (CABLE STAY, SUSPENSION, TRUSS, RAILWAY)
Cable stayed bridges contain three main parts: cables, pylons (cable towers), and horizontal
bracing, usually the bridge deck. The cables shall be arranged either parallel or fan shaped.
This type of bridge is usually more economical than trusses, arches and suspension bridges
for span lengths 100 - 500 m. The main advantage is that it can be built without falsework. It
requires extraordinary experience both from designers and constructors apart from special
types of cranes. During erection it is sensitive to strong sideways wind if it is not anchored
horizontally with temporary stays.
Suspension bridges contain the same parts as cable bridges and in addition, an anchor-block
for the cables. The anchor-block may preferably be anchored in the rock itself. The
suspension bridge is well suited for span lengths above 500 m, which are not common at
present in Ethiopia.
Truss bridges are usually made of steel. They are more economical than steel girder bridges
in this country. Another advantage is that they are quite lightweight which makes them
suited as temporary bridges during the time of construction, since they are easier to transport
than a girder bridge. This type of bridge is especially suited to pedestrian bridges across
highways, since they can be erected without interfering with the traffic on the roadway. The
mounting of the superstructure can be made during nighttime when the traffic is low. The
bridge deck can be made of some kind of steel plate, special impregnated wood or plastic
planks. The free clearance above the roadway should be at least 5.3 m due to the risk of
collision with overloaded trucks. They require a significant amount of welding.
Railway bridges differ from highway bridges in the increased live load and dynamic
allowance. Load induced fatigue strength state sometimes govern, which is almost never the
case for highway bridges. At the transition between the abutment and the railway
embankment the skew angle should not exceed 20 degrees and the joint should be square
(90°). Some typical sections together with suitable span lengths are shown in Figure 5-16.

Chapter 5
5.17 TEMPORARY BRIDGES
Temporary bridge structures are intended to provide quick solutions to short-term access
problems. Decisions relative to such construction include the high expense of a quick
solution and the likelihood that benefits will accrue for only a limited period, hence the need
to keep costs low. The principal reasons for requiring a temporary crossing are:
• damage to an existing bridge results in the need for a temporary structure on a nearby site
while the disabled bridge is being repaired or replaced. (This could be an opportune time
to consider upgrading the existing structure in terms of width, traffic capacity, clearance
height above the water and durability.)
• upgrading the road requires a wider, higher or stronger bridge and a temporary crossing is
needed for a detour to carry traffic while the new road and bridge are built on the old
alignment.
• a river crossing is required urgently and for a short term by an Organization other than a
roads department, e.g. an aid organization concerned with the delivery of emergency
relief supplies
• temporary access to a construction site is needed in advance of the construction of a

permanent roadway.
The time factor is central to the decisions relative to such a crossing, influencing in particular
the type of structure to be used. For example, a washed-out bridge on a strategic road will
require substitution at the earliest possible moment, whereas a detour for a road upgrading
project can be planned well in advance, enabling the most economic solution to be
employed.
The length of time that the temporary structure will be in service also influences its design
and cost. A low-level structure shall be adequate for a short period, but if it is likely to be
needed beyond the end of the dry season, a ford or culvert may not suffice and a temporary
bridge with associated bank protection shall be required. A realistic estimate of the time
needed to build a permanent replacement is necessary, together with a worst-case view of the
weather and the projected traffic loading, before a firm decision can be made regarding the
type of temporary structure to be built.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-16 Typical Sections of Railway Bridges and their Suitable Span Lengths
Generally, the order of preference for the type of structure will follow the order of increasing
cost, unless specific skills or materials are unavailable. This order of preference is likely to
be:
• fords
• causeways
• temporary beam bridges
• prefabricated decks.

Chapter 5
A ford shall be no more than a prepared descent to and exit from a river bed, taking into
account the traction requirements of known traffic on the slopes (See “Low Level Water
Crossings” above).
A vented earth causeway can be built using pipes stocked in most state road department
depots, taking measures to prevent erosion of the fill around the pipes. A temporary
surfacing may also be required.
Though a ford or causeway may not be serviceable for use by general traffic at times of high
water, it might be acceptable in the short term; an existing crossing of this type might even
be found on a nearby older alignment.
A Timber Beam Bridge shall be the best solution if material is readily available in the
locality The design of timber bridge decks is detailed in Section 12.10. Timber beam bridges
do not require preservative treatment for temporary duty. A manufacturer of timber girder
bridges in presented in Table 5-3 below.
Timber truss decks of the trestle type require special skills and it is no longer easy build one
quickly.
If steel or concrete beams are available for short-term use, it is necessary to ascertain their
bending and shear characteristics and to employ them in a similar manner to timber beams
with timber decking.
Steel panel bridges such as the Bailey Bridge have been used worldwide for 50 years. The
steel panels to make bridges of different lengths, widths and load capacity are assembled in a
couple of days. Other well-known versions of unitary construction bridges are the Acrow
Panel Bridge and the Callender Hamilton designs. Suppliers of these bridges are listed in
Table 5-3. They issue detailed design and assembly instructions and provide a design and
advisory service for customers. Most also have websites.
Table 5-3 Suppliers of Premade Bridges
Bailey Bridges Mabey and Johnson Ltd. Floral Mile, Twyford, Reading RGIO 9SQ,
England.
Bailey Bridges, Inc., Route 4 Box 188 Greenville, Alabama, USA
36037
Steel Panel Bridges Thos Storey (Engineers) Ltd. 52 Queens Road, Weybridge KT13
OAN, England.
The Callender Hamilton Bridge: Balfour Beatty Power Construction
Ltd. 7 Mayday Road, Thornton Heath CR7 7XA, England.
Pedestrian Steel BILTOLAST Products, Inc. 119 40th Street NE, Fort Payne,
Truss Alabama, USA.
Timber Girder Western Wood Structures, Inc., P. O. Box 130, Tualatin, Oregon,
USA 87062.
Parts of old Bailey bridges can be found in most countries, but great care should be taken to
identify these parts correctly. Detail design modifications for greater load-carrying capacities

Chapter 5
have been made over the years. New and old panels should not be assembled in the same
structure. Old components must be used only in accordance with the corresponding manuals.
Prefabricated steel bridges are unlikely to offer an economical solution to the need for
temporary bridging, unless their facility for being dismantled and re-used can be properly
exploited. However, their component parts are so easily transported that a stock held
centrally by the Ethiopian Roads Authority could be made available at short notice
nationwide in most instances.
Abutments and Piers are often not needed since most temporary bridge decks can be
assembled on existing or temporary abutments. Existing abutments, if they are sound and
located on an acceptable alignment, have three important advantages:
• they have a proven record of sustaining the dynamic and static applied loads
• they have shown satisfactory resistance to attack by the river
• their use avoids the time and expense of building new abutments.
Temporary abutments shall be made from gabions (see Figure 5-17), temporary steel sheet
piling or logs. However, they are highly susceptible to scour and erosion, and should be
constructed with great care using ties and anchors where possible, because they can be
destroyed by a single flood.
Figure 5-17 Temporary Bridge on Gabion Abutments

Chapter 5
Where water flow is low, timber piled abutments and piers have proved successful. The use
of piers reduces the section of the road bearing beams, and a whole bridge can be built with
timber no larger than 0.3 m in diameter.
If the engineer is satisfied that there is material of sufficient strength at bed level or a little
below, open caisson piers shall be constructed using pre-cast concrete rings (See Figure 5-18
below). The first ring is placed in position and excavation takes place from inside it. Rings
are added as the first progresses downwards until a firm base material is reached, then more
rings are added until the required deck height is achieved. Lean concrete can be used to fill
the caisson and stronger concrete is used at the top to take anchor bolts for the transoms. A
height to diameter ratio of 3:1 should not be exceeded without careful calculations. The
caisson pier type will also obstruct the water-flow, which could increase the scour.
Temporary bridges must nonetheless offer reliable service over the required period of use. A
guidance to the selection of the design flood and flow characteristics for smaller temporary
structures is given in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 5: Hydrology. The
two key aspects of durability in temporary bridging are:
• load carrying adequacy

• protection from water damage.
Figure 5-18 Bridge Pier made of Concrete Rings

Chapter 5
A temporary bridge may not be completely adequate for all vehicles that normally use the
road. If the temporary structure has any limitation in load capacity, width or height, this
must be clearly marked at the entrances to the road on which the bridge is located and
repeated on the approaches to the bridge. It shall be possible to divert large vehicles to a
prepared ford, while small ones are permitted to use the bridge. If possible, physical barriers
should be erected to prevent drivers of large vehicles from infringing the temporary
regulations in areas where drivers are known to ignore warning signs.
For most applications the two main precautions to be taken are:

• to allow adequate clearance between high water level and the temporary deck
• to build the sub-structure so that there is a minimum of interference to the flow.
5.18 BACKWATER
Regarding a bridge over a stream, the opening must be large enough not to cause any
damage due to backwater. Sometimes it shall be necessary to compensate for the backwater
by means of training or relining the stream. If the local populace and/or livestock normally
wander along the shores, sometimes the bridge opening needs to be widened to provide for
such passage under the bridge at normal water levels.
Calculation of backwater should always be made if the Design Water Velocity exceeds 1.0
m/s. Examples are shown in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges,
Section 8.7: Examples.
5.19 SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE
5.19.1 SKEWED CROSSINGS
Generally skewed crossings should be avoided, because skewed bridges are more difficult to
calculate, are longer, and need more reinforcement, which means they are more costly.
One lane open, framed, skewed bridges should be avoided due to the eccentric earth pressure
on each of the frontwalls that may cause the whole structure to rotate. The moment from
rotation has to be taken in consideration when the slide between the footing and the ground
is calculated.
However the bridge shall be made perpendicular even if the crossing is skewed as shown at
Figure 5-19.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-19 Skewed (Bottom) and Perpendicular (Top) Bridge
5.19.2 ECONOMICAL ASPECTS
The most economic overall bridge length and span length depends to a large extent upon the
foundation costs. If the piers have to be founded deep under the water or if piling is needed,
then longer spans up to a certain limit shall be more economical. At larger bridges and
difficult soil conditions the most favorable locations of the piers should be sought. If no such
locations can be located it may in some cases be more economical to realign the road to a
more suitable bridge site, although all aspects should be re-investigated.
The cost of the superstructure mainly depends on the span length and the available design
depth.
To compare the construction costs of different bridges it is practical to use the specific cost
per square meter of bridge deck area. The construction costs from recently constructed
bridges are valuable and therefore should be collected. If possible the costs should exclude
costs for extraordinary scour protection, realignment of the river, etc, which do not form a
portion of the bridge structure cost itself. Hence different bridge type alternatives can be
compared at the same bridge site.
As mentioned before, the geotechnical/soil conditions are very important in the total cost of
the structure. If the soil conditions for the adjacent road embankment are very poor and
require piling or a pile deck, this should be compared to the cost of a longer bridge. The

Chapter 5
same applies for very high embankments, where a longer bridge sometimes might be more
economic due to the savings in earthworks
5.19.3 ARCHITECTURAL AND SCULPTURAL ASPECTS
Close to cities or large towns the architectural and sculptural aspects of a bridge should be
considered. If a pleasing bridge is desired a competition between architects shall be arranged
before or parallel with the actual pre-design of the bridge. Preferably the winning sketch
should be converted and elaborated into “photographs” of the proposed bridge by means of
suitable computer software. The architect's viewpoints must be “translated” into the
structural limitations available for the particular bridge. To avoid misunderstandings both the
sketch and the actual bridge layout drawings should be submitted to the bidder. The winner
may be invited to participate in the final design of the bridge and its details.
5.19.4 APPEARANCE AND SAFETY
There are however some basic facts regarding the appearance of the bridge that the structural
designer and the road engineer should consider:
• Normally the form of the bridge should coincide with the road both horizontally and
vertically.
• If the bridge is close to a horizontal curve the skew transition should preferably be moved
from the bridge deck.
• Curves and especially reverse-curves on a bridge should be avoided for safety reasons
since the railing always reduces the sight length in the curve.
• A sag vertical curve should have the lowest point at the adjacent road embankment, not at
the bridge, to achieve sufficient drainage of the bridge deck.
• A crest vertical curve with the highest point at the bridge is suitable as long as the sight
length is sufficient. At longer bridges with esthetical demands it is advisable to arrange a
horizontal curve as well. Then the bridge and its main superstructure shall be viewed from
the side before entering the bridge itself. If the bridge is attractive, a parking facility shall
be provided before the bridge to allow people to view the bridge and the water.
5.20 RAILINGS, AND PARAPETS
Railings are designed as a part of the overall bridge design. For details, refer to Chapter 12:
Detail Design of Bridges; the appendix for worked examples; and the ERA Standard Detail
Drawings-2002, Chapter 2: Guardrail Drawings for design.
5.21 CHECKLIST FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN DRAWING(S)
Information on the layout and sizing of the drawings is given in Chapter 16: Calculations,
Drawings, and Specifications. The following information are required in the preliminary
design stage:

Chapter 5
General Information
• the name and direction of the nearest town and/or the beginning and end of project,
• bench mark used and its location and elevation (if a local Bench mark is used it shall
be described in detail and connected to the National Level Benchmark Network),
• coordinates, coordinate system used and north arrow,
• water / sewerage pipes
• electrical cables or lines
• fixed and expanding bearings and type of bearings
• type of expansion joints if any, type of hinges
• type of drainage outlets of bridge deck if any,
• type of fill behind the abutments (at frame structures the filling should be made at
the same time at the same level behind both abutments, at abutments not founded on
rock the backfill shall be made before the measure between the superstructure and
the abutment is decided upon),
• which Loading Specifications and accidental loads have been used,
• which pavement type is to be used for the bridge deck,
• which guardrail / pedestrian railing / parapets are to be used,
• scale shown at each figure,
• run-on-slabs for roadway, cables, water-pipes, etc.,
• protection pipe for water-pipe,
• Standards to be used for the detail design,
• Specifications to be used for the construction,
• Title block information, name of the bridge, scale used, bridge number
• plan with the contours or spot levels of the river bed and the surroundings.
Foundations
Provided details of:
• founding method for bridge supports,
• proposed elevations of footings,
• replacement of soft layer with compacted fill,
• piling and length of piles,
• type of piles (cast-in-place etc.),
• proposed level of pile cap,
• embankment reinforcement, i.e. piling, replacement with light weight material, etc.,
• compaction methodology, requirements for fill,
• scour protection, type, material, thickness, protected area,
• sub water excavation, sub water casting of lean concrete slab under foundation,
• types of soil at every support,
• sheetpiling
Soil Conditions
Provide the following:
• reference to the Soil Investigation Report for the bridge,
• inclination of embankment slopes
• cross sections in the alignment as well as 5 m up-/downstream at elevation,

Chapter 5
• the levels of different soil layers, level of bedrock

• the type of soil at every proposed support,
• ground water level with the date it was observed,
Bridge Dimensions and Geometry

• overall length of bridge, span lengths,
• width of road, width of bridge,
• grade of bridge,
• angle of skew, angle of abutments and piers,
• width of columns (minimum thickness requirements),
• lowest allowable level of superstructure
• length of wingwalls adequate,
• type of supports, i.e. masonry or concrete, rounded piers, etc
• crossfall of bridge deck and/or superelevation,
• depth of substructure, chamfers to be utilized,
• retaining walls,
• type of bearings (fixed/expansion),
• the stations of the piers and abutments,
• profile of the road - schematic
Information on the Stream

• name of the waterway,
• direction of flow, design water speed (=water speed at design water flow),
• quantities of flow, design water flow, normal and lowest water flow,
• design water level, normal and lowest water level,
• clearance heights,
• cross sections of the waterway in the alignment
A sample preliminary design drawing is given in Figure 5-20.
5.22 CHECKLIST FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN STANDARDS (PDS)
The contractor shall follow these requirements for the design of the bridge:
• General Requirements
- Main tender (Preliminary Design Drawing No., minimum dimension requirements)
- Contractors alternative Preliminary Design (requirements of width, height, radius,
grade, other given dimensions, skew angle, bridge cones, slope and placement,
profile)
- Water levels and ground water levels (usually from the Drainage Investigation)
- Formwork requirements
- Traffic conditions during the Construction time (ADT; required width, height and
speed; provisional bridge/load; fencing, etc.)

Chapter 5
• Design requirements
- Earth Pressure (backfill material)
- Piling (tension forces, drag forces, etc.)
- Buoyancy (Design Water Level shall be indicated on the drawing, level of pumping,
etc.)
- Settlement differences (if different from the LRFD Code)
- Allowable creep of concrete (applicable only for unusual designs)
- Allowable deformations and frequency (only if different from the LRFD Code)
- Expansive soils (if the soil investigation indicates it)
- Clearance requirements (over Design Water Level, roadway, walkway, railway, etc.)
- Design Life requirements (according to the LRFD Code)
• Loading
- General (Traffic load, if different from the LRFD Code)
- Permanent loads (launching forces, dead load of unusual materials, displacement
loads)
- Live Loads (emergency traffic load on pedestrian bridges, load on walkway intended
to be used as a traffic lane in the future, fatigue load, measured wind load for special
bridges, stream pressure/drag, etc.)
- Accidental Loads (level of collision load, etc.)
- Loading combinations (if different from the LRFD Code)
• Foundation works
- Soil Investigation used (dated, by whom)
- Construction method proposed
- Excavation works
Excavation and casting of concrete above water
Pumping of ground water (assumed method, 2 000 l/min. normally)
Sheetpiling (underwater excavation and casting of lean concrete under the
footing)
Reporting to the Engineer at least 5 days before fill, casting of footings, etc.)
- Fill works (level of fill, if different from Bridge Specifications)
- Embankment piling (usually the embankment piling shall be made before the
abutment piling)
- Footings
- Piling works
prefab piles or cast-in place piles, concrete cover of piles
tip bearing or skin friction piles (results of test piling already made, design
length of piles at different supports, required number of test piles at each
support, etc.)
checking of foundation work (highest allowable groundwater level under the
excavation level - normally 0.5 m; required additional checking of piling)
- Protection works (erosion protection, sheet piling, scour protection)

Chapter 5
• Concrete works
- Superstructure (edgebeam type, larger concrete cover than required in the LRFD
Code, if the slab shall be assumed continuous over supports, if expansion joints are
necessary over supports, maximum allowable crossfall/superelevation)
- Construction (if special methods are required, detail design drawings will be
provided later)
- Substructure
- Footing (assumed bottom levels, if footing is allowed to be cast underwater)
- Pier, Abutments, Retaining Walls and Cones (filling material, cone material,
minimum dimension of pier/abutment if different from the LRFD Code)
• Steel and Timber works

- Superstructure (coating, construction methods)
• Bridge Details
- Drainage (only for curbs: type, outlet; drainage of box piers and girders)
- Pipes and Ducts (dimensions, nos., placing and dead load of content)
- Paving (water insulation under the surface coat, pavement type, coat thickness,
material, traffic lane/pedestrian lane, islands)
- Edge beam (type, standard or special)
- Bearings (type, brand - only if required by ERA; lifting requirements at exchange of
bearings; if bearings are excluded from the tender/delivered by ERA)
- Expansion joints (type - open or waterproof, required brand - only if required by
ERA)
- Railing (type, parapet type, length, painting of railing and parapet)
• Miscellaneous
- Inspection devices (manholes, inspection platforms, ladders)
- Test loading (test program, calculations and evaluation to be made by the
Contractor/by ERA)
- Built-as specifications and drawings (only additional requirements not stated in the
LRFD Code)
- If military load should be applied or not.
All drawings and specifications supplied shall be signed and dated.
5.23 SAMPLE PRELIMINARY DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
Sample preliminary design specifications for a bridge are given in the next example (figure
5.20).

Chapter 5
Figure 5.20 EXAMPLE PRELIMINARY BRIDGE SPECIFICATIONS (PBS)
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY BRIDGE No. A1-123

OROMIYA REGION
ADDIS ABABA − DJIBOUTI HIGHWAY A1
EXAMPLE
For the Construction of the
MOJO RIVER BRIDGE
1 KM NW OF MOJO VILLAGE
At Sta. 7+090, in the Oromiya Region
Addis Ababa, 28 Jan 1999

SABA Engineering, PLC 794509-72

Chapter 5
I GENERAL
I.1 General Requirements
Main Tender
In the Main Tender, the Bridge shall be built according to Preliminary Design Drawing No.
A1-123: 01 (Figure 5-21).
Dimensions shall be according to the requirements of Chapter 16: Calculations, Drawings,
and Specifications.
Contractors Alternative Tender
If an alternative tender is given by the Contractor, the bridge shall be constructed with the
same width, height, radius, grade, skew angle and other dimensions given on Preliminary
Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 (Figure 5-21).
Bridge Cones shall not be steeper, or be placed closer to the water, than stated on the
Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 (Figure 5-21).
The profile of the road may not be altered.
I.2 Construction Requirements
Water Levels and Ground Water Levels
Water levels shown have been calculated according to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-
2002, and ground water levels shall be as shown in the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo
River Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998. The normal (mean) water level has been estimated after
several field level measurements.
Formwork Requirements
Formwork requirements shall be as given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123:

01.
I.3 Design Requirements
Earth Pressure
Backfill material shall be granular soil graded in accordance with the Technical
Specifications.
Piled Footings
All soil parameters which are not given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01,
shall be according to "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River Bridge," dated 25 Dec
1998.

Chapter 5
Tension forces in each pile shall not exceed 50 kN. Downdrag need not be considered.
Buoyancy
When designing the buoyancy for the pile slabs, the water level +2062.50 shall be used.
Clearance Requirements
Clearance above the Design Water Level (DWL) shall not be less than 0.9 m.
II LOADINGS (NOT APPLICABLE)
III FOUNDATIONS
Soil Conditions
The soil parameters shall be according to the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River
Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998.
Construction Work
Excavation and Casting of Footings for the supports shall be assumed above the water
surface. The excavation shall be according to the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo
River Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998 and Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
Excavation and Casting of Footings above water shall include pumping of ground water.
At least 5 days before the casting of the lean concrete under the footing ERA shall be
notified, in order to inspect the compaction of the fill under the footing.
Tip Bearing Piles
The length of the piles shall be determined by the contractor by 2 nos. of testpiles at each
abutment. The Contractor is responsible for using the right length of the piles. The design
length at each abutment given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 is to be
used only for the bidding.
Protection for Scour
Temporary Protection for scour shall be included in the Bridge Construction work.
Protection for scour shall be made of a 0.1-m layer of natural stones on top of 0.5 m layer
of stones with the size 0-100 mm (d50≥ 70 mm) up to 3.0 m from the bridge abutment
edge according to Preliminary Design Drawing no. A1-123: 01.
Bridge Cones surface shall be protected with a 0.3-m layer of stones sized 16-32 mm.

Chapter 5
IV CONCRETE WORK
IV.1 Superstructure
Edge Beams
Edge beams shall be developed under the deck surface.
IV.2 Substructure
Footings
The elevations of the bottom side of the footings shall not exceed the levels given on
Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
Piers, Abutments, Retaining walls
Fill shall be made with material with equal parameters as assumed in the design and stated in
section 1.31 above. Fill shall be as shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
V BRIDGE DETAILS
V.1 Drainage
The drainage of the bridge deck includes the delivery and casting in place of one no. of
Standard Scupper Drain Type D1 according to Standard Detail Drawing No. DR-01.
V.2 Bearings
The bearings shall be of the steel reinforced elastomeric type, of a brand approved by ERA.
When lifting the superstructure for the replacement of the bearings it shall be assumed that
the jacks are 500 mm high and placed 600 mm inside the centerline of the bearings, as
shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
V.3 Railings
Guardrail
Guardrail shall be made of concrete according to Standard Detail Drawing No. GR-1 as far
as shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
The adjacent four nos. of RC Parapet Panels are not included in the Bridge Construction
work.
Addis Ababa, 28 Jan 1999

SAVA Engineering, PLC
Tsahai Bekila (Bridge Engineer, B.Sc.)

Chapter 5
REFERENCES
1. Farraday and Charlton, Hydraulic Factors in Bridge Design, Wallingford, Hydraulic

Research Station Ltd., 1983.
2. Parry J D, 1981. The Kenyan Low Cost Modular Timber Bridge. TRRL Laboratory Report
1970. Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory, England.
3. Bingham J, 1979. Low Water Crossings. Compendium 4. Washington: Transportation
Research Board.
4. Hindson J, 1983. Earth Roads - A practical guide to earth road construction and
maintenance. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
5. Roberts P, 1986. The Irish Bridge - a low cost river crossing. Southampton: University of
Southampton, Department of Civil Engineering.
6. TRRL Overseas Road Note no 9, “A Design Manual for Small Bridges”, Transport and
Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne Berkshire UK, 1992.
7. Brokonstruktion - en handbok (Preliminary Bridge Design − A Handbook), Publication no.
1996:63, Vagverket (Swedish Roads Authority), Borlange, Sweden, 1996. In Swedish.
8. "Design Standard", Ethiopian Roads Authority, compiled May 1993 (1961 - 1989)
9. “Brobygging – I. Jernbeton, sten og trae” (Bridge Design – part I Reinforced Concrete, stone
and tree) in danish, Prof Anker Engelund, Copenhagen 1934.
10. TRRL Overseas Road Note no 7, Vol. 2, “Bridge Inspectors Handbook", Crowtorne
Berkshire UK, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 1988.
11. “RTIM3 - Road Transport Investment Model", TRRL Overseas Centre Transport and
Research Laboratory, TRRL, Berkshire UK, 1988.
12. Design manual for roads and bridges - Vol. 1: "Highway structures: approval procedures and
general design", The Stationary Office Ltd., London, 1998.
13. Design manual for roads and bridges - Vol. 3: "Highway structures: inspection and
maintenance", The Stationary Office Ltd., London, 1998.
14. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 1 "Basis of Design & Actions on
Structures", 1995.
15. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 2 "Structural Use of Concrete", 1995.
16. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 3 "Design of Steel Structures", 1995.
17. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 5 "Utilization of Timber", 1995.
18. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 7 "Foundations", 1995.
19. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 8 "Design of Structures for Earthquake
Resistance", 1995.
20. Eurocode 1 "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures - Part 3 Traffic Loads on Bridges",
European Prestandard ENV 1991-3, March 1995.
21. Eurocode 2 "Design of Concrete Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1992.
22. Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1993.
23. "BRO 94 - Brokonstruktionsbestammelser" (Bridge Design Code), Publication no. 1994:1-8,
57-1998, Vagverket (Swedish Roads Authority, in Swedish.), Borlange, Sweden, 1998.
24. "Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works", American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, 1995.

Chapter 6
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Substructure Design
6 SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN
6.1 SCOPE
Provisions of this section shall apply for the design of spread footings, driven piles, and
drilled shaft foundations.
The probabilistic LRFD basis of these Specifications, which produces an interrelated

combination of load, load factor, resistance, resistance factor, and statistical reliability,
shall be considered when selecting procedures for calculating resistance other than that
specified herein. Other methods, especially when locally recognized and considered
suitable for regional conditions, shall be used if the statistical nature of the factors given
above are considered through consistent use of reliability theory and are approved by the
Owner.
The specification of methods of analysis and calculation of resistance for foundations

herein is not intended to imply that field verification and/or reaction to conditions
actually encountered in the field are not longer needed. These traditional features of
foundation design and construction are still practical considerations when designing in
accordance with these Specifications.
6.2 NOTATIONS
The units shown after the description of each term are suggested units. Other units that
are consistent with the expressions being evaluated shall be used.
B = footing width (mm); pile group width (mm)

CPT = cone penetration test
L = length of foundation (mm)
Qep = passive resistance of soil available throughout the design life of the structure (N)
Qn = nominal resistance (N)
QR = factored resistance (N)
QT = maximum shear resistance between the foundation and the soil (N)
qs = unit shear resistance; nominal unit skin resistance (MPa)
RQD = rock quality designation
Rf = factored resistance
SPT = standard penetration test
Su = underained shear strength (MPa)
V = vertical component of inclined loads (N)
δ = angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile (DEG)
λ = empirical coefficient relating the passive lateral earth pressure and the unit skin
friction of a pile (DIM)
σ′v = vertical effective stress (MPa)

Chapter 6
Substructure Design Bridge Design Manual - 2002
ϕ = resistance factor
ϕep = resistance factor for passive resistance
ϕf = angle of internal friction of soil (DEG)
ϕT = resistance factor for shear between soil and foundation
6.3 FOUNDATIONS
6.3.1 LIMIT STATES AND RESISTANCE FACTORS
Footings should be designed so that the pressure under the footing is as nearly uniform as
practicable. The distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with properties of the soil
or rock and the structure, and with established principles of soil and rock mechanics.
Resistance Factors
Resistance factors for different types of foundation systems at the strength limit state
shall be taken as specified in Tables 6-1 through 6-3 below, unless regionally specific
values are available.
For determination of footing size and number of piles, the resistance factors, ϕ, for soil
bearing pressure and for pile resistance as a function of the soil shall be as specified
below:
Resistance factors, ϕ, for the service limit state shall be taken as 1.0. The resistance
factor for passive earth pressure associated with bearing capacity is taken as specified
in Table 6-1 if a bridge component is pushed, e.g., backwall of an integral abutment,
or pulled, e.g., anchor block of a deadman, into the soil. On the other hand, if passive
earth pressure is used to determine force effects on other bridge components, e.g., the
bending moments in components of an integral abutment, it is conservative to assume
that the maximum passive resistance is available, i.e., ϕ = 1.0.
A further reduction in Pn for piles should be considered when pile driving difficulty is
expected. A reduction multiplier factor of 0.875 is considered when moderate driving
difficulty is expected, and a factor of 0.75 is considered when difficult driving is
expected (Ref. 2).
Where pile foundations are specified, the contract documents shall specify the level of
field pile capacity verification required. The field verification specified shall be
consistent with the value of λv taken from Table 6-2.
Failure by Sliding
Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings that support inclined load and/or are
founded on slopes.
For foundations on clay soils, the possible presence of a shrinkage gap between the soil
and the foundation shall be considered. If passive resistance is included as part of the
shear resistance required for resisting sliding, consideration shall also be given to
possible future removal of the soil in front of the foundation.

Chapter 6
Table 6-1 Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Shallow Foundations
METHOD/SOIL/CONDITION RESISTANCE
FACTOR ϕ
Bearing Capacity Sand 0.45
and Passive - Semi-empirical procedure using SPT data 0.55
Pressure - Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data
- Rational Method –
using ϕf estimated from SPT data 0.35
using ϕf estimated from CPT data 0.45
Clay
- Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data 0.50
- Rational Method
using shear resistance measured in lab tests 0.60
using shear resistance measured in field vane tests 0.60
using shear resistance estimated from CPT data 0.50
Rock
Semi-empirical procedure (Ref. 3) 0.60
Plate Load Test 0.55
Sliding Precast concrete placed on sand if using ϕf est. from SPT data 0.90
Concrete cast-in-place on sand if using ϕf est. from SPT data 0.80
Sliding on clay is controlled by the strength of the clay when the

clay shear is less than 0.5 times the normal stress, and is
controlled by the normal stress when the clay shear strength is
greater than 0.5 times the normal stress.
Clay (where shear resistance is less than 0.5 times normal
pressure) 0.85
- using shear resistance measured in lab tests 0.80
- using shear resistance measured in field tests
- using shear resistance estimated from CPT data 0.85
Clay (where the resistance is greater than 0.5 times normal
pressure) 1.00
Soil on soil
0.50
Passive earth pressure component of sliding resistance
Overall Stability Where soil or rock properties and groundwater levels are based 0.90
on laboratory or in-situ testing, shallow foundations on or near a
slope evaluated for overall stability and resistance to a deep-
seated failure mode

Chapter 6
Table 6-2 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in Axially
Loaded Piles
FACTOR ϕ
Ultimate Bearing End Bearing: Clay and Rock
Resistance of Clay (Ref. 4) 0.70 λv
Single Piles Rock (Ref. 5) 0.50 λv
Skin Friction and End Bearing: Sand

SPT-method 0.45 λv
CPT-method 0.55 λv
Wave equation analysis with assumed driving resistance 0.65 λv
Load Test 0.80 λv
Block Failure Clay 0.65
Uplift Resistance of SPT-method 0.35
Single Piles CPT-method 0.45
Load Test 0.80
Group Uplift Sand 0.55

Resistance Clay 0.55
Method of controlling installation of piles and verifying their capacity during or Value of λv
after driving to be specified in the contract documents
Pile Driving Formulas, e.g., ENR, equation without stress wave measurements
during driving 0.80
Bearing graph from wave equation analysis without stress wave measurements
during driving 0.85
Stress wave measurements on 2% to 5% of piles, capacity verified by simplified
methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer 0.90
methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer, and static load test to verify capacity 1.00
methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer, and CAPWAP analyses to verify
capacity 1.00
Stress wave measurements on 10% to 70% of piles, capacity verified by
simplified methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer 1.00

Chapter 6
Table 6-3 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in Axially
Loaded Drilled Shafts
FACTOR ϕ
Ultimate Bearing Base Resistance in Clay Total Stress (Ref. 6) 0.55
Resistance of Single
Drilled Shafts Side Resistance in Rock (Ref. 3) 0.55
(Ref. 7) 0.65
Base Resistance in Rock Pressure Method (Ref. 5) 0.50
Side Resistance and End Load Test 0.80

Bearing
Block Failure Clay 0.65
Uplift Resistance of Clay Belled Shafts 0.50
Single Drilled Shafts
Sand (Ref. 8)
(Ref. 9)
Rock (Ref. 3) 0.45

(Ref. 7) 0.55
Load Test 0.80
Group Uplift Sand 0.55
Resistance Clay 0.55
The factored resistance against failure by sliding, in N, shall be taken as:
QR = ϕQn = ϕTQT + ϕepQep (6.1)
where: ϕT = resistance factor for shear resistance between soil and foundation specified
QT = nominal shear resistance between soil and foundation (N)
ϕep = resistance factor for passive resistance specified above.
Qep = nominal passive resistance of soil available throughout the design life of the
structure (N)
If the soil beneath the footing is friction-soil (cohesionless), then:
QT = V tan δ (6.2)
for which: tan δ = tan ϕf for concrete cast against soil

= 0.8 tan ϕf for precast concrete footing
where: ϕf = internal friction angle of soil (DEG)
V = total vertical force (N)
For footings that rest on clay, the sliding resistance shall be taken as the lesser of:
• The cohesion of the clay, or
• Where footings are supported on at least 150 mm of compacted granular material,
one-half the normal stress on the interface between the footing and soil, as shown in

Chapter 6
Figure 6-1 for retaining walls. The following notation shall be taken to apply to
Figure 6-1.
qs = unit shear resistance, equal to Su or 0.5 σ1v, whichever is less

QT = area under qs diagram (shaded area)
Su = undrained shear strength (MPa)
σ1v = vertical effective stress (MPa)
Figure 6-1 Procedure for Estimating Sliding Resistance for Walls on Clay
Sliding failure occurs if the force effects due to the horizontal component loads exceed
the more critical of either the factored shear resistance of the soils or the factored shear
resistance at the interface between the soil and the foundation.
The magnitudes of active earth load and passive resistance depend on the type of backfill
material, the wall movement, and the compactive effort.
In most cases, the movement of the structure and its foundation will be small.
Consequently, if passive resistance is included in the resistance, its magnitude is
commonly taken as 50 percent of the maximum passive resistance.
The units for QR, Qn, and Qep are shown in Newton (N). For elements designed on a unit
length basis, these quantities will have the units of N per unit length.
6.3.2 SPREAD FOOTINGS
The depth of footings shall be determined considering the character of the foundation
materials and the possibility of undermining. Footings at stream crossings shall be
founded at a depth at least 600 mm below the maximum anticipated depth of scour as
specified in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges, Section 8.5:
Bridge Scour and Aggravation.
Footings shall be designed considering the highest anticipated groundwater table. Where
foundations are subjected to uplift forces, they shall be investigated both for resistance to
pullout and for their structural strength. In the strength limit stage the highest anticipated
groundwater table or water depth for uplift shall be added with an additional 0.2 m.

Chapter 6
Where foundations are placed adjacent to existing structures, the influence of the
existing structures on the behavior of the foundation, and the effect of the foundation on
the existing structures, shall be investigated.
Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement and horizontal lateral displacement

directions shall be investigated at the service limit state.
Lateral displacement of a structure shall be evaluated where:

• horizontal or inclined loads are present.
• the foundation is placed on embankment slope,
• the possibility of loss of foundation support through erosion or scour exists, or
• bearing strata are significantly inclined.
Various loads may have significant effects on the magnitude of settlements or lateral
displacements of the soils. The following factors should be considered in the estimation
of settlements:
• the ratio of sustained load to total load,
• the duration of sustained loads, and
• the time interval over which settlement or lateral displacement occurs.
Spread Footings on Rock
The methods used for design of footings on rock shall consider the presence, orientation
and condition of discontinuities, weathering profiles and other similar profiles as they
apply at a particular site.
The eccentricity of loading, based on factored loads, shall not exceed three-eighths of the
corresponding footing dimensions B or L (=0.375*B or 0.375*L).
Anchorage: Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid rock surfaces, and
which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant material, shall be effectively
anchored by means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys or other suitable means.
Shallow keying of large footing areas shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
removal.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and direct analyses based on uniaxial
compressive rock strengths and Rock Quality Designation (RQD) shall be applicable.
Competent rock shall be defined as a rock mass with discontinuities that are open not
wider than 3.5 mm. For footings on less competent rock, more detailed investigations
and analyses shall be performed to account for the effects of weathering and the presence
and condition of discontinuities.
The nominal bearing resistance of rock shall be determined using empirical correlation
with the RQD (Ref. 11). Local experience shall be considered in the use of these semi-
empirical procedures. The factored bearing pressure of the foundation shall not be taken
greater than the factored bearing strength of the footing concrete.
The nominal bearing capacity of foundations on rock shall be analytically determined

using established rock mechanics principles based on the rock mass strength parameters.
The influence of discontinuities on the failure mode shall also be considered.

Chapter 6
6.3.3 FOOTINGS ON PILES
General Piles
Piles and pile groups shall be designed to have adequate bearing and structural
resistances, tolerable settlements and tolerable lateral displacements.
The supporting resistance of piles should be determined by static analysis methods based
on soil-structure interaction or by load testing, or by the use of the pile driving analyzer,
other stress-wave measurement technique, or with the CAPWAP method. The resistance
of piles should be determined through a suitable combination of subsurface
investigations, laboratory and/or in-situ tests, analytical methods, pile load tests, and
reference to the history of past performance. Consideration shall also be given to:
• the difference between the resistance of a single pile and that of a group of piles,
• the capacity of the underlying strata to support the load of the pile group.
Center to center pile spacing shall not be less than the greater of either 750 mm or 2.5
pile diameters or widths. The distance from the side of any pile to the nearest edge of the
footing shall be greater than 225 mm. The tops of the piles shall project at least 200 mm
into footings. If the pile is attached to the footing by embedded bars or strands, the pile
should extend no less than 150 mm into the footing.
The minimum pile length shall be 3.0 m, unless otherwise approved by ERA. Batter piles
should be avoided where downdrag loads are expected.
Pile foundations designed to resist uplift shall be checked both for resistance to pullout
and for their ability to carry tensile stresses.
Pile bearing capacity/resistance shall be obtained by using the in-situ methods SPT (Ref.
9) or CPT, both for tip bearing piles and skin friction piles.
General Seismic Requirements for piles: No additional design provisions need be

considered for Zone 1-3.
Piles for structures in Zone 4 shall be used to resist both axial and lateral loads. The
minimum depth of embedment and axial and lateral pile resistance required for seismic
loads shall be determined by means of design criteria established by site-specific
geological and geotechnical investigations.
Concrete piles shall be anchored to the pile footing or cap by either embedment of
reinforcement or anchorages to develop uplift forces. The embedment length shall not be
less than the development length required for the reinforcement specified in Chapter 5.1
above.
Concrete-filled pipe piles shall be anchored with at least four steel dowels with an area
not less than 1.0% of the concrete gross area. Dowels shall be embedded as required for
concrete piles. Timber and steel piles, including unfilled pipe piles, shall be provided
with anchoring devices to develop any uplift forces. The uplift force shall not be taken to
be less than 10 % of the factored axial compressive resistance of the pile.

Chapter 6
Precast RC Piles
Regarding dimensions the precast concrete piles shall be either of uniform section or
tapered. They shall have a cross-sectional area measured above the taper of not less than
84 000 mm2 (0.29*0.29 m). Concrete piles used in a saltwater environment shall have a
cross-sectional area of not less than 122 000 mm2 (0.35*0.35 m). The corners of a
rectangular section shall be chamfered.
Longitudinal reinforcement shall consist of not less than four bars spaced uniformly
around the perimeter of the pile. The area of reinforcing steel shall not be less than 1% of
the gross concrete cross-sectional area measured above the taper. The full length of
longitudinal steel shall be enclosed with spiral reinforcement or equivalent
hoops/stirrups.
Seismic requirements for Precast Reinforced Piles. For precast reinforced piles, the
longitudinal steel shall not be less than 1 % of the cross-sectional area and provided by
not less than four bars. Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of not less than ∅10 bars
shall be provided at a pitch not exceeding 225 mm, except that a 75 mm pitch shall be
used within a confinement length not less than 600 mm or 1.5 pile diameters below the
pile cap reinforcement.
The compressive strength of the pile at the time of driving shall not be less than 30 MPa.
Cast-in-Place Piles
Cast-in- Place Piles: Piles cast in drilled holes shall be used only where soil conditions
permit. Shells for cast-in-place piles shall be of sufficient thickness and strength to hold
their form and to show no harmful distortion during driving or after adjacent shells have
been driven and the driving core, if any, has been withdrawn. The contract documents
shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell need be approved by the Engineer
before any driving is done.
Cast-in-place concrete piles include piles cast in driven steel shells that remain in place
and piles cast in unlined drilled holes or shafts.
The construction of piles in drilled holes should generally be avoided in sloughing soils,
where large cobblestones exist or where uncontrollable ground water is expected. The
special construction methods required under these conditions increase both the cost and
the probability of defects in the piles.
The minimum thickness of shells should be that needed for pile reinforcement or for
strength required for usual driving conditions: e.g., 3.4 mm minimum for 355 mm pile
shells driven without a mandrel.
Pile Dimensions: Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform section or shall be
tapered over any portion if cast in shells or shall be bell-bottomed if cast in drilled holes
or shafts.

Chapter 6
The area at the butt of the pile shall be at least 64 500 mm2 (254*254 mm). The cross-
sectional area at the tip of the pile shall be at least 32 300 mm2 (∅200 mm). For pile
extensions above the butt, the minimum size shall be as specified for precast piles above.
Reinforcing Steel: The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.8 % of
Ag, with spiral reinforcement not less than MW25 at a pitch of 150 mm. The reinforcing
steel shall be extended 3.0 m below the plane where the soil provides adequate lateral
restraint.
Shells that are more than 3 mm in thickness shall be considered as part of the
reinforcement. In corrosive environments, a minimum of 1.5 mm shall be deducted from
the shell thickness in determining resistance.
Seismic requirements for Cast-in-Place Piles: For cast-in-place piles, longitudinal steel
shall be provided in the upper end of the pile for a length not less than either one-third of
the pile length or 2400 mm, with a minimum steel ratio of 0.005 provided by at least four
bars. Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of not less than ∅10 bars shall be provided
at pitch not exceeding 225 mm, except that the pitch shall not exceed 75 mm within a
length not less than 600 mm or 1.5 pile diameters below the pile cap reinforcement.
6.4 PIER DESIGN
GENERAL
For foundations the previous subchapter shall apply.
Piers shall be designed to transmit the loads from the superstructure, and the loads acting
on the pier itself, onto the foundation. The loads and load combinations shall be as
specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
Piers, abutments and retaining walls shall be investigated for excessive displacements at
the service limit state.
Surveys of the performance of bridges indicate those horizontal abutment movements

less than 35 mm can be tolerated by bridge superstructures without significant damage.
Piers shall also be investigated for:

• lateral stream forces, including debris agglomeration etc,
• the self weight of the pier,
• transversal windload, temperature and shrinkage deformation effects, and
• earthquake loads, as specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
Regarding stone masonry piers see Section 7.5: Arch Bridges and Stone Masonry Piers.
6.5 ABUTMENTS
6.5.1 GENERAL
Abutments shall be investigated for:

• lateral earth pressures, including any live and dead load surcharge,
• the self weight of the abutment
• temperature and shrinkage deformation effects, and
• earthquake loads, as specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.

Chapter 6
Abutments shall be investigated for excessive displacements at the service limit state.
Earth pressures used in design of abutments should be selected consistent with the
requirement that the abutment should not move more than 35 mm laterally.
Surveys of the performance of bridges indicate those horizontal abutment movements

less than 35 mm can be tolerated by bridge superstructures without significant damage.
Design of abutments and walls shall be investigated at the strength limit states for:
• Bearing resistance failure,
• Lateral sliding,
• Excessive loss of base contact,
• Overall instability,
• Pull out failure of anchors or soil reinforcements, and
• Structural failure.
The conditions governing the design depends on:

• Type and function of retaining structure,
• Earth pressure exerted on the wall by the retained backfill,
• Geometry of the ground and the structure,
• Strength of the ground,
• Ground deformability,
• Groundwater, and
• Swelling pressure in clay backfills.
6.5.2 DESIGN
The factored resistance, RR, calculated for each applicable limit state shall be the
nominal resistance, Rn, multiplied by an appropriate resistance factor, ϕ.
Abutments, piers, and retaining structures and their foundations and other supporting
elements shall be proportioned for all applicable load combinations specified in Section
3.4: Load Factors and Combinations.
6.6 WINGWALL AND RETAINING WALL DESIGN
Wingwalls may either be designed as monolithic with (attached to) the abutment, or be
separated from the abutment wall with an expansion joint and designed to be free
standing. The wingwall lengths shall be computed using the cone and the required
roadway slopes (see Section 5.6: Parts of Bridges). Wingwalls shall be of sufficient
length to retain the roadway embankment and to furnish protection against erosion. The
bottom side of the attached wingwalls shall be buried at least 1.0 m under the slope
surface, measured perpendicular to the slope (see Figure 5-3).
The vertical stems of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers supported at the
base. An expansion joint shall always be applied between RC wingwall rigidly attached
to the abutment and a free standing RC retaining wall.

Chapter 6
6.7 CULVERTS AND OTHER BURIED STRUCTURES
6.7.1 GENERAL
Buried structures and their foundations shall be designed so that they resist the factored
loads given by the load combinations specified below.
The factored resistance, Rf, shall be calculated for each applicable limit state as:
Rf = ϕ*Rn (6.3)
where: Rn = the nominal resistance

ϕ = the resistance factor specified in Table 6-4 below
Buried structures shall be investigated at Service Load Combination I, as specified in

Table 3-2, as follows:
• Deflection of metal structures, and
• Crack width in reinforced concrete structures.
Buried structures and tunnel liners shall be investigated for construction loads and at
Strength Load Combinations I and II, as specified in Table 3-2, as follows:
¾ For concrete structures:

• flexure
• shear
• thrust
• radial tension
¾ For metal structures:
• wall area
• buckling
• seam failure
• flexibility limit for construction
• flexure of box structures only
Strength Load Combinations III and IV and the extreme event limit state do not control
due to the relative magnitude of loads applicable to buried structures as indicated in
Section 6.3: Foundations above. Buried structures need not to be controlled by fatigue.
6.7.4 RESISTANCE FACTORS
Resistance factors for buried structures shall be taken as specified in Table 6-4 below.
Values of resistance factors for the soil bearing design of foundations for buried
structures shall be taken as specified in subchapter 6.3: Foundations above.

Chapter 6
6.7.5 FLEXIBILITY LIMITS AND CONSTRUCTION STIFFNESS
Corrugated Metal Pipe and Structural Plate Structures: Flexibility factors for corrugated
metal pipe and structural plate structures shall not exceed the values specified in Table 6-
5 below.
Limits on construction stiffness and plate flexibility are construction requirements that do
not represent any limit state in service.
Table 6-4 - Resistance Factors for Buried Structures
STRUCTURAL TYPE RESISTANCE

FACTOR
Metal Pipe, Arch, and Pipe Arch Structures
Helical pipe with lock seam or fully welded seam:
•Minimum wall area and buckling 1.00
Annular pipe with spot-welded, riveted, or bolted seam:
•Minimum seam strength 0.67
Structural plate pipe:
Long-Span Structural Plate and Tunnel Liner Plate Structures
•Minimum wall area 0.67
Structural Plate Box Structures
•Plastic moment strength 1.0
Reinforced Concrete Pipe
•Flexure 0.90
•Shear 0.82
•Redial tension 0.82
Reinforced Concrete Cast-in-Place Box Structures
•Flexure 0.90
•Shear 0.85
Reinforced Concrete Precast Box Structure
•Flexure 1.00
•Shear 0.90
Reinforced Concrete Precast Three-Sided Structures
•Flexure 0.95
•Shear 0.90
Thermoplastic Pipe
PE and PVC pipe: Minimum wall area and buckling 1.00

Chapter 6
Table 6-5 - Flexibility Factor Limit
TYPE OF CORRUGATION SIZE FLEXIBILITY

CONSTRUCTION/ (mm) FACTOR (mm/N)
MATERIAL
Steel Pipe 6.35 0.25
12.7 0.25
25.4 0.19
Steel Plate 150 x 50
Pipe 0.11
REFERENCES
1. Barker, R. M., J. M. Duncan, K. B. Rojiani, P. S. K. Ooi, C. K. Tan, and S. G. Kim.

Manuals for the Design of Bridge Foundations. NCHRP Report 343. TRB, National
Research Council, Washington, DC., 1991.
2. Davisson, M. T., F. S. Manuel, R. M. Armstrong. Allowable Stress in Piles.
FHWA/RD-83/059. FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation, McLean, Virginia,
1983.
3. Carter, J. P., and F. H. Kulwahy. Analysis and Design of Foundations Socketed into
Rock. Report No. EL-5918. Empire State Electric Engineering Research Corporation
and Electric Power Research Institute, New York, 1988.
4. Skempton, A. W. “The Bearing Capacity of Clays.” In Vol 1, Proc. of the Building
Research Congress, 1951.
5. Canadian Geotechnical Society. Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual. 2nd Ed.
Bitech Publishers, Ltd.: Vancouver, British Columbia, 1985.
6. Reese, L. C., and M. W. O’Neill. Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and
Design Methods. FHWA-HI-88-042 or ADSC-TL-4, McLean, Virginia, 1988.
7. Horvath, R. G., and T. C. Kenney. “Shaft Resistance of Rock Socketed Drilled
Piers.” In Proc., Symposium on Deep Foundations. ASCE, Atlanta, Georgia, 1979.
8. Touma, F. T., and L. C. Reese. “Behavior of Bored Piles in Sand.” Journal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. GT 7, 1974.
9. Meyerhof, G. G. “Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile Foundations.” Journal of
the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT 3, 1976.
10. Gardner, W. S. “Design of Drilled Piers in the Atlantic Piedmont.” In Foundations
and Excavations in Decomposed Rock of the Piedmont Province, R. E. Smith, ed.
Geotechnical Special Publication No. 9, ASCE, 1987.

Chapter 7
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Superstructure Design
7 SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN
7.1 SCOPE
This section contains provisions for the analysis and design of bridge decks and deck
systems of concrete, metal, and wood or combinations thereof subjected to gravity loads.
For monolithic concrete bridge decks satisfying specific conditions, an empirical design,
requiring no analysis, is permitted.
Continuity in the deck and its supporting components is encouraged.
Composite action between the deck and its supporting components is required where
technically feasible.
Implicit in this section is a design philosophy that prefers jointless, continuous bridge decks
and deck systems to improve the weather and corrosion-resisting effects of the whole bridge,
reduce inspection efforts and maintenance costs, and increase structural effectiveness and
redundancy.
7.2 NOTATIONS
Acv = area of concrete engaged in shear transfer (mm2)

Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane (mm2)
bv = width of the interface (mm)
c = cohesion factor (MPa)
de = the distance between the centroid of the steel in the tension side of the beam to the
center of the compression blocks in the deck (mm)
dt = thickness of the arch barrel at crown
dv = thickness of the arch barrel at abutment
fc = 28-day compressive strength of the weaker concrete MPa)
fy = yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
h = height (m)
Is = moment of inertia of equivalent strip (mm4)
ks = the strip stiffness
l = length (m)
L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of actual span length or 18m
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane; if force is tensile, Pc =
0.0 (N)
S = spacing of supporting components (mm)
t = thickness of wall (mm)
Vh = horizontal shear per unit length of the girder (N)
Vn = nominal shear resistance (N)
Vu = the factored vertical shear (N)

Chapter 7
Superstructure Design Bridge Design Manual - 2002
W1 = modified edge to edge with of bridge taken to be equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 for multilane loading and 9 000 for single lane loading (mm), as
appropriate.
X = distance from load point to support, mm
Xu = the clear length of the constant thickness portion of a wall (see Figure 7.3)(mm)
µ = friction factor
λ = 1,0 for normal density concrete
λw = wall slenderness ratio for hollow columns (DIM)
φw = reduction factor
ϕv = the angle of the arch barrel at abutment from horizontal (see Figure 12-6)
7.3 GENERAL
These Design Specifications do not deal with more exclusive bridge types in the country,
such as continuous composite bridges, cable stayed bridges, suspension bridges, etc. These
types of bridges should be designed according to Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
Any method of analysis, which satisfies the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility
and utilizes stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials, shall be used, including,
but not limited to:
• classical force and displacement methods
• finite difference method
• finite element method (FEM)
• folded plate method
• finite strip method
Concrete bridges with a design span exceeding 8 m shall be provided with camber, unless it
is shown unnecessary.
7.3.1 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER - SHEAR FRICTION
Interface shear transfer shall be considered across a given plane at:

• An existing or potential crack,
• An interface between dissimilar materials, or
• An interface between two concrete casts at different times.
The nominal shear resistance, Vn , of the interface plane shall be taken as:
Vn = c * Acv + µ[Avf * fy + Pc] (7.1)
The nominal shear resistance used in the design shall not exceed:
Vn ≤ 0.2 * f’c Acv or (7.2)

Chapter 7
Vn < 5.5 Acv (7.3)
where: Vn = nominal shear resistance (N)

Acv = area of concrete engaged in shear transfer (mm2)
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane (mm2)
c = cohesion factor specified in Table 7-1 (MPa)
µ = friction factor specified in Table 7-1
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane;
if force is tensile, Pc = 0.0 (N)
fc = specified 28-day compressive strength of the weaker concrete (MPa)
Reinforcement for interface shear between concrete of slab and beams or girders may consist
of single bars, multiple leg stirrups, or the vertical legs of welded wire fabric. The cross-
sectional area, Avf, of the reinforcement per unit length of the beam or girder should not be
less than either that required by Equation 7.1 or:
Avf ≥ 0.35 bv (7.4)

fy
where: bv = width of the interface (mm)
The minimum reinforcement requirement of Avf shall be waived if Vn/Acv is less than 0.7
MPa. For beams and girders, the longitudinal spacing of the rows of reinforcing bars shall
not exceed 600 mm.
Net tension force across shear plane, where it exists, shall be resisted by reinforcement
additional to that required for shear.
Shear friction reinforcement shall be anchored to develop the specified yield strength on
both sides of the shear plane by embedment, hooks, or welding. The bars shall be anchored
in either the beam or girder and the slab.
A discontinuity is assumed to occur along the shear plane. Relative displacement is

considered to be resisted by cohesion and friction, maintained by the shear friction
reinforcement crossing the crack.
Because the interface is rough, shear displacement will cause a widening of the
discontinuity. This opening will cause tension in the reinforcement crossing the
discontinuity balanced by compressive stresses on the concrete discontinuity surfaces. The
resistance of the face to shear is assumed to be a function of both cohesion and friction.
Equations 7.2 and 7.3 provide an upper limit on Vn.

Chapter 7
Horizontal shear forces develop along the interface between concrete girders and the deck.
As an alternative to the classical elastic strength of materials approach, the value of these
forces per unit length of the girders at the strength limit state can be taken as:
Vu
Vh =
(7.5)
dc
where: Vh = horizontal shear per unit length of the girder (N)

Vu = the factored vertical shear (N)
de =the distance between the centroid of the steel in the tension side of the beam to the
center of the compression blocks in the deck (mm)
For simplicity, the depth, de, can be taken as the distance between the centroid of the
tension steel and the mid-thickness of the deck.
Equation 7.5 is a reasonable approximation for either elastic or inelastic behavior and
cracked or uncracked sections, it can be derived as follows using the free body diagram
shown in Figure 7-1.
Mu2 = Mu1 + Vudl (7.6)
Cu2 ≈ Mu2/de (7.7)
≈Mu1/de + Vudl/de (7.8)
Cu1 = Mu1/de (7.9)
Figure 7-1 Free Body Diagrams
Vh = Cu2 – Cu1 (7.10)

Chapter 7
= Vu dl/de (7.11)
for a unit length segment:
Vh = Vu/de (7.12)
By substituting the area of the interface between the girder and the deck in Equation 7.1, the
nominal shear resistance of the interface per unit length of the girder shall be taken as:
Vn = cbv + µ[Avf fy + Pc] (7.13)
where: bv = the width of the interface between the girder and the deck (mm)
If the width of the contact surface exceeds 1225 mm, a minimum of four bars should be used
for each row, and consideration should be given to locating one bar in each outstanding
portion of the flange.
Cohesion and Friction
The values in Table 7-1 shall be taken for cohesion factor, c, and friction factor, µ.
7.3.2 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT
Minimum Spacing of Reinforcing Bars
Cast-in-Place Concrete
For cast-in-place concrete, the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less
than:
• 1.5 times the nominal diameter of the bars,
• 1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or
• 38 mm.
c µ
For concrete placed monolithically 1.0 MPa 1.4λ
For concrete placed against clean, hardened concrete with 0.70 MPa 1.0λ
surface intentionally roughened to an amplitude of 6 mm
For concrete placed against hardened concrete clean and 0.52 MPa 0.6λ
free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened
For concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by 0.17 MPa 0.7λ
headed studs or by reinforcing bars where all steel in
contact with concrete is clean and free of paint
for normal density concrete λ = 1,0
Table 7-1 Values for Cohesion Factor, c, and Friction Factor, µ

Chapter 7
Precast Concrete
For precast concrete manufactured under plant control conditions, the clear distance between
parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than:
• The nominal diameter of the bars,
• 1.3 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or
• 25 mm.
Multi-Layers
Except in decks where parallel reinforcing is placed in two or more layers, with clear
distance between layers not exceeding 150 mm, the bars in the upper layers shall be placed
directly above those in the bottom layer, and the clear distance between layers shall not be
less than 25 mm or the nominal diameter of the bars.
Splices
The clear distance limitations between bars as specified above shall also apply to the clear
distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars.
Bundled Bars
The number of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall not exceed
four in any one bundle, except that in flexural members, the number of bars larger than
∅36 shall not exceed two in any one bundle. Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups
or ties.
Bundled bars should be tied, wired, or otherwise firmly fixed during the casting of the
concrete.
7.4 SLABS
7.4.1 SLAB DESIGN
Minimum Depth and Cover
Unless approved by ERA, the depth of a concrete deck, excluding any provision for
grinding, grooving, and sacrificial surface, should not be less than 175 mm.
Minimum cover shall be in accordance with the provisions of section 9.2: Reinforcement.
For slabs of a depth less than 1/20 of the design span, consideration should be given to
prestressing in the direction of that span in order to control cracking.
Construction tolerances become a concern for thin decks.

Chapter 7
Minimum cover requirements are based on traditional concrete mixes and on the absence of
protective coating on either the concrete or the steel inside. A combination of special mix
design, protective coatings, dry or moderate climate, and the absence of corrosion chemicals
may justify a reduction of these requirements, provided that ERA approves.
Skewed Decks
If the skew angle of the deck does not exceed 25°, the primary reinforcement shall be placed
in the direction of the skew; otherwise, it shall be placed perpendicular to the main
supporting components. The sharp edge corners, with a skew angle exceeding 25°, shall be
reinforced for uplift if the slab is not sufficiently anchored to an edge-beam or similar.
The intent of this provision is to prevent extensive cracking of the deck, which may result
from the absence of appreciable reinforcement acting in the direction of principal flexural
stresses due to a heavily skewed reinforcement, as shown in Figure 7-2 below. The
somewhat arbitrary 25° limit could affect the area of steel as much as 10 percent.
Figure 7-2 Reinforcement Layout
Edge Support
Unless otherwise specified, at lines of discontinuity, the edge of the deck shall either be
strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line component. The beam or component
shall be integrated in or made composite with the deck. The edge beams shall be designed as
beams whose width shall be taken as the effective width of the deck specified below.
Where the primary direction of the deck is transverse, and/or the deck is composite with a
structurally continuous concrete barrier, no additional edge beam need be provided.
Width of Equivalent Strips at Edges of Slabs
For the purpose of design, the notional edge beam shall be taken as a reduced deck strip
width specified herein, plus any additional integral local thickening or similar protrudence
acting as a stiffener to the deck. Edge beams shall be assumed to support one line of wheels
and, where appropriate, a tributary portion of the design lane load.

Chapter 7
Longitudinal Edges
Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or
without an edge beam, in lieu of a more refined analysis shall be taken as the sum of the
distance between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the barrier, plus 0.3 m, plus one-
half of the strip width,
Overhang for beams = 1140+0.833*X (7.14)
where X= distance from load point to support, mm
for slabs = 250 + 0.42√L1* W1; (7.15)
where L1=modified span length taken equal to the lesser of actual span length or 18m
W1= modified edge to edge width of bridge taken to be equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 for multilane loading and 9 000 for single lane loading (mm), as
appropriate.
The effective width shall not exceed either the full strip width or 1.8 m.
Distribution of Wheel Loads
If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction is less than 1.5 times the
spacing in the primary direction, the deck shall be modeled as a system of intersecting strips.
The distribution shall be determined as the ratio between the stiffness of the strip and the
sum of stiffnesses of the intersecting strips. In the absence of more precise calculations, the
strip stiffness, ks, shall be estimated as:
E * Is
Ks =
(7.16)
S3
where: Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm4)
7.4.2 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SLABS
The overhanging portion of the deck shall be designed for railing impact loads and in
accordance with the provisions of sections 3.10 and 3.17. Punching shear effects at the
outside toe of a railing post or barrier due to vehicle collision loads shall be investigated. If

Chapter 7
an edge-beam according to the Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 7: Bridge

Drainage, drawing B-35 is provided, railing impact loads need not to be considered.
Any combination of increasing the depth of the slab, employing special reinforcement
extending the slab width beyond the railing, and enlarging base plates under railing posts
shall be utilized to prevent failure due to punching shear.
An edge-beam with dimensions 0.4x0.4 m has proven to resist railing impact load due to its
stiffness and resistance to torsion. Punching shear is resisted through longitudinal
distribution of the force effect.
7.5 GIRDERS (CONCRETE, STEEL, COMPOSITE BRIDGES)
7.5.1 RC GIRDERS
Beam-Slab Bridges: The live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the loaded lanes
based on the lever rule unless specified otherwise herein.
The provisions of Chapter 3: Load Requirements specify that multiple presence factors shall
not be used with the approximate load assignment methods other than statical moment or
lever arm methods, as these factors are already incorporated in the distribution factors.
Diaphragms shall be omitted where tests or structural analysis show them to be

unnecessary. Diaphragms should be designed by the strut-and-tie method, where applicable
(i.e. at single column piers).
The reinforcement in the deck slab of cast-in-place T-beams and box girders shall be
determined by either the traditional or by empirical design methods. Where the deck slab
does not extend beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the
transverse reinforcement in the deck slab shall be extended into the exterior face of the
outside web and anchored by a standard 90° hook. If the slab extends beyond the exterior
web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement shall be extended
into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the exterior face of the web not
less in resistance than that provided by a standard hook.
7.5.2 RC BOX GIRDERS AND OTHER HOLLOW RECTANGULAR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow rectangular cross-section shall be taken as:
Xu
λw = t (7.17)
where: Xu = the clear length of the constant thickness portion of a wall, according to
Figure 7.3 below (mm)
λw = wall slenderness ratio for hollow columns

Chapter 7
A wall slenderness greater than 35 shall be used only when the behavior and resistance of
the wall is documented by analytic and experimental evidence acceptable to ERA.
Limitations on the use of the Rectangular Stress Block Method: Except for the approximate
method for adjusting factored resistance below, the equivalent rectangular stress block
method shall not be employed in the design of hollow rectangular compression members
with a wall slenderness ratio greater than or equal to 15.
Figure 7-3 Definition of the Parameter Xu
Where the wall slenderness ratio is less than 15, the rectangular stress block method shall be
used based on a compressive strain of 0.003.
A Refined Method for Adjusting Maximum Usable Strain Limit where the wall slenderness
ratio is 15 or greater, the maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber is
equal to the lesser of the computed local buckling strain of the widest flange of cross-
section, or 0.003.
The local buckling strain of the widest flange of the cross-section shall be computed
assuming simply supported boundary conditions on all four edges of the flange. Non-linear
material behavior shall be considered by incorporating the tangent material moduli of the
concrete and reinforcing steel in computations of the local buckling strain.
Discontinuous, non-post-tensioned reinforcement in segmentally constructed hollow

rectangular compression members shall be neglected in computations of member strength.
Approximate Method for Adjusting Factored Resistance: The provisions of this Chapter and
the rectangular stress block method shall be used in lieu of the provisions above and the
refined method above where the wall slenderness is less than or equal to 35.
The factored resistance of a hollow column, determined using a maximum usable gain of
0.003, and the resistance factors specified in subchapter 9.4: Limit States, shall be further
reduced by a factor φw, taken as:

Chapter 7
- if λw ≤ 15, then φw = 1.0

- if 15< λw ≤25, then φw = 1- 0.025 (λw -15)
- If 25< λw ≤35, then φw = 0.75
For a box girder, the shear stress due to shear and the shear stress due to torsion will add
together on one side of the box girder.
Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular Compression Members: The area of longitudinal

reinforcement in the cross-section shall not be less than 1.0 % of the gross area of concrete,
unless calculations prove that less reinforcement is needed.
Two layers of reinforcement shall be provided in each wall of the cross-section, one layer
near each face of the wall. The areas of reinforcement in the two layers shall be
approximately equal.
Spacing of Reinforcement: The center-to-center lateral spacing of longitudinal reinforcing

bars shall not be greater than the lesser of 1.5 times the wall thickness or 300 mm. The
center-to-center longitudinal spacing of lateral reinforcing bars shall be no greater than the
lesser of 1.25 times the wall thickness, or 300 mm.
Bottom Slab Reinforcement in Cast-in-Place Box Girders shall be a uniformly distributed

reinforcement of 0.4 % of the flange area and be placed in the bottom slab parallel to the
girder span, either in single or double layers. The spacing of such reinforcement shall not
exceed 450 mm. A uniformly distributed reinforcement of 0.5 % of the cross-sectional area
of the slab, based on the least slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab transverse to
the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be distributed over both surfaces with a maximum
spacing of 450 mm. All transverse reinforcement in the bottom slab shall be extended to the
exterior face of the outside web in each group and shall be anchored by a standard 90° hook.
This shall apply to both reinforced and prestressed boxes.
7.5.3 COMPOSITE BRIDGES
For a concrete deck on a steel superstructure, a full interaction shall be obtained by means of
shear connector studs of welded bolts with heads. The concrete shall cover the whole top
flange.
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be at least 1% of the gross concrete area, unless otherwise
proved in calculations.
Shear connector studs shall be made from cold-drawn bars, Grades 1015, 1018 or 1020,
either semi- or fully filled, conforming to AASHTO M169 (ASTM A108) Standard
Specification for Steel Bars, Carbon, Cold finished, Standard Quality. They shall have a
minimum yield and tensile strength of 345 MPa and 400 MPa, respectively. Minimum flange
thickness of steel girder/beam with welded studs shall be 20 mm.

Chapter 7
If flux-retaining caps are used, the steel for the caps shall be of a low carbon grade suitable
for welding and shall conform to ASTM A109M - Standard Specification for Steel, Carbon,
Cold-rolled Strip
Weld metal shall conform to the requirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding
Code Dl.5.
Welds in main structures shall be at least 4 mm fillet, unless one of the connected members
exceeds 25 mm, where 5 mm fillet welds shall be used. Fillet welds in other structures shall
be 3 mm nominal thickness.
7.6 TRUSSES (STEEL)
Effective depths of the truss shall be assumed as the distance between the centers of gravity
of bolted or welded chords or the distance between centers of pins.
Through-truss spans and deck truss spans shall have top and bottom lateral bracing, which
meet the slenderness requirements. In half-through-trusses the compressed top chord of a
simple span truss shall be designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length,
considered as a permanent load for the Strength I Load Combination and factored
accordingly.
Diaphragms shall be provided at the connections to floorbeams and other connections or

points of application of concentrated loads. Internal diaphragms may also be provided to
maintain member alignment. This does not apply if structural analysis shows it to be
unnecessary.
Welds shall conform to the requirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code
Dl.5.
7.7 ARCH BRIDGES AND STONE MASONRY PIERS
For Stone Masonry Arch Bridges the thickness of the arch barrel at crown (dt) and abutment
(dv) shall not be less than:
dt = 0,2 (1+v2) µ; (7.18)
where µ= 1.3 (1− h/l + (h/l)2

h= height l= length of the arch;
dv = dt * tan ϕv ; (7.19)
where ϕv = is the angle of the arch barrel at abutment from horizontal (see Figure 12-6)

Chapter 7
If nothing else is proved to give higher tension, all arch bridges shall be designed with full
live load placed at one half of the arch and providing that the compression line shall be
within the core limit at 3 points: both the abutments and the crown. It is allowed to assume a
uniform distribution of live loads perpendicular to the alignment if the arch is uniform over
all the lanes.
Only slender concrete arch bridges need to be designed with transversal loads in Chapter
3: Load Requirements, such as Windload, Centrifugal forces, etc.
Before testing of material has been made, the following values shall be used:
Material E (MPa) fc (MPa) fc all core (MPa) fc all edge (MPa)

Stone masonry Granite 2 - 4 *104 50 – 100 0.1*fc but ≤ 5 0.14*fc but ≤ 7
Stone masonry Sandstone 1 - 2.5*104 35 – 70 0.1*fc but ≤ 4 0.14*fc but ≤ 6
Stone masonry Clinker 0.5 - 1*104 15 - 25 0.1*fc but ≤ 2 0.14*fc but ≤ 3
Unreinforced Concrete 2.5 - 3.2*104 15 - 25 0.14*fc but ≤ 3.5 0.2*fc but ≤ 4.5
Table 7-2 Material Properties of Different Arch Bridge Stones (Ref. 4).
Piers made of stone masonry shall have a minimum thickness (b) of 1/35 of the height (h). If
the thickness b ≥ h/12 then the fc all = 0.14 * fc ; where fc is given in Table 7-1. For
thicknesses between 1/35 and 1/12 of the height the following formula shall apply:
fc all = 0.14 * fc * (12*b/h)2 (7.20)
Where: b = thickness
h= height
For strength limit stage design the following load factors shall apply:
lane load 1.5 ; truck load 2.5 and
then the compression force (fc all) shall in no point exceed 0.57* fc (Ref. 5)
Fc all ≤ 0.57*fc (7.21)
Regarding recommended calculation methods and design, see section 12.9: Arch Bridges.

Chapter 7
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 2nd edition, 1998. Washington:

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
2. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 1: Highway Structures: Approval
Procedures and General Design, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London.
3. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 2: Special Structures: Inspection and
Maintenance, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London.
4. Eurocode 1 "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures - Part 3 Traffic Loads on
Bridges", European Prestandard ENV 1991-3, March 1995.
5. Eurocode 2 "Design of Concrete Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1992.
6. Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1993.
7. “Brobygging – I. Jernbeton, sten og trae” (Bridge Design – part I Reinforced Concrete,
stone and tree) in Danish, Prof Anker Engelund, Copenhagen 1934.
8. Moe, Suenson, Engelund and Ostenfeld.

Chapter 8
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Bridge Details
8 BRIDGE DETAILS
8.1 SCOPE
This section contains requirements for the design and selection of structural bearings. It also
contains requirements for railings for new bridges and for rehabilitated bridges to the extent
that railing replacement is determined to be appropriate. This section provides bridge railing
test levels and associated crash test requirements. All bridge traffic barrier systems will
referred to as railings herein.
The section also contains the requirements for the design of deck expansion joints. It also
mentions the reference for drainage of bridge decks, and mentions the means of dealing with
utilities.
8.2 NOTATIONS
A1 = area under bearing device

A2 = notional area (see Figure 8-3)
B = length of pad if rotation is about its transverse axis or width of pad if rotation is
about its longitudinal axle (mm)
d = the diameter of the hole or holes in the bearing (mm)
D1 = diameter of curved surface of rocker or roller unit (mm)
D2 = diameter of curved surface of mating unit (D2 = ∞ for a flat plate) (mm)
Es = Young’s modulus for steel (MPa)
F′c = compressive strength of concrete
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the weakest steel at the contact surface (MPa)
G = shear modulus of the elastomer (MPa)
hrmax = thickness of the thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (mm)
hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (mm)
hrt = total elastomer depth in an elastomeric bearing (mm)
hs = thickness of steel laminate in steel-laminated elastomeric bearing (mm)
L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis)
(mm)
m = modification factor
n = number of layers of elastomer
Pn = nominal bearing resistance
Pr = factored resistance of pot wall (N)
Ps = service compressive load due to total load (N)
S = shape factor of thickest layer of an elastomeric bearing
Si = shape factor of ith layer of an elastomeric bearing
W = width of the bearing in the transverse direction (mm)
∆FTH = constant amplitude fatigue threshold for Category A (MPa)
∆o = maximum horizontal displacement of the bridge deck at the service limit state
(mm)
∆s = maximum shear deformation of the elastomer at the service limit state (mm)
δ = instantaneous compressive deflection of bearing (mm)

Chapter 8
Bridge Details Bridge Design Manual - 2002
εI = instantaneous compressive strain in ith elastomer layer of a laminated bearing

θs = maximum service rotation due to total load (RAD)
σL = service average compressive stress due to live load (MPa)
σs = service average compressive stress due to total load (MPa)
ϕ = resistance factor for the strength limit state specified in Chapters 5,6,7, and 8 or
for the extreme event limit state specified in Chapter 2: General Requirements
8.3 BEARINGS
8.3.1 GENERAL
Bearings shall be fixed or movable as required for the bridge design. Movable bearings may
include guides to control the direction of translation. Fixed and guided bearings shall be
designed to resist all loads and restrain unwanted translation. Bearings support relatively
large loads while accommodating large translation or rotations.
Bearings can be named according to their function as fixed or expansion bearings, after the
material they are made of such as steel, cast steel, alloy, bronze, elastomeric or PTFE
bearings. Movements in both directions sometimes justify the use of spherical bearings. The
general rule for steel roller bearings is that the higher the steel quality, the less radius of the
roller needed (see Figure 8-1 below). If the load is too large, multiple rollers are sometimes
used.
Figure 8-1 Steel Roller Bearing
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings and steel plate/PTFE sliding bearings are relatively
cheap and require a minimal construction height (see Figure 8-2). Steel reinforced
elastomeric bearings can take movements in all directions but only to a certain limit. They
are therefore suitable for small or medium sized bridges. The bearing has to be changed after
some 30 - 50 years when the rubber is worn out.

Chapter 8
Figure 8-2 Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing
From a maintenance point of view it is wise to promote uniformity through the use of as few
types of bearings as possible. Other types of bearings are however shown in Figure 12-7.
8.3.2 DESIGN
Contact Stresses
Unless otherwise noted, the resistance factor for bearings, ϕ, shall be taken as 1.0.
Friction for bearings: Steel roller bearings and steel plate bearings with PTFE layer in-
between shall be designed with a friction factor of 5 % of the actual vertical load, or 0 %
which is most unfavorable. The friction shall belong to the actual load giving the friction.
At the service limit state, the contact load, Ps, shall satisfy:
• For cylindrical surfaces:

8WD1 § Fy 2 ·
Ps ≤ ¨ ¸
ª D1 º © Es ¹
«1 − D 2 » (8.1)
¬ ¼
• For spherical surfaces:

2
§ ·
¨ D1 ¸ Fy 3
Ps ≤ 40¨ ¸ * (8.2)
¨ 1 − D1 ¸ Es 2
¨ ¸
© D2 ¹
where: D1 = the diameter of the roller surface (mm), and

D2 = the diameter of the mating surface (mm) taken as:
• Positive if the curvatures have the same sign, and
• Infinite if the mating surface is flat.
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the weakest steel at the contact surface
(MPa)
Es = Young's modulus for steel (MPa)

Chapter 8
W = Width of the bearing (mm)
The service limit state loads are limited so that the contact causes calculated shear stresses
no higher than Fy/3 or surface compression stresses no higher than 1.25 Fy. The maximum
compressive stress is at the surface, and the maximum shear stress occurs just below it.
The formulas are derived from the theoretical value for contact stress between elastic bodies
(Ref. 1). They are based on the assumption that the width of the contact area is much less
than the diameter of the curved surface.
The two diameters have the same sign if the centers of the two curved surfaces in contact are
on the same side of the contact surface, such as is the case when a circular shaft fits in a
circular hole.
Concrete Supporting the Bearing
In the absence of confinement reinforcement in the concrete supporting the bearing device,
the factored bearing resistance, Pr, shall be taken as:
Pr = ϕPn for which: (8.3)
Pn = 0.85 f'c A1 m (8.4)
where: Pn = nominal bearing resistance (N)

Al = area under bearing device (mm2)
m = modification factor (see formulae below)
A2 = a notional area defined in Figure 8-3 (mm2)
The modification factor (m) shall be determined as follows:
• where the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area:
m = 0.75√A2 /A1< 2.0

• where the loaded area have non-uniformly distributed bearing stresses:
m=0.75√A2 /A1 ≤ 1.50
Where the supporting surface is sloped or stepped, A2 shall be taken as the area of the lower
base of the largest frustum of a right pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge contained wholly
within the support and having for its upper base the loaded area, and having side slopes of
1.0 vertical to 2.0 horizontal as shown in Figure 8-3 below.
Where the factored applied load exceeds the factored resistance, as specified herein,
provisions shall be made to resist the bursting and spalling forces.

Chapter 8
Figure 8-3 Determination of A2 for a Stepped Support
8.3.3 LOAD PLATES AND ANCHOR BOLTS
Load Plates
The bearing together with any additional plates shall be designed so that:
• The combined system is stiff enough to prevent distortions of the bearing that would
impair its proper functioning.
• The bearing can be replaced within a jacking height of 400 mm without damage to the
bearing, distribution plates or supporting structure
In lieu of a more refined analysis, the load from a bearing fully supported by a grout bed
shall be assumed to be distributed at a slope of 1: 1.5, vertical to horizontal, from the edge of
the smallest element of the bearing that resist the compressive load.
Sole plate and base plate connections shall be adequate to resist lateral loads, including
seismic loads. Sole plate shall be extended to allow for anchor bolts inserts, when required.
Anchorages and Anchor Bolts
All girders shall be positively secured to support bearings by a connection that can resist the
horizontal forces that shall be imposed on it. Separation of bearing components shall not be
permitted. Connections shall resist the least favorable combination of loads at the Strength
Limit State and shall be installed wherever deemed necessary to prevent separation.
The factored resistance of the anchor bolts shall be greater than the factored force effects due
to Strength I or II load combinations and to all applicable extreme event load combinations.
The tensile resistance of anchor bolts shall be determined.
The shear resistance of anchor bolts and dowels shall be determined.

Chapter 8
8.3.4 PTFE (Polytetrafluorethylene also known as Teflon)
PTFE Sliding Surfaces
PTFE may be used in sliding surfaces of bridge bearings to accommodate translation or

rotation. All PTFE surfaces other than guides shall satisfy the requirements specified herein.
PTFE is also known as TFE and is commonly used in bridge bearings. This article does not
cover guides. The friction requirements for guides are less stringent, and a wider variety of
materials and fabrication methods can be used for them
The PTFE surface shall be made from pure virgin PTFE resin satisfying the requirements of
ASTM D1457. It shall be fabricated as unfilled sheet, filled sheet, or fabric woven from
PTFE and other fibers.
PTFE may be provided in sheets or in mats woven from fibers. The sheets may be filled with
reinforcing fibers to reduce creep, i.e. cold flow and wear or they may be made from pure
resin.
The friction coefficient depends on many factors, such as sliding speed, contact pressure,
lubrication, temperature, and properties such as the finish of the mating surface (Ref. 2).
The material properties that influence the friction coefficient are not well understood, but the
crystalline structure of the PTFE is known to be important, and it is strongly affected by the
quality control exercised during the manufacturing process.
Unfilled dimples can act as reservoirs for contaminants (dust, etc.) which can help to keep
these contaminants from the contract surface.
Mating Surface
The PTFE shall be used in conjunction with the mating surface. Flat mating surfaces shall
be steel.
Stainless steel is the most commonly used mating surface for PTFE sliding surfaces. Friction
testing is required for the PTFE and its mating surface because of the many variables
involved. The finish of this mating surface is extremely important because it affects the
coefficient of friction. ASTM A 240M, Type 304, stainless steel, with a surface finish of
4.0x10-4mm (0.40 m) RMS or better, is appropriate, but the surface measurements are
inherently inexact, and hence it is not a specified alternative. Friction testing is required for
the PTFE and its mating surface because of the many variables involved.
Minimum Thicknesses
A minimum thickness is specified to ensure uniform bearing and to allow for wear. During
the first few cycles of movement, small amounts of PTFE transfer to the mating surface and
contribute to the very low friction achieved subsequently. This wear is acceptable and
desirable.

Chapter 8
PTFE: For all applications, the thickness of the PTFE shall be at least 1.5 mm after
compression. Recessed PTFE-sheet shall be at least 4.5 mm. thick when the maximum
dimension of the PTFE is less than or equal to 600mm, and 6.0 mm when the maximum
dimension of the PTFE is greater than 600 mm. Woven fabric PTFE, which is mechanically
interlocked over a metallic substrate, shall have a minimum thickness of 1.5 mm and a
maximum thickness of 3.0 mm over the highest point of the substrate.
PTFE continues to wear with time (Ref. 2), and movement; wear is exacerbated by
deteriorated or rough surfaces. This wear is undesirable because it usually causes higher
friction and reduces the thickness of the remaining PTFE. Unlubricated, flat PTFE wears
more severely than the lubricated material. The evidence on the rate of wear is tentative.
High travel speeds, such as those associated with traffic movements, appear to be more
damaging than the slow ones due to thermal movements. However, they shall be avoided by
placing the sliding surface on an elastomeric bearing that will absorb small longitudinal
movements. No further allowance for wear is made in these specifications due to the limited
research available to quantify or estimate the wear as a function of time and travel.
However, wear may ultimately cause the need for replacement of the PTFE, so it is wise to
allow for future replacement of the PTFE, in the original design.
Steel Mating Surfaces: The thickness of the stainless steel mating surface shall be at least
1.5 mm when the maximum dimension of the surface is less than or equal to 300 mm and at
least 3.0 mm when the maximum dimension is larger than 300 mm.
The minimum thickness requirements for the mating surface are intended to prevent it from
wrinkling or buckling. This surface material is usually quite thin to minimize cost of the
highly finished mating surface. Some mating surfaces, particularly those with curved
surfaces, are made of carbon steel on which a stainless steel weld is deposited. This welded
surface is then finished and polished to achieve the desired finish.
Contract Pressure
The contract stress between the PTFE and the mating surface shall be determined at the
strength limit state using the nominal area.
The average contact stress shall be computed by dividing the load by the projection of the
contract area on a plane perpendicular to the direction of the load. The contract stress at the
edge shall be determined by taking into account the maximum moment transferred by the
bearing assuming a linear distribution of stress across the PTFE. The contact stress at the
edge shall be determined based on the factored load and the extreme factored moment
transferred by the bearing.
Stresses shall not exceed those given in Table 8-1. Permissible stresses for intermediate filler
contents shall be obtained by linear interpolation within Table 8-1.
The contact pressure must be limited to prevent excessive creep or plastic flow of the PTFE,
which causes the PTFE disc to expand laterally under compressive stress and may contribute

Chapter 8
to separation or bond failure. The lateral expansion is controlled by recessing the PTFE into
a steel plate or by reinforcing the PTFE, but there are adverse consequences associated with
both methods. Edge loading shall be particularly detrimental because it causes large stress
and potential flow in a local area near the edge. Values of the average and edge contact
pressure in Table 8-1 are in appropriate proportions to one another relative to the currently
available research.
Average Contact Stress Edge Contact Stress

Material Permanent All Loads Permanent All
Loads Loads Loads
Filled Sheets with Maximum Filler 28 40 35 55
Content
Table 8-1 Permissible Stresses (MPa) for Filled PTFE Bearings
Coefficient of Friction
Where friction is required to resist non-seismic loads, the design coefficient of friction under
dynamic loading shall be taken as not more than 10 percent of the values listed in Table 8-1
for the bearing stress and PTFE type indicated.
The coefficients of friction in Table 8-2 are based on a 0.20 µm finish mating surface.
Coefficients of friction for rougher surface finishes must be established by test results.
The friction factor decreases with lubrication and increasing contact stress but increases with
sliding velocity (Ref. 2). The coefficient of friction also tends to increase at low
temperatures. Static friction is larger than dynamic friction, and the dynamic coefficient of
friction is larger for the first cycle of movement than it is for later cycles.
8.3.5 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS METHOD B
General
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings are treated separately from other elastomeric bearings
because of their greater strength and superior performance in practice (Ref. 4 and 5). The
design method described in this section allows higher compressive stresses and more slender
bearings than are permitted for other types of elastomeric bearings, both of which can lead to
smaller horizontal forces on the substructure.

Chapter 8
Pressure Coefficient of Friction

MPa 3.5 7 14 >20
Type PTFE Temperature oC
Dimpled Lubricated 20 0.04 0.03 0.025 0.02
-25 0.08 0.045 0.04 0.03
Unfilled or Dimpled 20 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.03
Unlubricated -25 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
Filled 20 0.24 0.17 0.09 0.06
-25 0.44 0.32 0.25 0.20
Woven 20 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.045
-25 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
Table 8-2 Design Coefficients of Friction – Service Limit State
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings are generally designed using either of two methods,
commonly referred to as Method A and Method B. In this Specification Method B is used
(if, however, Method A is approved or circular bearings are used, refer to the provisions of
Ref. 3).
The stress limits associated with Method A usually result in a bearing with a lower capacity
than a bearing designed using Method B. This increased capacity resulting from the use of
Method B requires additional testing and quality control.
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings shall consist of alternate layers of steel reinforcement

and elastomer bonded together. In addition to any internal reinforcement, bearings may have
external steel load plates bonded to either or both of the upper or lower elastomer layers.
Tapered elastomer layers shall not be used. Tapered layers cause larger shear strains and
bearings made with them fail prematurely due to delamination or rupture of the
reinforcement. All internal layers should be the same thickness because the strength and
stiffness of the bearing in resisting compressive load are controlled by the thickest layer.
The top and bottom cover layers shall be no thicker than 70 percent of the internal layers.
The shape factor of a layer of an elastomeric bearing, Si, shall be taken as the plan area of the
layer divided by the area of perimeter free to bulge. For rectangular bearings without holes,
the shape factor of a layer shall be taken as:
Si = LW (8.5)
2hri(L + W)
where: L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge

axis) (mm)
W = width of the bearing in the transverse direction (mm)
hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (mm)

Chapter 8
The shape factor, Si, is defined in terms of the gross plan dimensions of layer 1. Refinements
to account for the difference between gross dimensions and the dimensions of the
reinforcement are not warranted because quality control on elastomer thickness has a more
dominant influence on bearing behavior.
Holes are strongly discouraged in steel-reinforced bearings. However, if holes are used, their
effect should be accounted for when calculating the shape factor because they reduce the
loaded area and increase the area free to bulge. The suitable shape factor formula for
rectangular bearings is:
L W- Σ π d2
Si = ________ 4_________
hri(2 L+2 W + . π d ) (8.6)
where: d = the diameter of the hole or holes in the bearing (mm)
Material Properties
The material requirements shall be as specified in the below specifications, including shear
modulus G, and nominal hardness.
The elastomer shall have a shear modulus between 0.6 and 1.3 MPa and a nominal hardness
between 50 and 60 on the Shore A scale.
The shear modulus of the elastomer at 230C shall be used as the basis for design. If the
elastomer is specified explicitly by its shear modulus, that value shall be used in design, and
the other properties shall be obtained from Table 8-5. If the material is specified by its
hardness, the shear modulus shall be taken as the least favorable value from the range for
that hardness given in Table 8-5. Intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation.
Hardness (Shore A)
50 60 70
Shear Modulus, G, @ 23oC (MPa) 0.66-0.90 0.90-1.38 1.38-2.07
Creep deflection @ 25 years divided by 0.25 0.35 0.45
instantaneous deflection
Table 8-3 Shear Modulus, G
Materials with a nominal hardness greater than 60 are prohibited because they generally
have a smaller elongation at break and greater stiffness and greater creep than their softer
counterparts. This inferior performance is generally attributed to the larger amounts of filler
present. Their fatigue behavior does not differ in a clearly discernible way from that of softer
materials. Table 8-5 goes up to 70 hardness because the table also refers to plain elastomeric
pads.

Chapter 8
Creep varies from one compound to another and is generally more prevalent in harder
elastomers but is seldom a problem if high-quality materials are used. This is particularly
true because the deflection limits are based on serviceability and are likely to be controlled
by live load, rather than total load. The creep values given in Table 8-5 are representative of
neoprene and are conservative for natural rubber.
Table 8-4 below gives the minimum elastomer grade to be used.
50-Year Low Temperature (oC) -10

Maximum number of consecutive days when the temperature does not rise 3
above 00C
Minimum low-temperature elastomer grade 0
Table 8-4 Low-Temperature and Minimum Grades of Elastomer
Shear modulus, G, is the most important material property for design, and it is, therefore, the
preferred means of specifying the elastomer. Hardness has been widely used in the past
because the test for it is quick and simple.
Design Requirements
Steel-reinforced bearings are designed to resist relatively high stresses. Their integrity
depends on good quality control during manufacture, which can only be ensured by rigorous
testing.
Bearings designed by the provisions herein shall be tested in accordance with the
requirements in the Technical Specifications or in Ref. 3, or similar method approved by the
Engineer.
Compressive Stress: In any elastomeric bearing layer, the average compressive stress at the
service limit state shall satisfy:
• For bearings subject to shear deformation:
σs≤1.66 G S ≤ 11.0 MPa (8.7)
σL ≤ 0.66 G S (8.8)
• For bearings fixed against shear deformation:
σs ≤ 2.0 G S ≤ 12.0 MPa (8.9)
σL ≤ 1.0 G S (8.10)

Chapter 8
where: σs = service average compressive stress due to the total load (MPa)
σL = service average compressive stress due to live load (MPa)
G = shear modulus of elastomer (MPa)
S = shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing
These provisions limit the shear stress and strain in the elastomer. The relationship between
the shear stress and the applied compressive load depends directly on the shape factor, with
higher shape factors leading to higher capacities
The compressive limits, in terms of G and S, were derived from tests correlated with theory.
The specified stress limits provide a safety factor of approximately 1.5 against initial
delamination.
The compressive stress limits, in terms of GS, were derived from tests and are based on the
observation that fatigue cracking remained acceptably low if the maximum shear strain due
to total dead and live load was kept below 3.0, and the maximum shear strain range for
cyclic loading was kept below 1.5.
Compressive Deflection of Elastomeric Bearings
Deflections of elastomeric bearings due to total load and to live load alone shall be
considered separately. Instantaneous deflection shall be taken as:
δ = .=i hri (8.11)
where: =i = instantaneous compressive strain in ith elastomer layer of a laminated bearing

hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in a laminated bearing (mm)
Values for =i shall be determined from test results or by analysis when considering long-term
deflections. The effects of creep of the elastomer shall be added to the instantaneous
deflection. Creep effects should be determined from information relevant to the elastomeric
compound used, or from the above specifications.
Limiting instantaneous deflections is important to ensure that deck joints and seals are not
damaged. Furthermore, bearings that are too flexible in compression could cause a small
step in the road surface at a deck joint when traffic passes from one girder to the other,
giving rise to impact loading. A maximum relative deflection across a joint of 3 mm is
suggested. Joints and seals that are sensitive to relative deflections may require limits that
are tighter than this.
Long-term deflections should be considered where joints and seals between sections of the
bridge rest on bearings of different design and when estimating redistribution of forces in
continuous bridges caused by settlement. Provided high-quality materials are used, the
effects of creep are unlikely to cause problems.

Chapter 8
Laminated elastomeric bearings have a nonlinear load deflection curve in compression. In

the absence of information specific to the particular elastomer to be used, Figure 8-4 shall be
used as a guide.
Reliable test data on total deflections are rare because of the difficulties in defining the true
0.0 for deflection. However, the change in deflection due to live load can be reliably
predicted either by design aids based on test results or by using theoretically based equations
(Ref. 6). In the latter case, it is important to include the effects of bulk compressibility of the
elastomer, especially for high shape factor bearings.
Figure 8-4: Stress-Strain Curves
Shear Deformation of the Bearing
The horizontal movement of the bridge superstructure, ∆o, shall be taken as the extreme
displacement caused by creep, shrinkage, and post-tensioning, combined with thermal
effects computed in accordance with section 3.21: Uniform Temperature.
The maximum shear deformation of the bearing, at the service limit state, ∆s, shall be taken
as ∆o, modified to account for the substructure stiffness and construction procedures. If a
low friction sliding surface is installed, ∆s need not be taken to be larger than the
deformation corresponding to first slip.
The bearing shall satisfy: hrt ≥ 2s (8.12)
where: hrt = total elastomer thickness (mm)

s = maximum shear deformation of the elastomer at the service limit state (mm)
The shear deformation shall be limited in order to avoid rollover at the edges and
delamination due to fatigue.

Chapter 8
Fatigue tests that formed the basis for this provision were conducted to 20,000 cycles, which
represents one expansion/contraction cycle per day for approximately 55 years (Ref. 7). The
provisions will, therefore, be unconservative if the shear deformation is caused by high-cycle
loading due to braking forces or vibration. The maximum shear deformation due to these
high-cycle loadings should be restricted to no more than ± 0.10 hrt, unless better information
is available. At this strain amplitude, the experiments showed that the bearing has an
essentially infinite fatigue life.
If the bridge girders are lifted to allow the bearings to realign after some of the girder
shortening has occurred, that shall be accounted for in design.
Pier deflections sometimes accommodate a significant portion of the bridge movement, and
this may reduce the movement that must be accommodated by the bearing. Construction
methods may increase the bearing movement because of poor installation tolerances or poor
timing of the bearing installation.
Combined Compression and Rotation of Bearings
The provisions of this section shall apply at the service limit state. Rotations shall be taken
as the maximum sum of the effects of initial lack of parallelism and subsequent girder end
rotation due to imposed loads and movements.
Bearings shall be designed so that uplift does not occur under any combination of loads and
corresponding rotations.
Rectangular bearings shall be taken to satisfy uplift requirements if they satisfy:

2
§ θs ·§ B ·
σs < 1.0GS¨ ¸¨ ¸ (8.13)
© n ¹© hri ¹
Rectangular bearings subjected to shear deformation shall also satisfy:
§ § θs ·§ B · ·
2
σs < 1.875GS¨1 − 0.20¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¸ (8.14)

¨ © n ¹© hri ¹ ¸¹
©
Rectangular bearings fixed against shear deformation shall also satisfy:
§ § θs ·§ B · ·¸
2
¨
σs < 2.25GS 1 − 0.167¨ ¸¨ ¸ (8.15)
¨ © n ¹© hn ¹ ¸¹
©
where: n = number of interior layers of elastomer

hri = height of the ith elastomer layer (mm)
Ks = stress in elastomer (MPa)

Chapter 8
B = length of pad if rotation is about its transverse axis, or width of pad if rotation
is about its longitudinal axis (mm)
θs = maximum service rotation due to the total load (RAD)
These provisions address two conditions. Equation 8.13 ensures that no point in the bearing
undergoes net uplift, and Equations 8.14 and 8.15 prevent excessive compressive stress on
an edge. When the thickness of an outer layer of elastomer is more than one-half the
thickness of an interior layer, the parameter, n, shall be increased by one-half for each such
exterior layer. Uplift must be prevented because strain reversal in the elastomer significantly
decreases its fatigue life.
A rectangular bearing should normally be oriented so its long side is parallel to the axis
about which the largest rotation occurs. The critical location in the bearing for both
compression and rotation is then at the midpoint of the long side. If rotation occurs about
both axes, uplift and excessive compression should be investigated in both directions.
The interaction between compressive and rotation capacity in a bearing is illustrated in

Figure 8-5. It is analogous to the interaction diagram for a reinforced concrete column.
Because a high shape factor is best for resisting compression, but a low one accommodates
rotation most readily, the best choice represents a compromise between the two. The
"balanced design" point in Figure 8-5, where uplift and compressive stress are
simultaneously critical, will in many cases provide the most economical solution for a given
plan geometry. Table 8-5 gives coordinates for the balance point for different bearing
shapes.
Figure 8-5 Elastomeric Bearing–Interaction between Compressive Stress and Rotation

Angle

Chapter 8
Bearing Type Ks_ § θs · § B ·

2
GS ¨ ¸*¨ ¸
© n ¹ © hri ¹
Fixed Rectangular 1.636 1.636
Movable Rectangular 1.364 1.364
Table 8-5 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings - Balanced Design
Stability of Elastomeric Bearings
Bearings shall be investigated for instability at the service limit state load combinations
Bearings where 2A ≤ B (A and B as per below) shall be considered stable, and no further
investigation of stability is required.
for which:
1.92hri / L
A= (8.16)
2 .0 L
S 1+
W
2.67
B= (8.17)
§ L ·
S(S + 20)¨1 + ¸
© 4W ¹
where: G = shear modulus of the elastomer (MPa)

L =length of a rectangular bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis) (mm)
W =width of the bearing in the transverse direction (mm)
where:
For a rectangular bearing where L is greater than W, stability shall be investigated by
interchanging L and W in Equations 8.16 and 8.17.
For rectangular bearings, the service average compressive stress due to the total load, σs,
shall satisfy:
• If the bridge deck is free to translate horizontally:

Ks < G (8.18)
2A - B
• If the bridge deck is fixed against horizontal translation:

Chapter 8
G
σs ≤ (8.19)
A−B
Equation 8.18 corresponds to buckling in a sideways mode and is relevant for bridges in
which the deck is not rigidly fixed against horizontal translation at any point. This shall be
the case in many bridges for transverse translation perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. If
one point on the bridge is fixed against horizontal movement, the sideways buckling mode is
not possible, and Equation 8.19 should be used. This freedom to move horizontally should
be distinguished from the question of whether the bearing is subject to shear deformations
relevant to the previous sub-subchapters of this subchapter, entitled Compressive Deflection
of Elastomeric Bearings and Shear Deformation of the Bearing. In a bridge that is fixed at
one end, the bearings at the other end will be subject to imposed shear deformation but will
not be free to translate in the sense relevant to buckling due to the restraint at the opposite
end of the bridge.
Reinforcement of Bearings
The thickness of the steel reinforcement, hs, shall satisfy the following:
• At the service limit state:

3hr max σs
hs ≥ (8.20)
Fy
• At the fatigue limit state:

2.0hr max σs
hs ≥ (8.21)
∆FTH
where: FTH = Constant amplitude fatigue threshold of 165 MPa
hr max = thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (mm)
KL = service average compressive stress due to live load (MPa)
Ks = service average compressive stress due to total load (MPa)
Fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement (MPa)
If holes exist in the reinforcement, the minimum thickness shall be increased by a factor
equal to twice the gross width divided by the net width.
Seismic Provisions for Bearings
Elastomeric expansion bearings shall be provided with adequate seismic resistant anchorage
to resist the horizontal forces in excess of those accommodated by shear in the pad. The sole
plate and the base plate shall be made wider to accommodate the anchor bolts. Inserts
through the elastomer should not be allowed, unless approved by the Engineer. The anchor
bolts shall be designed for the combined effect of bending and shear for seismic loads.
Elastomeric fixed bearings shall be provided with horizontal restraint adequate for the full
horizontal load.

Chapter 8
The seismic demands on elastomeric bearings exceed their design limits. Therefore, a
positive connection between the girder and the substructure concrete is needed. Holes in
elastomer cause stress concentrations that can lead to tearing of the elastomer during
earthquakes.
8.3.6 ROLLER BEARINGS
The rotation axis of the bearing shall be aligned with the axis about which the largest
rotations of the supported member occur. Provision shall be made to ensure that the bearing
alignment does not change during the life of the bridge. Gearing to ensure that individual
rollers remain parallel to each other and at their original spacing, shall connect multiple
roller bearings.
Roller bearings shall be detailed so that they can be easily inspected and maintained.
Cylindrical bearings contain no deformable parts and are susceptible to damage if the
superstructure rotates about an axis perpendicular to the axis of the bearing. Thus, they are
unsuitable for bridges in which the axis of rotation may vary significantly under different
situations, such as bridges with a large skew. They are also unsuitable for use in seismic
regions because the transverse shear caused by earthquake loading can cause substantial
overturning moment.
Good maintenance is essential if mechanical bearings are to perform properly. Dirt attracts
and holds moisture, which, combined with high local contact stresses, can promote stress
corrosion. Metal bearings, in particular, must be designed for easy maintenance.
Material for roller bearings shall conform to the requirements of the below specifications:
Roller bearings shall be made of hard structural steel conforming to AASHTO M 169
(ASTM A 108), M 102 (ASTM A 668M), or M 270M (ASTM A 709M), Grades 250, 345,
or 345W, or similar European Steel according to Table 8-1.
Carbon steel has been the traditional steel used in mechanical bearings because of its good
mechanical properties. Surface hardening shall be considered. Corrosion resistance is also
important. The use of stainless steel for the contact surfaces may prove economical when
life-cycle costs are considered. Weathering steels should be used with caution as their
resistance to corrosion is often significantly reduced by mechanical wear at the surface.
8.4 EXPANSION JOINTS
If possible, expansion joints should be avoided because of the complexities and the
maintenance needed. Short bridges with a total length less than 15 m and bridges less than
80 m with end-walls need no expansion joints. Medium sized bridges can preferably use a
simple type of expansion joint as shown on the Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 7:
Bridge Drainage, Drawing B-33.

Chapter 8
At long bridges it is wise to use as few large capacity expansion joints as possible (see Figure
8-6). The normal requirements for a factory-made expansion joint is that it should be:
• durable and resistible

• easy to install and inspect
• easy to maintain, clean and repair without closing the whole bridge deck and without
specialists
• designed to create only minor horizontal forces
• free from disturbing noise when in use
• easy to receive spare parts without delay
Similar to bearings only a limited number of expansion joint types approved by ERA should
be used as a first choice.
Expansion joints shall be provided where structurally needed. The coefficient of thermal
expansion is given in Chapter 9: Reinforced Concrete, and the temperature range in section
3.21: Temperature Ranges. In addition to the calculated expansion, a displacement tolerance
of 10 – 20 mm shall be added, the lower value for 6 m high support and the higher for 12 m
high support. Linear interpolation shall be used in-between these values. Support height
above 15 m or in seismic zone 4 shall be investigated separately.
Figure 8-6 Principle for Multi-Panel Expansion Joint
If possible, Type J1 or J2 from the Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 7: Bridge

Drainage, Drawing B-33 shall be used for 10 - 40 mm expansion joints. Greater openings
than 40 mm shall be designed with factory made expansion joints approved by the Engineer.
8.5 RAILINGS
For safety reasons all bridges should be provided with railings. All railings should be
designed and tested, unless the railing from the Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 2:
Guardrail Drawings or Chapter 7: Bridge Drainage, Drawing B-35 is selected. Preferably
the ERA Standard Railing (from Standard Detail Drawings-2002) should be used. Spacing
between posts should be between 1.5 - 2.0 m. Since steel railings have to be imported and
for other reasons, only concrete railings will be considered by ERA especially in rural areas,

Chapter 8
unless otherwise stated in the Contract documents. These are easy to repair and generally
require less maintenance.
The bridge railing performance need not be identical over the whole highway network. New
railing designs should match site needs leading to a multiple test level concept (see Ref. 8).
Previously crash tested railing should retain its test level approval and should not have to be
re-tested.
With the finite resources available, it is not reasonable to expect all existing rails to be
updated. Many existing bridge rails have proven functional and need only be replaced when
removed for bridge widenings.
All railings for traffic lanes or pedestrian lanes shall resist the loads given in Chapter 3:
Load Requirements, Section 3.16: Vehicular Collision Force. Railing material other than
reinforced concrete shall be approved by ERA. Traffic lane guardrail shall not be lower than
900 mm. Railing for pedestrian bridges shall not be lower than 1000 mm. Exterior railing for
bicycle lanes shall not be lower than 1200 mm.
If possible ERA Standard Detail Drawing-2002 No. R-01 shall be used. If this Standard
Railing is not used, the detail design of the railing shall be approved together with the bridge
design.
8.6 DRAINAGE OF BRIDGE DECKS
Usually a bridge deck over water will be made without curbs, edge-beams, or raised
pedestrian walkways hindering the flow of surface water. Provision for drainage shall be
omitted if the deck is designed without a curb and with at least a 2% crossfall
(superelevation).
Where curbs are specified, outlets shall normally be spaced every 5 meters in high rainfall
areas, 10 meters in normal rainfall areas, and 20 meters in dry areas, unless otherwise proved
with detail calculations according to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 10:
Storm Drainage Facilities
For underpasses especially in urban areas, curbs shall be provided and drainage outlets shall
be provided for at least every 10m unless detail design according to the ERA Drainage
Design Manual-2002, Chapter 10: Storm Drainage Facilities or made according to the ERA
Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 7: Bridge Drainage, Drawing B-32.
8.7 UTILITIES (SERVICE DUCTS, CABLES, ETC.)
Smaller plastic pipes for cables should be cast in the concrete deck as a first option.
Otherwise they should be placed in the upper part of the girders or, in the case of slabs, in
the center of the slab. Signal cables (Tele-, opto-cables, etc) and electric power cables should
always be laid in separate pipes. In urban areas at least 3 pipes ∅70 mm are recommended
for future use.

Chapter 8
Water and/or Sewage pipes should always be regarded as filled when calculated as
supported by the bridge. Arrangements for pipe expansion should preferably be applied at
the same place as the expansion joints for the bridge. The pipes cannot interfere with the
waterway area. Pipes under pressure should be protected by insertion in a protection pipe.
Electric Light posts should be avoided at bridges. Where this is not possible, they shall be
placed for safety reasons on brackets 0.5 m outside the guardrail. Here they will not interfere
in a collision with the railing.
REFERENCES
1. Roark, R. J., and W. C. Young. Formulas for Stress and Strain. 5th Ed. McGraw Hill:
New York, 1976.
2. Campbell, T. I., and W. L. Kong. TFE Sliding Surfaces in Bridge Bearings. Report ME-
87-06. Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Downsview, Ontario,
1987.
3. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications 2nd Edition, 1998.
4. Roeder, C. W., J. F. Stanton, and A. W. Taylor. Performance of Elastomeric Bearings.
NCHRP Report 298. TRB, National Research Council, Washington DC, October 1987.
5. Roeder, C. W., and J. F. Stanton. “State of the Art Elastomeric Bridge Bearing Design.”
ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 88, No. 1, 1991.
6. Stanton, J. F., and C. W. Roeder. Elastomeric Bearings Design, Construction, and
Materials. NCHRP Report 248. TRB, National Research Council, Washington DC,
August 1982.
7. Roeder, C. W., J. F. Stanton, and A. W. Taylor. “Fatigue of Steel-Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings.” Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 2, February
1990.
8. Ross. H. E., D. L. Sicking, R. A. Zimmer, and J. D. Michie. Recommended Procedures
for the Safety Performance Evaluation of Highway Features. NCHRP Report 350. TRB,
National Research Washington, D. C., 1993.

Chapter 9
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Reinforced Concrete
9 REINFORCED CONCRETE
9.1 SCOPE
Designs should be based on the material properties cited herein.
In these Design Specifications, the compressive strength of concrete, f′c, is determined from
tests on 150 mm cylinders at the age of 28 days in accordance with the Ethiopian Standards.
It is common practice that the specified strength be attained 28 days after placement. Other
maturity ages shall be assumed for design and specified for components, which will receive
loads at times appreciably different than 28 days after placement.
The Ethiopian Building Code Standards (Ref. 1) shall be used as a compliment to these
Specifications, unless otherwise stated herein.
9.2 NOTATIONS
A = area of concrete having the same centroid as the principal tensile reinforcement and
bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section and a straight line parallel to the
neutral axis, divided by the number of bars or wires (mm2)
Ab = area of bar or wire (mm2)
Ac = area of core measured to the outside diameter of the spiral (mm2)
Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm2)
Ag = gross area of concrete section (mm2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (mm2)
As = area of reinforcement (mm2)
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement (mm2)
At = area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement (mm2)
Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any (mm2)
d = distance from compression face to centroid of tension reinforcement (mm)
dc = depth of concrete measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire
located closest thereto
db = diameter of bar or wire (mm)
ex = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the X direction, i.e.= Mux/Pu (mm)
ey = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the Y direction, i.e= Mux/Pu (mm)
Ec = the modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of longitudinal steel (MPa)
f′c = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
fc = factored torsional moment (Nmm)
fctk = characteristic tensile strength (MPa)
fctm = characteristic cylinder compressive strength (MPa)
ff = stress range (MPa)
fmin = minimum live load stress resulting from the fatigue load combination specified in
Table 3-2, combined with the more severe stress from either the permanent loads or
the permanent loads, shrinkage, and creep induced external loads; positive if
tension, negative if compression (MPa)

Chapter 9
Reinforced Concrete Bridge Design Manual - 2002
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the web
and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (MPa)
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel (MPa)
fr = modulus of rupture (MPa)
fsa = tensile stress in the mild steel reinforcement at the service limit state
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
fyh = specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement (MPa)
H = average relative humidity at the site (%)
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis (mm4)
Is = moment of inertia of longitudinal steel about the centroidal axis (mm4)
K = effective length factor
kc = factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the component (see Figure 9-1)
kf = factor for the effect of concrete strength (see Equation 9.2)
lc = compression development length for lap splice (mm)
ld = tension development length for lap splice (mm)
ldb = basic tension development length for deformed bar (mm)
lhb = basic tension development length for hooked bar (mm)
lu = unbraced length (mm)
Ml = smaller end moment
M2 = larger end moment
Mc = magnified factored moment
Mr = factored flexural resistance
Mux = factored applied moment about the X-axis (Nmm)
Muy = factored applied moment about the Y-axis (Nmm)
pc = length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
Pe = Euler buckling load
Pn = nominal axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)
Pr = factored axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)
Prx = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ey is present (N)
Prxy = factored axial resistance in biaxial flexure (N)
Pry = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ex is present (N)
Pu = factored applied axial force (N)
r = radius of gyration (mm)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; if the actual
value is not known, 0.3 shall be used
t = maturity of concrete (Days)
tI = age of concrete when load is initially applied (Days)
Tcr = torsional cracking moment (Nmm)
Tn = nominal torsional resistance (Nmm)
Tr = factored torsional resistance (Nmm)
Tn = nominal shear resistance (N)
Tr = factored shear resistance (N)
Z = crack width parameter (N/mm)
βd = ratio of maximum factored permanent load moments to maximum factored total
load moment; always positive

Chapter 9
γc = density of concrete (kg/m3)

θ = angle of crack, usually 45°.
ρmin = ratio of tension steel to gross area
ϕ = resistance factor (see Table 9-7)
ψ = creep coefficient
9.3 CONCRETE
9.3.1 GENERAL
Recommended grade of concrete and corresponding specified strengths are shown in Table 9-
1 for both cylinder and cube strengths. Classes of concrete corresponding to these grades are
shown in Table 9-2.
Grades of Concrete C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

Fck (150 mm cylinders, MPa) 20 24 32 40 48
fck (200 mm cubes, MPa) 21 25 34 42 50
fck (150 mm cubes, MPa) 25 30 40 50 60
Table 9-1 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder and Cube Compressive
Strength, fck
Class Permissible Grades of Concrete

I (C20) C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II (C20) - - - - -
Table 9-2 Grades and Classes of Concrete
Class I concrete is generally used for all elements of structures, except when another class is
more appropriate, and specifically for concrete exposed to saltwater. Class II concrete is used
in footings, pedestals, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
Concrete strengths above 50 MPa (150 mm cylinders) shall be used only when physical tests
are made to establish the relationships between the concrete strength and other properties.
Concrete with strengths below 20 MPa at 28 days (150 mm cylinders) should not be used in
structural applications.
The specified compressive strength for prestressed concrete shall not be less than 30 MPa.
Regarding tensile strength see subheading Characteristic Tensile Strength below.

Chapter 9
9.3.2 COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
The coefficient of thermal expansion should be determined by the laboratory tests on the
specific mix to be used. In the absence of more precise data, the thermal coefficient of
expansion shall be taken as:
• for normal density concrete: 10.8 x 10-6/oC, and
• for low-density concrete: 9.0 x 10-6/oC
The thermal coefficient of normal density concrete can vary between 5.4 to 14.4 x 10-6/oC,
with limestone and marble aggregates producing the lower values, and chert and quartzite the
higher.
9.3.3 SHRINKAGE AND CREEP
Values of shrinkage and creep, specified herein, shall be used to determine the effects of
shrinkage and creep on the loss of prestressing force in bridges other than segmentally
constructed ones. These values in conjunction with the Moment of Inertia shall be used to
determine the effects of shrinkage and creep on deflections.
The shrinkage coefficients shall be assumed to be 0.0002 after 28 days and 0.0005 after one
year of drying.
Shrinkage of concrete can vary over a wide range from nearly nil if continually immersed in
water to in excess of 0.0008 for either thin sections made with high shrinkage aggregates or
for sections which are not property cured.
The creep coefficient shall be estimated as:
§ H · − 0.118 ( t − ti)0.6
ψ( t , ti) = 3.5kckf ¨1.58 − ¸ ti (Ref. 2) (9.1)
© 120 ¹ 10.0 + ( t − ti)0.6
for which: kf = 62 (9.2)
42+f′c
where: H = average relative humidity at the site (%)

kc = factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the component, Figure 9-1
below.
kf = factor for the effect of concrete strength (from Equation 9.2 above)
t = maturity of concrete (Days)
tI = age of concrete when load is initially applied (Days)
f′c = specified compressive strength at 28 days (MPa)
Creep is influenced by the same factors as shrinkage, and also by: magnitude and duration of
the stress, maturity of the concrete at the time of loading, and temperature of concrete.

Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Factor kc for Volume to Surface Ratio
Creep shortening of concrete under permanent loads is generally in the range of 1.5 to 4.0
times the initial elastic shortening, depending primarily on concrete maturity at the time of
loading.
9.3.4 DESIGN PROPERTIES (MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, POISSON'S RATIO, MODULUS OF RUPTURE)
In the absence of more precise data, the modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete with densities
between 1440 and 2500 kg/M3, shall be taken as:
Ec = 0.043γc1.5 fc (9.3)
where: γc = density of concrete (kg/m3)

f′c = specified cylinder strength of concrete (MPa)
For normal density concrete with γc = 2 400 kg/m3 , Ec shall be taken as:
Ec = 4800 fc (9.4)
Poisson's ratio shall be assumed as 0.2. For components which are expected to be subject to
cracking, the effect of Poisson's ratio shall be neglected.
The modulus of rupture (fr) in MPa, for normal density concrete, shall be taken as:
Fr = 0.63 f ' c (9.5)

Chapter 9
9.3.5 CHARACTERISTIC TENSILE STRENGTH
The Characteristic Tensile Strength refers to the axial tensile strength as determined by tests
in accordance with standards issued or approved by the Quality and Standardization Authority
of Ethiopia. It shall be determined by either using the Ethiopian Standards, ASTM C900-94
"Standard Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Concrete", or the split tensile
strength method in accordance with AASHTO T198 (ASTM C496-90) "Standard Method for
Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
The Characteristic Tensile Strength may also be determined from the characteristic cylinder
compressive strength as:
fctk =0.7 fctm ; (9.6)
2/3
Where fctm =0.3 fck (see Table 9.3 below) (9.7)
Grades of Concrete C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

fctm 1.9 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
fctk 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.8
Table 9-3 Grades of Concrete and Values of fctk and fctm
9.4 REINFORCEMENT
9.4.1 GENERAL
Reinforcing bars, deformed wire, cold-drawn wire, welded plain wire fabric and welded
deformed wire fabric shall conform to the materials standards as specified herein.
Reinforcement shall be deformed, except that plain bars or plain wire may be used for spirals,
hoops and wire fabric. Bars < Ø 10 mm should not be used for cast-in-place structures.
The nominal yield strength shall be the minimum as specified for the grade of steel selected,
except that yield strengths in excess of 520 MPa shall not be used for design purposes. Bars
with yield strengths less than 270 MPa shall be used only with the approval of ERA. Tensile
requirements are as indicated in Table 9-4.
AASHTO M31 M Grade Grade 300 Grade 420 Grade 520

Equiv. European bars B500B Ks60
(Old AASHTO M31 Grade) (40) (60) (75)
Tensile strength, min. MPa 500 620 690
Yield strength, min. Mpa 300 420 520
Table 9-4 Tensile Requirements for Reinforcement Bars

Chapter 9
Where ductility is to be assured or where welding is required, steel conforming to the

requirements of ASTM A706M, Low Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement, or similar weldable European Steel, should be specified.
Reinforcement shall be deformed, except that plain bars or plain wire shall be used for spirals,
hoops and wire fabric. Bars < ∅10 mm should not be used for cast-in-place structures.
The Ethiopian Iron and Steel Foundry in Akaki and Zuquala Steel Rolling Mill Enterprises in
Debre Zeit manufacture up to 400 MPa deformed bars with diameters ∅6 - ∅32 mm.
9.4.2 DESIGN PROPERTIES
Water/Cement Ratio ≤0,40 ≤0,45 ≤0,50

SITUATION COVER (mm) COVER (mm) COVER (mm)
Direct exposure to salt water 80 100 120
Cast against earth (i.e. Bottom of 60 75 90
footings)
Exterior other than above 40 50 60
Interior other than above (i.e. hollow
structures)
• Up to ∅35 Bar 32 40 48
• ∅45 and ∅55Bars 40 50 60
Bottom of cast-in-place slabs
• Up to ∅35 Bar 25 25 30
• ∅45 and ∅55Bars 40 50 60
Precast soffit form panels 20 20 24
Precast Reinforced Piles
• Non-corrosive environments 32 40 48
• Corrosive environments 60 75 90
Precast Prestressed Piles 40 50 60
Cast-in-place Piles
• Non-corrosive environments 40 50 60
• Corrosive environments
- General 60 75 90
- Protected 60 75 90
• Shells 40 50 60
• Auger cast, tremie concrete or slurry 60 75 90
construction
Table 9-5 Cover for Unprotected Main Reinforcing Steel (mm)
The modulus of elasticity, Ec, of bars and undeformed wires shall be assumed as 200 000
MPa.

Chapter 9
Minimum cover to main bars, including bars protected by epoxy coating, shall be 25 mm.
Minimum Cover to ties and stirrups may be 12 mm less than the values specified in Table 9-5
for main bars, but shall not be less than 25 mm (not less than 20 mm for Precast soffit form
panels).
Concrete Cover for unprotected prestressing and reinforcing steel for the actual water-cement
ratio shall not be less than as specified in Table 9-5 above, unless otherwise specified herein.
Concrete cover and placing tolerances shall be shown in the contract documents and/or at the
detail drawings.
Cover for pretensioned prestressing strand, anchorage hardware and mechanical connections
for reinforcing bars or post-tensioned prestressing strands shall be the same as for reinforcing
steel.
Cover for metal ducts for post-tensioned tendons shall not be less than:
• that specified for main reinforcing steel,

• one-half the diameter of the duct, or
• that specified in Table 9-5.
Protective Coatings: Protection against chloride-induced corrosion shall be provided by

epoxy coating or galvanizing of reinforcing steel, post-tensioning duct and anchorage
hardware and epoxy coating of prestressing strand.
9.4.3 DEVELOPMENT (CUT OFF) AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT:
Development of Reinforcement
Positive Moment Reinforcement: At least one-third of the positive moment reinforcement in

simple-span members, and one fourth the positive moment reinforcement in continuous
members, shall extend along the same face of the member beyond the centerline of the
support. In beams such extension shall be no less than 150 mm.
Negative Moment Reinforcement: At least one-third of the total tension reinforcement

provided for negative moment at a support shall have an embedment length beyond the point
of inflection not less than:
• the effective depth of the member,

• 20 times the nominal diameter of bar, and
• 0.0625 times the clear span.
Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension: The tension development length, ld, shall not
be less than the product of the basic tension development length, ldb, as specified herein, and
the modification factor or factors, as specified below. The tension development length shall
not be less than 300 mm, except for lap splices and in development of shear reinforcement
below.

Chapter 9
The basic tension development length, ldb in mm shall be taken as:
• for ∅ 35 bar and smaller............................ 0.02Abfy / f l c but not less than: 0.06 db fy
• for ∅ 45 bars .............................................................................................. 25fy / f l c
• for ∅ 55 bars ............................................................................................ 34fy / f l c
• for deformed wire ................................................................................ 0.36dbfy / f l c
where: Ab = area of bar or wire (mm2)

f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
db = diameter of bar or wire (mm)
Modification Factors which increase ld : The basic development length, ldb, shall be
multiplied by the following factor or factors as applicable:
• for top horizontal or nearly horizontal reinforcement, so placed that more
• than 300 mm of fresh concrete is cast below the reinforcement................................. 1.4
• for bars with a cover of db or less, or with a clear spacing of 2db or less .................... 2.0
Modification Factors which Decrease ld: The basic development length, ldb, modified by the
factors as specified above, shall be multiplied by the following factors, where:
• reinforcement being developed in the length under consideration is spaced laterally not
less than 150 mm center-to-center, with not less than 75 mm clear cover measured in the
direction of the spacing ............................................................................................ 0.8
• anchorage or development for the full yield strength of reinforcement is not required, or
where reinforcement in flexural members is in excess of that required by analysis
(As required) / (As provided)
Deformed Bars In Compression: The development length, ld, for deformed bars in
compression shall not be less than either the product of the basic development length as
specified herein and the applicable modification factors as specified below (Modification
factors) or 200 mm.
The basic development length, ldb, for deformed bars in compression shall not be less than:
0.24dbfy
ldb = , or (9.8)
f lc
ldb = 0.044 db fy (.9.9)
where:
flc = specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days,
unless another age is specified (MPa)

Chapter 9
db = diameter of bar (mm)
Modification Factors: The basic development length, ldb, shall be multiplied by applicable
factors, where:
• anchorage or development for the full yield strength of reinforcement is not required, or
where reinforcement is provided in excess of that required by
analysis .................................................................................... (As required) / (As provided)
• reinforcement is enclosed within a spiral composed of a bar of not less than 6 mm in
diameter and spaced at not more than a 100 mm pitch..................................................... 0.75
Bundled Bars: The development length of individual bars within a bundle, in tension or
compression, shall be that for the individual bar, increased by 20% for a three-bar bundle and
by 33% for a four-bar bundle. For determining the Modification factors for tension
development length above, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter
determined from the equivalent total area.
Standard Hooks in Tension: The development length, ldh, in mm, for deformed bars in tension
terminating in a standard hook shall not be less than:
• the product of the basic development length lhb, as specified in Equation 9.10, and the
applicable modification factor or factors, as below
• 8.0 bar diameters, or
• 150 mm.
Basic development length, lhb, for a hooked bar with yield strength, fy not exceeding 400
MPa shall be taken as:
100db
lhb = (9.10)
f lc
where: db = diameter of bar (mm)

f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days, unless another age
specified (MPa)
Modification factors: Basic hook development length, lhb , shall be multiplied by the
following factors as applicable, where:
• reinforcement yield strength exceeds 400 MPa ...............................................fy / 400
• anchorage or development of full yield strength is
not required, or where reinforcement is provided in
excess of that required by analysis .................................(As required) / (As provided)
Lap Splices of Reinforcement in Tension
The length of lap for tension lap splices shall not be less than either 300 mm or the following
for Class A, B or C splices (see Table 9-6):
Class A splice ....................................................................................................... 1.0 ld
Class B splice ....................................................................................................... 1.3 ld
Class C splice ....................................................................................................... 1.7 ld

Chapter 9
The class of lap splice required for deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be as
shown in Table 9-6.
Ratio of Percent of As Spliced with Required Lap Length

(As as provided)
50 75 100
(As as required)
≥2 A A B
<2 B C C
Table 9-6 Classes of Tension Lap Splices
The tension development length, ld, used as a basis for calculating splice lengths should
include all of the modification factors specified in this subchapter.
Splices in Tension Tie Members
A tension tie member is assumed to have:

• An axial tensile force sufficient to create tension over the cross-section, and
• A level of stress in the reinforcement such that every bar is fully effective.
Examples of members that shall be classified as tension ties are arch ties, hangers carrying
load to an overhead supporting structure, and main tension components in a truss.
Splices of reinforcement in tension tie members shall be made only with either full-welded
splices or full mechanical connections. Splices in adjacent bars shall be staggered not less
than 750 mm apart.
Splices of Reinforcement Bars in Compression
The length of lap, lc, for compression lap splices shall be ≥ 300 mm or as follows:
• If fy ≤ 420 MPa then: lc = 0.073m fy db, or (9.11)
• If fy > 420 MPa then: lc = m(0.13 fy – 24) db (9.12)
for which:
• Where the specified concrete strength, f′c is less than 21 MPa. ......................m = 1.33
• Where ties along the splice have an effective area not less than 0.15% of the product of the
thickness of the compression component times the tie spacing .....................m = 0.83
• With spirals..................................................................................................... m = 0.75
• In all other cases.................................................................................................m = 1.0
where: fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)

db = diameter of bar (mm)

Chapter 9
The effective area of the ties is the area of the legs perpendicular to the thickness of the
component, as seen in cross-section.
9.4.5 FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT
Flexural Reinforcement General
Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members shall be taken at

points of maximum stress and at points within the span where adjacent reinforcement
terminates or is bent.
Except at supports of simple-spans and at the free ends of cantilevers, reinforcement shall be
extended beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance not
less than:
• the effective depth of the member,

• 15 times the nominal diameter of bar, or
• 1/20 of the clear span.
Continuing reinforcement shall extend not less than the development length, ld, beyond the
point where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
No more than 50% of the reinforcement shall be terminated at any section, and adjacent
bars shall not be terminated in the same section.
Tension reinforcement may also be developed by either bending across the web in which
reinforcement lies and terminating the reinforcement in a compression area and providing the
development length ld to the design section, or by making it continuous with the
reinforcement on the opposite face of the member.
Minimum Reinforcement
Unless otherwise specified, at any section of a flexural component, the amount of prestressed
and non-prestressed tensile reinforcement shall be adequate to develop a factored flexural
resistance, Mr, at least equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and
the modulus of rupture fr = 0.63 f l c of the concrete or
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combinations
The provisions for shrinkage and temperature reinforcement later in this chapter shall apply.
For components containing no prestressing steel, the minimum reinforcement provision herein
shall be considered satisfied if:

Chapter 9
ρmin ≥ 0.03 f′c/ fy (9.13)
where: ρmin = ratio of tension steel to gross area

f′c = specified concrete strength (MPa)
fy = yield strength of tension steel (MPa)
In T-beams where the web is in tension, the determination of the actual mild steel ratio, ρ, for
comparison with the requirement of Equation 9.13 shall be based on the width of the web.
Control of Cracking by Distribution of Reinforcement
The provisions specified herein shall apply to the reinforcement of all concrete components,
except that of deck slabs designed according to empirical design methods in which tension in
the cross-section exceeds 0.5 f l c at the applicable service limit state load combination
All reinforced concrete members are subject to cracking under any load condition, including
thermal effects and restraint of deformations, which produces tension in the gross section in
excess of the cracking strength of the concrete. Locations particularly vulnerable to cracking
include those where there is an abrupt change in section and intermediate post-tensioning
anchorage zones.
Provisions specified, herein, are used for the distribution of tension reinforcement to control
flexural cracking in beams.
From the standpoint of appearance, many fine cracks are preferable to a few wide cracks. The
best crack control is obtained when the steel reinforcement is well distributed over the zone of
maximum concrete tension. Several bars at moderate spacing are more effective in controlling
cracking than one or two larger bars of equivalent area.
Components shall be so proportioned that the tensile stress in the mild steel reinforcement at
the service limit state, fsa does not exceed:
fsa = Z ≤ 0.6 fy (9.14)

(dc A)1/3
where: dc = depth of concrete measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire
located closest thereto; for calculation purposes, the thickness of clear cover used
to compute dc shall not be taken to be greater than 50 mm
A = area of concrete having the same centroid as the principal tensile reinforcement
and bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section and a straight line parallel to the
neutral axis, divided by the number of bars or wires (mm2); for calculation
purposes, the thickness of clear concrete cover used to compute A shall not be
taken to be greater than 50 mm
Z = crack width parameter (N/mm)

Chapter 9
Except as specified below for cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts, the quantity Z in
Equation 9.14 shall not exceed 30 kN/mm for members in moderate exposure conditions, 23
kN/mm for members in severe exposure conditions, and 17.5 kN/mm for buried structures.
The quantity Z shall not exceed 23 000 for the transverse design of segmental concrete box
girders for any loads applied prior to the attainment of the full nominal concrete strength.
Extensive laboratory work involving deformed reinforcing bars has confirmed that the crack
width at the service limit state is proportional to steel stress. However, the significant
variables reflecting steel detailing were found to be the thickness of concrete cover and the
area of concrete in the zone of maximum tension surrounding each individual reinforcing bar.
Using a value of 30 kN/mm in the numerator of Equation 9.14 corresponds to a limiting

surface crack width of about 0.4 mm.
There appears to be little or no connection between surface crack width and corrosion.
Thicker or additional cover for reinforcement will result in greater surface crack widths.
These wider surface cracks are not detrimental to the corrosion protection of the
reinforcement. In applying Equation 9.14, the actual clear cover should be used where the
clear cover is ≤ 50 mm. Where the actual clear cover is > 50 mm, a value of 50 mm should be
used for calculation purposes related to Equation 9.14. Additional cover shall be regarded as
added protection.
For cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts, the quantity Z in Equation 9.14 shall not
exceed:
Z = 27 500 / β (9.15)
for which: β = 1 + dc / 0.7d (9.16)
where: d = distance from compression face to centroid of tension reinforcement (mm)
Bonded prestressing steel shall be included in the calculation of A, in which case the increase
in stress in the bonded prestressing steel beyond the decompression state calculated on the
basis of a cracked section or strain compatibility analysis shall not exceed the value of fsa
determined from Equation 9.14.
The basic derivation of the crack control parameter, Z, includes an assumption that a typical
ratio of the distance from the neutral axis to the location of the crack at the concrete surface
divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the tensile reinforcing, β, is
1.2, which is a typical value for reinforced concrete beams. However, cast-in-place reinforced
concrete box culvert sections may have a range of β ratios from about 1.1 for thick slabs to
about 1.6 for thin slabs. Thus, the variation in the β ratio for typical box culvert sections is
greater than the range of β values for typical reinforced concrete beams. Equation 9.15 was
derived to take into account the variation in β for reinforced concrete box culverts.

Chapter 9
Where flanges of reinforced concrete T-girders and box girders are in tension at the service
limit state, the flexural tension reinforcement shall be distributed over the lesser of:
• The effective flange width, or
• A width equal to 1/10 of the average of adjacent spans between bearings.
If the effective flange width exceeds 1/10 the span, additional longitudinal reinforcement,
with area of not less than 0.4 percent of the excess slab area, shall be provided in the outer
portions of the flange.
Distribution of the negative reinforcement for control of cracking in T-girders should be made
in the context of the following considerations:
• Wide spacing of the reinforcement across the full effective width of flange may cause
some wide cracks to form in the slab near the web.
• Close spacing near this web leaves the outer regions of the flange unprotected.
The 1/10 of the span limitation is to guard against an excessive spacing of bars, with
additional reinforcement required to protect the outer portions of the flange.
9.4.6 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses shall be provided near surfaces of
concrete exposed to daily temperature changes and in structural mass concrete. Temperature
and shrinkage reinforcement shall be added, so that the total reinforcement on exposed
surfaces is not less than that specified herein.
The spacing of stress- relieving joints should be considered in determining the area of
shrinkage and temperature reinforcement. Surfaces of interior walls of box girders need not
be considered to be subject to daily temperature changes.
Components less than 1200 mm thick: Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature shall be
in the form of bars, welded wire fabric or prestressing tendons. For bars or welded wire fabric,
the area of reinforcement in each direction shall not be less than:
As ≥ 0.75 Ag/fy (9.17)
Where: Ag = gross area of section (mm2)

fy = Specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than either 3.0
times the component thickness or 450 mm.
For solid structural concrete walls and footings, bar spacing shall not exceed 300 mm in each
direction on all faces, and the area of shrinkage and temperature steel need not exceed:
Σ Ab = 0.0015 Ag (9.18)
Where: Ab = minimum area of bar (mm2)

Chapter 9
9.5 PRESTRESSING STEEL/POST-TENSIONING STEEL
If prestressing tendons are used as steel for shrinkage and temperature reinforcement, the
tendons shall provide a minimum average compressive stress of 0.75 MPa on the gross
concrete area in the direction being considered, based on the effective prestress after losses.
Spacing of tendons should not exceed 1800 mm. Where the spacing is greater than 1400 mm,
bonded reinforcement shall be provided.
9.6 LIMIT STATES
Structural components shall be proportioned to satisfy the requirements at all appropriate

service, fatigue, strength and extreme event states.
Prestressed and partially prestressed concrete structural components shall be investigated for
stresses and deformations for each stage that shall be critical during construction, stressing,
handling, transportation, and erection, as well as during the service life of the structure of
which they are part.
Stress concentrations due to prestressing or other loads, and restraints or imposed

deformations shall be considered.
Actions to be considered for concrete at the service limit state shall be cracking (if the tension
exceeds 0.5 f l c ) deformations, and concrete stresses.
The cracking stress shall be taken as the modulus of rupture (Equation 9.5).
9.6.2 FATIGUE LIMIT STATE
Fatigue need not be investigated for concrete deck slabs in multi-girder applications.
In regions of compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress, fatigue shall be
considered only if this compressive stress is less than twice the maximum tensile live load
stress resulting from the fatigue load combination as specified in Table 3-2 in combination
with the provisions of section 3.10: Fatigue Load.
Where consideration of fatigue is required, the stress range shall be determined using the
fatigue load combination as specified in Table 3-2.
The section properties for fatigue investigations shall be based on cracked sections where the
sum of stresses, due to unfactored permanent loads and prestress, and 1.5 times the fatigue
load is tensile and exceeds 0.25 * f l c .
Reinforcing Bars: The stress range in straight reinforcement resulting from the fatigue load
combination, specified in Table 3-2, shall not exceed:

Chapter 9
ff = 145 - 0.33 fmin + 55 ( r/h) (9.19)
where: ff = stress range (MPa)

fmin = the minimum live load stress resulting from the fatigue load combination
specified in Table 3-2, combined with the more severe stress from either the
permanent loads or the permanent loads, shrinkage, and creep induced external
loads; positive if tension, negative if compression (MPa)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; if the actual
value is not known, 0.3 shall be used
The strength limit state issues to be considered shall be those of strength and stability.
Factored resistance shall be the product of nominal resistance, and the resistance factor in
Table 9-7 below:
Resistance Factors, Conventional Construction: Resistance factor ϕ:

• For flexure and tension of reinforced concrete ................................0.90
• For flexure and tension of prestressed concrete................................1.00
• For shear and torsion:
Normal density concrete ...................................................................0.90
Low-density concrete........................................................................0.70
• For axial compression with spirals or ties.........................................0.75
• For bearing on concrete ...................................................................0.70
• For compression in strut-and-tie models ..........................................0.70
• For compression in anchorage zones:
Normal density concrete ..................................................................0.80
Low-density concrete.......................................................................0.65
• For tension in steel in anchorage zones ..........................................1.00
• for resistance during pile driving .....................................................1.00
Table 9-7 Resistance Factors
For compression members with flexure, the value of ϕ shall be increased linearly to the value
for flexure as the factored axial load resistance, ϕ*Pn decreases from 0.10 f′c Ag → to 0.
9.6.4 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATE
The structure as a whole, and its components, shall be proportioned to resist collapse due to
extreme events, specified in Table 3-2, as shall be appropriate to its site and use.
9.7 SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN
General Requirements: The factored torsional resistance, Tr, shall be taken as:

Chapter 9
Tr = ϕTn (9.20)
where: Tn = nominal torsional resistance (Nmm)

ϕ = resistance factor from Table 9-7
The factored shear resistance, Vr, shall be taken as:
Vr = ϕVn (9.21)
Where : Vn = nominal shear resistance (N)

ϕ = resistance factor from Table 9-7
For normal density concrete, torsional effects shall be investigated where:
Tr > 0.25 ϕ Tcr (9.22)
1 + fpc
Tcr = 0.328f l c (A 2 cp / pc) (9.23)
0.328 f l c
where: fc = factored torsional moment (Nmm)

Tcr = torsional cracking moment from the formulae above (Nmm)
pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
ϕ = resistance factor for strength limit state, Table 9-7
The nominal torsional resistance shall be taken as:
2AoAtfyCotθ
Tn = (9.24)
S
where: Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any
(mm2)
9.8 DEFORMATIONS
9.8.1 GENERAL
The provisions of maximum deflection shall be considered. Deck joints and bearings shall
accommodate the dimensional changes caused by loads, creep, shrinkage, thermal changes,
settlement, and if appropriate, prestressing.

Chapter 9
For more precise determinations of long-term deflections, the creep and shrinkage coefficients
given earlier in this chapter should be utilized. These coefficients include the effects of
aggregate characteristics, humidity at the structure site, relative thickness of member, maturity
at time of loading, and length of time under loads.
9.8.2 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER
Deflection and camber calculations shall consider dead load, live load, prestressing, erection
loads, concrete creep and shrinkage, and steel relaxation.
For determining deflection and camber, the elastic behavior shall apply.
9.9 COMPRESSION MEMBERS

9.9.1 GENERAL
Unless otherwise permitted, compression members shall be analyzed with consideration of the
effects of:
• Eccentricity,
• Axial loads,
• Variable moments of inertia,
• Degree of end fixity,
• Deflections,
• Duration of loads, and
• Prestressing.
In lieu of a refined procedure, non-prestressed columns with the slenderness ratio,
K * lu / r < 100, (9.25)
where: K = effective length factor (see subchapter 13.6)

lu = unbraced length (mm)
r = radius of gyration (mm)
shall be designed by the approximate procedure specified below.
The requirements of this subchapter shall be supplemented and modified for structures in
Seismic Zone 4.
Provisions shall be made to transfer all force effects from compression components, adjusted
for second order moment magnification, to adjacent components.
Where the connection to an adjacent component is by a concrete hinge, longitudinal

reinforcement shall be centralized within the hinge to minimize flexural resistance and shall
be developed on both sides of the hinge.

Chapter 9
9.9.2 LIMITS FOR COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT
The maximum area of prestressed and non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement for non-
composite compression components shall be such that:
As Apsfpu
+ ≤ 0.08 (9.26)
Ag Agfy
Apsfpc
≤ 0.30 (9.27)
Agfc
The minimum area of prestressed and non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement for non-
composite compression components shall be such that:
Asfy Apsfpu
+ ≥ 0.0135 (9.28)
Agf l c Agfy
where: As = area of non-prestressed tension steel (mm2)

Ag = gross area of section (mm2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (mm2)
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel (MPa)
f′c = specified compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
fpc = effective prestress (MPa)
According to current ACI codes (Ref. 3), the area of longitudinal reinforcement for non-
prestressed non-composite compression components should be not less than 0.01 Ag. Because
the dimensioning of columns is primarily controlled by bending, this limitation does not
account for the influence of the concrete compressive strength. To account for the
compressive strength of concrete, the minimum reinforcement in flexural members is shown
to be proportional to f′c / fy.. This approach is also reflected in the first term of Equation 9.28.
For fully prestressed members, current codes specify a minimum average prestress of 1.6
MPa. Here also the influence of compressive strength is not accounted for. A compressive
strength of 35 MPa has been used as a basis for these provisions, and a weighted averaging
procedure was used to arrive at the equation.
The minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars in the body of a column shall be 6 ∅
16 in a circular arrangement and 4 ∅ 16 in a rectangular arrangement.
For bridges in Seismic Zone 1-3, the minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement shall be that
required for a component with a reduced effective area of concrete, provided that both the full
section and the reduced effective section are capable of resisting the factored loads and that
the area of reinforcement is not less than 0.7 percent of the gross area of the column.
Where columns are pinned to their foundations, a small number of central bars have
sometimes been used as a connection between footing and column.

Chapter 9
9.9.3 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS
These procedures were developed for reinforced concrete columns but are currently used for
prestressed concrete columns as well.
For members not braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness shall be neglected where
the slenderness ratio, (K * lu / r)< 22.
For members braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness shall be neglected where:
(K*lu/r)<34-12 (M1/M2),
in which Ml and M2 are the smaller and larger end moments, respectively, and the term
(Ml/M2) is positive for single curvature flexure.
The following approximate procedure shall be used for the design of non-prestressed
compression members with (K * lu / r)< 100:
• The design is based on a factored axial load, Pu, determined by elastic analysis and a
magnified factored moment, Mc, for approximate methods (see Eq. 12.46 and 12.48).
• The unsupported length, lu, of a compression member is taken as the clear distance
between components capable of providing lateral support for the compression
components. Where haunches are present, the unsupported length is taken to the extremity
of any haunches in the plane considered.
• The radius of gyration, r, is computed for the gross concrete section. For a rectangular
compression member, r shall be taken as 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction
in which stability is being considered. For a circular compression member, r shall be
taken as 0.25 times the diameter.
• For members braced against sidesway, the effective length factor, K, is taken as 1.0,
unless it is shown by analysis that a lower value shall be used.
• For members not braced against sidesway, K is determined with due consideration for the
effects of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness and is taken as not less than
1.0.
In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI for use in determining Euler Buckling Load, Pe,
where
Pe = π2 E I (9.29)
(K*lu)2
shall be taken as the greater of:
EcIg / 5 + Esls
EI = (9.30)
1 + βd
or

Chapter 9
EcIg / 2.5
EI = (9.31)
1 + βd
where: Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa)

Ig = moment of inertia of the gross concrete section about the centroidal axis (mm4)
Es = modulus of elasticity of longitudinal steel (MPa)
Is = moment of inertia of longitudinal steel about the centroidal axis (mm4)
βd = ratio of maximum factored permanent load moments to maximum factored
total load moment; always positive
K = effective length factor (see subchapter 13.6)
For eccentrically prestressed members, consideration shall be given to the effect of lateral
deflection due to prestressing in determining the magnified moment.
For members in structures, which undergo appreciable lateral deflections resulting from
combinations of vertical load or combinations of vertical and lateral loads, force effects
should be determined using a second-order analysis.
9.9.4 FACTORED AXIAL RESISTANCE
The factored axial resistance of reinforced concrete compressive components, symmetrical

about both principal axes, shall be taken as:
Pr = ϕ Pn (9.32)
for which:
• For members with spiral reinforcement: Pn = 0.85 [0.85 f′c(Ag-Ast)+fy Ast] (9.33)
• For members with tie reinforcement: Pn = 0.80 [0.85 f′c (Ag - Ast) + fy Ast] (9.34)
where: Pr = factored axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)

Pn = nominal axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)
f′c = specified strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement (mm2)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
ϕ = resistance factor specified in Table 9-7
The values of 0.85 and 0.80 in Equations 9.33 and 9.34 place upper limits on the usable
resistance of columns to allow for unintended eccentricity.
9.9.5 BIAXIAL FLEXURE
In lieu of an analysis based on equilibrium and strain compatibility for biaxial flexure,
noncircular members subjected to biaxial flexure and compression shall be proportioned using
the following approximate expressions:

Chapter 9
• If the factored axial load is ≥ 0.1* ϕ f′c Ag:
1 = 1 + 1 - 1 (9.35)
Prxy Prx Pry ϕPo
for which: Po = 0.85 f′c (Ag – Ast) + Ast fy (9.36)
• If the factored axial load is < 0.10 ϕ f′c Ag:

Mux Muy
+ ≤ 1 .0 (9.37)
Mrx Mrx
where: ϕ = resistance factor for members in axial compression

Prxy = factored axial resistance in biaxial flexure (N)
Prx = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ey is
present (N)
Pry = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ex is
present (N)
Pu = factored applied axial force (N)
Mux = factored applied moment about the X-axis (Nmm)
Muy = factored applied moment about the Y-axis (Nmm)
ex = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the X direction, i.e.= Mux/Pu
(mm)
ey = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the Y direction, i.e= Mux/Pu
(mm)
The procedure for calculating corresponding values of Mrx and Prx or Mry and Pry can be found
in most texts on reinforced concrete design.
The factored axial resistance Prx and Pry shall not be taken to be greater than the product of the
resistance factor, ϕ, and the maximum nominal compressive resistance given by either
Equations 9.33 or 9.34 above as appropriate.
9.9.6 SPIRALS AND TIES
Where the area of spiral and tie reinforcement is not controlled by:
• Seismic requirements,
• Shear or torsion, or
• Minimum requirements (min. ∅ 10 ties for main reinforcement ≤ ∅ 32)
the ratio of spiral reinforcement to total volume of concrete core, measured out-to-out of
spirals, shall not be less than:
§ Ag · f c
l
Ps = 0.45¨ − 1¸ (9.38)
© Ac ¹ fyh
where: Ag = gross area of concrete section (mm2)

Chapter 9
Ac = area of core measured to the outside diameter of the spiral (mm2)

f'c = specified strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
fyh = specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement (MPa)
REFERENCES
1. Ethiopian Building Code Standards, EBCS-2, “Structural Use of Concrete,” 1995.

2. Collins, Michael P., and D. Mitchell. Prestressed Concrete Structures. Prentice Hall:
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1991.
3. ACI Committee 207. Manual of Concrete Practice. ACI 207.2R73. 1973.

Chapter 10
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Structural Steel
10 STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.1 SCOPE
This chapter covers the design of steel components, splices and connections for beam and
girder structures, frames, trusses and arches, cable-stayed and suspension systems, and metal
deck systems, as applicable. Curved girder structures are not included.
A worked example for the design of a steel girder bridge is presented in the appendix GB.
Most of the provisions for proportioning main elements are grouped by structural action:
• Tension and combined tension and flexure.
• Compression and combined compression and flexure.
• Flexure and flexural shear:
• I-sections
• Box sections
• Miscellaneous sections
This chapter also contains provisions for connections and splices, and provisions specific to
particular assemblages or structural types, e.g., through-girder spans, trusses, orthotropic
deck systems, and arches.
10.2 STRUCTURAL STEELS
GENERAL
Structural steel shall be conform to the requirements of the specifications as summarized in

Table 10-1 below. If European steel is used, the European standard EN 10 025, EN 10 113-
2, EN 10 113-3 and EN 137-2 or later, shall apply.
The modulus of elasticity shall assumed as 200 000 MPa.
The thermal coefficient of expansion of all grades of structural steel shall be assumed as
11.7*10-6 mm / mm / °C.
Structural steel tubing shall be either cold-formed, welded or seamless tubing conforming to
ASTM A500, Grade B; or the European standard EN 10 219-1; EN 10 219-2 or hot-formed,
welded or seamless tubing conforming to ASTM A501 or the European standard EN 10 210-
1; EN 10 210-2.
Steel for rollers, pins and expansion rockers shall conform to the requirements in Table 10-1
above. Expansion rollers shall not be less than 100 mm in diameter.
For those parts of design not covered by these Specifications, the Ethiopian Building Code
Standard EBCS – 3 “Design of Steel Structures” shall be used (Ref. 1).

Chapter 10
Structural Steel Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Structural High-Strength Low- High Yield Strength,

Steel Alloy Steel Quenched and
Tempered Alloy Steel
AASHTO Designation M270M M270M M270M M270M
Grade 250 Grade 345 Grade 345W Grades 690/690W
Equivalent ASTM Designation A709M A709M A709M A709M
Grade 250 Grade 345 Grade 345W Grades 690/690W
Thickness of Plates, mm t ≤ 100 t ≤ 100 t ≤ 100 t ≤ 65 65≤ t ≤100
Shapes All Groups All Groups All Groups N/A N/A
Minimum Tensile Strength, Fu MPa 400 450 485 760 690
Minimum Yield point or Minimum 250 345 345 690 620
Yield Strength Fy Mpa
Equiv. European steel (EN 10 025) S 275 S 355 S 355 S460M/Q S460M/Q
Equiv. British steel (BS 4360) BS43B BS50C BS50D - -
Equiv. German steel (DIN 17100) St44-2 St52-3N St52-3U - -
Table 10-1 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel (Shape, Strength and
Thickness)
10.3 STEEL DESIGN DETAILS
10.3.1 GENERAL
Steel structures should be cambered during fabrication to compensate for dead load
deflection and to reach the specified vertical alignment. Selective changes to component
length, as appropriate, shall be used for truss systems to:
• adjust the dead load deflection to comply with the final geometric position,
• adjust the dead load moment diagram in indeterminate structures.
10.3.2 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF STEEL:
Structural steel, including bracing, cross-frames and all types of gusset plates, except for
parts below, shall be not less than 5 mm in thickness.
The web thickness of rolled beams or channels and of closed ribs in orthotropic decks
shall not be less than 6.0 mm. Where the metal is expected to be exposed to severe
corrosive influences, it shall be specially protected against corrosion, or sacrificial metal
thickness shall be specified (10 percent of the total thickness)
Closed pipes and railings shall have a minimum thickness of 4 mm.
Bridge decks for pedestrian bridges shall be at least 8 mm thick with stiffeners welded as
per design, but with a minimum distance of 30 times the thickness of the plate and with a
maximum distance of 50 times the thickness of the plate.
Inspection platforms shall have a minimum thickness of 3 mm. They shall be at least 0.8m
wide and 1.6 m high with 1.0 m high railings on both sides. The deck shall be made of wood
or steel grating. The platform shall be approachable from one of the abutments or a pier.

Chapter 10
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Structural Steel
Connections and splices for main members shall be designed at the strength limit state for
not less than the larger of:
• the average of the flexural moment, shear or axial force due to the factored loadings at the
point of splice or connection and the factored flexural, shear or axial resistance of the
member at the same point, or
• 75% of the factored flexural, shear or axial resistance of the member.
End connections for diaphragms, cross-frames, lateral bracing or floorbeams for straight
flexural members shall be designed for the factored member loads.
10.3.3 LIMIT STATES
The structural behavior of components made of either steel, or steel in combination with
other materials shall be investigated for each stage that shall be critical during construction,
handling, transportation and erection, as well as during the service life of the structure of
which they are part.
Structural components shall be proportioned to satisfy the requirements at strength, extreme

event, service and fatigue limit states.
Service Limit State: The provisions of subchapter 2: General Provisions: Deflection shall
apply as applicable. Steel structures shall satisfy the load combination requirements for
Service II Load Combination in Table 3-2.
Fatigue and Fracture Limit State: Steel bridge components and details shall be investigated
for fatigue. The force effect considered for the load induced fatigue design of a steel bridge
shall be the live load stress range. Residual stresses shall not be considered in investigating
fatigue.
The fatigue load combination, specified in Table 3-2 and the fatigue live load specified in
subchapter 3.10: Fatigue Load, shall apply.
Distortion induced fatigue does not apply for small and medium concrete bridges, but shall
be considered for large and/or slender special bridges.
Strength Limit State Strength and stability shall be considered using the applicable strength
load combinations specified in Table 3-2. Webs of plate girders shall satisfy the Strength
Limit State flexural Resistance.
Resistance factors [ϕ] for the strength limit state shall be as shown in Table 10-2.

Chapter 10
Structural Steel Bridge Design Manual - 2002
for flexure ϕf = 1.00

for shear ϕv = 1.00
for axial compression, steel only ϕc = 0.90
for axial compression, composite ϕc = 0.90
for tension, fracture in net section ϕu = 0.80
for tension, yielding in gross section ϕu = 0.95
for bearing on pins, in reamed, drilled or bolted holes and
milled surfaces ϕb = 1.00
for bolts bearing on material ϕbb= 0.80
for shear connectors ϕsc= 0.85
for A307, A325M and A490M bolts in tension ϕt = 0.80
for A307 bolts in shear ϕs = 0.65
for A325M and A490M bolts in shear ϕs = 0.80
for block shear ϕbs= 0.80
for weld metal in complete penetration welds:shear on effective area ϕe1= 0.85
• tension or compression normal to effective area ϕ = base metal ϕ
• tension or compression parallel to axis of the weld ϕ = base metal ϕ
for weld metal in partial penetration welds:
• shear parallel to axis of weld ϕe2 = 0.80
• tension or compression parallel to axis of weld ϕ = base metal ϕ
• compression normal to the effective area ϕ = base metal ϕ
• tension normal to the effective area ϕe1 = 0.80
for weld metal in fillet welds:
• tension or compression parallel to the weld ϕ = base metal ϕ
• shear in throat of weld metal ϕe2 = 0.80
• for resistance during pile driving ϕp = 1.00
Table 10-2: Resistance factors [ϕ] for the strength limit state
REFERENCES
1. Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS – 3 “Design of Steel Structures.”

Chapter 11
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Other Structural Materials
11 OTHER STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

11.1 SCOPE
This section specifies design requirements for structural components made of sawn lumber
products, stressed wood, glued laminated timber, wood piles and mechanical connections.
11.2 NOTATIONS
a = coefficient
b = width of the component
CD = deck factor
CF = modification factor for size effects
CM = moisture content factor
d = depth of the beams or stringers or width of the dimension lumber component
E = specified modulus of elasticity (MPa)
Eo = base modulus of elasticity (MPa)
F = nominal resistance (MPa)
Fb = specified resistance in flexure (MPa)
Fbo = base resistance of wood in flexure (MPa)
Fc = specified resistance of wood in compression parallel to grain (MPa)
Fco = base resistance of wood in compression parallel to grain (MPa)
Fcp = specified resistance of wood in compression perpendicular to grain (MPa)
Fcpo = base resistance of wood in compression perpendicular to grain (MPa)
Fo = base resistance (MPa)
Ft = specified resistance of wood in tension (MPa)
Fto = base resistance of wood in tension (MPa)
Fv = specified resistance of wood in shear (MPa)
Fvo = base resistance of wood in shear (MPa)
L = length (mm)
Mn = nominal flexural resistance (N-mm)
MΓ = factored flexural resistance (N-mm)
ϕ = resistance factor
11.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR TIMBER
11.3.1 GENERAL
Displacements in joints shall be considered. When two or more connectors interact in a joint,
the force effects within the joint shall be designed considering the deformation, the stiffness
and the capacity of deformation. The movements due to moisture shall be considered if it
affects the load bearing capacity.
Reduction of area shall be considered when the properties of the area are designed. Holes
from screws and nails need not be considered if the diameter is less than 6 mm.

Chapter 11
Other Structural Materials Bridge Design Manual - 2002
The theory of elasticity shall be used when designing the bearing capacity of a timber
structure.
The lumber grade is the designation of the material quality of a manufactured piece of wood
(Select Structural, No 1, No 2).
The stress grade is a lumber grade having assigned working stress and modulus of elasticity
in accordance with principles of resistance grading.
Structural timber for beams and columns shall be of Stress Grade F17 or above as per Tables
11-1 through 11-3, and of Strength Group 1 or 2. This results in a basic working stress in
bending of at least 17.0 MPa.
Iron Bark (amharic: Tikur inchet) and Olea (amh: Weira) belong to stress grade F27, and
Iroko (amh: Dego) and Red Mahogany to stress grade F17.
In soil or in areas with high risk of termite- and/or fungi- attacks, Red Mahogany and Olea
should be used as second choices since they are slightly less resistible.
Stress Grade Basic working Basic working Basic working Basic working Basic working
stress in Flexure stress in Tension stress in Stress in stress in Shear
parallel to grain, parallel to grain, Compression Compression 90° parallel to grain,
Fbo 17.0 Fto 22.0 parallel to grain, to grain, Fcpo Fro
Fco 27.5
F17 17 10 16 7 3
F22 22 14 21 7 3
F27 27 18 25 7 3
F34 34 22 32 7 3
Table 11-1 Timber Stress Values [MPa] (Ref. 1 and 2)
11.3.2 MODIFICATION FACTORS FOR RESISTANCE AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Nominal resistance and modulus of elasticity values shall be obtained by adjusting base
values by applicable modification factors in accordance with the following equations:
F = Fo CF CM CD (11.1)
E = Eo CM (11.2)
Where: F = applicable nominal resistance Fb, Fv, Ft, Fc, or Fcp (MPa)
Fo = base resistance Fbo, Fvo, Fto, Fco, or Fcpo specified in Table 11-3 (MPa)
E = base modulus of elasticity (MPa)
Eo = base modulus of elasticity specified in Table 11-2 (MPa)
CF = size effect factor specified in Table 11-3
CM = moisture content factor specified
CD = deck factor specified in Table 11-4

Chapter 11
Values of Stiffness for Flexural Design Values of Stiffness for Deformation Design
Stress grade Modulus of Elasticity Modulus of Shear Modulus of Elasticity Modulus of Shear
(E) MPa (F) MPa (Eo) MPa (Fo) Mpa
F17 5 000 340 9 000 550
F22 6 500 420 10 000 650
F27 7 600 550 11 500 750
F34 9 200 640 12 500 820
Table 11-2 Characteristic Timber Stiffness Values for Flexural and Deformation
Design
Size effect factor, CF, shall be 1.0, unless specified otherwise herein. For sawn dimension
lumber, and stress grade F17-F27, CF shall be as specified in Equations 11.3 & 11.4 without
modification.
All other
Fbo Fto Fco
Properties
Thickness
Width (mm) 50 mm and
100 mm All All All
75 mm
Structural Joists and Planks – 50 mm x 125 mm through 100 mm x 400 mm
≤ 100 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.16
125 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.13
150 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.10
200 1.19 1.30 1.19 1.06
250 1.09 1.20 1.09 1.03
300 1.00 1.10 1.00 1.00 1.00
350 0.93 1.02 0.93 0.98
400 0.88 0.97 0.88 0.96
Table 11-3 Size Effect Factor, CF, for Sawn Dimension Lumber
For sawn beams and stringers and post and timbers and for vertically laminated, glued
laminated timber with loads applied parallel to the wide face of the laminations, Fbo shall be
adjusted by CF determined to be:
• If d ≤ 300 mm, then CF = 1.0 (11.3)

1/ 9
§ 300 ·
• If d > 300 mm, then CF = ¨ ¸ (11.4)
© d ¹
where: d = net width (mm)

Chapter 11
For glued horizontally laminated timber, with loads applied perpendicular to the wide face of
the laminations, Fbo shall be reduced by CF, given below, when the depth, width, or length of
a glued laminated timber exceeds 300 mm, 130 mm, or 6400 mm, respectively:
a
§ § 300 ·§ 130 ·§ 6400 · ·
CF = ¨¨ ¨ ¸¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¸¸ ≤ 1.0 (11.5)
© © d ¹© b ¹© L ¹ ¹
where: d = depth of the component (mm)

b = width of the component but need not be taken as greater than 270 (mm)
L = length of the component measured between points of contraflexure (mm)
a = 0.05 for Pine and 0.10 for all other species
Unless otherwise specified herein, the moisture content factor, CM, shall be equal to 1. An
analysis of in-service moisture content should be based on regional, geographical, and
climatological conditions.
Unless specified otherwise in this chapter, the deck factor, CD, shall be equal to 1.0. For
stressed wood, nail-laminated, and spike-laminated decks constructed of solid sawn lumber
50 mm to 100 mm thick, Fbo shall be adjusted by "CD" as specified in Table 11-4 below.
Deck Type Lumber grade CD

Stressed Wood Select Structural, 1.30
No 1 or No 2 1.50
Spike-Laminated or All 1.15
Nail-Laminated
Table 11-4 Deck Factors, CD, for Mechanically Laminated Solid Sawn Lumber Decks
11.3.3 LIMIT STATES FOR WOOD
Factored resistance shall be the product of nominal resistance and the resistance factor.
Strength Limit State: Resistance factors, ϕ, shall be as given in Table 11-5, except for load
combination IV.
Flexure ϕ = 0.85
Shear ϕ = 0.75
Compression Parallel to Grain ...................................................ϕ = 0.90
Compression Perpendicular to Grain .........................................ϕ = 0.90
Tension Parallel to Grain ...........................................................ϕ = 0.80
Resistance during Pile Driving ..................................................ϕ = 1.15
Table 11-5: Resistance Factors, ϕ, for Wood

Chapter 11
For Strength Load Combination IV (permanent loads, including dead load and earth
pressure) Table 3-2, resistance factors shall be multiplied by 0.75. Resistance of wood
subjected to long-duration loads is reduced.
For extreme event limit state, the resistance factor shall be taken as 1.0.
11.3.4 COMPONENTS IN FLEXURE
The factored resistance, MΓ, shall be taken as:
MΓ = ϕ Mn (11.6)
Where: Mn = nominal resistance specified herein (Nmm)

ϕ = resistance factor as specified above
11.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR STONE
Masonry is divided into 3 classes, depending primarily on craftsmanship. Class A and Class
B Masonry consists of stones shaped, dressed, and laid broken-coursed in cement mortar in
accordance with certain specified requirements as indicated in Table 11-6. The two classes
differ only in the degree of the specified requirements. Both classes of masonry are intended
for use in any part of a structure. Class A is used primarily for major structures such as arch
barrels, piers and abutments higher than 6 m. Class B is used for minor structures such as
spandrel walls, piers, abutments and retaining walls less than 6 m high.
Dimensioned Masonry shall consist of broken-coursed ashlar masonry composed of stone

having two or more dimensions as shown on the plans. It is intended for use in any part of a
masonry structure where appearance is an important factor, particularly in arch barrels,
spandrel walls, copings, corner trim, and elsewhere.
Dressing - The stone shall be dressed to remove any thin or weak portions. Face stones shall
be dressed to provide bed and joint lines with a maximum variation from true line as
follows:
Masonry Type Maximum Function

Variation
1. Cement Rubble Masonry 40 mm. Low retaining walls, pipe end walls, etc.
2. Class B Masonry 20 mm. Retaining walls, low piers and abutments, etc.
3. Class A Masonry 5 mm. Arch rings/barrels, high piers and abutments, etc.
4. Dimensioned Masonry True. As Class A above with very high quality demands
Table 11-6: Tolerances for Masonry

Chapter 11
For testing of the stone material, the following properties shall be attained:
Material E(MPa) fc (MPa) fc all core (MPa) fc all edge (MPa)

Stone masonry Granite 2 – 4*104 50 – 100 0.1*fc but ≤ 5 0.14*fc but ≤ 7
Stone masonry Sandstone 1 – 2.5*104 35 – 70 0.1*fc but ≤ 4 0.14*fc but ≤ 6
Stone masonry Clinker 0.5 – 1*104 15 – 25 0.1*fc but ≤ 2 0.14*fc but ≤ 3
Unreinforced Concrete 2.5 – 3.2*104 15 – 25 0.14*fc but ≤ 3.5 0.2*fc but ≤ 4.5
Lime stone 0.3 – 2.7*104 4 – 200 0.1*fc but ≤ 2 0.14*fc but ≤ 3
Basalt 3 – 6*104 80 – 580 0.1*fc but ≤ 8 0.14*fc but ≤ 11
Gabbros 4 – 10*104 100 – 280 0.1*fc but ≤ 10 0.14*fc but ≤ 14
Table 11-7 Material Properties of Different Bridge Stones
For further information, see section 7: Superstructure Design/Arch Bridges and Stone
Masonry Piers and regarding Preliminary Design see section 5: Preliminary Design/Layout
of Bridges and Structures/ Masonry and Concrete Arch Bridges.
REFERENCES
1. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Vol. 7 “Foundations,” 1995

2. Eurocode 1 “Basis of Design and Actions on Structures. European Prestandard ENV
1991-3, March 1995.
3. A. Engelund. “Brobyggiing- I. Jernbeton, sten og trae.” (Bridge Design- Part 1
Reinforced Concrete, Stone and Tree). In Danish. Copenhagen, 1934.

Chapter 12
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Detail Design of Bridges and Structures
12 DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES

12.1 GENERAL
These detail design recommendations deal only with culverts, retaining walls, and small and
medium size bridges of certain types. Other types or larger bridges should be designed
according to Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
Detail design shall be made either according to the empirical methods in Chapter 13:
Approximate Methods of Analysis (based on Ref. 1) or any other refined design methods, as
long as they follow accepted static and general design rules.
Loads, force effects and minimum requirements stated in Chapter 3: Load Requirements
shall be used for the detail design.
Construction Loads: In addition to the loads specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements, all
the appropriate construction loads, such as construction live load from machinery and other
equipment, segment unbalance, etc., shall be considered. Construction loads and conditions
frequently determine section dimensions and reinforcing and/or prestressing requirements in
segmentally constructed bridges. It is important that the designer shows these assumed
conditions in the contract documents.
Forms are placed in appropriate sections of the text for checklists in the design of various
piles, piers, abutments, slabs, girders, frame bridges, masonry arch bridges, prestressed
superstructure, and bearings. A final Form 12-12 at the end of the chapter gives a checklist
for the basic steps in the design of concrete bridges. Worked examples of detailed design are
given in the appendix.
12.2 NOTATIONS
The following notations have been used in the recommended methods of calculation:

Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any
(mm2)
A′s = area of compression reinforcement (mm2)
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement; area of reinforcing steel (mm2)
As-BW = area of steel in the band width (mm2)
As-SD = total area of steel in short direction (mm2)
Av = total area of steel (mm2)
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (mm2)
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s (mm2)

Chapter 12
Detail Design of Bridges and Structures Bridge Design Manual - 2002
b = design width, usually taken as 1.0 (mm)

bc = perimeter of slab
bo = perimeter of the critical section (mm)
B = footing dimension
B’ = reduced footing dimension
Bc = outside width of culvert (mm)
Bd = horizontal width of trench (mm)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within depth dv (mm)
Cd = coefficient for trench installations
c = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
d = depth of slab or footing
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement (mm)
dv = effective shear depth (mm)
D = pile width (mm)
eB = eccentricity parallel to dimension B (mm)
eL = eccentricity parallel to dimension L (mm)
E = equivalent width (mm)
f2b = stress corresponding to M2b (MPa)
f2s = stress corresponding to M2s (MPa)
f’c = compressive strength of concrete
fc = factored stress
fcp = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (MPa)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete
Fe = soil-structure interaction factor for embankment installations
Ft = soil-structure interaction factor for trench installations
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
H = depth of backfill; notional height of earth pressure diagram; height of soil face
(mm)
Hs = depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock
i = backfill slope angle (DEG)
I = importance category
Ie = effective moment of inertia
Ig = gross moment of inertia
kap = dimensionless bearing resistance coefficient
kh = horizontal acceleration coefficient (DIM)
kh = humidity factor
ks = size factor
kv = vertical acceleration coefficient (DIM)
K = effective length factor to compensate for rotational and translational boundary
conditions other than pinned ends

Chapter 12
l = unbraced length (mm)

L = footing dimension
L = span length (mm)
L’ = reduced footing dimension
L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18 000 (mm)
M = moment (Nmm)
M2b = Moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that results in no
appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional first order elastic frame
analysis, always positive (Nmm).
M2s = Moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads that
results in no sidesway, ∆, greater than lu/500, calculated by conventional first
order elastic frame analysis, always positive (Nmm).
Ma = maximum moment in a component at the stage for which deformation is
computed (N-mm)
Mc = factored moment
Mcr = cracking moment (N-mm)
Mu = moment from factored loads (Nmm)
NL = number of design lanes
P = load (N)
Pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
Pu = factored axial load (N)
QR = factored uplift resistance (N)
Qs = nominal uplift capacity due to shaft resistance (N)
qp = nominal end bearing resistance of piles driven into rock (MPa)
qu = average uniaxial compression strength of the rock core (MPa)
r = minimum radius of gyration (mm)
R = reduction factor for longitudinal force effects
s = effective span length; spacing of stirrups (mm)
S = spacing of transverse reinforcement
Sd = spacing of discontinuities (mm)
t = drying time (Days)
t = thickness (mm)
td = width of discontinuities (mm)
Tcr = torsional cracking moment (Mnn)
Tn = nominal torsional resistance
Tr = factored torsional resistance
Tu = factored torsional moment (Mnn)
Vc = shear strength (N)
Vc = nominal shear resistance, concrete
Vn = nominal shear resistance (N)
Vp = vertical component of prestressing force (N)
VP = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force, positive if resisting the applied shear (N)
Vr = factored shear resistance (N)

Chapter 12
Vs = shear resistance, steel

Vu = factored shear force, in section (N)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single lane loading
(mm)
WE = total unfactored earth load (N/mm)
Weff = effective width of footing
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (mm)
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis, also taken as
the angle between a strut and the longitudinal axis of a member (DEG)
αo = bedrock acceleration coefficient
β = slope of wall to the vertical, negative as shown in Figure 12-5 (DEG)
β = factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
βc = ratio of long side to short side of the rectangle through which the concentrated
load or reaction force is transmitted
γs = density of backfill (kg/m3)
γ = density of soil (kg/m3)
δ = angle of friction between soil and abutment (DEG)
∈sh = strain due to shrinkage
θ = angle of shear resistance; arc tan (kh /(I - kv)) (DEG)
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (DEG)
θ = angle of crack, usually 45°
θ = skew angle (DEG)
ϕ = resistance factors; angle of friction of soil (DEG)
ϕu = resistance factor for uplift capacity
12.3 SEISMIC DESIGN METHODS
Seismic methods are outlined in section 3.19: Earthquake Effects. The Ethiopian Building
Code Standard (EBCS), Vol. 8 “Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance” (Ref. 2)
shall be used as a compliment for seismic design of bridges in the country. The “importance
category” (I) for bridges should be set to I = 1.4. Other load factors and coefficients are given
in section 3.3: Load Factors and Combinations and in section 3.19: Earthquake Effects.
Seismic zones 1 2 3 4
AASHTO (Ref. 1) (αo) ≤0.09 ≤0.19 ≤0.29 ≥0.29
EBCS (Ref. 2) (αo) ≤0.03 ≤0.05 ≤0.07 ≤0.10
Table 12-1 Comparison between Bedrock Acceleration Coefficients
As shown in the Table 12-1, zones 1 to (and including) zone 3 in EBCS correspond
approximately to zone 1 in the AASHTO (Ref.1), meaning that few special precautions have

Chapter 12
to be considered for common bridge types. Only for special substructures and large or
sensitive bridge types in EBCS zone 4, seismic design should be performed according to
section 3.19: Earthquake Effects or any generally recognized method of seismic design that
might be accepted by ERA. The bedrock acceleration ratios above should be compared.
Regarding the limits of the zones see Figure 3-9.
SETTLEMENT CALCULATION METHODS
The most common method used in Ethiopia is shown in the Ethiopian Building Code
Standard, Vol. 7, “Foundations,” Chapter 6.6.3 Estimation of Settlements in the
Serviceability Limit State (Ref. 3). It can also be recommended for bridges of small and
medium size. However for certain silty soils or deep cohesive soils, as well as for large
bridges, more exact methods are recommended. There are at least three methods where the
soil under the footing is divided into 8 or more strata to a depth, z, under the footing z = 4*
Weff ; where Weff is the effective width of the footing, and the compression of each strata is
calculated with its specific properties.
12.4 FOUNDATIONS
12.4.1 EFFECT OF LOAD ECCENTRICITY
For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a reduced effective area, B' x L', within the
confines of the physical footing shall be used in geotechnical design for settlement or bearing
resistance, as indicated in Figure 12-1. The design bearing pressure on the effective area shall
be assumed to be uniform. The reduced effective area shall be concentric with the load.
Figure 12-1 Reduced Footings Dimensions

Chapter 12
The reduced dimensions for an eccentrically loaded rectangular footing shall be taken as:
B′ = B – 2eB (12.1)
L' = L - 2eL (12.2)
where: eB = eccentricity parallel to dimension B (mm)

eL = eccentricity parallel to dimension L (mm)
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to ensure that:

• The factored bearing resistance is not less than the effects of factored loads, and
• For footings on soils, the eccentricity of the footing, evaluated based on factored loads, is
less than 1/4 of the corresponding footing dimension, B or L.
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foundation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact

pressure distribution based on factored loads shall be used.
For footings that are not rectangular, similar procedures should be used based upon the
principles specified above.
For purposes of structural design, it is usually assumed that the bearing pressure varies
linearly across the bottom of the footing. This assumption results in the slightly conservative
triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distribution.
For footings that are not rectangular, the reduced effective area is always concentrically
loaded and can be estimated by approximation and judgment.
12.4.2 SPREAD FOOTINGS
Provisions herein shall apply to the design of isolated footings, combined footings and
foundation mats. The Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol.7 “Foundations,” Chapter 6
(Ref. 3) deals with shallow foundations.
Class A concrete is generally used for most elements of structures, except when another class
is more appropriate, and specifically for concrete exposed to saltwater. Class B concrete is
used in footings, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
In sloped or stepped footings, the angle of slope or depth and location of steps shall be such
that design requirements are satisfied at every section. Circular or regular polygon-shaped
concrete columns or piers shall be treated as square members with the same area, for location
of critical sections for moment, shear and development of reinforcement in footings.
Where an isolated footing supports a column, pier or wall, the footing shall be assumed to
act as a cantilever. Where a footing supports more than one column, pier or wall, the footing
shall be designed for the actual conditions of continuity and restraint.

Chapter 12
Flexure
The critical section for flexure shall be taken at the face of the column, pier or wall. In the
case of columns that are not rectangular, the critical section shall be taken at the side of the
concentric rectangle of equivalent area. For footings under masonry walls, the critical
section shall be taken as halfway between the center and edge of the wall.
Moment at any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane through
the footing and computing the moment of the forces acting on one side of that vertical plane.
In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be distributed

uniformly across the entire width of the footing. The following guidelines apply to the
distribution of reinforcement in two-way rectangular footings:
• in the long direction, reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width
of footing,
• in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement as specified by Equation 12-3
below, shall be distributed uniformly over a band width equal to the length of the short
side of footing and centered on centerline of column or pier. The remainder of
reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed uniformly outside of the
center band width of footing. The area of steel in the band width shall satisfy the
following equation:
As-BW = As-SD( 2 ) (12.3)

β+1
where: β = the ratio of long side to short side of footing

As-BW = area of steel in the band width (mm2)
As-SD = total area of steel in short direction (mm2)
Shear
Critical Sections: In determining the shear resistance of slabs and footings in the vicinity of
concentrated loads or reaction forces, the more critical of the following conditions shall
govern:
• one-way action, eg. longitudinal to the bridge, with a critical section extending in a plane
across the entire width and located at a distance taken at either:
• "d", the overall depth of the slab or footing, from the face of the concentrated load or
reaction area, or from any abrupt change in slab thickness where the load introduces
compression in the top of the section, or
• at the face of the concentrated load or reaction area where the load introduces
tension in the top of the section.
• two-way action, eg. longitudinal and transverse to the bridge, with a critical section
perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so that its perimeter, bc, is a minimum,
but not closer than 0.5d to the perimeter of the concentrated load or reaction area,

Chapter 12
• where the slab thickness is not constant, critical sections located at a distance not
closer than 0.5d from the face of any change in the slab thickness and located such
that the perimeter, bc, is a minimum.
For one-way action, the shear resistance of the footing or slab shall satisfy the general
requirements for shear.
For two-way action for sections without transverse reinforcement, the nominal shear
resistance,
Vn in (N), of the concrete shall be taken as:
§ 0.33 ·
Vn = ¨¨ 0.17 − ¸ f ′c bodv ≤ f ′cbodv
© β c ¸¹ (12.4)
where: βc = ratio of long side to short side of the rectangle through which the concentrated
load or reaction force is transmitted
bo = perimeter of the critical section (mm)
Where the factored shear force, in section, Vu > ϕVn (see Figure 12-2), shear reinforcement
shall be added such that Vn = Vc+ Vs in compliance with Nominal Shear Resistance with
angle θ taken as 45o.
If a haunch has a rise-to-span

ratio of 1:1 or more where the
rise is in the direction of the
shear force under investigation,
it shall be considered an abrupt
change in section and the
design section shall be taken as
"d" into the span with “d” taken
as the depth past the haunch.
Vu = factored shear force, in section (N)

M = moment (Nmm)
P = load (N)
H = horizontal load (N)
W = weight (N/mm)
Fr = field reaction (N/mm)
Figure 12-2 Example of Critical Sections for Shear in Footings

Chapter 12
For two-way action for sections with transverse reinforcement, the nominal shear resistance,
in N, shall be taken as:
Vn = Vc + Vs ≤ 0.504 f′c *bo dv (12.5)
for which: Vc = 0.166 f′c *bo dv , and (12.6)

Vs = Av fy dv / s (12.7)
For the development of shear reinforcement in slabs and footings, the provisions above shall
apply.
If shear perimeters for individual loads overlap or project beyond the edge of the member,
the critical perimeter bo should be taken as that portion of the smallest envelope of individual
shear perimeter which will actually resist the critical shear for the group under consideration.
12.4.3 PILED FOUNDATIONS
General design
Calculation of piled footings for bridges follow the same rules as buildings. Therefore the
Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol.7 “Foundations”, Chapter 7: Pile Foundations (Ref.
3) can be used. The special requirements for bridges in section 6.3 Foundations: Footings on
Piles should however be considered.
All loads resisted by the footing, and the weight of the footing itself, shall be assumed
transmitted to the piles. Piles installed by driving shall be designed to resist driving and
handling forces. For transportation and erection, 1.5 times the self-weight of a precast pile
should be considered for the design.
Any portion of a pile, where lateral support adequate to prevent buckling may not exist at all
times, shall be designed as a column.
The points or zones of fixity for resistance to lateral loads and moments shall be determined
by an analysis of the soil properties.
Concrete piles shall be embedded into footings or pile caps, as specified below. Anchorage
reinforcement shall consist of either an extension of the pile reinforcement or the use of
dowels. Uplift forces or stresses induced by flexure shall be resisted by the reinforcement.
The steel ratio for anchorage reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005 and the number of
bars shall not be less than four. The reinforcement shall be developed sufficiently to resist the
force 1.25 fy As.
For the design of footings, unless the use of special equipment is specified to assure precision
driving of piles, it shall be assumed that individual driven piles shall be out of planned
position in a footing by either 150 mm or one quarter of the pile diameter, and that the center
of a group of piles shall be 75 mm from its planned position. For pile bents, the contract
documents may require a 50 mm tolerance for pile position, in which case that value should

Chapter 12
be accounted for in the design.

Splices in concrete piles shall develop the axial, flexural, shear and torsional resistance of the
pile. Details of splices shall be shown in the contract documents.
If possible piles in tension should be avoided, although this is sometimes not possible in high
abutments. Piers should preferably be designed symmetrically so that the center of rotation of
the entire pile group will be below the bearings.
Required pile penetration should be determined based on the resistance to vertical and lateral
loads and the displacement of both the pile and the subsurface materials. In general, unless
refusal is encountered, the design penetration for any pile should be not less than 3000 mm
into hard cohesive or dense granular material and not less than 6000 mm into soft cohesive
or loose granular material.
Where a portion of a pile lies inside the critical section, the pile load shall be considered to
be uniformly distributed across the width or diameter of the pile, and that portion of the load
which is outside the critical section shall be included in the calculation of shear on the
critical section.
If a large diameter pile is subjected to significant flexural moments, the load on the critical
section shall be adjusted by considering the pile reaction on the footing to be idealized as the
stress distribution resulting from the axial load and moment.
Piling design (driven piles)
The calculations shall be made in the order presented in Form 12-1.

Skin friction pile group may have total strength limit bearing capacity considerable greater
than or less than the sum of the bearing capacity of each pile.
Tip bearing pile group usually has the total strength limit bearing capacity equal to the sum
of the bearing capacity of each pile. Tip bearing piles are usually assumed to behave like
elastic compressed members loose hinged into the pile footing. The settlement of the group
is usually very small and need not to be calculated for the common types of bridges.
Usually batter piles are used to resist horizontal forces. If the piles penetrate friction
material or certain types of over-consolidated clays the side bearing stability shall be used,
but then the horizontal displacement should be calculated as well.
The pile group of abutment and piers should be designed so that the rotation center is above
the bearings.
If the Soil Investigation Report indicates downdrag (negative skin friction), especially for
tip bearing piles this case must be considered. To minimize the downdrag there are different
methods to be used:
• a tip with larger area than the pile itself, combined with
• asphalt dipped or painted on the surface of the pile
• preboring of a hole before inserting the asphalt painted pile itself.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-1: CHECKLIST FOR PILING DESIGN (DRIVEN PILES)
1. List all acting vertical and horizontal forces.

2. Assume a number of piles and their batter.
3. Calculate the resultant roughly by the lever rule method (moment equation through the
bottom edge of the pile cap).
4. Check that the tension in the piles is limited otherwise increase the batter of the piles.
5. Check the approximate compression force in each pile and optimize the number of
piles.
6. Calculate the center of the pile group
7. Merge all the piles with the same batter and distance from the centerline in stacks.
8. Calculate the distance of the resultant exactly
9. Check the rotational center point
10. Calculate the moment of inertia at the center of rotation
11. Calculate the pile forces in each pile by the lever method (moment equations)
12. Table the result, check that every pile is not different from the assumed value.
13. If downdrag is given in the Soil Investigation Report, add the downdrag (= negative
skin friction) to the pile load.
14. If skin friction piles, calculate the long-term settlement of the entire pile group.
(Usually the initial settlement of cohesion piles is neglected). If tip bearing piles, the
settlement usually corresponds to the compression of the piles.
15. Note: Usually the pile group needs design checking after the piling due to
misplacements, broken piles, wrong batter, etc.
Date: ................................ Designer Date: ..................... Responsible Engineer
........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Piles Bearing on Rock:
The resistance factor for the tip resistance of piles bearing on rock shall be taken as
specified in section 6.3 Limit States and Resistance Factors. The same applies for the axial
resistance obtained from the pile driving analyzer, where:
• pile width exceeds 290 mm, and
• rock discontinuity spacing exceeds 300 mm, and
• unfilled discontinuity thickness is less than 6.4 mm, or
• discontinuities filled with soil or rock debris are less than 25 mm wide
The nominal unit end bearing resistance, qp, of piles driven to rock, in MPa, shall be taken
as:
qp = 3quKapd (12.8)
for which:
Kap = (3 + Sd / D) / 10 * (1 + 300( td / Sd )) (12.9)
d = 1 + 0.4Hs/D < 3.4
where: qu = average uniaxial compression strength of the rock core (MPa)

Kap = dimensionless bearing resistance coefficient from the formula above.
Sd = spacing of discontinuities (mm)
td = width of discontinuities (mm)
D = pile width (mm)
Hs = depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock taken as 0.0 for piles resting on
top of bedrock (mm)
When this method is applicable, the rocks are usually so sound that the structural capacity
will govern the design.
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects, calculated based on the appropriate
strength limit state load combinations, are tensile. When piles are subjected to uplift, they
should be investigated for both resistance to pullout and structural ability to resist tension
and transmit it to the footing.
The uplift resistance of a single pile shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for
estimating the skin friction resistance of piles in compression. Factored uplift resistance QR,
in N, shall be taken as:
QR = ϕQn = ϕu Qs (12.10)
Where: Qs = nominal uplift capacity due to shaft resistance (N)

ϕu = resistance factor for uplift capacity
The factored load effect acting on any pile in a group shall be estimated using the traditional
elastic strength of materials procedure for a cross-section under thrust and moment. The

Chapter 12
cross-sectional properties should be based on the pile as a unit area. The resistance factors
for axial tension are lower than those for compression. One reason for this is that piles in
tension unload the soil; this reduces the overburden effective stress and hence the uplift skin
friction resistance of the pile.
12.5 RETAINING WALLS
12.5.1 GENERAL
The design of retaining walls is usually made by classic soil pressure theory, similar to that
of abutments. In earthquake zone 4 however, it might be necessary to check sliding by the
Manonobe-Okabe method (Ref. 4) given later in this chapter.
Usually the stability /overturning, lateral sliding and bearing resistance failure should be
checked in the strength limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked in the service
limit state.
12.5.2 GRAVITY WALLS (STONE MASONRY)
See also following subchapter on masonry abutments.
Stone masonry retaining walls are designed as gravity walls, usually using Masonry Class B
(see Technical Specifications). The methods used are general for all similar structures. The
Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol. 7 “Foundations”, Chapter 8: Retaining Structures
and in particular subchapter 8.6.3 Foundation Failure of Gravity Walls of that document
(Ref. 3), are recommended. The Live Load Surcharge according to section 3.20: Earth
Pressure should be applied, if the retaining wall is close to the traffic.
Class B concrete is usually used in gravity walls and footings. Usually the stability
/overturning, lateral sliding and bearing resistance failure should be checked in the strength
limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked in the service limit state.
12.5.3 CANTILEVERED RC WALL DESIGN
The cantilevered retaining wall design usually is a tedious iteration problem. Therefore it is
most suited for computers. There are a few commercial programs available at present but a
designer could also prepare his own EXCEL-sheet. If possible, the Standard Detail Drawing
Manual-2002(No. RW-1 for RC Cantilever Retaining Walls with 2-6 m height) should be
used.
Regarding the initial settings of dimensions, for common types of soil the footing width shall
be set to 0.6-0.8 of the height, and depending on the soil bearing capacity, the toe should be
0.2-0.3 of the total footing. If the heel is too short, a "shear wall" is needed under the footing
to resist sliding. In other words, if the safety factor of sliding is not obtained, the heel
dimension should be increased, and if the safety factor of overturning too low, then the toe

Chapter 12
should preferably be increased. For practical reasons the top of the wall shall not be less than
0.2 m. The backfill should be granular or of stone, whichever is available at the site.
Generally, Class A concrete is used for RC retaining walls and Class B concrete is used for
concrete gravity walls and footings.
Regarding loads, the temperature and shrinkage deformation effects and the earthquake loads
should also be applied. For stability computations, the earth loads shall be multiplied by the
maximum and/or the minimum load factors given in section 3.3: Load Factors and
Combinations. Structural failure, lateral sliding, stability /overturning and bearing resistance
failure shall be checked in the strength limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked
in the service limit state.
In the general case of a cantilever retaining wall where the downward load on the heel is
larger than the upward reaction of the soil under the heel, the critical section for shear in the
footing is taken at the back face of the stem.
A worked example of a concrete retaining wall design is given in the appendix.
12.6 CULVERTS
12.6.1 GENERAL
One of the most common types of culvert is a simple supported reinforced concrete slab on
two or three masonry walls. In this case the bearings shall be made only of a layer of bitumen
felt on top of concrete shelves cast on the stone masonry. The design should however be
according to simple statics as a bridge with the loads from section 3.3: Load Factors and
Combinations, with the following exceptions:
• Expansion joints need not to be considered.
• For buried structures with more than 0.6 m fill, earthquake forces in all zones shall be
omitted.
12.6.2 DESIGN OF RC CULVERTS
General
Buried structures shall be designed so that no movement of any part of the structure will
occur as a result of scour. In areas where scour is a concern, the wingwalls shall be extended
far enough from the structure to protect the structural portion of the soil envelope
surrounding the structure. For structures placed over erodible deposits, a cutoff wall or scour
curtain, extending below the maximum anticipated depth of scour or a paved invert, shall be
used. The footings of structures shall be placed not less than 600 mm below the maximum
anticipated depth of scour.
Uplift shall be considered where structures are installed below the highest anticipated

Chapter 12
groundwater level. To satisfy this provision, the dead load on the crown of the structure
should exceed the buoyancy of the culvert, using load factors as appropriate.
Pipe structures and footings for buried structures shall be investigated for bearing capacity
failure and erosion of soil backfill by hydraulic gradients.
Design criteria, as specified in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 7:

Culverts, section 7.3: Design Criteria for hydraulic design considerations, shall apply. See
also ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 6: Box Culvert and Slab Culvert
Drawings for standard single and multiple box culverts.
Design
RC Cast-In-Place and Precast Box Culverts: The provisions herein shall apply to the
structural design of cast-in-place and precast reinforced concrete box culverts and cast-in-
place reinforced concrete arches with the arch barrel monolithic with each footing.
These structures become part of a composite system comprised of the box or arch culvert
structure and the soil envelope.
Precast reinforced concrete box culverts shall be manufactured using conventional structural
concrete and forms, or they shall be machine-made with dry concrete and vibrating form pipe
making methods.
Loads and Live Load Distribution: Loads and load combinations specified in Table 3-1 shall
apply. Live load shall be considered as specified in section 3.10: Live Loads. Distribution of
wheel loads and concentrated loads for culverts with less than 600 mm of cover shall be
taken as specified for slab-type superstructures. Requirements for bottom distribution
reinforcement in top slabs of such culverts shall be placed in the secondary direction in the
bottom of slabs as a percentage of the primary reinforcement for positive moment. For
primary reinforcement parallel to the traffic:
1750 s ≤ 50% (12.11)
Where s = effective span length (mm).
For primary reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:
3840 s ≤ 67% (12.12)
Distribution of wheel loads to culverts with 600 mm or more of cover shall be as specified in
section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Distribution of Wheel Loads through Earth Fills.
The dynamic load allowance for buried structures shall conform to section 3.9: Live
Loads/Buried Components.

Chapter 12
Modification of Earth Loads for Soil-Structure Interaction: In lieu of a more refined

analysis, the total unfactored earth load, WE, in N/mm, acting on the culvert shall be taken
as:
• For embankment installations:
WE = g Fe γsBcH*10-9 (12.13)
in which: Fe =1 + 0.20 H (12.14)
Bc
• For trench installations:
WE = g FtγsBcH*10-9 (12.15)
in which: CdBd 2 (12.16)

Ft = ≤ Fe
HBc
where: g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

Fe = soil-structure interaction factor for embankment installation specified herein
Bc = outside width of culvert (mm)
H = depth of backfill (mm)
Ft = soil-structure interaction factor for trench installations specified herein
γs = density of backfill (kg/m3)
Bd = horizontal width of trench (mm)
Cd = a coefficient specified in Figure 12-3
Fe shall not exceed 1.15 for installations with compacted fill along the sides of the box
section, or 1.40 for installations with uncompacted fill along the sides of the box section.
For wide trench installations where the trench width exceeds the horizontal dimension of the
culvert across the trench by more than 300 mm, Ft shall not exceed the value specified for an
embankment installation.
Precast Box Structures: At all cross-sections subjected to flexural tension, the primary
flexural reinforcement in the direction of the span shall be not less than 0.2% of the gross
concrete area. Such minimum reinforcement shall be provided at the inside faces of walls
and in each direction at the top of slabs of box sections having less than 600 mm of cover.
Where the fabricated length exceeds 5 m, the minimum longitudinal reinforcement for
shrinkage and temperature should be in conformance with section 9.1: Concrete.
If the height of the fill is ≤ 600 mm, the minimum cover in the top slab shall be 50 mm for
all types of reinforcement.

Chapter 12
Figure 12-3 Coefficient Cd for Trench Installations
Where welded wire fabric is used, the minimum cover shall be the greater of three times the
diameter of the wire or 25 mm.
Shear in Slabs of Box Culverts: The provisions for shear and torsion in general shall apply
unless modified herein. For slabs of box culverts under 600 mm or more fill, shear strength
Vc shall be computed by:
§ 32AsVude ·
Vc = ¨ 0.178 fc + ¸ * bde (12.17)
© bdeMu ¹
but: Vc shall not exceed 0.332 f′c b de (12.18)
where: As = area of reinforcing steel (mm2)

de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement (mm)
Vu = shear from factored loads (N)
Mu = moment from factored loads (Nmm)
b = design width usually taken as 1.0 (mm)

Chapter 12
For single cell box culverts only, Vc for slabs monolithic with walls need not be taken less
than
0.25 f ′c bde (12.19)
and Vc for slabs simply supported need not be taken less than
0.207 f ′c bde (12.20)

The quantity
Vude/Mu ≤ 1.0 (12.21)
where Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section

considered. For slabs of box culverts under less than 600 mm of fill and for sidewalls, the
provisions for shear and torsion in general and in slabs and footings shall apply.
12.6.3 DESIGN OF RC PIPES
Generally the detail design of Reinforced Concrete Pipes should be avoided due to the
prevalence of manufactured pipes. Precast Concrete Pipes shall meet the requirements of
the Technical Specifications.
It should be noted that “Bedding Classes,” also referred to as “Standard Installations,” shall
be as indicated in the ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002.
12.7 SUBSTRUCTURES FOR RC BRIDGES
12.7.1 GENERAL
Regarding earthquake design within Zone 4, see the following subsection of that title.
Creep Coefficient
The creep coefficient shall be estimated as in section 9.3 Reinforced Concrete/Shrinkage and
Creep.
Shrinkage
In the absence of more accurate data, the shrinkage coefficients shall be assumed to be
0.0002 after 28 days and 0.0005 after one year of drying. When mix-specific data are not
available, estimates of shrinkage and creep shall be made using the provisions below.
Shrinkage of concrete can vary over a wide range from nearly nil if continually immersed in
water to in excess of 0.0008 for either thin sections made with high shrinkage aggregates or
for sections which are not property cured.
Shrinkage is affected by aggregate characteristics and proportions, average humidity at the

Chapter 12
bridge site, water/cement ratio, volume to surface area ratio of member, and duration of
drying period.
For moist cured concretes, devoid of shrinkage-prone aggregates, the strain due to
shrinkage, ∈sh, at time t, shall be taken as:
§ ·
¨ t ¸ −3 (12.22)
∈ sh = −kskh ¨¨ ¸ 0.51 * 10
© 35.0 + t ¹
¸
where: t = drying time (Days)

ks = size factor (see Figure 12-4)
kh = humidity factor specified in Table 12-2 below
If the moist-cured concrete is exposed to drying before five days of curing have elapsed, the
shrinkage as determined in equation above should be increased by 20%.
12.7.2 PIERS (MASONRY, WALLS, FRAMED, COLUMNS)
Design schedules for the most common three types of piers are presented here. Class A
concrete is generally used for all elements of structures. Class B concrete is used in footings,
massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
Figure 12-4: Factor ks for Volume-to-Surface Ratio
Average Ambient 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Relative Humidity %
kh 1.43 1.29 1.14 1.00 0.86 0.43 0.00
Table 12-2 Factor kh for Relative Humidity

Chapter 12
Masonry Piers shall be designed in the order presented in Form 12-2.

RC Wall Pier Design
The procedure of calculation will follow the schedule presented in Form 12-2 with the
following alterations:
• The bending and shear reinforcement shall be calculated also at some points (at least at
the bottom and at the midpoint) of the wall.
• The spalling effect under the bearings should be checked if the bearing plate is small (i.e.
steel girders).
• If the stream velocity is high, the pier is high and the water is deep, the load combination
without vertical load from the superstructure and the full stream force shall be dangerous
and should therefore be checked.
RC Frame Pier Design
Framed piers shall be designed according to the schedule in Form 12-3.
12.7.3 ABUTMENTS (STONE MASONRY, RC CLOSED, RC OPENED)
Abutment seats constructed on modular units shall be designed by considering earth

pressures and supplemental horizontal pressures from the abutment seat beam and earth
pressures on the backwall. The top module shall be proportioned to be stable under the
combined actions of normal and supplementary earth pressures. The minimum width of the
top module shall be 0.9 m. The centerline of bearing shall be located a minimum of 300 mm
from the outside face of the top precast module. The abutment beam seat shall be supported
by and cast integrally with the top module. The front face thickness of the top module shall
be designed for bending forces developed by supplemental earth pressures. Abutment beam-
seat loadings shall be carried to the foundation level and shall be considered in the design of
footings.
The minimum dimensions of RC abutments shall be as follows:

Footing : t ≥ 0.3 m; on rock trock ≥ 0.25m, usually ≥ 0.6 m
Abutment : frontwall/stem and headwall t ≥ 0.25m, usually ≥ 0.5/0.3 m respectively.
Wingwall : t ≥ 0.2m, usually ≥ 0.3 m
Differential settlement provisions shall apply.

A design schedule of the most common type of abutment, stone masonry, is shown here.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-2: CHECKLIST FOR MASONRY PIERS DESIGN
1. Specify the class of masonry (usually B) and strength of other materials to be used (if
any).
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions. e.g. top width of seat & side batterings. The
sides are to be rounded if the design velocity exceeds 1 m/s and the battering of the sides
usually are chosen as 1:20 upstream and equal downstream, or 1:10 if high water
velocity and high pier.
3. Draw a sketch with the above preliminary dimensions.
4. Divide the wall into parts so that it will be simple to calculate the dead load of the
parts of the pier and their centroidal distance from an arbitrary selected point, usually at
the toe.
5. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the pier; i.e. dead load, live load,
wind loads, longitudinal forces and thermal loads.
6. Calculate the loads directly applied on the pier; i.e. wind load if applicable and stream
force.
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of pier with the
above loads.
8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum bearing pressure is within the
allowable range for the type of foundation material.
9. Check if the ground pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing
capacity of the founding material.
10. If the bearing pressure at the base of the wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil either increase the battering and/or provide a reinforced concrete footing.
Revise the dead load of the pier. The final maximum bearing pressure from the
substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
11. Check the stability of the pier for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning shall usually be greater or equal to 2.0 according to the serviceability limit
stage. Sometimes the soil stability regarding circular gliding in friction soil should be
checked in cooperation with the Soil Engineer.
12. Check the stability of the pier for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding shall
usually be greater or equal to 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
Note if a RC footing is used the sliding surface is between the concrete and the ground.
The surface between the stone masonry and the concrete should be checked for ”shear
friction”. Note that checking of the stone compression strength at the bottom of the pier
is usually not necessary, since the stone masonry is stronger than the soil bearing
capacity.
If RC footing is provided under the masonry the following order could be applied:
13. Calculate the bearing pressure on top and bottom surface of footing
14. Calculate the moment per meter of footing at halfway between the middle and edge
of wall

Chapter 12
15. Check the adequacy of the footing thickness for flexure and shear.
16. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the four sides of the cantilever.
17. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the pier cross section with the footing
reinforcement (if any)
........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Form 12-3: Checklist for RC Frame Pier Design

1. Specify the quality of reinforcement steel; concrete used and their strengths
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat/cap depth of cap, column
dimensions, footing dimensions
4. Calculate the dead load of the parts of the pier and their centroidal distance from an
arbitrary selected point, usually the toe of the footing.
5. Calculate the load transferred from superstructure to the pier; i.e. dead load, live load,
wind loads, longitudinal forces and thermal loads, usually from the bearing design.
6. Calculate the loads directly applied on the pier; i.e. wind loads, stream forces, collision
loads (if the river is navigable)
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of pier with the
above loads.
8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum soil bearing pressure is within the
allowable range for the actual type of foundation material.
9. Check that the pressure at the base of the footing is less than the allowable bearing
10. If the bearing pressure at the base of the wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil either increase the front and/or back battering and/or provide reinforced
concrete footing. Revise the dead load of the pier. The final maximum bearing pressure
from the substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing capacity of the
soil.
11. Check the stability of the pier for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning shall usually be greater or equal to 2.0 according to the serviceability limit
stage.
12. Check the stability of the pier for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding shall
usually be greater or equal to 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
13. Draw a sketch with the loads from superstructure and directly applied on the pier.
14. Analyze the frame with the different load conditions.
15. Design the pier cap for flexure and shear.
16. Design the bracing for flexure and shear (if any)
17. Design the columns (Hint: Calculate the moment magnification factor for the
slenderness effect, prepare the column interaction curve with the assumed dimension and
reinforcement, check if the factored axial load with the simultaneously applied magnified
moment is within the column interaction curve.)
18. Check the minimum steel ratio of the column reinforcement.
19. Design the footing in the longitudinal and transversal direction for flexure; wide
beam and punching shear (a circular column should be converted to an equivalent square
one).
20. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the pier cross section with the footing
reinforcement.
21. Prepare bar schedule table.

........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Form 12-4: Checklist for Masonry Abutments Design
1. Specify the class of masonry (usually B) and strength of other materials to be used.
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat usually 0.5 m, front
battering, back battering, etc.
4. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the abutment; i.e. dead load, live
load, wind loads, longitudinal forces (breaking force, shrinkage, creep and thermal loads
− all transferred through friction forces from bearings).
5. Divide the wall into parts to make it simple to calculate the dead load of the parts of
the abutments and their centroidal distance from an arbitrarily selected point, usually
taken to be the toe.
6. Calculate the active soil earth pressure from back of wall and the passive earth
pressure from front of wall. Usually the passive earth pressure is neglected since the front
soil adjacent to the wall is susceptible for scour, is loose backfill and hence not effective
in developing the resistance, as well as relatively more shallow in depth.
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of abutment with
the above loads.
8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum bearing pressure is with in the
9. Check if the pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing capacity
of the founding material.
10. If the bearing pressure at the base of wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity of
the soil either increase the front and/or back battering and/or provide reinforced concrete
footing. Revise the dead load of the abutment. The final maximum bearing pressure from
the substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
11. Check the stability of the abutment for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning ≥ 2.0, according to the serviceability limit stage.
12. Check the stability of the abutment for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding
shall usually be ≥1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
• Note that checking of the stone compression strength at the bottom is usually not
necessary, since the stone masonry is stronger than the soil.
• The battering of the sides usually follow the outer side of the wingwalls.
If RC footing is provided under the masonry the following applies:
13. Calculate the bearing pressure on top and bottom surface of footing.
14. Calculate the moment per linear width of footing at the point B/4 (which is halfway
between the middle and edge of wall)
16. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the toe and heel cantilever.
17. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the abutment cross section with the footing
reinforcement (if any)
........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
FORM 12-5: CHECKLIST FOR RC ABUTMENT DESIGN
1. Specify the class of concrete (usually B) and strength of reinforcement steel to be used.
28-Day Strength Classes are: 28 Mpa for Concrete A and 17 Mpa for Concrete B.
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat (usually 0.6 m), thickness
of wall, thickness of footing, etc.
4. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the abutment; i.e. dead load, live
load, wind loads, longitudinal forces (breaking force, shrinkage, creep and thermal loads
− all transferred through friction forces from bearings).
5. Divide the wall into parts to make it simple to calculate the dead load of the parts of
the abutments and their centroidal distance from an arbitrarily selected point (usually the
toe).
6. Calculate the active soil earth pressure from back of wall and the passive earth
pressure from front of wall. Usually the passive earth pressure is neglected since the
front soil adjacent to the wall is susceptible for scour, is loose backfill and hence not
effective in developing the resistance, as well as relatively more shallow in depth.
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of abutment with
the above loads.
8. If piled calculate the pile group according to text. (Usually all rows are battered).
9. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum bearing pressure is within the
10. Check if the pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing
11. If the soil bearing pressure at the base of wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil increase the footing. Revise the dead load of the abutment. The final
maximum bearing pressure from the substructure shall be less than or equal to the
allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
12. Check the stability of the abutment for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning ≥ 2.0, according to the serviceability limit stage.
13. Check the stability of the abutment for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding
shall usually be ≥1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
14. Check the compression strength at the bottom of wall
15. Calculate the moment of frontwall (base)/stem at 2-4 points and headwall at base
16. Calculate the moment per linear width of footing and check for shear reinforcement.
18. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the toe and heel cantilever.
19. Calculate the settlement of the abutment footing.
20. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the abutment cross section with the footing
reinforcement
........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Masonry Abutments shall be designed as presented in Form 12-4.
The closed reinforced concrete abutment shall be calculated according to the checklist
presented as Form 12-5. Detailed design is similar to that for retaining walls, as presented in
the appendix.
RC Closed and Open Abutment (with counterforts)
Shall be calculated according to the Checklist in Form 12-5. Refer Chapter 5, Section 5.7
figure 5-2.
Earthquake Design of Abutments, Retaining Walls, etc.
There is some possibility of damage to bridge abutments due to earthquakes in Ethiopia.

Damage is typically associated with fill settlement or slumping, displacements induced by
high, seismically caused, lateral earth pressures, or the transfer of high longitudinal or
transverse inertia forces from the bridge structure itself.
Movements of freestanding abutments follow the general pattern of outward motion and
rotation about the top after contact with and restraint by the superstructures. Fill settlements
can be 10 - 15% of the fill height.
Design features of abutments vary tremendously and depend on the nature of the bridge site,
foundation soils, bridge span length, and load magnitudes. Abutment types include free-
standing gravity walls, cantilever walls, tied back walls, and monolithic diaphragms.
Foundation support may use spread footings, vertical piles, or battered piles, whereas
connection details to the superstructure may incorporate roller supports, elastomeric
bearings, or fixed bolted connections. Considering the number of potential design variables,
together with the complex nature of soil abutment superstructure interaction during
earthquakes, it is clear that the seismic design of abutments necessitates many simplifying
assumptions.
For freestanding abutments, such as gravity or cantilever walls, which are able to yield
laterally during an earthquake (i.e., superstructure supported by bearings that are able to slide
freely), the well-established Mononobe-Okabe pseudo-static approach, outlined below, is
widely used to compute earth pressures induced by earthquakes. On the basis of this
simplified approach, recommendations are made for the selection of a pseudo-static seismic
coefficient and the corresponding displacement level for a given effective peak ground
acceleration.
Mononobe-Okabe Analysis
The method most frequently used for the calculation of the seismic soil forces acting on a
bridge abutment is a static approach developed in the 1920s by Mononobe (Ref. 4) and
Okabe (Ref. 5). The Mononobe-Okabe analysis is an extension of the Coulomb sliding-

Chapter 12
wedge theory, taking into account horizontal and vertical inertia forces acting on the soil.
The analysis is further described by Seed and Whitman (Ref. 6), and Richards and Elms
(Ref. 7). The following assumptions are made:
1. The abutment is free to yield sufficiently to enable full soil strength or active pressure
conditions to be mobilized. If the abutment is rigidly fixed and unable to move, the soil
forces will be much higher than those predicted by the Mononobe-Okabe analysis.
2. The backfill is cohesionless, with a friction angle of ϕ.
3. The backfill is unsaturated, so that liquefaction problems will not arise.
Equilibrium considerations of the soil wedge behind the abutment, then lead to a value, EAE,
of the active force exerted on the soil mass by the abutment and vice versa. When the
abutment is at the point of failure, EAE is given by the expression:
EAE = 1 g γ H2 (1 – kv)KAE *10-9 (12.23)

2
where the seismic active pressure coefficient KAE is:
−2
cos 2 (ϕ − θ − β) § sin (ϕ + δ )sin (ϕ − θ) ·
KAE = * ¨¨1 + ¸ (12.24)
cos θ cos β cos(δ + β + θ) ©
2
cos(δ + β + θ)cos(i − β) ¸¹
where: g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
γ = density of soil (kg/m3)
H = height of soil face (mm)
ϕ = angle of friction of soil (DEG)
θ = arc tan (kh /(I - kv)) (DEG)
δ = angle of friction between soil and abutment (DEG)
kh = horizontal acceleration coefficient (DIM)
kv = vertical acceleration coefficient (DIM)
i = backfill slope angle (DEG)
β = slope of wall to the vertical, negative as shown in Figure 12-5 (DEG)
12.7.9 WINGWALLS
The most common type is stone masonry, which could be designed principally in the same
way as abutments according to the design schedule given for stone masonry above.
RC Wingwalls are usually attached to the RC Abutment (as in Figure 5-3) or to the endwall
(as shown in Figure 5-4). They shall be calculated either by an approximate method in two
points or by a refined method using i.e. the integral analysis method.
Regarding seismic design in zone 4, see Mononobe-Okabe Analysis above

Chapter 12
Figure 12-5 Active Wedge Force Diagram
12.8 SUPERSTRUCTURE FOR RC BRIDGES
12.8.1 CONCRETE GENERAL
Unless otherwise stated, the Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol. 2 Structural Use of
Concrete, 1995 (Ref. 8), shall be used.
Flexure
Regarding flexural design see section 9.4: Reinforcement: Flexural Reinforcement.
Shear
The factored shear resistance, Vr, shall be taken as:
Vr = ϕVn (12.25)
Vn = nominal shear resistance specified in Equation 12.26 and 12.27 (N)

ϕ = resistance factor as specified in section 9.3: Concrete
The shear resistance Vn of a concrete member shall be separated into a component, Vc, which
relies on tensile stresses in the concrete, a component, Vs which relies on tensile stresses in
the transverse reinforcement, and a component, Vp, which is the vertical component of the
prestressing force.
The nominal shear resistance, Vn shall be determined as the lesser of:
Vn = Vc + Vs + VP (12.26)

Chapter 12
or
Vn = 0.25 f'c bv dv + VP (12.27)
for which:
Vc = 0.083β f ′c bvdv
(12.28)
and
Avfvdv (cot θ + cot α) sin α
Vs = (12.29)
s
where: bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv as
determined above (mm)
dv = effective shear depth as determined above (mm)
s = spacing of stirrups (mm)
β = factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension,
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (DEG)
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis, also
taken
as the angle between a strut and the longitudinal axis of a member (DEG)
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (mm2)
VP = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force, positive if resisting the applied shear (N)
An approximate method – the Sectional Design Model – with β and θ is described in section
13.7: Shear- Sectional Design Model.
Torsion
The factored torsional resistance, Tr, shall be taken as:
Tr = ϕ Tn (12.30)
where: Tn = nominal torsional resistance specified in Equation 5.37 (Nmm)

ϕ = resistance factor specified in section 9.1: Concrete
For normal density concrete, torsional effects shall be investigated where:
Tu > 0.25 ϕ Tcr (12.31)

2
for which: Tcr = 0.328 f ′c Acp 1+
fcp (12.32)
Pc 0.328 f ′c

Chapter 12
where: Tu = factored torsional moment (Nmm)

Tcr = torsional cracking moment (Nmm)
Pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
fcp = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the
web and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (MPa)
Regions Requiring Transverse Reinforcement: Except for slabs, footings and culverts,
transverse reinforcement shall be provided where either:
• Vu > 0.5 0 (Vc + Vp) or (12.33)

• Where consideration of torsion is required by Equation 12.31 above.
where: Vu = factored shear force (N)
Vc = nominal shear resistance of the concrete (N)
VP = component of prestressing force in direction of the shear force (N)
Minimum Transverse Reinforcement: Where transverse reinforcement is required, as
specified above, the area of steel shall not be less than:
bvS
Av = 0.083 f ′c (12.34)
fy
where: Av = area of a transverse reinforcement within distance s (mm2)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv,
modified for the presence of ducts where applicable, as specified in Equation 12.36
below (mm)
S = spacing of transverse reinforcement (mm)
fy = yield strength of transverse reinforcement (MPa)
A minimum amount of transverse reinforcement is required to restrain the growth of

diagonal cracking and to increase the ductility of the section. A larger amount of transverse
reinforcement is required to control cracking as the concrete strength is increased.
Transverse reinforcement, which usually consists of stirrups, is required in all regions where
there is a significant chance of diagonal cracking. Transverse reinforcement may consist of:
• stirrups making an angle not less than 45° with the longitudinal tension reinforcement,
• welded wire fabric, with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member, provided
that the transverse wires are certified to undergo a minimum elongation of 4.0%,
measured over a gage length of at least 100 mm including at least one cross wire, or
• anchored prestressed tendons, detailed and constructed to minimize seating and time-
dependent losses, which make an angle not less than 45° with the longitudinal tension
reinforcement.

Chapter 12
Torsional reinforcement shall consist of both transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.

Transverse reinforcement shall consist of closed stirrups perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the member.
Maximum Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement: The spacing of the transverse

reinforcement shall not exceed the following:
if Vu < 0.1 f'c bv dv, then: s ≤ 0.8 dv ≤ 600 mm (12.35)
if Vu ≥ 0.1 f'c bv dv then: s ≤ 0.4 dv ≤ 300 mm (12.36)
where: bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv,
modified for the presence of ducts where applicable
dv = effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compressive forces due
to flexure, but it need not be taken less than the greater of 0.9d, or 0.72h (mm)
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement (mm)
In determining bv at a particular level, the diameters of ungrouted ducts or one-half the

diameters of grouted ducts, at that level, shall be subtracted from the web width.
Design and Detailing Requirements: Transverse reinforcement shall be anchored at both
ends. For composite flexural members, extension of beam shear reinforcement into the deck
slab shall be considered when determining if the development and anchorage provisions are
satisfied.
The design yield strength of non-prestressed transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 400
MPa.
Components of inclined flexural compression and/or flexural tension in variable depth

members shall be considered when calculating shear resistance.
Sections near Supports: Regions of members where the plane sections assumption of flexural
theory is not valid shall be designed for shear and torsion using for example the strut-and-tie
model. Where the reaction force, in the direction of the applied shear, introduces
compression into the end region of a member, the location of the critical section for shear
shall be taken as the larger of 0.5 dv cot θ or dv from the internal face of the support.
The nominal torsional resistance Tn, in Nmm, shall be taken as:

2AoAtfyCotθ
Tn = (12.37)
S
where: Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any
(mm2)

Chapter 12
Deformations – Deflection and Camber
Deflection and camber calculations shall consider dead load, live load, prestressing, erection
loads, concrete creep and shrinkage, and steel relaxation. For determining deflection and
camber, the elastic behavior shall apply.
In the absence of a more comprehensive analysis, instantaneous deflections shall be

computed using the modulus of elasticity for concrete and taking the moment of inertia as
either the gross moment of inertia, Ig, or an effective moment of inertia, Ie, given by Equation
12.38:
§ Mcr ·
3
ª § Mcr · 3
º (12.38)
Ie = ¨ ¸ Ig + «1 − ¨ ¸ » Icr ≤ Ig
© Ma ¹ «¬ © Ma ¹ »¼
for which:
Mcr = fr Ig / yt (12.39)
where: Mcr = cracking moment (N-mm)

fr = modulus of rupture of concrete
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (mm)
Ma = maximum moment in a component at the stage for which deformation is
computed (N-mm)
For prismatic members, effective moment of inertia shall be taken as the value obtained from
Equation 12.38 at mid-span for simple or continuous spans, and at support for cantilevers.
For continuous non-prismatic members, the effective moment of inertia shall be taken as the
average of the values obtained from Equation 12.38 for the critical positive and negative
moment sections.
Unless a more exact determination is made, the long-time deflection shall be taken as the
instantaneous deflection multiplied by the following factor:
• If the instantaneous deflection is based on Ig, the factor: 4

• If the instantaneous deflection is based on Ie, the factor: 3.0 - 1.2 (A′s/As) > 1.6
where: A′s = area of compression reinforcement (mm2)

As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (mm2)
The contract documents shall require that deflections of segmentally constructed bridges
shall be calculated prior to casting of segments based on the anticipated casting and erection
schedules and that they shall be used as a guide against which actual deflection
measurements are checked.

Chapter 12
For structures such as segmentally constructed bridges, camber calculations should be based
on the modulus of elasticity and the maturity of the concrete when each increment of load is
added or removed, as specified in section 9.1: Concrete: Shrinkage and Creep.
Axial Deformation: Instantaneous shortening or expansion due to loads shall be determined

using the modulus of elasticity of the materials at the time of loading.
Instantaneous shortening or expansion due to temperature shall be determined with the

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion given in accordance with section 3.21: Temperature
Ranges, Setting Temperature, and Seasonal Temperature.
Seismic Lateral Load Distribution:
These provisions shall apply to diaphragms, cross-frames and lateral bracing, which are part
of the seismic lateral force resisting system in common slab on-girder bridges in Seismic
Zone 4. The provisions of section 3.19: Earthquake Effects: Calculation of Design Forces,
Seismic Zones 1-3 shall apply to Seismic Zones 1-3.
The designer shall demonstrate that a clear, straightforward load path to the substructure
exists and that all components and connections are capable of resisting the imposed load
effects consistent with the chosen load path. The flow of forces in the assumed load path
must be accommodated through all affected components and details including, but not
limited to flanges and webs of main beams or girders, cross-frames, connections, slab-to-
girder interfaces and all components of the bearing assembly from top flange interface
through the confinement of anchor bolts or similar devices in the substructure.
The analysis and design of end diaphragms and cross-frames shall consider horizontal
supports at an appropriate number of bearings. Slenderness and connection requirements of
bracing members that are part of the lateral force resisting system, shall comply with
applicable provisions specified for main member design.
SLABS (RIBBED, PLAIN)
A recommended design checklist/schedule for RC simple span solid slab bridge is given in
Form 12-6. A worked example of a slab bridge design is given in the appendix.

Chapter 12
Form 12-6: Checklist for Single Span RC Slab Design
1. Specify the quality of construction materials used and their strengths

2. Calculate material properties( maximum steel ratio, modulus of rupture, etc...)
3. Assume preliminary dimensions for the different parts of the superstructure
4. Calculate the preliminary thickness of Slab
5. Draw a sketch of the cross section (of the superstructure) with the above preliminary
dimensions
6. Calculate the dead load moment at some fraction intervals of the span length
7. Calculate the dead load shear force per unit width of slab at support
8. Calculate the lateral live load distribution width
9. Calculate the impact factor
10. Tabulate the standard truck & Military loading live load moments at the above-
specified intervals and take the maximum of the two at every point for strategic bridges.
11. Calculate the pedestrian live load (if any)
12. Calculate the live load shear force per unit width of slab at support
13. Prepare envelop for the maximum factored moment at the specified points
14. Prepare the maximum factored shear force at support
15. Calculate the reinforcement required at mid-span and some other bar cutoff points
16. Check the steel ratio of the reinforcement provided at mid-span
17. Calculate the transversal distribution reinforcement required as some percentage of
the reinforcement required at mid-span.
18. Check the adequacy of the slab thickness for shear at support. If the section is not
sufficient, either increase the slab thickness or provide shear reinforcement.
19. Design the edge beam (or the curb, if any)
20. Prepare sketch of the final dimensions of the superstructure with the reinforcement
21. Calculate all the vertical, longitudinal & transversal loads for substructure design and
bearing design
..........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Cast-in-place longitudinally reinforced slabs shall be either conventionally reinforced or

prestressed and shall be used as slab-type bridges and culvert tops. The concrete slab, which
shall be solid, voided (with hollow spares), or ribbed (i.e. Texspan), is supported directly on
the substructures.
The distribution of live load shall be determined by a two-dimensional analysis as per the
subchapter above or by the approximate method as specified in Chapter 13: Approximate
Methods of Analysis below. Slabs and slab bridges designed for moment in conformance
with the above-mentioned subchapter, shall be considered satisfactory for shear, otherwise
also the shear should be checked.
If a refined method (Chapter 3: Load Requirements, Section 3.10: Load Fatigue) is used the
aspect ratio of finite elements and grid panels should not exceed 5.0. Abrupt changes in size
and/or shape of finite elements and grid panels should be avoided.
Nodal loads shall be statically equivalent to the actual loads being applied.
Edge beams shall be provided, unless otherwise specified at lines of discontinuity. The edge
of the deck shall either be strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line component,
which shall be either composite with, or integrated in, the deck. The edge beams shall be
designed as beams whose width shall be taken as the effective width of the deck. If the edge
of a deck is composite with a structurally continuous barrier, no additional edge beam is
required.
Equivalent strip widths: The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear
and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
E = 250 + 0.42 L1W1 (12.40)
(the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple presence effect).
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more
than one lane loaded shall be determined as:
W
E = 2100 + 0.12 L1W1 ≤ (12.41)
NL
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18 000
(mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single lane
loading (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads: Vehicular
Live Load.

Chapter 12
For skewed bridges, the longitudinal force effects shall be reduced by the factor r:
r = 1.05 – 0.25 tan θ ≤ 1.00 (12.42)

Where: θ = skew angle (DEG)
Transverse distribution reinforcement shall be placed in the bottoms of all slabs, except
culvert tops or bridge slabs, where the depth of fill over the slab exceeds 600 mm, (see
section 5.6: Culverts: Design.) The amount of the bottom transverse reinforcement shall be
determined either by two-dimensional analysis, or the amount of distribution reinforcement
shall be taken as the percentage of the main reinforcement required for positive moment
taken as:
• for longitudinal reinforced concrete construction: 1750 / L ≤ 50%
• for longitudinal prestressed construction: (1750fpe ) / ( )

L * 410 ≤ 50%
where: L = span length (mm)

fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (MPa)
Transverse shrinkage and temperature reinforcement in the tops of slabs shall be provided
near surfaces of concrete exposed to daily temperature changes and in structural mass
concrete. Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement shall be added, so that the total
reinforcement on exposed surfaces is not less than that specified herein.
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature shall be in the form of bars, welded wire fabric
or prestressing tendons. For bars or welded wire fabric, the area of reinforcement As in each
direction shall not be less than:
As ≥ 0.75 Ag/fy (12.43)
Where: Ag = gross area of section (mm2)

fy = Specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than either 3.0
times the component thickness or 450 mm.
The provisions are based on the performance of relatively small-span structures constructed
to-date. Any significant deviation from successful past practice for larger units, which shall
become both structurally and economically feasible under these Specifications should be
reviewed carefully.
GIRDERS (SIMPLE SPAN, CONTINUOUS, BOX)
Simple Span RC Deck Girder Design
Simple span RC Deck Girder Bridges are relatively easy to calculate, but will generally give

Chapter 12
a more expensive superstructure than a continuous one. A recommended design

checklist/schedule for RC single span RC Deck girder bridge is given in Form 12-7. A
worked example of a girder bridge design is given in the appendix.
Some recommended dimensions for cast-in-place girders, box and T-beams are:
The thickness of top flanges serving as deck slab:
• same as for bridge decks
• not less than 5% of the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs, unless transverse
ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.
And for the bottom flange thickness not less than either:
• 140 mm,
• 1/16 of the distance between fillets or webs of non prestressed girders and beams, or
• 1/30th of the clear span between fillets, haunches or webs for prestressed girders, unless
transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.
The thickness of webs shall be determined by requirements for shear, torsion, concrete cover
and placement of concrete. For adequate field placement and consolidation of concrete,
usually a minimum web thickness of 200 mm is needed for webs without prestressing ducts.
For girders over about 2.4 m in depth, the above dimensions should be increased to
compensate for the increased difficulty of concrete placement. Changes in girder web
thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12.0 times the difference in web
thickness.
Reinforcement for Cast-in-place Girder, Box and T-beams
The reinforcement in the deck slab of cast-in-place T-beams and box girders shall be
determined by either the traditional or by empirical design methods. Where the deck slab
does not extend beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the
transverse reinforcement in the deck slab shall be extended into the exterior face of the
outside web and anchored by a standard 90° hook. If the slab extends beyond the exterior
web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement shall be extended
into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the exterior face of the web not
less in resistance than that provided by a standard hook.
Interior Beams with Concrete Decks: The live load flexural moment for interior beams with
concrete decks shall be determined by applying the lane fraction specified in Chapter 13:
Approximate Methods of Analysis. For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L*ts3) and I/J shall
be taken as 1.0.
For the concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
• Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution.
• If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a refined
analysis shall be used.

Chapter 12
Bridge deck overhangs shall be designed for the following design cases considered
separately:
• Design Case 1: the transverse and longitudinal forces specified in Table 3-1 - extreme
event limit state.
• Design Case 2: the vertical forces specified in Table 3-1-extreme event limit state.
• Design Case 3: the loads, specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads, which occupy the
overhang - strength limit state.
Continuous RC Deck Girder Design
In the design of continuous Bridge Girders it is essential that the settlement at one support is
not considerably greater than the others − called uneven settlement.
Moment Redistribution: In lieu of more refined analysis, where bonded reinforcement is
provided at the internal supports of continuous reinforced concrete beams and where the c/de
ratio does not exceed 0.28, negative moments determined by elastic theory at strength limit
states shall be increased or decreased by not more than the following percentage:
+/- % ≤ 20 (1 – 2.36*c/de ) (12.44)
With c = The distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
de = The effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
Positive moments shall be adjusted to account for the changes in negative moments to
maintain equilibrium of loads and force effects.
Unless otherwise specified, diaphragms (secondary beams) shall be provided at abutments,

piers and hinge joints to resist lateral forces and transmit loads to points of support.
Intermediate diaphragms shall be used between beams in curved systems or where necessary
to provide torsional resistance and to support the deck at points of discontinuity or at angle
points in girders. For curved box girders, having an inside radius less than 240 m, and for
spread box beams, intermediate diaphragms shall be used.
In certain types of construction, end diaphragms shall be replaced by an edge beam or a

strengthened strip of slab, made to act as a vertical frame with the beam-ends. Such types
are low I-beams and double T-beams. These frames should be designed for wheel loads. The
diaphragms should be essentially solid, except for access openings and utility holes, where
required. It should however be remembered that the diaphragms at abutments and piers
usually are used as jacking support for the exchanging of bearings.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-7: CHECKLIST FOR SINGLE SPAN RC DECK GIRDER DESIGN
1. Specify the quality of construction materials used and their strengths

2. Calculate material properties( maximum steel ratio, modulus of rupture, etc...)
3. Assume preliminary dimensions for the different parts of the superstructure
3.1 Assume No of girders, depth, spacings, etc…
3.2 Thickness of Slab (between girders and cantilever overhang part)
3.3 Prepare sketch of the cross section of the superstructure with the above preliminary
dimensions
3.4 Specify the number of diaphragms (in the longitudinal sections)
3.5 Prepare sketch of the longitudinal cross section of the superstructure with the above
preliminary dimensions
4. Design of slab in between girders
4.1 Compute the dead load and live load moment and shear forces (with impact)
4.2 Multiply the above values with the specified coefficients
4.3 Calculate the main slab reinforcement
4.4 Calculate the distribution reinforcement
4.5 Check the slab thickness used above for adequency in shear
5. Design of overhang / cantilever slab
5.1 Compute the dead load moment and shear force
5.2 Compute the live loads moments from railing load and truck wheel load and take the
maximum of the two
5.3 Multiply the above values with the specified coefficients
5.4 Design the section for flexure with the above factored moment
5.5 Check the slab thickness used above for adequency in shear
6. Design of Edge beam or Curb (if any)
7. Design of girders
7.1 Exterior Girder load analysis
7.2 Compute the dead loads at some fraction interval of the span length and at the
maximum moment location
7.3 Compute the impact factor for the girder

Chapter 12
7.4 Compute the truck live loads moment and shear forces at the above specified points
7.5 Ditto, but lane load
7.6 Multiply the maximum of the truck and lane moments and shear values with the
specified coefficients
7.7 Ditto the above five steps, but for Interior girder (if more than two girders)
7.8 Tabulate the summary of girder factored shear force and moment values at different
points for design
7.9 Check if the Exterior girder shear and moment are equal to or greater than the Interior
girder
7.10 Prepare envelop for the maximum moment at every specified points
7.11 Compute the effective flange width of slab for exterior (and interior) girders
7.12 Compute the amount of reinforcement required at midspan
7.13 Compute the deflection at midspan and compare with the allowable. If the
preliminary depth of girder is not sufficient, increase the depth and revise starting from
step 7.1
7.14 Compute the length of reinforcement at bar cut off points
7.15 Check the Serviceability requirements at midspan and bar cutoff points
7.16 Compute the extension length required at bar cutoff points
7.17 Prepare shear force diagrams for stirrup spacing
7.18 Compute the stirrup spacing at support and some other points
7.19 Check the maximum stirrup spacing
7.20 Compute the skin reinforcement required
8. Compute the reactions (maximum and minimum at supports)
8.1 Compute the reaction forces for bearing design
8.2 Compute the reaction forces for abutment and pier design
..........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
RC Box Girder (and Hollow Pier Column) Design
Box girder bridges are different from ordinary girder bridges in the way the torsion and
buckling of webs have to be considered.
In the absence of more exact analysis, one quarter of the wind force on a box section shall be
applied to the bottom flange of the exterior box beam. The section assumed to resist the wind
force shall consist of the bottom flange and a part of the web. The other ¾ of the wind force
on a box section, plus the wind force on vehicles, barriers, and appurtenances, shall be
assumed to be transmitted to the supports by diaphragm action of the deck.
Lateral bracing in the box shall be provided if the section assumed to resist the wind force is
not adequate.
The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow rectangular cross-section shall be taken as (same as
Equation 7-17):
Xu
λw = (12.45)
t
where: Xu = the clear length of the constant thickness portion of a wall, according to the
Figure 7-3 (mm)
λw = wall slenderness ratio for hollow columns
See section 7.5: Girders for other parameters.
Spacing of Reinforcement
The center-to-center lateral spacing of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be no greater than
the lesser of 1.5 times the wall thickness or 300 mm. The center-to-center longitudinal
spacing of lateral reinforcing bars shall be no greater than the lesser of 1.25 times the wall
thickness, or 300 mm.
Cross-ties shall be provided between layers of reinforcement in each wall. The cross-ties
shall include a standard 135° hook at one end, and a standard 90° hook at the other end.
Cross-ties shall be located at bar grid intersections, and the hooks of all ties shall enclose
both lateral and longitudinal bars at the intersections. Each longitudinal reinforcing bar and
each lateral reinforcing bar shall be enclosed by the hook of a cross-tie at spacing no greater
than 600 mm.
Splices
Lateral reinforcing bars shall be joined at the corners of the cross-section by overlapping 90°
bends. Straight lap splices of lateral reinforcing bars shall not be permitted unless the

Chapter 12
overlapping bars are enclosed over the length of the splice by the hooks of at least four cross-
ties located at intersections of the lateral bars and longitudinal bars.
Hoops
Where details permit, the longitudinal reinforcing bars in the corners of the cross-section
shall be enclosed by closed hoops. If closed hoops cannot be provided, then pairs of ”U”-
shaped bars with legs at least twice as long as the wall thickness, and oriented 90° to one
another, shall be used.
Bearings for single box sections shall be placed in pairs at supports where practical. Double
bearings shall be placed either inboard or outboard of the box section webs. Placing bearings
outboard of the box reduces overturning loads on the bearings and may eliminate uplift.
12.9 FRAME BRIDGES
12.9.1 GENERAL
There are two common types of frame bridges − open frame and closed or cyclic frame. The
open frame is designed as a continuous bridge with some simple frame computer program
(see section 5.11: Software for Bridge Design). For multi span frame bridges with different
span lengths and different heights of support, the calculations will be complicated and use of
a computer program is highly recommended.
It is common to make the deck with 45° chamfers if small span or 1:3 if larger than 8 m
span. If the height of the front-walls exceeds some 5 m it is usually advantageous to batter
the rear side. The moments and shear forces should be computed for every 1/10 of the
theoretical height and the same for the bridge slab.
12.9.2 DESIGN
Advantages:
• Horizontal forces are resisted by framed hinges, which provide a more slender structure.
• Moments from vertical loads are distributed to corners as well as to span which results in
less maximum moments than a simply supported slab.
• Footings will be less than conventional abutment with the same height because some of
the earth pressure on the front-walls is resisted through friction under the footing.
• Bearings and expansion joints are not necessary, which make it easier to maintain.
Disadvantages:
• Larger spans give a thick and heavy structure with large concrete and steel quantities,
which may give more expensive foundations, than a lighter structure.
• Voids (0.5 meters 45°-type or 1:3 for larger spans than 12 m) shall be placed at the ends
of the slab, to minimize the quantity of concrete (self weight), which however then
increases the difficulties of reinforcing and casting.
• The structural system is indefinite, which gives an increased sensitivity to settlements.

Chapter 12
There are two different ways of tackling the design. The latest method is to consider the
stiffness of the soil by means of springs under the foundation when calculating the statical
system. This however makes the calculation difficult such that computer programs usually
are needed.
Earlier it was common to assume the moment between the foundation and the soil to be
equal to zero, since it then may easily be calculated by hand. In the system calculation it is
most economically favorable to assume that the frame is one single monolithic structure –
including the footings. This will give less stiffness, the moment between the footing and the
frame will be less, and a smaller footing and less reinforcement will be required.
Footings on rock shall be provided with a so-called “reinforced joint” between the footing
and the frame. It should however be checked if the soil is sulfuric (corrosion of the
reinforcement) or if the contractor is familiar with the construction of this type of joint. The
design shall be made in the following order:
At cyclic frames the design begins with an estimate of the dimensions and calculation of the
stiffnesses of each member/node. If appropriate the stiffness or spring coefficients of the
ground should be calculated and inserted in the frame program. The thickness of the fill on
top of the slab is very important for placing of the load (shear) as well as the magnitude of
the load (moments).
Sharply skewed frame bridges (see Figure 5-8) should be avoided since the earth-pressure
might cause the bridge to “rotate” horizontally due to sliding and the sharp corners might
have resulting uplift forces. Then the bridge and especially the deck should be designed with
some refined method such as FEM-analysis or finite strip method. The requirements are: a >
0.3 b as indicated in Figure 5-8.
FORM 12-8: CHECKLIST FOR FRAME BRIDGE DESIGN
1. Assume preliminary dimensions

2. Determine the Moment of Inertia and gross Area for the non-cracked sections.
3. Load from lateral support displacement (usually 10 mm) should be considered for an
open frame bridge. In earthquake zone 4, a larger displacement shall be needed.
4. Calculate the statical system as an elastic frame analysis.
5. Check moment and shear capacity both in the Service- and Strength limit state.
6. Check Service limit state: cracking, crack widths, deflection
7. Check the Fatigue limit state of some points (corners and mid span)
8. Calculate the moment in at least two directions.
9. Calculate the reinforcement in at least 5 points of the frame deck.
10. Direction of main moment shall be assumed as parallel to the support line usually.
For alignment skewed < 45o or wider bridge the direction of moment varies from point to
point.
11. Draw the envelope of maximum moments and develop the reinforcement
12. Calculate the footings and check for shear.

Chapter 12
12.10 PRECAST CONCRETE BRIDGES
12.10.1 GENERAL
Precast concrete bridges are designed in the same way as cast in-situ bridges. But since the
transport and hauling weight is limited to a maximum of some 200 kN (20 tons) for each
panel, several joints need to be made in this bridge type. For example a 10-m slab for a
bridge has to be spliced at every 1,6 m width not to exceed 20 tons. As many as five trucks
have to transport it to the site, which could be quite costly. Safe dimensions of panels should
be considered by the designer for each particular site.
These joints are the weak point of the structure. If possible they should be filled with
concrete, and reinforced to interact with and achieve the same strength as the adjacent
structure. The panels could also be kept in position by post tensioned tendons inserted in
ducts through the panels. For minor structures (culverts) the joints are often designed to take
shear forces only.
12.10.2 DESIGN
In the design of precast concrete components, all loading, restraint and instability conditions
from initial fabrication to completion of the structure, including, but not limited to, form
removal, storage, transportation and erection shall be considered. For transportation and
erection, the component should be designed for not less than 1.5 times its self-weight. Field
splices shall be used where precast members exceed transportable lengths.
The minimum thickness of any part of precast concrete beams shall be as follows:
• top flange: 50 mm (bulb-Tee and double-Tee types)
• web, non post-tensioned: 125 mm (only with high quality performance)
• web, post-tensioned: 165 mm (only with high quality performance)
• bottom flange: 125 mm (bottom flange thickness of box-type sections)
Anchorages for lifting devices should not be cast into the face of a member that will be
exposed to view or to corrosive materials in the completed structure.
The Detail Design and preparation of working drawings are usually made by the Contractor.
All details of reinforcement, connections, bearing seats, inserts or anchors for diaphragms,
concrete cover, openings, and fabrication and erection tolerances shall be shown in the
contract documents.
12.11 ARCH BRIDGES (MASONRY AND CONCRETE)
12.11.1 MASONRY ARCH BRIDGES
The design of a masonry arch bridge shall follow the checklist given in Form 12-9. A worked
example of a masonry arch bridge design is given in the appendix.

Chapter 12
The first step of the design is to choose the most optimal shape of the arch and estimate the
thickness of the arch barrel from Table 12-3 below. At spans less than 25 m the arch should
preferably be a multiple circular curve as in Figure 12-6 below. The quality of stones that can
be obtained at the bridge site must be determined using the compressive strength given in
Table 5-2.
Figure 12-6 Recommended Arch Shape

Note: for ϕv see Equation 5.19
Span opening ( length ) m 8 9 10 12 15 20

Thickness at crown (top) (d ) m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.86 0.90
Thickness at abutment (d1) m 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.35
Table 12-3 Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring)
Skewed arch bridges are very complicated both to construct and design (with Finite Element
Modeling, FEM-analysis) and should therefore be avoided.
The stones can be placed either with or without mortar. If with mortar the joints should be as
small as possible, preferably not exceeding 25 mm. The 0.3 - 0.5-m thick stones in the arch
barrel should be placed in some kind of bond. The length of the stones may vary between 0.4
- 0.8 m. The falsework should not be removed until the joints are fully hardened. In order to
compensate for the settlement when falsework is removed, a certain ”camber” should be
applied at the top curve of the falsework.
A hinge made of a 20 mm rolled lead plate with 5 % antimony (yield strength of 40 MPa)
placed in the center of the crown (highest point) of the arch barrel has proved to reduce the
moments to almost zero. The spandrel walls should not be built until the falsework has been
removed, or it will crack due to the deflection from the shrinkage of the mortar. To avoid all
cracks, vertical joints every 5-m should preferably be applied. To reduce the dead load of the
filling on top of the arch but under the roadway, lightweight volcanic stones shall be used as
long as they are strong enough to carry the traffic load. Water outlets near the abutments in
the arch barrel must not be forgotten.

Chapter 12
Form 12-9: Checklist for masonry Arch Bridge Design
1. The shape of an arch shall be selected so as to minimize flexure under the effect of
combined permanent and transient loads.
2. Calculate the dead load.
3. Place the live load on half of the arch and check the compression in point A, B and C.
Usually the crown C is most critical for compression strength (Figure 12-6).
4. The abutments A and B should be checked for the position of the compression line,
which should be within the core. If not, the shape of the arch should be changed.
5. The shear at the abutments at point A should be checked
6. Finally the forces on the superstructure should be calculated.
12.11.2 CONCRETE ARCH DESIGN
Non-reinforced concrete masonry bridges are calculated in the same way as stone masonry,
and the design schedule given above shall be used.
The in-plane stability of the arch rib(s) shall be investigated using a modulus of elasticity
and moment of inertia appropriate for the combination of loads and moment in the rib(s). In
lieu of a rigorous analysis, the effective length for buckling shall be estimated as the product
of the arch half-span length and the factor δb =5/2*K as specified in Table 12-4 below:
Rise to Span 3-hinged 2-hinged Fixed Arch

Ratio Arch Arch
0.1-0.2 1.16 1.04 0.70
0.2-0.3 1.13 1.10 0.70
0.3-0.4 1.16 1.16 0.72
Table 12-4 K-Values for Effective Length of Arch Ribs
Where δb = moment magnifier for braced mode deflection
For the analysis of arch ribs, the factored moments or stresses shall be increased to reflect
effects of deformations as follows:
Mc = δb M2b + δs M2s (12.46)
where: M2b = Moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that results in
no appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional first order elastic frame
analysis, always positive (Nmm).
M2s = Moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads that
results in no sidesway, ∆, greater than lu/500, calculated by conventional first
order elastic frame analysis, always positive (Nmm).
fc = δb f2b + δs f2s (12.47)

Chapter 12
where: f2b = stress corresponding to M2b (MPa)

f2s = stress corresponding to M2s (MPa)
ϕ = resistance factor for axial compression
δb = Cm / (1- (Pu / ϕ Pe)) ≥ 1.0 (12.48)
where: Cm = 1.0
Pu = factored axial load (N)
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
ϕ = resistance factor for axial compression
δs = 1 / (1- (ΣPu / ϕ ΣPe)) (12.49)
When using the approximate second order correction for moment above, an estimate of the
short-term secant modulus of elasticity shall be calculated, as specified in section 5.6:
Superstructure for RC Bridges above, based on a strength of 0.40 f′c.
The lever rule shall be used for the distribution of gravity loads in arches when analyzed as
planar structures. If a space analysis is used, either the lever rule or direct loading through
the deck or deck system shall be used.
Arch ribs shall be reinforced as compression members. The minimum reinforcing of 1.0% of
the gross concrete area shall be evenly distributed about the section of the rib. Confinement
reinforcement shall be provided as required for columns.
Stability under long-term loads with a reduced modulus of elasticity may govern the
stability. In this condition, there would typically be little flexural moment in the rib and the
appropriate modulus of elasticity would be the long-term tangent modulus and the
appropriate moment of inertia would be the transformed section inertia. Under transient load
conditions, the appropriate modulus of elasticity would be the short-term tangent modulus
and the appropriate moment of inertia would be the cracked section inertia, including the
effects of the factored axial load.
Unfilled spandrel walls greater than 7.5 m in height shall be braced by counter-forts or
diaphragms. Spandrel walls shall be provided with expansion joints, and temperature
reinforcing shall be provided corresponding to the joint spacing. The spandrel wall shall be
jointed at the springline. The spandrel fill shall be provided with effective drainage. Filters
shall be provided to prevent clogging of drains with fine material.
Drainage of the spandrel fill is important for durability of the concrete in the rib and in the
spandrel walls and to control the unit weight of the spandrel fill. Drainage details should
keep the drainage water from running down the ribs.

Chapter 12
12.12 COMPOSITE STEEL/CONCRETE BRIDGES
Steel and Concrete Composite Bridges should be calculated according to Chapter 3: Load
Requirements (see also Ref. 1). They should be calculated as an ordinary girder bridge with
the following important exceptions.
The data for the assumed transformed section in which the concrete slab is interacting
together with the steel girders should be calculated. Then the system calculation and the
concrete slab should be designed, first transversally and then longitudinally. If end-walls
with attached wingwalls are used, the punching effect from the end plate of the steel beams
must be considered for the design of the end-walls. Before the end-wall is designed however
the wingwalls should be calculated in order to use the continuous moments in the end-walls.
In order to distribute the compression forces in the concrete slab a minimum longitudinal
reinforcement of 1% shall be inserted with a certain spacing.
The steel girders are sometimes made as a hybrid structure i.e. of different steel qualities
with a high tensile steel in the bottom flange that is more strained, and with intermediate
steel in the web and in the top flange. The girders used are to be checked for fatigue, and if
continuous, also for construction loads, i.e. order of concreting the bays if the beams are used
as falsework.
Steel structures should be cambered during fabrication to compensate for dead load
deflection of the whole superstructure and for vertical alignment. Selective changes to
component length, as appropriate, shall be used for truss, arch and cable-stayed systems to:
• adjust the dead load deflection to comply with the final geometric position,
• reduce or eliminate rib shortening,
• adjust the dead load moment diagram in indeterminate structures.
Structural steel, including bracing, cross-frames and all types of gusset plates, except for
webs of rolled shapes, closed ribs in orthotropic decks, fillers and in railings, shall be not less
than 8 mm in thickness.
The web thickness of rolled beams or channels and of closed ribs in orthotropic decks shall
not be less than 7.0 mm.
Where the metal is expected to be exposed to severe corrosive influences, it shall be

specially protected against corrosion, or sacrificial metal thickness shall be specified.
The need for diaphragms or cross-frames shall be investigated for all stages of assumed
construction procedures and the final condition. This investigation should include, but not be
limited to, the following:
• transfer of lateral wind loads from the bottom of the girder to the deck and from the deck
to the bearings,
• stability of the bottom flange for all loads when it is in compression,

Chapter 12
• stability of the top flange in compression prior to curing of the deck, and
• distribution of vertical dead and live loads applied to the structure.
If permanent cross-frames or diaphragms are included in the structural model used to

determine force effects, they shall be designed for all applicable limit states for the calculated
force effects. As a minimum, diaphragms and cross-frames shall be designed to transfer wind
loads, and shall meet the following slenderness requirements:
l/r ≤ 140 for Tension members subject to stress reversals;

l/r ≤ 240 for Bracing members subject to stress reversals;
K* l/r ≤ 120 for Compression main members;

K* l/r ≤ 140 for Compression bracing members;
where: l = unbraced length (mm)

r = minimum radius of gyration (mm)
K = effective length factor. Physical bracing lengths shall be multiplied by an
effective length factor, K, to compensate for rotational and translational boundary
conditions other than pinned ends. For bolted or welded end connections at both
ends: K = 0.750. For pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875
Connection plates for diaphragms and cross-frames shall be welded or bolted to both
compression and tensioned flanges of the cross-section.
At the end of the bridge and intermediate points where the continuity of the slab is broken,
the edges of the slab shall be supported by diaphragms or other suitable means.
Connections and splices for main members shall be designed at the strength limit state for
not less than the larger of:
• the average of the flexural moment, shear or axial force due to the factored loadings at the
point of splice or connection and the factored flexural, shear or axial resistance of the
member at the same point, or
• 75% of the factored flexural, shear or axial resistance of the member.
End connections for diaphragms, cross-frames, lateral bracing or floorbeams for straight
flexural members shall be designed for the factored member loads.
An example of a composite bridge design is presented in the appendix CB.
12.13 TIMBER BRIDGES
12.13.1 GENERAL
Sawn lumber shall comply with the requirements of EBCS-5 (Ref. 10) and the Technical
Specifications.

Chapter 12
When solid sawn beams and stringers are used as continuous or cantilevered beams, the
grading provisions applicable to the middle third of the length shall be applied to at least the
middle two-thirds of the length of pieces to be used as two-span continuous beams and to the
entire length of pieces to be used over three or more spans or as cantilevered beams.
12.13.2 DIMENSIONS
Structural calculations shall be based on the actual net dimensions for the anticipated use
conditions. Dimensions stated for dressed lumber shall be the nominal dimensions. Net
dimensions for dressed lumber shall be taken as 12 mm less than nominal, except that the net
width of dimension lumber exceeding 150 mm shall be taken as 20 mm less than nominal.
For rough-sawn, full-sawn, or special sizes, the actual dimensions and moisture content used
in design shall be indicated in the contract documents.
These net dimensions depend on the type of surfacing, whether dressed, rough-sawn, or full-
sawn.
The designer should specify surface requirements on the plans. Rough-sawn lumber is
typically 3 mm larger than standard dry dressed sizes. It is impractical to use rough-sawn or
full-sawn lumber in a structure that requires close dimensional tolerances.
For more accurate dimensions, surfacing can be specified on one side (S1S), two sides
(S2S), one edge (S1E), two edge (S2E), combinations of sides and edges (S1S1E, S2S1E,
S1S2E) or all sides (S4S).
12.13.3 MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content of lumber 100 mm or less in nominal thickness shall not be greater
than 19 %.
12.13.4 BASE RESISTANCE AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Base resistance and modulus of elasticity for sawn lumber shall be as specified in Tables 11-
1 to 11-3.
Allowable stresses are provided for ten-year load duration and dry use. Factors listed in this
Chapter transform allowable stress to the lower 5th percentile of the ultimate stress for two-
month load duration and wet use.
12.13.5 REQUIREMENT FOR PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
All wood used for permanent applications shall be either of the special quality and kind
given in section 11.3 Requirements for Timber, or pressure impregnated with wood
preservative in accordance with the requirements of the Technical Specifications.

Chapter 12
Insofar as is practicable, all wood components should be designed and detailed to be cut,
drilled, and otherwise fabricated prior to pressure treatment with wood preservatives. When
cutting, boring, or other fabrication is necessary after preservative treatment, exposed,
untreated wood shall be specified to be treated in accordance with the requirements of the
Technical Specifications.
Unless otherwise approved, all structural components that are not subject to direct pedestrian
contact shall be treated with oil-borne preservatives. Pedestrian railings and nonstructural
components that are subject to direct pedestrian contact shall be treated with water-borne
preservatives or oil-borne preservatives in light petroleum solvent.
The oil-borne preservative treatments have proven to provide adequate protection against
wood attacking organisms. In addition, the oil provides a water-repellant coating that reduces
surface effects caused by cyclic moisture conditions. Water-borne preservative treatments do
not provide the water repellency of the oil-borne treatment, and components frequently split
and check, leading to poor field performance and reduced service life.
Direct pedestrian contact is considered to be contact that can be made while the pedestrian is
situated anywhere in the access route provided for pedestrian traffic.
Preservative treated wood shall be tested and inspected in accordance with the requirements
of the Technical Specifications. Fire retardant treatments shall not be applied unless it is
demonstrated that they are compatible with the preservative treatment used as recommended
by the product manufacturer and applicator. Use of fire retardant treatments is generally not
recommended.
An example of a timber bridge design is given in the appendix TB.
12.14 OTHER TYPES OF BRIDGES
12.14.1 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES
To calculate prestressed concrete bridges without software is a tedious job, especially for
continuous bridges. Post tensioned simply supported single span beams may however be
calculated by hand. They should be calculated according to Chapter 3: Load Requirements
(see also Ref. 1).
Prestressed Superstructure design:

Chapter 12
FORM 12-10: CHECKLIST FOR PRESTRESSED SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN
1. Interaction between deck and girder shall be assumed

2. Calculate the Moment of Inertia with the Modulus of Elasticity
3. Calculation of system for the following cases:
Construction stage
Mounting of beams, if precast beams
Casting of deck in different construction stages
Pavement loads
Traffic loads
4. Calculation of the cross-sections with cracked section
5. Joints perpendicular to the strands shall be reinforced with at least 0.5% in every part
(deck, web, etc.)
For prestressed bridges or parts thereof the following shall apply:

• Tensioning Schedule shall be made by the designer for post-tensioned beams, etc.
• Construction Schedule if necessary (complicated structures)
• Quality Control Schedule shall be made for concreting, welding, piling etc., by the
Designer. It shall consist of a general part and documentation, reporting requirements,
and a technical part for sensitive and essential parts of the bridge construction.
12.14.2 STEEL TRUSS BRIDGES
In half-through-trusses the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be designed to
resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a permanent load for the
Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly (note: Rectangular hollow pipes are
especially well suited as compressed members in this case).
The lever rule shall be used for the distribution of gravity loads in trusses when analyzed as
planar structures. If a space analysis is used, either the lever rule or direct loading through
the deck or deck system shall be used.
Where loads, other than the self-weight of the members and wind loads thereon, are
transmitted to the truss at the panel points, the truss shall be analyzed as a pin-connected
assembly.
Effective Length Factor, K: Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effective

length factor, K, to compensate for rotational and translational boundary conditions other
than pinned ends. In the absence of a more refined analysis, where lateral stability is
provided by diagonal bracing or other suitable means, the effective length factor in the
braced plane, K, for the compression members in triangulated trusses, trusses and frames
shall be taken as:
• for bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750

• for pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875

Chapter 12
Minimum Thickness of Steel: Structural steel, including bracing, cross-frames and all types of
gusset plates, except for fillers and in railings, shall be not less than 8 mm in thickness.
An example of a steel truss bridge is given in the appendix GB. This is a pedestrian bridge,
and was chosen to give an example of a loading significantly different from that of a standard
bridge.
12.14.3 LARGE SPAN BRIDGES (ABOVE 50M SPAN)
Large span bridges (≥ 50 m) should be calculated according to AASHTO LRFD Bridge

Design Specifications, 2nd edition (Ref. 1) or later, together with Chapter 3 Load
Requirements.
12.15 BEARING DESIGN
Regarding recommended bearing types, see section 8.3: Bridge Details: Bearings. The
suitability of various types of bearings as depicted in Figures 8-1, 8-2 and 12-7 is indicated in
Table 12-6.
The most common bearing design in Ethiopia is the "Steel Plate Bearing" with two steel
plates on top of each other without a PTFE layer in between. A dowel is used as guide and to
resist transversal loads. This bearing is economical and usually made out of local "Medium
Grade Steel." Although it is likely that this type of bearing will loose some of its mobility
after some decades of corrosion, it functions quite well. It is however, recommended to use a
PTFE layer. An example of such a design is given in the appendix.
The design Flow Chart should be as follows;
FORM 12-11: CHECKLIST FOR BEARING DESIGN
1. Calculate all relevant vertical and horizontal loads on the bearing

2. Select steel quality
3. Check the steel plates according to section 8.3: Bridge Details: Bearings
4. Check horizontal forces resisted by the friction steel – concrete (i.e. µ=0.5)
5. Check the necessary dimension of dowels and anchor bolts to resist the remaining
horizontal force.
6. Check the actual concrete pressure
7. If PTFE is used, check the actual PTFE pressure

Chapter 12
Type of Bearing Movement Rotation about Resistance to Loads

Bridge Axis Indicated
Long. Trans. Long. Trans. Vert. Long. Trans. Vert.
Plain Elastomeric Pad S S S S L L L L
Fiberglass-Reinforced Pad S S S S L L L L
Steel-Reinforced S S S S L L L S
Elastomeric Bearing (e.g.
PFTE)
Plain Sliding Bearing S S U U S R R S
Curved Sliding Spherical R R S S S R R S
Bearing
Curved Sliding Cylindrical R R U S U R R S
Bearing
Disc Bearing R R S S L S R S
Double Cylindrical Bearing R R S S U R R S
Pot Bearing R R S S L S S S
Single Roller Bearing S U U S U U R S
Multiple Roller Bearing S U U U U U U S
Table 12-5 Suitability of Different Bearing Types

Note: S = suitable
U = unsuitable
L = Limited suitability
R = Rarely used
Since the Steel reinforced elastomeric bearing is economical compared to a steel roller
bearing it is recommended as a first choice for medium/larger bridges with moderate loads
and movements. The catalogue from an approved manufacturer usually gives the allowable
vertical and transversal loads. It is however important to check if the bearing can resist the
deflection angle for the selected type of bearing. Otherwise, a thicker bearing with more
layers must be selected. If the transversal load exceeds the capacity of this type of bearing a
steel roller bearing or another type (i.e. Pot bearing) needs to be selected, although they shall
be more expensive. Bearing types are shown in Figure 12-7 (see also Figures 8-1 and 8-2).
The behavior of bearings is quite variable, and there is very little experimental evidence to
precisely define ϕ for each limit state. ϕ is taken to be equal to 1.0 where a more refined
estimate is not warranted. The resistance factors are often based on judgment and experience,
but they are generally thought to be conservative.
GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS
The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen taking into account both the contact stresses

Chapter 12
and the movement of the contact point due to rolling. Each individual curved contact surface
shall have a constant radius. Bearings with more than one curved surface shall be symmetric
about a line joining the centers of their two curved surfaces.
Figure 12-7 Common Bearing Types
Bearings shall be designed to be stable. If the bearing has two separate cylindrical faces, each
of which rolls on a flat plate, stability shall be achieved by making the distance between the
two contact lines no greater than the sum of the radii of the two cylindrical surfaces.
A cylindrical roller is in neutral equilibrium. The provisions for bearings with two curved
surfaces achieves at least neutral, if not stable, equilibrium.
A worked example of a roller bearing design is also given in the appendix RB.
12.16 SOFTWARE FOR BRIDGE DESIGN
12.16.1 GENERAL
There are hundreds of different computer programs used by Design Engineers in different
countries. It has proven most practical to use a simple 2D-frame program, which allows for
movable loads and load groups, as long as it is easy to insert the input data. These are used
more frequently than the more sophisticated FEM programs, which generally are more
tedious to use, although they usually give a more exact result. There are also called
"modified FEM-programs" adopted to the USA Codes: AASHTO LRFD Specifications,
AISC, ACI, AITC, etc. Sometimes these are combined with a CAD-program such as Visio

Chapter 12
Draw or Visio PRO, which can import and export .dxf-files.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROGRAMS
Strip Step II is a simple general program for 2-dimensional frames, which is inexpensive.
Unfortunately it is not useful for movable loads, which means the designer has to place the
loads in the most unfavorable position, before calculating the moments and forces in each
node or for each member.
STRUCT.etc PLUS (USA) is a general "modified Matrix"-program using STAAD3-2D

for two-dimensional multiple analysis of Concrete, Steel or Timber Structures in the same
run. It has a built-in AISC Steel beam Section Library and CAD facilities able to generate
corresponding STAAD3-2D input tables.
CONSPAN LRFD 1.0 (Leap software, USA) is used for simple and continuous prestressed
concrete bridge superstructures. It is a Windows 95/NT program available in metric units
and it works with automatic Moving Load Analysis with predefined LRFD-loads as well as
user-defined loads. It optimizes for the least number of Strands and uses all common Strand
types.
Curved & Straight Steel Bridge Design & Rating (MDX Software, USA) is mainly used for
composite steel girder and box girder bridges with complex girder systems and/or complex
geometry. It generates an optimal girder design according to AASHTO LRFD, ASD or LFD
Code, including shear connectors, transverse stiffeners, bearings, bracings, etc. in metric
system.
Brigade (Sweden) is a program, with an English Manual, tailor-made for RC Frame

Bridges, which unfortunately is quite expensive.
Otherwise most structural design calculations, without complicated iterations and loops, can
quite easily be written in EXCEL and/or MathCAD. MathCAD is one of many
mathematical programs, that makes it relatively easy to handle difficult mathematical
expressions such as Differential Equations, Fourier series, etc. It is written in clear formula
expression and may easily be imported by Excel and included in an Excel sheet. Some
examples of other simple but time saving and quality improving programs are:
• “RC beam moment and shear design”, “Properties of Cross section of RC Girder Deck”,
“RC T-beam design”, “Design of RC End wall”, “RC Wingwall design”, “Bearing
design”, “RC Punching design”, “RC Column design”, “RC Footing design”, “RC
Footings for Masonry Abutments”, “Cantilever RC Retaining wall”, “Gravity Retaining
wall design”, “Properties of Cross section of welded steel beam”, “Welded Steel Beam
shear design”, “Prestressed (post tensioned) RC beam design”, etc.
It is very important that such programs are thoroughly checked before use by others than the
programmer, otherwise it is almost impossible to find errors or “bugs” in the design.

Chapter 12
A skilled EXCEL programmer can of course make even more complicated programs, which
shall be different combinations of the above mentioned small sheets, such as:
• RC Slab superstructure design program
• RC T- girder superstructure design program
• RC Box girder superstructure design program
• Piers with framed columns on either combined or isolated footings
12.16.2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING (FEM) PROGRAMS
STAAD III is probably the most widespread (110 000 worldwide users) 3-dimensional FEM
program for structural design. It is especially suited for certain curved and/or box girder large
bridges. It is often sold together with Stardyne and Visual Draw in a packet called
STAAD/Pro Core (at present 29 000 Br/each; "upgrade version" is available for 3 500 Br).
SAP 2000/NL PUSH is another similar widely used structural design analysis program. It is
very suitable for bridges since it includes movable loads. Its earlier versions Sap 80 and 90
have been used by students at Addis Ababa University.
These large and universal programs shall be adapted to the specific design wanted. This will
make them faster and easier to use for the “common designer” who does not need all the
features in the general programs.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-12: CHECKLIST FOR BASIC STEPS FOR THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES
This outline is intended to be a generic overview of the design process using the simplified
methods for illustration. It should not be regarded as fully complete, nor should it be used as
a substitute for a working knowledge of the provisions of this section.
BEAM AND GIRDER SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN

A. Develop General Section
Roadway Width (Highway Specified)
Span Arrangements
Select Bridge Type
B. Develop Typical Section
Top Flange
Bottom Flange
Webs
Structure Depth
Reinforcement
Minimum Reinforcement
Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement
Effective Flange Widths
Identify Strut and Tie Areas, if any
C. Design Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Deck
Deck Slabs
Minimum Depth
Empirical Design
Traditional Design
Strip Method
Live Load Application
Distribution Reinforcement
Overhang Design
D. Select Resistance Factors
Strength Limit State (Conventional)
E. Select Load Modifiers
Ductility
Redundancy
Operational Importance
F. Select Applicable Load Combinations and Load Factors
G. Calculate Live Load Force Effects
Select Live Loads and Number of Lanes
Multiple Presence
Dynamic Load Allowance
Distribution Factor for Moment
Interior Beams with Concrete Decks
Exterior Beams

Chapter 12
Skewed Bridges
Distribution Factor for Shear
Interior Beams
Exterior Beams
Skewed Bridges
Reactions to Substructure
H. Calculate Force Effects from Other Loads identified
I. Investigate Service Limit State
Evaluate P/S Losses
Stress Limitations for P/S Tendons
Stress Limitations for P/S Concrete
Before Losses
After Losses
Investigate Durability
Crack Control
Investigate Fatigue, if applicable
Calculate Deflection and Camber
J. Investigate Strength Limit State
Flexure
Stress in P/S Steel - Bonded Tendons
Stress in P/S Steel - Unbonded Tendons
Factored Flexural Resistance
Limits for Reinforcement
Shear (Assuming no Torsional Moment)
General Requirements
Sectional Design Model
Nominal Shear Resistance
Determination of β and θ
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Transverse Reinforcement
Horizontal Shear
K. Check Details
Cover Requirements
Development Length - Reinforcing Steel
Development Length - Prestressing Steel
Splices
Anchorage Zones
Post Tensioned
Pre Tensioned
Ducts
Tendon Profile Limitation
Tendon Confinement
Curved Tendons
Spacing Limits
Reinforcement Spacing Limits

Chapter 12
Beam Ledges
SLAB BRIDGES
Generally, the design approach for slab bridges is similar to beam and girder bridges
with some exceptions as noted below.
A. Check Minimum Recommended Depth
B. Determine Live Load Strip Width
C. Applicability of Live Load for Decks and Deck Systems
D. Design Edge Beam
E. Shear
F. Distribution Reinforcement
G. If Not Solid
Check if Voided Slab or Cellular Construction
Check Minimum and Maximum Dimensions
Design Diaphragms
Check Design Requirements
SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN
A. Establish Minimum Seat Width
B. Compile Force Effects Not Compiled for Superstructure
Water
Effect of Scour
Earthquake
Temperature
Superimposed Deformation
Vehicular Collision
Braking Force
Centrifugal Force
Earth Pressure
C. Analyze Structure and Compile Load Combinations
Load Combinations
Special Earthquake Load Combinations
D. Compression Members
Factored Axial Resistance
Biaxial Flexure
Slenderness Effects
Shear (Usually Earthquake Induced)
Reinforcement Limits
Bearing
Durability
Detailing and Seismic
E. Foundations (Structural Considerations)
Scour
Footings

Chapter 12
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, SI Units, 2nd Edition, 1998.

2. The Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Vol. 8, “Design of Structures for
Earthquake Resistance,” 1995.
3. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 7, “Foundations,” 1995.
4. Mononobe, N. “Earthquake-proof Construction of Masonry Dams.” In Proc., World
Engineering Conference, Vol 9, 1929.
5. Okabe, S. “General Theory of Earth Pressure.” Journal of the Japanese Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol 12, No. 1, 1926.
6. Seed, H. B. and R. V. Whitman. “Design of Earth Retaining Structures for Dynamic
Loads.” In Proc., ASCE Specialty Conference on Lateral Stresses in the Ground and
Design of Earth Retaining Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
1970.
7. Richards. R. and D. G. Elms. “Seismic Behavior of Gravity Retaining Walls.” Journal
of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol 105, No. GT4, 1979.
8. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 2, “Structural Use of Concrete,” 1995
9. Taylor, A. W., R. B. Rowell, and J. E. Breen. Design Behavior of Thin Walls in
Hollow Concrete Bridge Piers and Pylons. Research Report 1180-1F. Center for
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, 1990.
10. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 5, “Utilization of Timber,” 1995.

Chapter 13
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Approximate Methods of Analysis
13 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS
13.1 GENERAL
This chapter describes methods of analysis suitable for the design and evaluation of bridges
and is limited to the modeling of structures and the determination of force effects.
Other methods of analysis that are based on documented material characteristics and that
satisfy equilibrium and compatibility (see Chapter 3: Load Requirements, section 3.10: Load
Fatigue) may also be used.
In general, bridge structrures are to be analyzed elastically. However, this chapter permits the
inelastic analysis or redistribution of force effects in some continuous beam superstructures.
It specifies inelastic analysis for compressive members behaving ineleastically and as an
alternative for extreme event limit states.
If the span length of a superstructure with torsionally stiff closed cross-sections exceeds 2.5
times its width, the superstructure shall be idealized as a single steel spine within a concrete
beam.
Segments of horizontally curved superstructures with torsionally stiff closed sections whose
central angle subtended by a curved span or portion thereof is less than 12° shall be analyzed
as if the segment were straight.
13.2 NOTATIONS
The following notation shall apply to this chapter:

A = Area of concrete (mm2)
A = area of cross-section (mm2)
Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in Figure 13-5
(mm2)
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown in Figure
13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under investigation
(mm2)
As = area of non-prestressed reinforcing steel on flexural tension side of member, as
shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under
investigation (mm2)
b = width of plate element (mm)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within depth dv (mm)
C = continuity factor, 1.0 for simply supported and 0.8 for continuous spans
D = stiffness ratio: Dx/Dy
Dx = flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-mm2/mm)
Dy = flexural rigidity perpendicular to the main bars (N-mm2/mm)
E = equivalent width (mm)

Chapter 13
Approximate Methods of Analysis Bridge Design Manual - 2002
EB = modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa)

ED = modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa)
e = eccentricity of a design truck or a design lane load from the center of gravity of the
pattern of girders (mm)
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm)
fpe = effective stress after losses (MPa)
fpo = stress in prestressing steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is 0.0 (MPa)
h = depth of deck (mm)
I = moment of inertia of beam (mm4)
Ip = polar moment of inertia (mm4)
Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm4)
J = St. Venant's torsional inertia (mm4)
K = effective length factor
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter
Ks = strip stiffness
lt = tire length along direction of traffic (mm)
L = span of beam (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken ≤ of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
+M = positive moment (Nmm/mm)
-M = negative moment (Nmm/mm)
Mu = factored moment (Nmm)
Nb = number of beams, stringers or girders
NL = number of design lanes
Nu = factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (N)
p = tire pressure taken as 0.86 MPa
R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes
s = length of a side element (mm)
sx = crack spacing parameter
S = span length (mm)
t = thickness of plate-like element (mm)
ts = deck slab thickness (mm)
V = shear stress on concrete
Vu = factored shear force (N)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be ≤ of the actual width or 18,000
mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
X = distance from load to point of support (mm)
x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to each girder
(mm)
Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to the exterior
girder (mm)
εx = strain in reinforcement
θ = skew angle (DEG)
ϕ = resistance factor for shear specified in Table 9-7.

Chapter 13
13.3 DECKS
13.3.1 GENERAL
An approximate method of analysis in which the deck is subdivided into strips perpendicular
to the supporting components shall be considered acceptable for decks other than fully filled
and partially filled grids, for which the provisions of section Live Load Distribution on Fully
and Partially Filled Grids, below, shall apply.
Where the strip method is used, the extreme positive moment in any deck panel between
girders shall be taken to apply to all positive moment regions. Similarly, the extreme
negative moment over any beam or girder shall be taken to apply to all negative moment
regions.
In determining the strip widths, the effects of flexure in the secondary direction and of
torsion on the distribution of internal force effects are accounted for to obtain flexural force
effects approximating those that would be provided by a more refined method of analysis.
Depending on the type of deck, modeling and design in the secondary direction may utilize
one of the following approximations:
• Secondary strip designed in a manner like the primary strip, with all the limit states
applicable;
• Resistance requirements in the secondary direction determined as a percent of that in the

primary one as specified in the traditional approach for reinforced concrete slabs (as in
Ref. 1); or
• Minimum structural and/or geometry requirements specified for the secondary direction
independent of actual force effects, as is the case for most wood decks.
The approximate strip model for decks is based on rectangular layouts. While skew generally
tends to decrease extreme force effects, it produces negative moments at corners, torsional
moments in the end zones, substantial redistribution of reaction forces, and a number of
other structural phenomena that should be considered in the design.
13.3.2 APPLICABILITY
The use of design aids such as computer software for decks containing prefabricated
elements shall be permitted in lieu of analysis if the performance of the deck is documented
and supported by sufficient technical evidence. The Designer shall be responsible for the
accuracy and implementation of any design aids used.
For slab bridges and concrete slabs spanning more than 4.6 m and with span primarily in the
direction parallel to traffic, the provisions of section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-
Type Bridges, shall apply.

Chapter 13
13.3.3 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT INTERIOR STRIPS
The Width of the equivalent strip of a deck shall be taken as specified in Table 13-1.
Where decks span primarily in the direction parallel to traffic, strips supporting an axle load
shall not be taken to be greater than 1.0 m for open grids, and not greater than 3.0 m for all
other decks where multilane loading is being investigated. For deck overhangs, where
applicable, the provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Deck Overhang Load shall be used
in lieu of the strip width specified in Table 13-1 for deck overhangs. The equivalent strips for
decks that span primarily in the transverse direction shall not be subject to width limits.
Values provided for equivalent strip widths and strength requirements in the secondary
direction are based on past experience. Practical experience and future research work may
lead to refinement.
To get the load per unit width of the equivalent strip, divide the total load on one design
traffic lane by the calculated strip width.
DIRECTION OF PRIMARY
WIDTH OF PRIMARY
TYPE OF DECK STRIP RELATIVE TO
STRIP (mm)
TRAFFIC
Concrete:
• Cast-in-place Overhang 1140 + 0.833X
Either Parallel or Perpendicular +M: 660 + 0.55S
-M: 1220 + 0.25S
• Cast-in-place with stay-in- Either Parallel or Perpendicular +M: 660 + 0.55S
place concrete formwork -M: 1220 + 0.25S
Wood:
• Spike-laminated
- Continuous decks or Parallel 2.0h + 760
interconnected panels Perpendicular 4.0h + 1020
- Non-interconnected Parallel 2.0h + 760

panels Perpendicular 2.0h +1020
• Planks Plank Width

h = depth of deck (mm)
+M = positive moment
-M = negative moment
X = distance from load to point of support (mm)
Table 13-1 Equivalent Strips for Different Types of Decks

Chapter 13
13.3.4 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT STRIPS AT EDGES OF SLABS
Longitudinal Edges: Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective
width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance
between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of
the strip width, specified in either section “Width of Equivalent Interior Strips” above, or
section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges, as appropriate. The effective
width shall not exceed either the full strip width or 1800 mm.
Transverse Edges: The effective width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, shall be
taken as the sum of the distance between the transverse edge of the deck and the centerline of
the first line of support for the deck, usually taken as a girder web, plus one-half of the width
of strip as specified in section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges. The
effective width shall not exceed the full strip width specified in section 13.5: Equivalent
Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges.
13.3.5 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS
If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction exceeds 1.5 times the
spacing in the primary direction, all of the wheel loads shall be considered to be applied to
the primary strip, and the provisions specified in the traditional approach shall be applied
to the secondary direction.
If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction is less than 1.5 times the
spacing in the primary direction, the deck shall be modeled as a system of intersecting strips.
The width of the equivalent strips in both directions shall be taken as specified in Table 13-1.
Each wheel load shall be distributed between two intersecting strips. The distribution shall
be determined as the ratio between the stiffness of the strip and the sum of stiffnesses of the
intersecting strips. In the absence of more precise calculations, the strip stiffness, ks, shall be
estimated as:
E * Is
ks = (13.1)
S3
where: Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm4)
13.3.6 CALCULATION OF FORCE EFFECTS
The strips shall be treated as continuous beams or simply supported beams, as appropriate.

Chapter 13
Span length shall be taken as the center-to-center distance between the supporting
components. For the purpose of determining force effects in the strip, the supporting
components shall be assumed to be infinitely rigid.
The wheel loads shall be modeled as concentrated loads or as patch loads whose length along
the span shall be the length of the tire contact area, as specified in section 3.8 Gravity Loads:
Tire Contact Area, plus the depth of the deck. The strips should be analyzed by classical
beam theory.
The design section for negative moments and shear forces, where investigated, shall be taken
as follows:
• For monolithic construction and concrete box beams at the face of the supporting
component;
• For steel and wood beams: one-quarter the flange width from the centerline of support;
• For precast I-shaped and T-shaped concrete beams: one-third the flange width, but not
exceeding 380 mm from the centerline of support.
For the purpose of this chapter, each web of a steel or concrete box beam shall be treated as a
separate supporting component.
For short-spans, the force effects calculated using the footprint could be significantly lower,
and more realistic, than force effects calculated using concentrated loads.
Past practice has been not to check shear in typical decks. A design section for shear is
provided for use in nontraditional situations. It is not the intent to investigate shear in every
deck.
13.3.7 CROSS-SECTIONAL FRAME ACTION
Where decks are an integral part of Box or Cellular cross-sections, flexural and/or torsional
stiffnesses of supporting components of the cross-section, i.e., the webs and bottom flange,
are likely to cause significant force effects in the deck. Those components shall be included
in the analysis of the deck.
If the length of a frame segment is modeled as the width of an equivalent strip, provisions of
above sections Width of Equivalent Interior Strips, Distribution of Wheel Loads, and
Calculation of Force Effects, shall be used.
The model used is essentially a transverse segmental strip, in which flexural continuity
provided by the webs and bottom flange is included. Such modeling is restricted to closed
cross-sections only. In open-framed structures, a degree of transverse frame action also
exists, but it can be determined only by complex, refined analysis.
In normal beam-slab superstructures, cross-sectional frame action may safely be neglected.

If the slab is supported by box beams or is integrated into a cellular cross-section, the effects

Chapter 13
of frame action could be considerable. Such action usually decreases positive moments, but
may increase negative moments resulting in cracking of the deck. For larger structures, a
three-dimensional analysis shall be appropriate. For smaller structures, the analysis could be
restricted to a segment of the bridge whose length is the width of an equivalent strip.
Extreme force effects shall be calculated by combining the:

• Longitudinal response of the superstructure approximated by classical beam theory,
and
• Transverse flexural response modeled as a cross-sectional frame.
13.3.8 LIVE LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON FULLY FILLED AND PARTIALLY FILLED GRIDS
Moments in Nmm/mm of grid due to live load in filled and partially filled grids shall be
determined as:
• Main bars transverse to traffic:
M = C lt p D0.25 [42.3 * ln(0.039S) - 74] (13.2)
• Main bars parallel to direction of traffic

lt
M = Cp[8060D 0.29 ln(0.039S) − 10200D0.46 ] (13.3)
200
where: S = span length (mm), 500 mm < S < 10 000 mm in Equation 13.2, and
500 mm < S < 5000 mm in Equation 13.3
C = continuity factor, 1.0 for simply supported and 0.8 for continuous spans
lt = tire length, along direction of traffic, as specified in section 3.8 Gravity
Loads: Tire Contact Area (mm)
p = tire pressure taken as 0.86 MPa
D = Dx/Dy
Dx = flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-mm2/mm)
Dy = flexural rigidity perpendicular to the main bars (N-mm2/mm)
Where test results are not available, the stiffness ratio, D, shall be taken as:
• For fully filled grids with at least 38mm monolithic overfill ........................................2.0
• For all other fully filled grids.........................................................................................2.5
• For partially filled grids with at least 38 mm monolithic overfill .................................8.0
• For all other partially filled grids .................................................................................10.0
The moment equations have been derived from orthotropic plate theory and stiffness ratios
obtained in full-scale laboratory tests of filled and partially filled grids based on a 500 mm
wide, 200 mm long tire contact area. Moments resulting from these equations compare well
with full-scale test results and finite difference and finite element solutions. The tire contact
area, specified in section 3.8 Gravity Loads: Tire Contact Area, factored for the Strength I
Load Combination, is a 510 mm by 385 mm rectangle, therefore Equations 13.2 and 13.3 are
expected to produce conservative results.

Chapter 13
For on-the-road tire loads greater than those indicated by the design truck, the factored tire
pressure should not be taken to be greater than 0.86 MPa, unless supported by condition-
specific data, which includes the tire contact area.
13.3.9 INELASTIC ANALYSIS
The inelastic finite element analysis or yield line analysis shall not be used unless otherwise
permitted by ERA.
13.4 BEAM-SLAB BRIDGES
13.4.1 APPLICATION
For beam spacing exceeding the range of applicability as specified in Tables 13-3 through
13-9, the live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the loaded lanes based on the lever
rule unless specified otherwise herein.
The lever rule involves summing moments about one support to find the reaction at another
support by assuming that the supported component is hinged at interior supports.
When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model should be taken as
shown in Figure 13-1. Moments should be taken about the assumed, or notional, hinge in the
deck over the middle girder to find the reaction on the exterior girder.
Figure 13-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges
The provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Load: Multiple Presence of Live Load specify that
multiple presence factors shall not be used with the approximate load assignment methods
other than statical moment or lever arm methods because these factors are already
incorporated in the distribution factors.
Bridges not meeting the requirements of this chapter shall be analyzed as specified in
Chapter 12: Detail Design of Bridges and Structures.
The distribution of live load, specified in the two following sections of this subchapter, shall
be used for girders, beams, and stringers, other than multiple steel box beams with concrete
decks that meet the following conditions and any other conditions identified in tables of
distribution factors as specified herein:

Chapter 13
• Width of deck is constant;

• Number of beams is not less than four, unless otherwise specified;
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness;
• Unless otherwise specified, the roadway part of the overhang, de, does not exceed 0.9m;
• Curvature in plan is less than the limit specified in section 13.1: General above; and
• Cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in Table 13-2.
Where moderate deviations from a constant deck width or parallel beams exist, the equations
in the tables of distribution factors shall be used in conjunction with a suitable value for
beam spacing.
In Strength Load Combination II, applying a distribution factor procedure to a loading

involving a heavy permit load can be overly conservative unless lane-by-lane distribution
factors are available. Use of a refined method of analysis will circumvent this situation.
Additional requirements for multiple steel box girders with concrete decks shall be as
specified in section “Interior Beams with Concrete Decks,” below.
Where bridges meet the conditions specified herein, permanent loads of and on the deck
shall be distributed uniformly among the beams and/or stringers.
Live load distribution factors, specified herein, shall be used for permit and rating vehicles
whose overall width is comparable to the width of the design truck.
Unless otherwise stated, the stiffness parameters for area, moments of inertia and torsional
stiffness used herein and indicated in the following text shall be taken as those of the cross-
section to which traffic will be applied, i.e., usually the composite section.
The longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg, shall be taken as:
Kg =n (I + A eg2) in which: n = EB / ED (13.4)
where: EB =modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa)

ED = modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa)
I= moment of inertia of beam (mm4)
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm)
A = Area of concrete (mm2)
The parameters A and I in Equation 13.4 shall be taken as those of the non-composite beam.
The bridge types indicated in Tables 13-3 through 13-9, with reference to Figure 13-1, shall
be taken as representative of the type of bridge to which each approximate equation applies.
Except as permitted by Chapter 2: General Requirements, regardless of the method of

analysis used, i.e., approximate or refined, exterior girders of multi-beam bridges shall not
have less resistance than an interior beam.

Chapter 13
Most of the equations for distribution factors were derived for constant deck width and
parallel beams. Past designs with moderate exceptions to these two assumptions have
performed well when the "S/D" distribution factors were used. While the distribution factors
specified herein are more representative of actual bridge behavior, common sense indicates
that some exceptions are still possible, especially if the parameter "S" is chosen with prudent
judgment.
In lieu of more refined information, the St. Venant torsional inertia, J, shall be determined as:
• For thin-walled open beam:
J ∼ 1/3 Σbt3 (13.5)
• For stocky open sections, e.g., prestressed I-beams, etc., and solid sections:
J ∼ A4 / 40 Ip (13.6)
• For closed thin-walled shapes:
4Ao 2
J≈ (13.7)
s
¦
t
where: b = width of plate element (mm)

t = thickness of plate-like element (mm)
A = area of cross-section (mm2)
Ip = polar moment of inertia (mm4)
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm2)
s = length of a side element (mm)
Equation 13.6 has been shown to substantially underestimate the torsional stiffness of some
concrete I-beams (a more accurate, but more complex, approximation can be found in Ref.
2).
For beams with variable moment of inertia, Kg shall be based on average properties.
In some cases, the lower limit of deck slab thickness, ts shown in the range of applicability
column in Tables 13-3 through 13-9 is less than 180 mm. The research used to develop the
equation in those tables reflects the range of slab thickness shown.
Table 13-2 below describes how the term L (length) shall be determined for use in the live
load distribution factor equations given below.
In the rare occasion when the continuous span arrangement is such that an interior span does
not have any positive uniform load moment, i.e., no uniform load points of contraflexure, the
region of negative moment near the interior supports would be increased to the centerline of

Chapter 13
the span, and the L used in determining the live load distribution factors would be the
average of the two adjacent spans.
Force Effect L (mm)

Positive Moment The length of the span for which
moment is being calculated
Negative Moment – Near interior supports The average length of the two
of continuous spans from point of adjacent spans
contraflexure to point of contraflexure under
a uniform load on all spans
Negative Moment – Other than near interior The length of the span for which
supports of continuous spans moment is being calculated
Shear The length of the span for which
shear is being calculated
Exterior Reaction The length of the exterior span
Interior Reaction of Continuous Span The average length of the two
adjacent spans
Table 13-2 “L” for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations
13.4.2 INTERIOR BEAMS WITH CONCRETE DECKS
The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks shall be determined by
applying the lane fraction specified in Table 13-3. Applicable cross-sections are depicted in
Figure 13-2.
For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L ts3) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0.
For concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
• Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution, and
• If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a refined
analysis shall be used.
For multiple steel box girders with a concrete deck, the live load flexural moment shall be
determined using the distribution factor specified in Table 13-3.
When the spacing of the box girders varies along the length of the bridge, the value of NL
shall be determined, as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Number of Lanes, using the
width, W, taken at midspan.
The results of analytical and model studies of simple span multiple box section bridges (Ref.
3) showed that folded plate theory could be used to analyze the behavior of bridges of this
type.

Chapter 13
Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures
Multiple presence factors, specified in Table 3-4, are not applied because the multiple factors
in past editions of the Standard Specifications were considered in the development of the
equation in Table 13-3 for multiple steel box girders.
The lateral load distribution obtained for simple spans is also considered applicable to
continuous structures.

Chapter 13
Type of Beams Applicable Distribution Factors Range of

Cross-section Applicability
from Figure
13-2
Concrete Deck on l One Design Lane Loaded: S/3700 S ≤ 1800

Wood Beams Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/3000
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and also One Design Lane Loaded: 1100≤ S≤4900
Grid, or Partially i, j if 110 ≤ ts ≤ 300
Filled Grid on Steel or sufficiently 0.06 + S 0.4 S 0.3 Kg 0.1 6000≤L≤73000
Concrete Beams; connected to 4300 L Lts3 Nb ≥ 4
Concrete T-Beams, act as a unit
T-and Double T- Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
Sections
0.6 0.2 0.1
0.075 + S S Kg
4300 L Lts3
Use lesser of the values obtained from Nb = 3

the equation above with Nb = 3 or the
lever rule
Multicell Concrete d One Design Lane Loaded: 2100≤S≤4000
Box Beam 18 000 ≤ L ≤
1.75 + S 300 0.35 1 0.45 73000
1100 L Nc Nc ≥ 3
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
If Nc>8 use
0.3 0.25
13 S 1 Nc=8
Nc 430 L
Steel Grids on Steel a One Design Lane Loaded: S ≤ 1800 mm

Beams S/2300 If tg < 100 mm
S/3050 If tg ≥ 100 mm
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/2400 If tg < 100 mm S ≤ 3200 mm
S/3050 If tg ≥ 100 mm
Table 13-3 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam
The bridges considered in the development of the equations had interior end diaphragms
only, i.e., no interior diaphragms within the spans, and no exterior diaphragms anywhere
between boxes. If interior or exterior diaphragms are provided within the span, the transverse
load distribution characteristics of the bridge will be improved to some degree. This
improvement can be evaluated, if desired, using any method of analysis that satisfies the
requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and uses stress-strain relationships for the
proposed materials.

Chapter 13
13.4.3 EXTERIOR BEAMS
The live load flexural moment for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the lane
fraction, g, specified in Table 13-4.
Applicable Cross- One Design Two or More

Type of Range of
section from Lane Design Lanes
Superstructure Applicability
Figure 13-2 Loaded Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or Steel Beam
Concrete Deck on L Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck, filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -300 ≤ de ≤ 1700
Grid, or Partially also i, j if
Filled Grid on Steel or sufficiently e = 0.77 + de
Concrete Beams: connected to act as 2800
Concrete T-Beams. T a unit Use lesser of the Nb = 3
and Double T values obtained
Sections from the equation
above with Nb = 3
or the lever rule
Table 13-4 Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal
Beams
The distance, de, shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is inboard of the interior face
of the traffic railing and negative if it is outboard of the curb or traffic barrier.
In beam-slab bridge cross-sections with diaphragms or cross-frames, the distribution factor

for the exterior beam shall not be taken to be less than that which would be obtained by
assuming that the cross-section deflects and rotates as a rigid cross-section. The provisions of
section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Multiple Presence of Live Load shall apply.
This additional investigation is required because the distribution factor for girders in a multi-
girder cross-section, Types "a" and "e" in Figure 13-2, was determined without consideration
of diaphragm or cross-frames. The recommended procedure is an interim provision until
research provides a better solution.
The procedure outlined in this section is the same as the conventional approximation for
loads on piles.
NL
NL Xext ¦ e
R= + (13.8)
Nb Nb 2
¦x
where: R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes

Chapter 13
NL = number of loaded lanes under consideration

Nb = number of beams or girders
e = eccentricity of a design truck or a design lane load from the center of gravity
of the pattern of girders (mm)
x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to each
girder (mm)
Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to the
exterior girder (mm)
13.4.4 SKEWED BRIDGES

When the line supports are skewed and the difference between skew angles of two adjacent
lines of supports does not exceed 10°, the bending moment in the beams shall be reduced in
accordance with Table 13-5.
Applicable
Cross-section Any Number of Design Range of
Type of Superstructure
from Figure Lanes Loaded Applicability
13-2
Concrete Deck, Filled 1 – c1 (tan θ)1.5
Grid, or Partially Filled 30o ≤ θ ≤ 60o
Grid on Steel or Concrete a, e and k c1 = 0.25 kg 0.25 S 0.5
1100 ≤ S ≤ 4900
Beams, Concrete T- Lt3s L 6000 ≤ L ≤ 73 000
Beams, T or Double T If θ < 30 then c1 = 0.0
o
Nb ≥ 4
Sections If θ > 60o use θ = 60o
Table 13-5 Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for Moment in Longitudinal Beams
on Skewed Supports
Accepted reduction factors are not currently available for cases not covered in Table 13-5.
13.4.5 FLEXURAL MOMENTS AND SHEAR IN TRANSVERSE FLOORBEAMS
If the deck is supported directly by transverse floorbeams, the floorbeams shall be designed
for loads determined in accordance with Table 13-6.
The fractions provided in Table 13-6 shall be used in conjunction with the 145 kN design
axle load alone. For spacings of floorbeams outside the given ranges of applicability, all of
the design live loads shall be considered, and the lever rule shall be used.
Type of Deck Fraction of Wheel Load Range of Applicability

to Each Floor-Beam
Plank S / 1200 N/A
Concrete S / 1800 S ≤ 1800
Table 13-6 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Transverse Beams for Moment and
Shear

Chapter 13
13.4.6 INTERIOR BEAMS
The live load shear for interior beams shall be determined by applying the lane fractions
specified in Table 13-7. For interior beam types not listed in Table 13-7, lateral distribution
of the wheel or axle adjacent to the end of span shall be that produced by use of the lever
rule. For preliminary design, the term I/J shall be taken as 1.0.
For concrete box beams used in multi-beam decks, if the values of I or J do not comply with
the limitations in Table 13-7, the distribution factor for shear shall be taken as that for
moment.
Type of Applicable One Design Two or More Range of

Superstructure Cross-section Lane Loaded Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure Loaded
13-2
Concrete Deck on l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and 1100 ≤ S ≤4900
Grid, or Partially also i, j if 0.36 + S 0.2 + S - S 2.0 6000 ≤ L ≤ 73000
Filled Grid on Steel or sufficiently 7600 3600 10700 110 ≤ ts ≤ 300
Concrete Beams: connected to 4x109 ≤ kg ≤ 3x1012
Concrete T-Beams. T act as a unit Nb ≥ 4
and Double T Sections Lever Rule Lever Rule Nb = 3
Multi-cell Concrete d 1800 ≤ S ≤ 4900
0.6 0.1
Box Beams, Box S d S 0.9 d 0.1
6000 ≤ L ≤ 73000
Sections 2900 L 2200 L 890 ≤ d ≤ 2800
Nc ≥ 3
Table 13-7 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams
13.4.7 EXTERIOR BEAMS
The live load shear for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the lane fractions
specified in Table 13-8. For cases not addressed in Table 13-7 and Table 13-8, the live load
distribution to exterior beams shall be determined by using the lever rule.
The parameter de shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is inboard of the curb or traffic
barrier and negative if it is outboard.
The additional provisions for exterior beams in beam-slab bridges with cross-frames or
diaphragms, specified in “Exterior Beams,” above, shall apply.

Chapter 13
Type of Applicable One Two or More Range of

Superstructure Cross-section Design Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure 13-2 Lane Loaded
Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or steel Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -300 ≤ de ≤ 1700
Grid, or Partially Filled also i, j if
Grid on Steel or sufficiently θ = 0.6 + de .
Concrete Beams; connected to act 3000
Concrete T-Beams, T- as a unit Lever Rule Nb = 3
and Double T-Beams
Multi-cell Concrete d Lever Rule g = e ginterior -600 ≤ de ≤ 1500
Box Beams, Box
Sections θ = 0.64 + de .
3800
Steel Grid Deck on a Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Steel Beams
Table 13-8 - Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams
13.4.8 SKEWED BRIDGES
Shear in the exterior beam at the obtuse corner of the bridge shall be adjusted when the line
of support is skewed. The value of the correction factor shall be obtained from Table 13-9. It
is applied to the lane fraction specified in Table 13-7 for interior beams and in Table 13-8 for
exterior beams.
In determining the end shear in multi-beam bridges, the skew correction at the obtuse corner
shall be applied to all the beams.
Type of Superstructure Applicable Correction Factor Range of

Cross-section Applicability
from Figure
13-2
Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, a, e, k and also 0o ≤ θ ≤ 60o
0.3
or Partially Filled Grid on i, j if § Lts 3 · 1100 ≤ S ≤ 4900
Steel or Concrete Beams; sufficiently 1.0 + 0.20¨¨ ¸¸ tan θ 6000 ≤ L ≤ 73 000
Concrete T-Beams, T- and connected to © Kg ¹ Nb ≥ 4
Double T Section act as unit
ulti-cell Concrete Box d 0o ≤ θ ≤ 60o
Beams, Box sections 1.0 + 0.25 + L tan θ 1800 ≤ S ≤ 4000
70d 6000 ≤ L ≤ 73 000
900 ≤ d ≤ 2700
Nc ≥ 3
Table 13-9 - Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors for Support Shear of
the Obtuse Corner

Chapter 13
Verifiable correction factors are not available for cases not covered in Table 13-9.
The equal treatment of all beams in a multi-beam bridge is conservative regarding positive
reaction and shear. However, it, is not necessarily conservative regarding uplift in the case of
large skew and short exterior spans of continuous beams. A supplementary investigation of
uplift should be considered using the correction factor from Table 13-9, i.e., the terms other
than 1.0, taken as negative for the exterior beam at the acute corner.
In Equation 13.8, the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple
presence effect.
13.5 EQUIVALENT STRIP WIDTHS FOR SLAB-TYPE BRIDGES
This chapter shall be applied to the types of cross-sections shown schematically in Figure 13-
2 and culverts under less than 600 mm of fill. For the purpose of this chapter, cast-in-place
voided slab bridges shall be considered as slab bridges.
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one
lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
E = 250 + 0.42 L1W1 (13.9)
The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more
than one lane loaded shall be determined as:
W
E = 2100 + 0.12 L1W1 ≤ (13.10)
NL
where: E = equivalent width (mm)

L1 = modified span length taken ≤ of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be ≤ of the actual width or
18,000 mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Number of
Lanes
For skewed bridges, the longitudinal force effects shall be reduced by the factor r:
r = 1.05 - 0.25 tan θ ≤ 1.00 (13.11)

where: θ = skew angle (DEG)

Chapter 13
13.6 EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR, K
Equations for the compressive resistance of columns and moment magnification factors for
beam-columns include a factor, K, which is used to modify the length according to the
restraint at the ends of the column against rotation and translation.
Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effectivelength factor, K, representing the

ratio of the effective length of an idealized pin-end column to the actual length of a column
with various other end conditions. For the compression members in triangulated trusses,
trusses, and frames, K shall be taken as:
For bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750
For pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875
13.7 SHEAR – SECTIONAL DESIGN MODEL
13.7.1 GENERAL
The resistance of members in shear or in shear combined with torsion shall be determined by
satisfying the conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains and by using
experimentally verified stress-strain relationships for reinforcement and for diagonally
cracked concrete.
13.7.2 DETERMINATION OF β AND θ
Simplified Procedure for Non-Prestressed Sections
For non-prestressed concrete sections not subjected to axial tension and containing at least
the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement specified or having an overall depth of <
400 mm, the following values shall be used:
• β = 2.0
• θ = 45o
With β taken as 2.0 and θ as 45o, the expressions for shear strength become essentially
identical to those traditionally used for evaluating shear resistance. Recent large-scale
experiments (Ref. 4), however, have demonstrated that these traditional expressions can be
seriously unconservative for large members not containing transverse reinforcement.
13.7.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE
For sections containing transverse reinforcement, the values of β and θ shall be as specified
in Figure 13-3 and Table 13-10, and for sections not containing transverse reinforcement
these values shall be as specified in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11.
In using these tables or figures:

Chapter 13
• The shear stress on the concrete shall be determined as:

Vu − ϕVp (13.12)
V=
ϕbvdv
• The strain in the reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member shall be
determined as:
Mu / dv + 0.5 Nu + 0.5Vu cot θ − Apsfpo
εx = ≤ 0.002 (13.13)
EsAs + EpAps
If the value of εx, calculated from Equation 13.13, is negative, it shall be multiplied by the
factor, Fε taken as:
EsAs + EpAps
Fε = (13.14)
EcAc + EsAs + EpAps
Where: ϕ = resistance factor for shear specified in Table 9-7.

Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in
Figure 13-5 below (mm2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown
in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under
investigation (mm2)
Nu = factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (N)
Vu = factored shear force (N)
As = area of non-prestressed reinforcing steel on flexural tension side of member,
as shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the
section under investigation (mm2)
Mu = factored moment (Nmm)
fpo = stress in prestressing steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is 0.0
(MPa)
The flexural tension side of the member should be taken as the half-depth containing the
flexural tension zone, as illustrated in Figure 13-5.
The crack spacing parameter sx, used in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11, shall be taken as the
lesser of either dv or the maximum distance between layers of longitudinal crack control
reinforcement. The area of the reinforcement in each layer shall be ≥ 0.003 bv sx.
In the general procedure, β and θ are found from Figure 13-3 and Table 13-10 or Figure 13-4
and Table 13-11. In these figures and tables, β and θ are given as functions of the strain εx
the shear stress V and the crack spacing parameter sx.

Chapter 13
Figure13-3 Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement

Chapter 13
Figure 13-4 Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement

Chapter 13
v εx *1000
f′c -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 0 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2
<=0.05 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 28.5 29.0 33.0 36.0 41.0 43.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.99 3.49 2.51 2.37 2.23 1.95 1.72
0.075 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.5 30.0 33.5 36.0 40.0 42.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.65 3.01 2.47 2.33 2.16 1.90 1.65
0.1 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 24.0 26.5 30.5 34.0 36.0 38.0 39.0
6.50 5.87 5.31 3.26 2.61 2.54 2.41 2.28 2.09 1.72 1.45
0.125 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.5 34.0 36.0 37.0 38.0
2.71 2.71 2.71 2.60 2.57 2.50 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.60 1.35
0.15 22.0 22.5 23.5 25.0 27.0 29.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 36.5 37.0
2.66 2.61 2.61 2.55 2.50 2.45 2.28 2.06 1.93 1.50 1.24
0.175 23.5 24.0 25.0 26.5 28.0 30.0 32.5 34.0 35.0 35.5 36.0
2.59 2.58 2.54 2.50 2.41 2.39 2.20 1.95 1.74 1.35 1.11
0.2 25.0 25.5 26.5 27.5 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 35.0 36.0
2.55 2.49 2.48 2.45 2.37 2.33 2.10 1.82 1.58 1.21 1.00
0.225 26.5 27.0 27.5 29.0 30.5 32.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 36.5 39.0
2.45 2.44 2.43 2.37 2.33 2.27 1.92 1.67 1.43 1.18 1.14
0.25 28.0 28.5 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.5 38.5 41.5
2.36 2.36 2.32 2.30 2.28 2.01 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.30 1.25
Table 13-10 Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement
εx * 1000
sx -0.2 -0.1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2
<=130 26.0 26.0 27.0 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 36.0 38.0
6.90 5.70 4.94 3.78 3.19 2.82 2.56 2.19 1.93
250 27.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 39.0 40.0 43.0 45.0
6.77 5.53 4.65 3.45 2.83 2.46 2.19 1.87 1.65
380 27.0 30.0 32.0 37.0 40.0 43.0 45.0 48.0 50.0
6.57 5.42 4.47 3.21 2.59 2.23 1.98 1.65 1.45
630 28.0 31.0 35.0 41.0 45.0 48.0 51.0 54.0 57.0
6.24 5.36 4.19 2.85 2.26 1.92 1.69 1.40 1.18
1270 31.0 33.0 38.0 48.0 53.0 57.0 59.0 63.0 66.0
5.62 5.24 3.83 2.39 1.82 1.50 1.27 1.00 0.83
2500 35.0 35.0 42.0 55.0 62.0 66.0 69.0 72.0 75.0
4.78 4.78 3.47 1.88 1.35 1.06 0.87 0.65 0.52
5000 42.0 42.0 47.0 64.0 71.0 74.0 77.0 80.0 82.0
3.83 3.83 3.11 1.39 0.90 0.66 0.53 0.37 0.28
Table 13-11 - Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement

Chapter 13
Figure 13-5 Illustration of Ac
The strain, εx, is used as an indicator of the longitudinal stiffness of the section and of the
magnitude of the moment, axial force, and prestressing force. Sections that contain large
percentages of longitudinal reinforcement, are prestressed, or are subjected to small
moments, will have low values of εx. For many prestressed sections, it will be found that εx is
close to 0.0. Such sections will have small web deformations, and hence, high values of Vc.
In determining εx at a particular section, it is conservative to take Mu as the highest factored

moment that will occur at that section, rather than a moment coincident with Vu. In
calculating εx, the stress fpo can be conservatively taken as the effective stress after losses. fpe.
Alternatively, fpo can be taken as:
fpcEp
fpo = fpe + (13.15)
Ec
It could be argued that the term Vu in Equation 13.13 should be more accurately written as
Vu -0.5 Vs – Vp. However, the concept of using εx as a parameter is innately imprecise
enough to allow the simplification of using only Vu.
Note that in calculating εx it is necessary to make an estimate for cotθ. As it is conservative

to overestimate εx, it is best to use a low value of θ in determining εx.
Because εx is a function of θ in Equation 13-13, and θ is related to εx in Tables 13-10 and 13-
11 or Figures 13-3 and 13-4, an iterative solution is required. A flow chart for shear design is
shown in Figure 13-6, which indicates the iterative solution for β using θ and εx.
The values of β and θ are based on calculating the stresses that can be transmitted across
diagonally cracked concrete. As the cracks become wider, the stress that can be transmitted
decreases. For members containing transverse reinforcement, it is assumed that the diagonal
cracks will be spaced about 300 mm apart. For members without transverse reinforcement,
the spacing of diagonal cracks inclined at θ° to the longitudinal reinforcement is assumed to
be sx/sinθ. Hence, deeper members having larger values of sx are assumed to have more
widely spaced cracks and, hence, cannot transmit such high shear stresses as shown in Figure
13-7, which provides some guidance in the determination of the parameter sx.

Chapter 13
Start
Assume Value of θ
Calculate εχ
(and Fε if necessary)
Eq. 13.13 and 13.14
Calculate Effective
Shear Depth, dv
Eq. 12.35 and 12.36
Find β and θ from

No Table 13-11 or
Figure 13-2
Calculate Vertical
Component
of P/S, Vp
Was Assumed
θ Correct ?
Calculate Shear
Stress in concrete, v Yes
and v/f′c
Table 13-10
Calculate Vc and Vs
Eq. 12.28 and 12.29
If Aps or As Not Fully

Developed, Calculate
Effective Areas End
Figure 13-6 Flow Chart for Shear Design
13.7.4 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
For sections not subjected to torsion, longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned so

that at each section Equation 13.16 is satisfied:
ª Mu 0.5Nu § Vu · º
Asfy + Apsfps ≥ « + + ¨¨ − 0.5Vs − Vp ¸¸ cot θ» (13.16)
¬ dvϕ ϕ © ϕ ¹ ¼
where: Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown in
Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under
investigation (mm2)
ϕ = resistance factors as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance

Chapter 13
Figure 13-7 Guide to the Selection of Sx
Shear causes tension in the longitudinal reinforcement. For a given shear, this tension
becomes larger as θ becomes smaller and as Vc becomes larger. The tension in the
longitudinal reinforcement caused by the shear force can be, visualized from a free body
diagram such as that shown in Figure 13-8.

Chapter 13
Taking moments about Point 0 in Figure 13-8, assuming that the aggregate interlock force on
the crack, which contributes to Vc, has a negligible moment about Point 0, and neglecting the
small difference in location of Vu and Vp leads to the requirement for the tension force in the
longitudinal reinforcement caused by shear.
If the reaction force or the load at the maximum moment location introduces direct
compression into the flexural compression face of the member, the area of longitudinal
reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member need not exceed the area required
to resist the maximum moment acting alone.
At maximum moment locations, the shear force changes sign, and hence the inclination of
the diagonal compressive stresses changes.
Figure 13-8 Forces Assumed in Resistance Model Caused by Moment and Shear
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO Standard Specifications, 1988.

2. Eby, C. C., J. M. Kulicki, C. N. Kostem, and M. A. Zellin. The Evaluation of St.
Venant Torsional Constants for Prestressed Concrete I-Beams. Fritz Laboratory Report
No. 400.12. Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1973.
3. Johnston, S. B., and A. H. Mattock. Lateral Distribution of Load in Composite Box
Girder Bridges. Highway Research Record No. 167, 1967.
4. Shioya, T., M. Iguro, Y. Nojiri, H. Akiyama, and T. Okada. “Shear Strength of Large
Reinforced Concrete Beams.” In Fracture Mechanics: Applications to Concrete. SP-
118. ACI, Detroit, Michigan, 1989.

Chapter 14
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel; Concrete and Masonry Arch Bridges
14 STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STEEL, CONCRETE AND MASONRY

ARCH BRIDGES
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.1.1 PURPOSE
These proposed guidelines establish a methodology for rating existing bridges. They are
mainly based on AASHTO (Ref. 1). The guidelines address several shortcomings of existing
evaluation procedures. The methodology is developed within a framework that provides for
a systematic rating improvement in the evaluation process. Moreover, the methodology
can be used in conjunction with a wide range of engineering practices.
The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive yet flexible methodology for
evaluating existing bridges, which is consistent with today’s high standards of safety.
Regarding the strength of existing masonry and concrete arch bridges, refer to section 14.5.
14.1.2 SCOPE
The methodology presented utilizes Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). This
procedure allows for combining probability theory, statistical data and engineering judgment
into a rational decision making tool. In particular, the procedure allows the engineer to use
site specific information in a consistent manner to improve, if necessary, his judgment on the
safe rating level for a particular bridge. In addition, the format incorporates existing
methodology for considering local laws and regulations and methods of calculation.
A load and resistance factor approach was also chosen as the basis for strength evaluation of
existing bridges as it conforms to the design methods for new bridges specified earlier in this
manual, while still allowing for a systematic consideration of the differences involved in
bridge evaluation. This approach allows each variable to be addressed separately, analyzed
in depth (if needed), and proportionally weighed in the overall rating process.
Conservative assumptions are made in each step of a strength design or checking procedure
to safeguard against the worst possible conditions expected to occur during the lifetime of a
structure. In other words, the probability of failure is made exceedingly small by providing
large safety margins to cover the uncertainties in predicting load effects and resistance of a
bridge. Reliability principle utilizing site data have been used to evaluate the uncertainties
and the safety levels or indices implicit in current designs.
The rating methodology and load and resistance factors have been developed to maintain
consistent safety levels for the above-mentioned uncertainties. Options for incorporating site
specific traffic and loading data and higher levels of effort by the engineer are introduced
since these lead to a reduction in the overall uncertainty. The lower safety margin required
maintaining the same safety level means ratings that are more beneficial. At no stage is it

Chapter 14
Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel; Concrete and Masonry Arch Bridges Bridge Design Manual - 2002
necessary for the evaluation engineer to use probabilistic methods. The necessary
reliability-based load and resistance factors have been tabulated for the evaluation.
Load and resistance factors were calculated from the coefficient of variation of actual load
effects and resistances, the ratio of the mean value to nominally determined values (i.e., the
bias) and the desired safety level. Therefore, as the evaluator obtains more data on the
distribution of actual load effects and resistances, more realistic load and resistance factors
can be utilized.
14.1.3 APPLICABILITY
This methodology is intended for evaluating almost all existing bridges. Steel spans include
simple and continuous girder bridges and trusses and floor systems. Concrete spans
recognized include slab, girder, T-beam and box beam bridges with short to medium span
length. Prestressed beams although of recent vintage are also included herein.
14.2 NOTATIONS
Af = Axle factor
Ap = Centrifugal distribution factor
ADT = average daily traffic
ADTT = average daily truck traffic
d = Arch barrel thickness
D = nominal dead load effect
Di = Nominal dead load effect of element “i”
FA = Centrifugal effect factor
Fb = Barrel factor
Fc = Condition factor
Fd = Depth factor
Ff = Fill factor
Fj = Joint factor
Fm = Material factor
Fmo = Mortar factor
Fp = Profile factor
Fsr = Span/rise factor
Fw = Width factor
Fy = nominal or specified yield stress
h = Depth of fill
I = live load impact factor
I = “Impact Factor” used to approximate the dynamic effects of moving Legal Trucks.
l = nominal traffic live load effects
KL = Proportion factor for longitudinal girders
L = Span of arch
L = nominal live load effect
Lj = Nominal traffic live load effects for load “j” other than the rating Legal Truck.
LR = Nominal live load effects for the rating Legal Truck.

Chapter 14
m = total number of elements contributing to dead load to the structure.

ME = Equivalent axle load for bending moment effect
n = total number of live loadings contributing to the live load effects other than the
rating legal truck(s).
PAL = Provisional axle loading
Qk = Effect of load k
R = resistance
R = Bending moment or shear without centrifugal effects
Rc = Enhanced bending moment or shear
Rn = nominal strength or resistance
RF = rating factor (the portion of the rating Legal Truck allowed on the bridge)
rc = Rise of arch barrel at crown
rq = Rise of arch barrel at quarter points
SE = Equivalent ax le load for shear force effect
SL = Shear on longitudinal member
SU = Gross shear due to one lane of UDL (Uniform Distributed Load)
γD = dead load factor
γiD = dead load factor for element “i”.
γL = live load factor
γjL = live load factor for load “i” other than the rating Legal Truck.
γLR = live load factor for the rating Legal Truck.
φ = Resistance factor (Capacity reduction) to account for uncertainties in resistance due
to variations in dimensions, material properties, and theory.
14.3 STRENGTH EVALUATION OF BRIDGES
14.3.1 GENERAL
The procedure for rating existing bridges requires knowledge of the physical conditions of
the bridge and the applied loadings. A safe level of rating presupposes that nominal strengths
should be estimated from a detailed investigation of the structure’s physical condition and
any continuing attempts to alleviate any signs of deterioration. Further knowledge of traffic
conditions including signs of overweight vehicle combinations combined with accurate
methods of structural analysis should be used when necessary to estimate load effects.
The load and resistance factors (LRFD) that must be applied should rationally recognize the
corresponding uncertainties in making these judgments on strength, analysis and loading.
The concepts of structural reliability are a means for consistently representing these
uncertainties and allowing bridge engineers to select proper load and resistance factors for
rating specific bridges.
The evaluation of a structure is based on the simple principle that the available capacity of
a structure to carry loads must exceed the required capacity to support the applied loadings.
To perform an evaluation, therefore, it is necessary to know something about the available
capacity, the applied loading and the response of the structure to that loading. Knowledge

Chapter 14
and information with respect to each of these items is never complete; and therefore,
evaluation can never be done precisely.
To compensate for this lack of knowledge and information, engineers have used safety
factors to insure that failure does not occur. The Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD) has been introduced in design and rating to provide more uniform safety. The
method implicitly recognizes that dead load effects may require lower safety margins than
comparable live (truck) load effects due to their relative uncertainty. This probabilistic
approach to safety is logically extended in the load and resistance factor methods used
herein.
The rating check is done by comparing the factored load effects (both dead and live) with
the factored resistance at all critical sections. The output is a rating factor, which
determines the suitability of the given bridge for the loads under consideration. If the bridge
rating is not acceptable, several options for a more detailed analysis are given. Each of these
options are associated with an increasing level of effort and shall be done if the rating
engineer warrants their use. An initial screening level, however, is provided for routine
investigations.
Advantages of this method are:

1. It provides uniformly consistent procedures for evaluating existing bridges.
2. It permits suitable flexibility in making evaluations.
3. It provides uniform levels of reliability developed from performance histories.
4. It is based on extensive truck traffic and bridge response data.
5. It permits introduction of site specific data into the evaluation in a rational and consistent
format.
6. It permits different levels of effort that involve progressively more work; with
correspondingly greater rewards in terms of more beneficial ratings.
7. It includes the same nominal dead and live load calculations and resistances as in the
design of new bridges.
8. It allows distinction between evaluation of redundant and nonredundant components.
14.3.2 SAFE EVALUATION
The strength evaluation procedures presented herein are intended to recognize a balance
between safety and economics. Detailed presentations of the theory and the calibration of the
load and resistance factors contained herein are given in Chapter 2: General Requirements
and Chapter 12: Detail Design of Bridges and Structures. A single load rating will be
produced by these guidelines.
Evaluators will find options in these guidelines by which ratings can be improved by
recommendations for more frequent and detailed inspection and maintenance, improved
structural analysis and especially control of heavy overweight vehicles.
These guidelines are intended to produce rating factors for routine evaluation and posting
considerations. Evaluation of live load for issuance of permits may require load factors
different from rating and shall also utilize the actual vehicle size, weight and configuration.

Chapter 14
Each of the steps in the evaluation process shall be performed in any one of several ways.
Therefore, the proposed guidelines are general enough to accommodate the practices of
different engineers and/or agencies. The load and resistance factors presented in the
guidelines were developed on the principle that the accuracy of an evaluation was dependent,
in part, on the methods used to perform the evaluation.
For economic reasons, it is desirable to keep the evaluation effort to a minimum. If the
capacity of a bridge can be shown to be sufficient by making some approximations, there is
no need to resort to an expensive evaluation procedure. On the other hand, if the sufficiency
of a bridge cannot be reliably established using a more approximate method, an engineer
may wish to resort to a more sophisticated approach in order to demonstrate the sufficiency
of the bridge. Therefore, the evaluation process outlined in the guidelines is a cyclic process
in which one or several of the steps shall be repeated.
The various options provided in the guidelines along with corresponding land/resistance
factors have been developed so as to maintain an adequate level of safety based on
calibration with existing performance experiences. The evaluation procedures presented
herein therefore provide a balance between safety and economics.
The single load rating value produced by these guidelines shall be greater than current
operating ratings for well-maintained, non-deteriorated and redundant load path bridges
having reasonably well enforced traffic. It may fall, however, even below existing inventory
levels for heavily deteriorated bridges or those having non-redundant components and
subjected to heavy truck traffic. A gradation of ratings between these two extremes will be
obtained depending on the condition of the bridge, type and volume of traffic, the quality of
inspection and the regularity of maintenance. Thus, a deficient bridge shall be made to rate
sufficiently if certain preventive measures such as load control restriction, inspection, etc.
are undertaken. A variety of options may exist and the engineer could choose one of them
depending on the economics of the situation and the amount of effort the engineer is willing
to expend.
14.3.3 THE RATING EQUATION
The evaluation is carried out with a comparison of the factored live load effects and the
factored strength or resistance. The load factors are used to account for uncertainties in load
effects due to uncertainties in analysis as well as load magnitudes. The dead load factor
includes normal variations in material dimensions and densities.
The live load factor accounts for uncertainties in expected maximum vehicle loading effect,
impact and distribution of loads during a time period between inspection. The resistance
factor accounts for uncertainties in strength prediction theories, material properties and
deterioration influences over time periods between inspection. Furthermore, the load and
resistance factors are adjusted to produce an overall safety margin which leads to an
adequate level of safety considering all uncertainties described above.

Chapter 14
The rating procedure is carried out for all strength checks (moment, shear, etc.) at all
potentially critical sections with the lowest value determining the rating factor for the entire
span. The rating equation to be used throughout the application of these guidelines is:
φRn = γDD + γL (RF) L (1 + I) (14.1)
or: φRn − γDD (14.2)

RF =
γL * L(1 + I )
Where: RF = rating factor (the portion of the rating Legal Truck allowed on the bridge)
φ = resistance factor
γD = dead load factor
D = nominal dead load effect
γL = live load factor
l = nominal traffic live load effects
L = nominal live load effect
The rating factor is the ratio of the safe level of loading to the load produced by the nominal
or standard vehicle. It shall be used in the consideration of posting levels and/or the
consideration and justifications for future repairs or replacement. In determining load and
resistance factors for the rating equation, the following steps shall be carried out in
evaluating a bridge span:
1) collection of information
2) selection of nominal loadings and resistances
3) distribution of loads
4) selection of load and resistance factors
5) calculation of rating factors
A flowchart for the rating procedure is also provided in Figure 14-1. The evaluator/designer
should note that potential improvement in the rating factor may came from selecting options
in each step. These generally provide a less conservative factor provided additional
evaluation effort is performed and no unsatisfactory information is uncovered.
The basic structural engineering equation states that the resistance of a structure must equal
or exceed the demand placed on it by loads. Stated mathematically:
R ≥ Σ Qk (14.3)
Where: R = resistance
Qk = effect of load k
The solution of this simple equation encompasses the whole art and science of structural
engineering including the disciplines of strength of materials, structural analysis and load

Chapter 14
determination. This equation applies to design as well as evaluation. In structural evaluation,

the objective is to determine the maximum allowable live load. In the case of bridge
evaluation, this usually means the maximum vehicle weight.
Any rational and tractable approach to the analytical solution of the basic structural
engineering equation requires that the modes of failure be identified to establish the
resistance. The location, types and extent of the critical failure modes must be determined.
The checking equation must be solved for each of these potential failure checking modes.
Since neither resistance nor the load effect can be established with certainty, safety factors
must be introduced that give adequate assurance that the limit states are not exceeded. This
shall be done by stating the equation in a load and resistance factor (LRFD) format.
The basic rating equation used in the guidelines is simply a special form of the basic
structural engineering equation with load and resistance factors introduced to account for
uncertainties that apply to the bridge evaluation problem. It is written as follows:
φRn − ¦ m γi * Di − ¦ n γj Lj (1 + I )
D L
i =1 i =1
RF = (14.4)
γ LR
LR (1 + I )
Where: RF = rating factor (the portion of the rating Legal Truck allowed on the bridge)
φ = resistance factor
m = number of elements included in the dead load
n = number of live loads other than the rating vehicle
γiD = dead load factor for element “i”
Di = nominal dead load effect of element “i”
γjL = live load factor for live load “j” other than the rating vehicle(s)
Lj = nominal traffic live load effects for load “j” other than the rating vehicle(s)
γLR = live load factor for rating Legal Truck
LR = nominal live load effect for the rating Legal Truck
The maximum permitted traffic live load effect will be the total resistance minus the effect
of loadings other than the rating Legal Truck. This will include dead loads, non-vehicular
live loads, and, in the case of unsupervised permit loading, the vehicular live load and the
impact of normal traffic that could mix with the rating Legal Truck.

Chapter 14
Start
Collect information
(1) Deck condition
(2) Structural Condition
(3) Traffic condition
Calculate dead loads

(Table 14-1)
Select live loads and

Impact factor
(Figure 14-2 to 14-4 and Table 14-2)
Determine nominal resistance

(Table 14-3)
Calculate load effects

(1) Dead load
(2) Live load
(Chapter 3)
Select resistance factor

(Figure 14-6 and Table 14-6)
Select load factor (Table 7-5)

(1) Dead load
(2) Live load
Calculate rating factor R.F.
Conduct a more
Yes Detailed
Is R.F. < 1
Analysis warranted
by the Engineer
No
Yes
The safety level is acceptable Is safety level No
acceptable?
Post or Modify
Figure 14-1 Flow Chart for Rating Procedure

Chapter 14
Collection of Information
Before the load rating of a specific bridge can be conducted, a certain amount of information
has to be gathered. The extent to which the engineer is required to collect information will
have a direct influence on the load rating of the bridge due to the selection of the proper
category for the load and resistance factors.
This task shall be the same as the provisions in the existing section 4.9: Site Investigation:
Checklist of Site Investigation except that the following items should be noted since they can
have an influence on the selection of load and resistance factors.
1. Deck condition – The impact factors in section 3.8: Live Loads are deliberately selected
to be conservative with respect to most conditions. Field tests have shown that the single
most important factor affecting impact is roadway roughness and any bumps, sags, or
other discontinuities which may initiate or amplify dynamic response to truck passages.
Any of these surface factors should be noted during a bridge inspection.
2. Structural Condition - Signs of recent deterioration in structural members, which may go

unchecked and increase the likelihood of further section capacity loss before the next
cycle of inspection and rating should be noted. Conversely, maintenance efforts to
mitigate such deterioration should also be noted. An allowance for structural
deterioration should note whether this is either an expected or conservative estimation
since further deterioration may increase the uncertainty regarding reliable section
properties and strength during the next inspection interval.
3. Traffic Condition - The expected loading during the inspection internal is affected by
the truck traffic at the site. In the best instance, data will be available from traffic surveys
including objective truck weight operations. Alternatively, advice should be sought from
the traffic division regarding truck traffic volume, composition, permit activities,
overload sources, and degree of enforcement.
Selection of Nominal Loading and Resistances
Loads consist of concentrated or distributed forces that are applied directly to the bridge or
result from deformations or the constraint of deformations. For bridge evaluations, the most
important loads are dead load and vehicular live load plus its accompanying dynamic effects,
since each of these loadings induce high superstructure stresses. Loadings other than dead
load and traffic live load usually do not result in significant bending or shear in the
superstructure. Since the critical mode of failure for traffic live load almost always occurs in
the superstructure, other types of loads will seldom affect the live load capacity of the
bridge. When other combinations of loads can affect the capacity of the bridge such as when
substructure components can fail due to traffic live loading, the Chapter 3: Load
Requirements load factors for design shall be used.

Chapter 14
Dead Loads
The dead load shall be estimated from data available from the inspection at the time of
analysis. The dead load factor accounts for normal variations of material densities and
dimensions. Nominal dimensions and densities shall be used for calculating dead load
effects. For overlays, either cores shall be used to establish the true thickness or an additional
allowance of 20% should be placed on the nominal overlay thickness indicated at the time of
analysis. The recommended unit weights of materials to be used in computing the dead load
should be as in Table 14-1:
Table 14-1 Unit Weights of Materials
MATERIAL FORCE EFFECT [kN/m3]

Asphalt surfacing 22.5
Concrete, plain or reinforced (normal weight) 24.0
Steel 79.0
Cast iron 72.0
Timber (treated or untreated) 8.0
Earth (compacted), sand gravel or ballast 18.0
The dead load of the structure is computed in accordance with the conditions existing at the
time of the analysis.
Dead load can usually be determined more accurately than any other type of loading. One
major source of error is failure to consider some of the elements that will contribute to dead
load. Some items that are often overlooked are:
• Wearing surfaces
• Railings and Utilities
• Structure modifications not shown on plans
Other items that can affect the calculation of dead load are dimensional variations in the
concrete section and variations in the unit weight of material.
The prescribed dead load factor recognizes the uncertainties in the nominal dimensions and
analysis of dead load effects. Overlay thicknesses are a source of greater uncertainty in the
dead load so they are assigned a 20% higher load factor unless cores or more detailed
measurements are made.
Live Loads
The guidelines specify the number of vehicles to be considered on the bridge at any one
time. These numbers are based on an estimate of the maximum likely number of vehicles
under typical traffic situations. When unusual conditions exist, adjustments to the specified
number of vehicles should be made.

Chapter 14
Highway vehicles come in a wide variety of sizes and configurations. No single vehicle or
load model can accurately reflect the effects of all of these vehicles. The variation will
usually be greater than the variation in dead load effect. To minimize this difference, it is
necessary to select a rating Legal Truck with axle spacing and relative axle weights similar
to actual vehicles. Three Legal Trucks shown in Figure 14-2 to 14-4 are recommended
as evaluation vehicles. These vehicles, together with the prescribed live load factors, give a
realistic estimate of the maximum live load effects of a variety of heavy trucks in actual
traffic.
The moving loads to be applied on the deck for calculating maximum nominal live loading
effects shall be the three Legal Trucks. The spacing and axle weights chosen for these
vehicle types were selected from actual trucks. It is believed that these typical vehicles
correspond better to existing traffic and will provide more uniform reliability than the old
standard AASHTO H or HS design trucks. Hence, the latter are not recommended for bridge
posting purposes.
In computing load effects, one Legal Truck shall be considered present in each lane. The
positioning of the vehicle in each lane shall be according to Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
It is unnecessary to place more than one vehicle in a lane since the load factors shown below
have been modeled for this possibility. These load factors shall be considered applicable for
spans up to 60m.
For longer spans, a lane loading is specified in the evaluation. Reduction factors for live
loading of more than two traffic lanes are provided. These rationally account for the lower
possibility of such occurrences.
INDICATED CONCENTRATION LOADS

ARE AXLE LOADS IN KN
CG = CENTER OF GRAVITY
ALL DIMENSIONS IN METER
Figure 14-2 Truck Type 3 Unit Weight = 227 kN

Chapter 14
Figure 14-3 Truck Type 3-2 Unit Weight = 325 kN
Figure 14-4 Truck Type 3-3 Unit Weight = 364 kN
Figure 14-5 The Legal Lane Loading (mainly for large spans)
For longer spans, the Legal Lane Loading given in Figure 14-5 will govern the evaluation
(up to 90 m). This is a combination of a vehicle load and a uniformly distributed load. For all
span lengths where the rating factor is less than one, it shall be necessary to place more than

Chapter 14
one vehicle in each lane. In lieu of this, the evaluator should check the lane loading for all
span lengths together with the rating Legal Truck as shown in Figure 14-5. Where maximum
load effects in any member are produced by loading a number of traffic lanes
simultaneously, reduction factors as given in Table 14-8 should be applied.
In checking special permits, the actual vehicle weights and dimensions shall be used. If the
number of such permits in one year are frequent, then it shall be assumed that two lanes are
occupied by such a vehicle. Otherwise, standard vehicles shall be placed in the other lanes.
When the engineer determines that conditions of traffic movement and volume warrant it,
the standard vehicles shall be eliminated. Upon special investigation, the load factor for a
controlled permit use is reduced below the value taken for ordinary traffic conditions.
Since overload permissible vehicles typically have very different axle configurations, it is
very important that this be considered when issuing permits.
Judgment must also be exercised concerning sidewalk loadings. The likelihood of the
maximum sidewalk loading is small. A unit loading for the sidewalk for the purposes of
load limit evaluation will generally be less than the design unit loading.
The probable maximum sidewalk loadings should be used in calculations for safe load
capacity ratings. This loading will vary from bridge to bridge, depending generally upon its
location. Because of this variation, the Engineer must use his judgment to make the final
determination of the unit loadings to be used. This loading will not exceed the design
sidewalk loading given in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
Impact
An impact allowance shall be added to the static loads used for rating as shown in Equation
14.1. Impact values in Chapter 3: Load Requirements reflect conservative conditions that
may possibly prevail under certain circumstances. Under an enforced speed restriction,
impacts shall be reduced.
Impact loads are taken to be primarily due to the roughness or unevenness of the road
surface, especially the approach spans. Three values of impact factors are provided by
correlating the roughness of the surface to the deck conditions survey values. This
information is more likely known during evaluation than in the original design.
For smooth approach and deck conditions, the impact shall be taken as 0.10. For a rough
surface with bumps, a value of 0.20 should be used. Under extreme adverse conditions of
high speed, spans less than 12m. and highly distressed pavement and approach conditions, a
value of 0.30 should be taken. For span ≤ 12.0 m, where the measured deflection exceeds
1/90 of the span, 0.10 should be added to these values. See Table 14-2.
If such a judgment cannot be made, refer to the bridge inspection report and relate impact to
the condition of the wearing surface.

Chapter 14
Table 14-2 Condition of Wearing Surface and Impact Value
WEARING SURFACE IMPACT

1 - Good condition No repair required 0.1
2 - Fair condition Minor deficiency, item still functioning as 0.1
designed
3 - Poor condition Major deficiency, item in need of repair to 0.2
continue
4 - Critical condition Item no longer functioning as designed 0.3
Resistances.
Nominal component strengths shall be the same values contained in the load factor sections
of Chapter 3: Load Requirements. Nominal strength calculations shall take into
consideration the observable effects of deterioration, such as loss of concrete or steel cross-
sectional area, loss of composite action or corrosion.
Concrete: The strength of sound concrete shall be assumed to be equal to either the values
taken from the plans and specifications or the average of construction test values. When
these values are not available, the ultimate stress of sound concrete shall be assumed to be 25
MPa. A reduced ultimate strength shall be assumed (no less than 15 MPa, however) for
unsound or deteriorated concrete unless evidence to the contrary is gained by field-testing.
Reinforcing Steel: The area of tension steel to be used in computing the ultimate flexural
strength of reinforced concrete members shall not exceed that available in the section or 75
percent of the steel reinforcement required for a balanced condition. The steel yield stresses
to be used for various types of reinforcing steel are given below.
Reinforcing Steel Yield Stress Fy (MPa)

Unknown steel (prior to 1954) 228
Structural Grade 248
Intermediate Grade 300 and unknown after 1954 (former Grade 40) 276
Hard Grade (former Grade 50) 314
Grade 420 (former Grade 60) 614
Grade 520 (former Grade 75) 517
Table 14-3 Reinforcing Steel Yield Stresses
The determination of structural resistance is one of the primary tasks in the evaluation
process. In a load and resistance design (LRFD - also known as limit state) approach it is
necessary to define the condition at which resistance will be determined. These should
provide for similar structural performance regardless of the material or structure type.

Chapter 14
These limit states should have a very low probability of occurrence because they can lead to
loss of life as well as to major financial losses. They include:
• Loss of equilibrium of all - or part of - the structure considered as a rigid body (e.g.,
overturning, sliding, uplift, etc.);
• Loss of load-bearing capacity of members due to insufficient material strength, buckling,
fatigue, fire, corrosion, or deterioration;
• Overall instability of the structure (e.g., P-delta effect, wind flutter, seismic motions,
etc.);
• Very large deformation (e.g., transformation into a mechanism).
Determination of the true safety limit state involves very complicated and difficult
analytical procedures. In most cases, the use of these procedures for routine evaluation of
bridges is not economically feasible. The ultimate member capacity shall be a lower bound
of the ultimate capacity in shear or in flexure. Different methods for considering the
observable effects of deterioration were studied in developing the guidelines. The most
reliable method available still appears to be a reduction in the nominal resistance based on
measured or estimated losses in cross-sectional area and/or material strengths. An alternate
approach is to calculate resistance based on plan dimensions and use a smaller capacity
reduction factor.
Nominal resistances for members in the proposed guidelines are based on the load factor
section, Chapter 3: Load Requirements. This resistance depends on both the current
dimensions of the section and the nominal material strength. Specifications for both these
factors have been provided. Options exist for incorporating data on structural conditions
obtained from the site. Careful estimation of losses and deterioration are awarded a higher
resistance factor. Similar gains are also given for vigorous maintenance and inspection
schedules, which may prevent further deterioration during a normal inspection interval.
Options also exist for obtaining more precise material strength through tests.
Structural Steel
Nominal unit stresses must depend on the type of steel used in the structural member. When
tests are performed to assess yield stress, the mean values shall be reduced by 10% to
produce nominal values for strength calculations. Nominal values shall be nominal strength
computed without any resistance factor applied.
Distribution of Loads
The fraction of vehicle load effect transferred to a single member shall be selected in
accordance with Chapter 3: Load Requirements. These values represent a possible
combination of adverse circumstances. The option exists to substitute field measured values,
analytically calculated values or those determined from advanced structural analysis methods
utilizing the properties of the existing span(s). Loadings shall be placed in positions causing
the maximum response. Further, if such a measurement or analysis is made and the expected
distribution value is obtained, then this shall be adjusted by the factors shown in Table 14-4.

Chapter 14
The latter are needed to adjust for the expected bias in distribution factors for different
material types.
Distribution Correction Factor

of Loads
Steel Prestressed Concrete
1 AASHTO Distribution, Chapter 13 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 Tabulated analysis with simplified assumptions** 1.10 1.05 0.95
3 Refined analysis: finite elements, orthotropic 1.07 1.03 0.90
plate, grillage analogy
4 Field measurements 1.03 1.01 0.90
Actual girder distribution shall be multiplied by the appropriate correction factors to obtain
the girder distribution for rating.
* Correction factors are applied if average or expected values are used for R.F. from analysis or measurements.
The correction factor shall be used to increase the load factor taken from Table 14-5.
** These correction factors reflect the bias in present Vol. I distribution factors for each material type.
Table 14-4 Correction Factor for Analysis*
Lateral distribution refers to the fraction of the live load carried by the member under
consideration. Methods in Chapter 3: Load Requirements shall be followed. Options exist
for using tabulated values, more refined analysis (e.g. finite elements) and field
measurements. Each of these options involves a greater level of effort and more accuracy, so
adjustments to the basic live load factors are provided. These adjustments implicitly
recognize that more refined analysis may in some instances remove the implicit
conservativeness present in some simplified distribution formulas and are therefore treated
accordingly.
Selection of Load and Resistance Factors
The statistics of the dead load, live load and resistances have been determined from existing
data. Based on this data, the safety implicit in current designs has been determined. The load
and resistance factors provided ensures that this acceptable level of safety is achieved or
exceeded.
Load Factors
The load factors shall be taken from Table 14-5. These are intended to represent conditions
existing at the time this specification is written based on field data obtained from a variety of
locations using weight-in-motion and other data gathering methods. The live load factor
accounts for the likelihood of extreme loads side-by-side and following in the same lane and
the possibility of overloaded vehicles. Since one aim of this chapter is to protect the
investment in the bridge structure, the live load factors do recognize the presence of

Chapter 14
overweight trucks on many highways. An option to reflect effective overload enforcement is

contained herein with a reduced live load factor. The presence of illegal loads has also been
noted, and if such vehicles are present in large numbers at the site, the higher load factors
may lead to unacceptable ratings and enforcement efforts should be instituted.
Loading Load Factor

Dead Load γD = 1.2
Allow an additional allowance of 20% on overlay thickness if nominal thicknesses
are used. No allowance is needed when measurements are made for thickness.
Live Load Category

1 Low volume roadways (ADTT less than 1000), reasonable γD = 1.30
enforcement and apparent control of overloads
2 Heavy volume roadways (ADTT greater than 1000), reasonable γL = 1.45
enforcement and apparent control of overloads (not common in
Ethiopia)
3 Low volume roadways (ADTT less than 1000), significant sources of γL = 1.65
overloads without effective enforcement (common in Ethiopia)
4 Heavy volume roadways (ADTT greater than 1000), significant γL = 1.80
sources of overloads without effective enforcement
If unavailable from traffic data, estimates for ADTT shall be made from ADT as follows: urban areas, ADTT =
25% of ADT; rural areas, ADTT - 50% of ADT. In the absence of accurate data on overloads, it shall be
assumed that 30% of the trucks in Ethiopia exceed the local legal gross weigh limits.
Table 14-5 Load Factors
When the Rating Factor (R.F.) is less than 1.0, the loads are to be restricted. In such
instances, consideration should be given to truck weight surveys and vigorous enforcement
programs. If there is a reason to believe that truck posting signs are being ignored then
consideration should be given to further raising the live load factor.
Dead load factors are used to account for variations in dimensions, unit weights and methods
of calculating dead load effect. The variation in the dead load of different components will
depend on the accuracy with which the components can be manufactured and/or measured.
Factory produced girders cast in steel forms obviously have less variation than an asphalt
overlay placed on the bridge deck. The higher dead load factor for asphalt recognizes the
greater uncertainty in overlay thickness.
Live load factors have been provided to account for the large uncertainty of the maximum
live load effects on a structure over a period of time. A large amount of filed data has been
modeled to estimate the maximum live load effect together with its uncertainty. Based on
this data, degree of enforcement, volume and type of traffic are isolated as the major factors
influencing the live load effect. The live load factors have been derived from this data for

Chapter 14
bridges with a single lane, two lanes and three and four lanes. Instead of providing different
sets of load factors for different numbers of lanes, only one set of load factors are provided
with corresponding reduction factors for other cases.
Three categories of live load are provided in Table 14-5 with varying volumes and degrees
of enforcement, each with its corresponding live load factor. Site truck traffic data recorded
by the engineer may also be included.
Resistance Factors
A capacity reduction factor (φ) is included in the basic rating equation to account for
variation in the calculated resistance. It takes into consideration the dimensional variations of
the structure, differences in material properties, current condition and future deterioration,
and the inaccuracies in the theory for calculating resistance.
The resistance factors or capacity reduction factors in Chapter 3: Load Requirements are
intended for new components with current methods of high quality control. The nominal
(unfactored) strengths to be used for evaluation represent an estimate of strength using data
pertaining to member properties and conditions at the time of inspection. The resistance
factor shall consider both the uncertainties in estimating these member properties and also
any bias or conservativeness deliberately introduced into these estimates. Because further
changes may occur to the section during the inspection interval, there is some dependence of
these properties on the quality of maintenance. Also, the level and detail of inspection is
important since it may reveal actual properties to be used in section calculations.
The resistance factors for members in good condition are shown in Table 14-6, section I. The
influence of deterioration, inspection and maintenance are given in section II, III and IV of
this table. A table of resistance factors for all combinations of conditions encountered is
given in Table 14-7. A flow chart for obtaining the resistance factors is also presented in
Figure 14-6.
A basic set of resistance factors is provided. The reliability levels are calibrated to produce
different resistance factors for redundant and non-redundant spans with the latter having
lower (more conservative) factors. The resistance factors can be further modified depending
on the amount of deterioration and type of inspection and maintenance. Options exist for
conducting detailed measurements of strength losses. Also included are benefits for vigorous
maintenance schedules. This allows the evaluation to be flexible enough and also covers a
large range of types and conditions of members that shall be encountered.
Calculation of Rating Factors (RF)
The rating factor is to be calculated from Equation 14.1. If it exceeds 1.0, the span is
satisfactory for the legal loads in Ethiopia. In the present Bridge Design Specifications,
there is only one single rating value (eliminating the operating and inventory levels) which
determines the allowable loads.

Chapter 14
START
Check Yes φ = 0.95 steel P/S

Redundancy φ = 0.90 R.C.
No
φ = 0.80
None Any Heavy

φ = φ - 0.2
Deterioration ?
Some
φ = φ - 0.1
How good is Careful φ = φ + 0.05

inspection ?
Estimated
φ = φ - 0.0
Type of Vigorous is No
φ = φ + 0.05
maintenance φ > 0.95 ?
Intermittent Yes
φ = 0.95
φ = φ - 0.05
Figure 14-6 Flowchart for Selecting Resistance Factors φ

Chapter 14
I Resistance Factors - Good condition

Nominal resistance equations are to be those indicated in Chapter 3: Load
Requirements. Resistance (capacity reduction) factors are to be applied to the following
for the case where members are in good condition. Redundant * Steel Members: φ =
0.95; Nonredundant Steel Members: φ = 0.80; Prestressed concrete beams: φ = 0.95;
Reinforced concrete beams: φ = 0.90;
II Influence of Deterioration
1. Where field inspection and condition survey reports indicate no deterioration, the
provisions of this section should not be used.
2. Where field inspection and condition survey reports indicate slight deterioration with
some possible loss of section, the resistance factor values above shall be decreased by
0.1.
3 Where field inspection and condition surveys report significant deterioration and
heavy section loss, the resistance factor values shall be reduced by 0.2.
4 If such information is not available then bridge records shall be used. Reduce the
resistance factor values by 0.1 for superstructure condition of 5 or 6. Reduce the
resistance factor values by 0.2 for a superstructure condition of 4 or less. If these
reductions are made then the next two sections should be omitted.
III Inspection*
1 Where field inspection and condition survey reports indicate no deterioration, the
provisions of this section should not be used.
2 Where section losses have been carefully estimated in the calculation of remaining
section areas the resistance factors shall be increased by 0.05.
3 Where material yield stress has been estimated by physical testing, a mean value of
0.90 shall be used for calculating strength together with the resistance factor contained
in the design rules.
IV Maintenance**
1 Where maintenance activity is vigorous and likely to correct deficiencies which may
lead to further section loss, increase φ by 0.05.
2 Where maintenance activity is intermittent and may not correct defects that have lead
to section loss, decrease φ by 0.05.
*Examples of redundant members include parallel stringers (three or more), parallel eye bars
(four or more). Example of nonredundant component includes two-girder system(s) and trusses
with single members.
** In no instance shall φ be taken to exceed 0.95.
Table 14-6 Resistance Factors vs. Condition

Chapter 14
Super- Redundancy Inspection Maintenance Steel, Reinforced

structure P/S Concrete
Condition Yes No Careful Estimated Vigorous Intermittent Concrete
x x x 0.95 0.95
x x x 0.90 0.85
x x x 0.95 0.95
Good or Fair x x x 0.90 0.85
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.75 0.70
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.75 0.70
x x x 0.95 0.90
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.90 0.85
Deteriorated x x x 0.80 0.75
x x x 0.80 0.80
x x x 0.70 0.70
x x x 0.75 0.75
x x x 0.65 0.65
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.75 0.70
x x x 0.80 0.75
Heavily x x x 0.70 0.65
Deteriorated x x x 0.70 0.70
x x x 0.60 0.60
x x x 0.65 0.65
x x x 0.55 0.55
Note : For ratings using data obtained from plans only, the capacity reduction factor should be calculated based
on judgment of the engineer supplemented by any additional information obtained.
Table 14-7 Resistance Factors φ for All Conditions
The load and resistance factors have been calibrated to provide adequate safety under the
inspection, maintenance, analysis, redundancy, and loading conditions cited. These
provisions have the capability for evaluations to be improved by utilizing options related to
more intensive inspection and maintenance or control of heavy overloads.
The rating factors obtained herein may also safely be applied to permit loadings. In some
instances where a permit might otherwise be rejected, the live load factors contained herein
shall be reduced to reflect known weight conditions associated with the permit vehicle. This
reduction in load factor may depend on the degree of control of the permit and the number of

Chapter 14
permits that shall be issued. Fatigue life should be a consideration in the issuance of
overload permits (Ref. 2).
Number of Lanes Reduction Factor

One or two lanes 1.0
Three lanes 0.8
Four lanes 0.7
Table 14-8 Reduction Factors for Live Load

14.4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
As an example, an existing reinforced concrete bridge and a steel bridge are rated by the
proposed procedures.
Example 1 – Reinforced Concrete
Resistance: Mu = Asfy (d – a/2)

fy = 225 Mpa Table 14-3 fc = 21 MPa
d = 670 mm a = 29 mm
As = 4440 mm2 Mu = 670 kNm
Dead load effect: Span = 7,930 mm

Asphalt = 45 kNm Other = 124 kNm
Live load effect: I = 1.1 (assuming smooth deck surface)
S = 2,000 mm g = 2000 = 1.09

1830
MLL = 254 (1.09) (1.1) = 152 kNm (Legal Truck No ‘3’)

2
Proposed procedure: φ = 0.95 (good condition, vigorous maintenance)
R.F. = (0.95) (670) – (1.2) (124) – (1.44) (45) = 2.79

γL (152) γL
Assuming enforced, heavy volume traffic: γL = 1.45 and R.F. = 1.92
Existing ratings : I = 1 + 50 ≤ 1.3 = 1.3

26 + 125
MLL = 254 (1.09) (1.3) = 180 kNm

2

Chapter 14
Operating rating = (0.9) (670) – (1.3) (124 + 45) = 1.64

(1.3) (180)
Inventory rating 0.6 x 1.64 = 0.99 Proposed rating = 1.92 (Legal Truck No.‘3’)
Remarks: the proposed rating is higher than existing rating for traffic category 2 (the
calibration category) but will be lower than existing operating ratings for heavier traffic
categories. For a deteriorated section (say 10% loss in strength) and heavy traffic, the
proposed rating can fall to existing inventory levels. See below:
φ = 0.80 (for deteriorated section)

Mu = 670 kNm
γL = 1.80 (unreinforced, heavy volume traffic)
RF = (0.80) (670) – (1.2) (124) – (1.44) (45) = 0.99

(1.80) (180)
Example 2 Steel Floor beam of a thru truss
Resistance: Rn = 363 kNm

φ = 0.85 (non-redundant; vigorous maintenance)
Dead load effect: Asphalt = 56 kNm, Remaining = 35 kNm
Live load effect: Impact = 1.1 (smooth surface and approaches)

Live load effect = 161 kNm (Legal Truck No ‘3’)
Proposed procedure: Assuming enforced, light volume traffic, γL = 1.3
RF = (0.85) (363) – (1.2) (56) – (1.44) (35) = 0.91

(1.30) (161)
Existing ratings: Impact = 1.3
Operating R.F. = 363 – 1.3 (56 + 35) = 0.99

(1.3) (1.3) (146)
Inventory R.F. = 0.60
Remarks: The proposed procedure gives lower rating factors than existing operating ratings
because of the non-redundancy. However, this rating factor is higher than current inventory
ratings.

Chapter 14
14.5 MASONRY ARCH BRIDGE RATING
14.5.1 GENERAL
This subchapter is to be used in the assessment of highway arch bridges. It covers certain
types of structures or structural components where firm criteria cannot be given but where
the assessment of structural adequacy involves the exercise of engineering judgment. It also
contains details of alternative simple methods of load distribution and arch assessment that,
while being conservative, are nevertheless adequate for assessment purposes. Finally it gives
advice on ways of remedying the various defects that are found in different types of
structure. Although this subchapter is advisory in nature, the principles and methods given
shall be deemed to satisfy relevant criteria.
14.5.2 SCOPE
This subchapter provides a simple method of load distribution and an empirical method and
a simple computerized method of arch assessment. It covers the assessment of structures
which cannot be treated by normal calculation methods, and the maintenance of the various
different types of structure. Each of these items is discussed more fully in the following
paragraphs.
This subchapter should be used forthwith for assessments of load carrying capacity of all
road bridges and other arch structures in Ethiopia.
Load Distribution
Graphs of load distribution factors are given for estimating the loads carried by internal and
external girders of decks composed of longitudinal beams with certain specified forms of
deck construction between them. The factors are only intended for use with the type of
loading specified Chapter 3: Load Requirements, but can be used for determining both
bending moments and shearing forces.
Equivalent axle loads are given to enable the direct determination of bending moments and
shearing forces in internal and external girders of decks composed of transverse beams with
certain specified forms of deck construction between them. The use of these simple methods
is both quick and simple and while they are believed to give conservative results their use is
recommended where applicable before more sophisticated and accurate methods are tried.
Modified MEXE Method of Arch Assessment
The modified MEXE method for arch assessment given in this subchapter is a
comprehensive method for determining the carrying capacity of single span stone and
masonry arches in terms of allowable axle weights. The method as such is concerned solely
with the strength of the arch barrel and takes account of the materials, various defects and
geometric proportions which affect the strength of the arch. Factors are also given to take
account of the effects of multiple axles.

Chapter 14
Substructures, Foundations and Retaining Walls
Advice is given for qualitative assessment of dry-stone walls, retaining walls, spandrel walls
of arches, sub-structures and foundations which cannot be assessed by mathematical means
because of the number of unknown parameters involved and their complex behaviour. The
advice draws the attention of the engineer to the various defects likely to be found in them
and comments on their structural significance. However, ultimately a satisfactory assessment
of such structures depends upon the correct interpretations of the physical observations and
the exercise of engineering judgement supported by local knowledge.
Maintenance
Many structures that have been damaged or have deteriorated in various ways can be
restored to their original load carrying capacity by carrying out fairly straightforward
maintenance. Advice is given on the importance of the various defects and the remedial
measures that can be taken to alleviate them. All types of structure within the scope of this
subchapter are considered for this purpose.
14.5.3 RATING OF MASONRY ARCH BRIDGES BY THE MODIFIED MEXE METHOD
Scope
This section deals with the assessment of the strength of the ARCH BARREL ONLY. The
strength of the bridge shall be affected by the strength of the spandrel walls, wingwalls,
foundations etc. These items are dealt with in later sections of this subchapter. The modified
MEXE shall be used to estimate the carrying capacity of arches spanning up to 18m, but for
spans over 12m it becomes increasingly conservative compared to other methods. The
method should not be used where the arch is flat or appreciably deformed.
Span Ap
Longitudinal Member Transverse Member
Edge Girders Only Supported by Parapet
Girders
Up to and including 6m 1.0 0.9
Over 6m and up to and 0.9 Centrifugal effect shall
including 9m be neglected
Over 9m and up to and 0.8
including 12 m
Over 12m and up to and 0.7
including 15m
Table 14-9: Centrifugal Distribution Factor Ap

Chapter 14
Method of Assessment
The assessment of the arch barrel (adapted from Ref. 4), is based on the results of past
experience. It has been found to give satisfactory results for the range of vehicles present;
but its extrapolated use for heavier vehicles, or for spans greater than 18m should be treated
with caution. It is to be applied primarily to single span arches.
The initial assessment is in terms of a maximum allowable axle load on an axle forming part
of a double axle truck. Factors are given in later section Application for converting this result
to other axle configurations and for situations where axle 'lift-off' may occur on the axle of a
multiple axle truck.
Theory
The long-term strength of a stone or masonry arch is almost impossible to calculate

accurately and recourse has, therefore, been made to an empirical formula based on the arch
dimensions. The arch is first assumed parabolic in shape with span/rise ratio of 4, soundly
built in good quality stonework, with well pointed joints, to be free from cracks, and to have
adequate abutments.
For such an idealized arch, a provisional assessment is obtained from a nomogram (Figure
14-7) or from the formula given in 14.7. This provisional assessment is then modified by
factors which allow for the way in which the actual arch differs from the ideal.
Survey of Arch
The arch should be inspected in accordance with provisions mentioned earlier in this chapter,
and the following dimensions measured as shown in Figure 14-8:
i. The span ..........................................................................................................L (m)
(in the case of skew spans, measure L parallel to the principal axis of the arch)
ii. The rise of the arch barrel at the crown ...........................................................rc (m)
iii. The rise of the arch barrel at the quarter points ...............................................rq (m)
iv. The thickness of the arch barrel adjacent to the keystone (see following text) d (m)
v. The average depth of fill, at the quarter points of the transverse road profile, between
the road surface and the arch barrel at the crown, including road surfacing... h (m)
The following information will also be required to derive the various modifying factors:
• Type of material used for the arch barrel
• Types of construction of the barrel i.e. are the stones laid in courses or laid at random?
• Condition of materials in the barrel, i.e. is there a lot of spalling and are the stones sound
or are they deteriorating due to weathering'?
• Deformation of the arch barrel from its original shape
• Positions of dropped stones and the amount of drop
• Width, length, number and positions of cracks
• Type of filling above the arch and its condition
• Position and size of services
• Width of mortar joints
• Depth of mortar missing from joints
• Condition of joint mortar

Chapter 14
Figure 14-7: Nomogram for Determining the Provisional Axle Loading of Masonry
Arch Bridges before Factoring

Chapter 14
The appropriate measurements should be taken so that the arch barrel thickness shall be
adjusted to allow for missing mortar (see Table 14-14) and to allow or any services laid
through the arch barrel.
Figure 14-8: Arch Dimensions
Radial displacement of individual stones, especially near the crown when there is little
cover, should be particularly noted. Displacement shall be due to uneven masonry projecting
above the barrel and being subjected to concentrated loads or a hard spot such as a pipe
flange bearing directly on the arch. The damage is usually localized and not serious if dealt
with before it has progressed too far. If, however, there are a number of stones displaced,
then this should be taken into account, and the thickness of the arch barrel adjusted
accordingly.
Note should be taken of any evidence of separation of the arch rings, particularly with regard
to any additional rings which have been constructed in later years, and due account should
be taken in the value assumed for the arch barrel thickness.
Provisional Assessment
The provisional axle loading PAL is obtained by reference to the nomogram in Figure 14-7.
Mark the arch span L on Column A and the total crown thickness (d + h) (barrel and fill) on
Column B. Line through these points to Column C, and read off the provisional axle loading
assessment in tonnes. Alternatively, the provisional axle loading shall be obtained by
substituting the values of (d + h) and L in the following expression:
PAL = 740 (d + h)2

L 1.3 or 70 whichever is less (14.7)

Chapter 14
This expression has been derived from the nomogram and is and should only be used within
the limits given in Figure 14-7.
The provisional axle load obtained is then modified by the modifying factors and the
condition factor in the following text.
Modifying Factors
Span/Rise Factor (Fsr). Flat arches are not as strong under a given loading as those of steeper
profile, and the provisional assessment must, therefore, be adjusted. A span/rise ratio of 4
and less is assumed to give optimum strength and has a factor of 1. When the span/rise ratio
is greater than 4, reference should be made to the graph in Figure 14-9 which gives the
appropriate span/rise factor Fsr for the different ratios.
Profile Factor (Fp). There is evidence that elliptical arches are not as strong as segmental and
parabolic arches of similar span/rise ratio and barrel thickness. The ideal profile has been
taken to be parabolic and for this shape the rise at the quarter points, rq = 0.75rc, where rc is
the rise at the crown.
Figure 14-9: Span/Rise Factor

Chapter 14
The profile factor Fp for ratios of rq/rc less than or equal to 0.75 should be taken to be unity,
and for ratios greater than 0.75 should be calculated from the expression:
0.6
Fp= 2 .3 rc – rq (14.8)
rc
For convenience this has been plotted in Figure 14-10.
Material Factor (Fm). The material factor is obtained from the following formula:
(Fb * d ) + (Fj * h )
Fm =
d+h
(14.9)
Appropriate values of the barrel factor Fb and the fill factor Ff can be obtained from Tables
14-10 and 14-11 respectively.
Figure 14-10: Profile Factor

Chapter 14
Arch Barrel Barrel Factor

(Fb)
Granite whether random or coursed and all built-in-course masonry 1.5
except limestone, all with large shaped stones
Concrete or engineering bricks and similar sized masonry (not 1.2
limestone)*
Limestone, whether random or coursed, good random masonry and 1.0
building bricks, all in good condition.
Masonry of any kind in poor condition (many stones flaking or badly 0.7
spalling, shearing etc). Some discretion is permitted if the dilapidation is
only moderate.
*Concrete arches will normally be of relatively recent construction and their assessment
should be based on the design calculations if these are available.
Table 14-10: Barrel Factor
Filling Fill Factor (Fr)

Concrete* 1.0
Grouted materials (other than those with a clay content) 0.9
Well compacted materials 0.7
Weak materials evidenced by tracking of the carriageway surface 0.5
*The fill factor for concrete is less than the barrel factor to allow for possible lack of bond to the arch.
When assessing an arch, unless details of the fill are known or there is evidence of weakness from the condition
of the road surface, it is recommended that this factor be adopted. If the arch then requires a restriction, further
investigation should be made to see if the strength shall be increased.
Table 14-11: Fill Factor
An arch which is constantly wet, or shows signs that damp often penetrates, is unlikely to
have suffered deterioration from this cause alone unless the seepage contains reactive
chemicals which may have affected the materials of construction; in this case allowance
should be made in the value taken for the barrel factor. Some local damage shall be offset by
evidence that the structure was built with good materials and workmanship. Such evidence
would be:
i. Durable masonry set in its correct bed;
ii. Well-shaped durable stone;
iii. Correct bonding of stonework or masonry with regular and narrow joints;
iv. Original documents showing liberal hunching at the abutments and a good
specification.
Note should be taken of any leaching of the fill material over the arch due to the presence of
water and this should be allowed for in the fill factor.
Joint Factor (Fj). The strength and stability of the arch barrel depend, to a large extent, on the
size and condition of the joints. Lime mortar is commonly used in bridge construction,
particularly on old bridges, and, although it is softer than cement mortar, and has a lower

Chapter 14
strength, this is compensated for by better joint-filling properties and good distributing
power under load. The joint factor Fj is obtained from the following formula:
Fj = Fw*Fd*Fmo (14.10)
Appropriate values for Fw and Fmo can be obtained from Tables 14-12 and 14-13
respectively. The depth Factor Fd shall be taken as 1.0 for pointed joints in good condition.
In the case of insufficiently filled joints, it is recommended that if the depth of missing
mortar can be estimated with reasonable accuracy, the thickness of the arch barrel should be
reduced by this amount. When this is not appropriate, the depth factor Fd shall be taken from
Table 14-14.
Width of Joint Width Factor (Fw)

Joints with widths up to 6mm 1.0
Joints with widths between 6mm and 12.5mm 0.9
Joints with widths over 12.5mm 0.8
Table 14-12: Width Factor
Condition of Joint Mortar Factor (Fmo)

Mortar in good condition 1.0
Loose or friable mortar 0.9
Table 14-13: Mortar Factor
Construction of Joint Depth Factor (Fd)

Unpointed joints, pointing in poor condition and joints with up 0.9*
to12.5mm from the edge insufficiently filled
Joints with from 12.5mm to one tenth of the thickness of the barrel 0.8*
insufficiently filled
Joints insufficiently filled for more than one tenth the thickness of At the engineer’s
the barrel discretion
* Interpolation between these values is permitted, depending upon the extent and position of the joint
deficiency. Instead of using this depth factor, it is preferable to reduce the barrel thickness by the amount of
missing mortar (see Joint Factor text above).
Table 14-14: Depth Factor
Condition Factor
General
The estimation of the preceding factors is based on quantitative information obtainable from
a close inspection of the structure, but the factor for the condition of the bridge depends
much more on an objective assessment of the importance of the various cracks and
deformations which shall be present and how far they shall be counter-balanced by
indications of good material and workmanship. A quantitative estimate of the arch barrel

Chapter 14
condition factor Fc should be made by the engineer, the value selected being between 0 and
1.0. A low factor should be taken for a bridge in poor condition while 1.0 shall be taken for
an arch barrel in good condition with no defects. It is important that the engineer dissociates
the "condition factor" from the "material factor" and the "joint factor" as these are dealt with
separately, as indicated in the previous text. Guidance on the choice of condition factor is
given in the following text. Lower values than those in the suggested changes shall be taken
for an arch in a particularly poor state. When an unsound arch barrel supports a large depth
of fill, a lower value of the condition factor should be taken than that based solely on the
other arch deficiencies.
The condition factor of the arch, and hence its carrying capacity, can often be improved by
carrying out fairly minor repairs. These repairs are distinct from more elaborate
strengthening methods.
Cracks or Deformations
Cracks or deformations which may have occurred soon after the bridge was built are not
usually as serious as those which are recent, and show clean faces, possibly with loose
fragments of masonry. A further important point is whether the deterioration is progressive;
where this is suspected, frequent careful observations shall be necessary before arriving at a
final assessment. Cracks may on occasion be formed in the mortar only and it is important
that cracking and joint deficiencies should not be confused with each other.
Defects
It is also important to differentiate between those defects which affect the load carrying
capacity of the arch barrel and other defects which do not affect the load carrying capacity of
the barrel but can affect the stability of the road surface. These are elaborated in the
following text.
Defects Affecting the Stability and Load Carrying Capacity of the Arch Barrel
Ranges of condition factors are given below for crack patterns resulting from specific
causes. The choice of factor is made from a critical determination of the size, shape and
importance of the various defects. The overall figure representing several defects should be
based on the relative importance of the worst type of defect present. It will not necessarily be
derived by multiplying the factors for several separate defects together:
i. Longitudinal cracks due to differential settlement in the abutments. These are
dangerous if large, i.e. > 3mm, because they indicate that the barrel has broken up
into independent sections. If the indications are that the barrel is breaking up into
1.0m sections or less, then a factor of 0.4 or below should be used. A higher factor
should be used for crack spacings greater than 1.0m. .............................................
..........................................................................Range of condition factors, 0.4-0.6.
ii. Lateral cracks or permanent deformation of the arch which shall be caused by partial
failure of the arch or movement at the abutments. These faults can be accompanied
by a dip in the parapet which shall be more easily observed. ...................................
..........................................................................Range of condition factors, 0.6-0.8.

Chapter 14
iii. Diagonal cracks. These normally start near the sides of the arch at the springings and
spread up towards the center of the barrel at the crown. They are probably due to
subsidence at the sides of the abutment. Extensive diagonal cracks indicate that the
barrel is in a dangerous state. ........................... Range of condition factors, 0.3-0.7.
iv. Cracks in the spandrel walls near the quarter points. These frequently indicate
flexibility of the arch barrel over the center half of the span. .Condition factor 0.8.
Unfavorable Defects Not Affecting the Stability of the Arch Barrel
The unfavorable defects which do not affect the stability of the arch barrel but may affect the
stability of the road surface are indicated below, with a description of their significance:
i. Longitudinal cracks near the edge of the arch barrel are signs of movement between
the arch and spandrel or bulging of the spandrel, caused by the lateral spread of the
fill exerting an outward force on the spandrels. This is a frequent source of weakness
in old arch bridges and the proximity of the carriageway to the parapet should be
taken into account when assessing its importance
ii. Movement or cracking of the wingwalls is another common source of weakness in
old bridges and occurs for similar reasons to i. above
iii. Where the bridge consists of multi-span arches and the strength of intermediate piers
is in doubt the structure should be examined for cracks and deformation arising from
any weakness in the piers.
Condition Factor Less Than 0.4
Where the condition factor is less than 0.4, immediate consideration should be given to the
repair or reconstruction of the bridge.
Application
The span/rise profile, material, joint and condition factors should be applied together with
the provisional axle loading obtained as in Provisional Assessment above in order to
determine the modified axle load which represents the allowable loading on the arch from a
double axle truck configuration with no “lift-off” from any axle.
MODIFIED AXLE LOAD = Fsr*Fp*Fm*Fj*Fc*PAL (14.11)
The unrounded value of this modified axle load should be multiplied by the appropriate axle
factors from Figure 14-11 to give the allowable axle loads for single and multiple axles.
The capacity of arches should be determined in terms of gross vehicle weights from Table
14-15 in accordance with following subsection Load Capacity and Weight Restriction.
It should be noted that these allowable axle loads may not represent the strength of the
bridge as a whole. This shall be affected by the strength of the spandrel walls, wingwalls,
foundations, etc, as mentioned previously. Should the strength of any of these items be

Chapter 14
assessed as being lower than the barrel strength, then the lowest value should be taken as the
strength of the bridge as a whole.
Axle Lift-off
The axle factors given in Figure 14-11 cover two situations. The first, the 'no lift-off' case, is
the more usual when all the wheels of the vehicle are assumed to be in contact with the road
surface at all times.
a) No axle Lift-Off
b) with Axle Lift-Off
Figure 14-11: Conversion of Modified Axle Loads to Single Double and Triple Axles

Chapter 14
The 'lift-off' case relates to circumstances when an axle of a double or triple axle truck lose
contact, either partially or completely, with the road surface and transfers some of its load to
the other axles in the truck. Examples of the circumstances which may bring about this
phenomenon are given below and the road condition should be inspected to determine
whether or not 'lift-off' should be taken into account. The presence of any of the following
conditions could lead to the adoption of a 'lift-off' case:
i. Vertical road alignment with a small radius of curvature, e.g., a humped back bridge.
ii. Arch located at the bottom of a hill or on a straight length of road where approach
speeds are likely to be high.
iii. Irregularities in road surface on the arch.
Allowable Axle Load (tonnes) Max Gross Weight Type of

Single Double Triple Vehicle Weight Restriction Vehicle
(gvw)(tonnes) (Tonnes)
11.5 10 8* 40 N/A 5 axles
10.5 9.5 - 32.5 33 4 axles
10.5 9 - 24.5 25 3 axles
10.5 - - 17 17 2 axles
5.5 - - 7.5 7.5 4WD
Table 14-15: Load Capacity and Gross Vehicle Weight Restrictions for Masonry
Arches
Effects of Multiple Axles and Derivation of Axle Factors
Introduction
The modified MEXE method for arch assessment makes use of a nomogram from which it is
possible to derive, for a particular arch, a provisional allowable axle load of an axle forming
part of a double axle truck. This load is then modified by various factors to allow for the
shape of the arch, construction materials, dimensions of the arch barrel and any defects.
However because a proportion of heavy vehicles now have triple axles, a simple method of
relating the effect of different axle configurations to double axles is needed so that the
carrying capacity of the arch can be derived for all types of vehicle.
Theory
Examination of the stress influence lines for typical arches reveals the following:
i. at positions away from the crown there is little difference in the influence line shapes
between a 2 pinned and a 3 pinned arch,
ii. for a 2 pinned arch the dead load bending moment increases the live load moment at
the 1/3 point but relieves the moment at the crown.

Chapter 14
iii. peak values for stress in the arch ring for both 2 and 3 pinned arches occur under a
concentrated load placed between about 0.1 and 0.35 of the span away from a
springing point.
These observations led to the conclusion that the critical position for comparing the effects
of different axle configurations could be taken as the 1/3 point. Examination of the influence
lines also shows that the influence line for maximum stress at the 1/3 point is very similar in
shape to that for the mid-point bending moment of a simply supported beam of span equal to
half the arch span. Thus there is a simple method of comparing the effects of different axle
configurations by comparing the bending moments due to the different loading
configurations on a simply supported beam whose length is equal to half the arch span.
Axle Factors
The comparisons between single and multiple axles have been done as outlined above for
single axle and 2 and 3 axle trucks whose weights and spacing represent the extremes of
those allowable. The basis of the method has been a comparison of the existing
configurations with the double axle truck that was used in the derivation of the MEXE
nomogram. Two sets of comparisons have been undertaken, which consider the “no lift-off”
and “lift-off” cases. The “no lift-off” case assumes equal distribution of loading between the
axles of the truck. The “lift-off” case was considered because, although trucks are fitted with
compensating mechanisms to share the load between all the axles, it was felt that some
allowance should be made for possible axle “lift-off” which could occur for example at the
crown of a sharply humped bridge. Recent research has indicated that for three axle trucks
the load transfer takes place between the two outer axles, the center axle weight remaining
constant. Accordingly for the three axle “lift-off” case half the weight of one of the axles has
been transferred to the other outer axle. For two axle trucks it has been assumed that half the
weight of one axle is transferred to the other axle.
It was found that the extreme effects of the 2 axle configurations also covered the 3 axle
trucks up to 22.5 tonnes. The worst case results for single axles and two axle configurations
are therefore shown in Figure 14-11 where the axle factors are plotted against the arch span.
However, the vehicle fleet can include heavier 3 axle configurations of 24 tonnes with air or
fluid suspension. Additional factors have therefore been included in Figure 14-11 “no lift-
off” case to enable assessments for the heavier 3 axle trucks to be carried out. These may
prove to be the more onerous configuration. These factors are not given in Figure 14-11
“lift-off” case because the improved compensatory performance of the air or fluid
suspension ensures that the effects of the heavier 3 axle trucks are no worse than the 22.5
tonne configuration.
Curved Carriageways
Where the carriageway on an arch is horizontally curved, an allowance for the effects of any
increase vertical loading caused by centrifugal effects should be made by dividing the
allowable axle weight by the factor FA. Centrifugal effects shall be ignored when the radius
of curvature of the carriageway exceeds 600m.

Chapter 14
Load Capacity and Weight Restrictions
To find the load capacity of an arch, the allowable axle loads determined in accordance with
the above methods should first be rounded off to the nearest 0.5 tonnes. The maximum gross
weight of the vehicles which the arch can carry is then found from Table 14-15; it is the
maximum weight for which both the single and, where applicable, the double axle load
calculated for the arch are satisfied. It should be noted that when an arch has allowable axle
loads which are equal to or greater than 10.5 tonnes for a single axle and 10 tonnes for a
double axle (i.e., 20 tonne truck) no weight restrictions are necessary. It should also be noted
that in the case of 5 axle vehicles with gross weights between 32.5 and 38 tonnes it is only
necessary to consider the double axle truck configuration, since if this is satisfied any triple
axle truck configurations up to 22.5 tonnes are also automatically satisfied.
However, heavier triaxles of up 24 tonnes with air or fluid suspensions may also be present.
A check should be made to determine whether weight restrictions are needed for these
heavier triaxles. Requirements are also given in Table 14-15 to enable arches to be checked
for 40 tonne vehicles. When weight restrictions are found necessary the restriction signs will
apply to gross weights of vehicles and should be signed for one of the weight restrictions
given in Table 14-15.
14.5.4 SPANDREL WALLS
The adequacy of spandrel walls and dry stone walls will generally be assessed qualitatively
and be based on the results of visual inspection of the structures, including the significance
of any defects. The particular details of the two types of wall and the seriousness of the
various defects which can occur are described in the following text.
Spandrel walls are normally formed from dressed material and suffer the normal problems
associated with exposed masonry: weather, loss of pointing, in the joints, etc. In addition
deterioration of bridge spandrels is frequently a function of dead and live load lateral forces
generated through the bridge infilling or as a result of direct vehicular impact. In both cases
some outward movement is caused. Lateral forces may cause the wall to rotate outward from
the arch barrel, to slide on the arch barrel, to be displaced bodily outwards whilst taking part
of the arch ring with it, or to bulge (see Figure 14-12).
Dry-stone spandrel walls are not common. Where they occur there are difficulties which are
similar to those of retaining walls, but the effects of live loading are more significant.
Spandrel walls are more vulnerable to damage or displacement if no footway exists to

restrain vehicles passing close to the side of the bridge. Without footpaths vehicular impact
is more likely and the effects of the lateral loading generated by the vehicle through the
bridge fill shall be more acute.
Poor bridge drainage may also be a feature leading to deterioration of the spandrel,
particularly if saturation of the bridge fill occurs. It has been shown that if the fill consists of
chiseled, flat stones, the bridge may carry a larger load than if the fill is made from gravel.

Chapter 14
14.5.5 DRY-STONE WALLS
Inspection of dry-stone walls reveals that they are normally constructed without recognizable
foundations and out of marginal quality material. Only the front face contains dressed
masonry, the remainder usually being rubble. Dry-stone walls were constructed as facing
walls to vertical or near vertical cuts in unstable or friable material or as free-standing
retaining walls. In the latter cases construction and backfilling proceeded together.
Figure 14-12: Spandrel Wall Failures
The behavior of dry-stone walls is a function of their method of construction. The absence of
mortar results in stone to stone contact and since the stones used in the walls are usually
irregular or roughly squared, point contact between stones is common. Contact pressure shall
be high especially at the base of tall stones and crushing is often evident. The open nature of
a dry-stone wall permits weathering of the face and in the open joints, reducing the area of
contact and encouraging further crushing. In addition, percolation of ground water and

Chapter 14
water-borne salts through the wall results in weathering and the leaching of fines from
within the structure.
Weathering occurs more in some areas of wall than in others, due to the very variable quality
of the masonry used. Random weathering and unsatisfactory foundations results in
differential settlements, movements and bulging, which induces acute stresses in some
elements of the structure, causing cracking, whilst elsewhere stones become loose and shall
be dislodged.
14.5.6 ASSESSMENT OF DRY-STONE WALLS
Assessment of dry-stone walls consists of regular visual inspection and a comparison with
adjacent structures. Qualitative judgments are difficult since conditions will vary greatly
with the quality of stone used, age, subsoil conditions, geometry, weathering factors and
local expectations. Due attention should be given to local engineering experience.
Where past movement or the condition of the structure raises doubts concerning stability,
regular monitoring should be introduced. Decisions relating to structural safety and
conditions often depend upon engineering instinct, although simple visual aids such as tell-
tales can be useful to determine if the structure is moving or in a temporary equilibrium.
14.5.7 SUBSTRUCTURES, FOUNDATIONS AND RETAINING WALLS
The adequacy of a sub-structure, foundation or a retaining wall is usually determined from a

qualitative assessment of the general condition of the structure, including the significance of
any defects. In carrying out such an assessment, particular attention should be paid to the
items described below.
Before assessment can proceed, dimensional checks are required on the sub-structure,
foundations or retaining wall for preparing sketches for analysis or for confirmation of the
'as-built' drawings. These dimensional checks may require excavation or probing to
determine depth and the extent of the sub-structure and foundations. Care must be exercised
to ensure that no exploratory work impairs stability or damages underground services.
In some instances exploratory excavations, probing or boring may not be practicable prior to
assessment. In these cases if an assessment is required conservative estimates may have to be
made regarding the probable dimensions of the sub-structure, foundations or retaining wall
only upon visual evidence.
In many early bridges bearings were omitted, in others only rudimentary forms of bearing
were provided. As part of the assessment the existence and efficiency of the bearings should
be established. Where no bearings exist or their efficiency is impaired, the ability of a bridge
to cater for thermal movements and forces should be considered.
Tilting or rotation in any direction of retaining walls and abutments shall be determined
using normal survey techniques; if there are any indications of damage due to possible
thermal movement this shall be confirmed by using laser techniques.

Chapter 14
Flow of water can cause leaching and scour from foundations and sub-structures; any sight
of unexpected or unintended water flows should be investigated, the cause established and
any resultant deterioration determined.
Underwater inspection in slow moving water shall be undertaken by divers, or using flexible
dams or cofferdams. The latter may have the advantage of providing dry conditions for
repairs should they be required. In fast flowing water or in the rainy season, damming shall
be impracticable.
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO “Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete
Bridges,” 1989.
2. NCHRP 12-28(3), NCHRP Report 299, USA.
3. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 3: Highway Structures: Inspection and
Maintenance, Section 4: Assessment, London, January 1993.
4. Military Engineering Experimental Establishment. "Classification (of Civil Bridges) by
the Reconnaissance and Correlation Methods." Christchurch (MEXE), May 1963.
5. Hendry, A. W., and Jaeger, L.G. "The Analysis of Grid Frameworks and Related
Structures." Chatto and Windus, 1958 (rept 1969).
6. Thomas F.G., and Short, A. "A Laboratory Investigation of Some Bridge-Deck
Systems." I.C.E., March 1952.
7. Pippard A. J. S. "The approximate estimation of safe loads on masonry bridges." Civil
Engineer in War, Vol 1, 365. Inst. Civ. Engrs, London, 1948.
8. Bridle, R. J. and Hughes, T. G. “An energy method for arch bridge analysis." Proc. Inst.
Civ. Engrs, London, Part 2, 1990.
9. Heyman J. "The estimation of the strength of masonry arches." -Proc Inst Civ. Engrs,
London, Part 2, Dec 1980.
10. MINIPONT User Manual, Highway Engineering Computer Branch, Department of
Transport, London, 1975.
11. Page, J. "Assessment of masonry arch bridges." Proceedings of the Institution of
Highways and Transportation National Workshop, Leamington Spa, March 1990.
12. Harvey, W. J. “Application of the mechanism analysis to masonry arches." The
Structural Engineer, Vol 66, No.5, March 1988.
13. Chou, B. S. et al. "Finite-Element analysis of masonry arch bridges using tapered
elements." Proc. Inst. Civ. Engrs, London, Part 2, Dec 1991.

Chapter 15
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 The Quality System ISO 9000
15 THE QUALITY SYSTEM ISO 9000

15.1 GENERAL
New construction specifications require quality management from both companies and
engineers. The suitable high class Quality System described in this chapter is to be applied
with this Manual specifications (see Chapter 2: General Requirements, section 2.1: Design
Philosophy) within the Contractor's organization. The Contractors or Consultants who do
not have such a Quality System are not pre-qualified for design and construction of
Structures.
15.5.1 NEW QUALITY SYSTEM STANDARD
The ISO (International Standards Organization) in Geneva, Switzerland has been developing
voluntary technical standards over almost all sectors of business, industry and technology
since 1947.
The ISO 9000 standards are a set of international quality management standards and
guidelines. Since their initial publication in 1987, they have earned a global reputation as the
basis for establishing quality management systems (QMS). Three of the current standards,
ISO 9001, 9002 and 9003, have been used extensively as the basis for independent (third
party) quality system certification. This has resulted in the certification of over 211000
organisations world-wide, with many more in the process of setting up and implementing
quality management systems.
The ISO 9000 quality management systems (QMS) standards have taken on a completely
different look under revisions released December 15, 2000.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) requires all of its standards to be
reviewed every five years to determine whether they should be confirmed, revised or
withdrawn.
ISO 9000, first released in 1987, underwent limited revisions in 1994. A more thorough
revision was begun by ISO Technical Committee (TC) 176, Quality Management and
Quality Assurance, in 1996, with Subcommittee (SC) 2, Quality Systems, developing the
revised standards.
The revised ISO 9000 series consists of four primary standards, replacing more than 20
standards and documents. These new standards were preceded by the First Committee Draft
(CD1), released in July 1998; the Second Committee Draft (CD2), published in February
1999; the Draft International Standard (DIS), released in November 1999; and the Final Draft
International Standard (FDIS), published in September 2000.
The four primary standards are ISO 9000, Quality Management Systems - Fundamentals and
Ethiopian Road Authority Page 15-1

Chapter 15
The Quality System ISO 9000 Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Vocabulary, replacing ISO 9000-1 and 8402; ISO 9001, Quality Management Systems -
Requirements, replacing ISO 9001, 9002 and 9003; ISO 9004, Quality Management Systems
- Guidelines for Performance Improvements, replacing ISO 9004-1; and ISO 19011,
Guidelines on Quality and/or Environmental Management Systems Auditing, replacing ISO
10011-1, 10011-2 and 10011-3, as well as the ISO 14010, 14011 and 14012 environmental
auditing standards. ISO 9000, 9001 and 9004 were published December 15. ISO 19011 is
slated for publication in 2002.
Other old ISO 9000 standards and documents are being reviewed by ISO/TC 176 for
incorporation into the new standards, withdrawal or reissue as technical reports.
The new standards, particularly ISO 9001, are designed to be more generic, follow a process-
based structure and be more compatible with the ISO 14000 series of environmental
management systems (EMS) standards, allowing for integrated management systems.
Under the 2000 revisions, ISO 9001 has become more generic through the new option of
being tailored to omit requirements that don't apply to an organization or limiting the scope
of application under Section 1.2, Application. This eliminates the need for the less
comprehensive ISO 9002 and 9003 standards. In addition, there are no QMS documentation
layout or structure requirements.
The new process-based structure, similar to that used in ISO 14001, creates a completely
different look for ISO 9001. The 20 elements have been replaced by five clauses containing
23 elements. The two standards are more compatible under this approach, making it easier to
integrate management systems and combine documentation.
ISO 9004, Section 4.3 and ISO 9000, Section 0.2 set forth eight quality management
principles, which have been identified as forming a framework for improved performance by
an organization. These principles are the basis of ISO 9001. They are:
• Customer Focus
• Leadership
• Involvement of People
• Process Approach
• System Approach to Management
• Continual Improvement
• Factual Approach to Decision Making
• Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relationships
Major clauses of ISO 9001: 2000 are:
4 Quality Management System (2 elements), which states general requirements, along with
such documentation requirements as the quality manual, procedures, work instructions and
records. It sets the general framework to establish a quality management system, which
Page 15-2 Ethiopian Road Authority

Chapter 15
defines and manages processes in order to produce a good product or service and allow for
continual improvement.
5 Management Responsibility (6 elements), under which management defines policy,

objectives, planning and quality management system requirements, while providing for
feedback through management review for change authorization and initiation of
improvement. It addresses management's responsibility to establish a system that continually
meets customer needs and expectations, even in times of organizational change. This
responsibility includes quality objectives at each organizational function and level.
6 Resource Management (4 elements), where necessary resources, such as human resources

and facilities, are determined and applied. Theses resources, which include new elements
covering infrastructure and work environment, are required to implement and maintain the
quality management system.
7 Product Realization (6 elements), under which processes, such as customer-related

processes, design, purchasing, and production and service provision, are established and
implemented. These processes are needed to manufacture product and/or deliver services
from receipt to delivery. Organizations must define and describe their unique business
processes, but are not obliged to use the standard's structure.
8 Measurement, Analysis and Improvement (5 elements), where results are measured,

analyzed and improved through internal audits, nonconformity control and continual
improvement. Organizations are required to measure and monitor processes, and product
and/or service conformity. Collected data must be analyzed to initiate corrective and
preventive action for continual improvement.
15.1.2 QUALITY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES
A quality management principle is a comprehensive and fundamental rule or belief, for

leading and operating an organization, aimed at continually improving performance over
the long term by focusing on customers while addressing the needs of all other stakeholders.
With growing global competition, quality management is becoming increasingly important to

the leadership and management of all organizations. The Quality Management Principles
apply universally to all user groups. This document focuses on the needs of executive
managers. The Quality Management Principles shall be incorporated into new or existing
documents to satisfy the needs of other user groups.
By applying the following eight Quality Management Principles, organizations will produce
benefits for customers, owners, people, suppliers, local communities and society at large.
Principle 1 — Customer-Focused Organization

Organizations depend on their customers and therefore should understand current and future
customer needs, meet customer requirements and strive to exceed customer expectations.

Chapter 15
Principle 2 — Leadership
Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction of the organization. They should create and
maintain the internal environment in which people can become fully involved in achieving
the organization's objectives.
Principle 3 — Involvement of People
People at all levels are the essence of an organization and their full involvement enables their
abilities to be used for the organization's benefit.
Principle 4 — Process Approach
A desired result is achieved more efficiently when related resources and activities are
managed as a process.
Principle 5 — System Approach to Management
Identifying, understanding and managing a system of interrelated processes for a given
objective improves the organization’s effectiveness and efficiency.
Principle 6 — Continual Improvement
Continual improvement should be a permanent objective of the organization.
Principle 7 — Factual approach to decision making
Effective decisions are based on the analysis of data and information.
Principle 8 — Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
An organization and its suppliers are interdependent, and a mutually beneficial relationship
enhances the ability of both to create value.
15.2 BACKGROUND OF THE EXISTING QUALITY SYSTEM STANDARD ISO 9000
15.2.1 BASICS
With the exception of ISO 9000 and ISO 14000, the vast majority of ISO standards are
highly specific. They are documented agreements containing technical specifications or other
precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics to
ensure those materials, products, processes and services are fit for their purpose. It also
explains why ISO standards were, before ISO 9000 and ISO 14000, principally of concern to
engineers and other technical specialists concerned by the precise scope addressed in the
standard.
ISO 9000 was published in 1987 followed nearly 10 years later by ISO 14000, which have
brought ISO to the attention of a much wider business community. These are very different
from the majority of ISO’s highly specific standards.
15.2.2 GENERIC MANAGEMENT SYSTEM STANDARDS

The vast majority of ISO standards are highly specific to a particular product, material, or
process. However, both ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 are known as generic management system
standards.

Chapter 15
Generic means that the same standards can be applied to any organization, large or small,
whatever its product – including whether its "product" is actually a service – in any sector of
activity, and whether it is a business enterprise, a public administration, or a government
department.
Management system refers to what the organization does to manage its processes, or
activities. The larger the organization, and the more people involved, the more the likelihood
that there are some written procedures, instructions, forms or records. All this is usually
collected in a ”Quality System File”, which may consist of 1 to 100 files, depending on the
size of the company.
To be really efficient and effective, the organization can manage its way of doing things by
systematizing it. This ensures that nothing important is left out and that everyone is clear
about who is responsible for doing what, when, how, when, why and where. This is usually
made by so-called checklists or forms.
Management system standards provide the organization with a model to follow in setting up
and operating the management system. This model incorporates the features which experts in
the field have agreed upon as representing the state of the art. A management system that
follows the model – or "conforms to the standard" – is built on a firm foundation of state-of-
the-art practices.
Large organizations, or ones with complicated processes, could not function well without
management systems – although they may have been called by some other name. ISO’s
management system standards now make these successful practices available for all
organizations.
15.2.3 ISO 9000 AND ISO 14000 IN PLAIN LANGUAGE
Both "ISO 9000" and "ISO 14000" are actually families of standards which are referred to
under these generic titles for convenience. Both families consist of standards and guidelines
relating to management systems, and related supporting standards on terminology and
specific tools, such as auditing (the process of checking that the management system
conforms to the standard).
ISO 9000 is primarily concerned with "quality management". The standardized definition of
"quality" in ISO 9000 refers to all those features of a product (or service) which are required
by the customer. "Quality management" means what the organization does to ensure that its
products conform to the customer’s requirements.
ISO 14000 is primarily concerned with "environmental management". In plain language, this
means what the organization does to minimize harmful effects on the environment caused by
its activities.
Both ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 concern the way an organization goes about its work, and not

Chapter 15
directly the result of this work. In other words, they both concern processes, and not products
– at least, not directly. Nevertheless, the way in which the organization manages its processes
is obviously going to affect its final product. In the case of ISO 9000, it is going to affect
whether or not everything has been done to ensure that the product meets the customer’s
requirements.
However, neither ISO 9000 nor ISO 14000 are product standards. The management system
standards in these families state requirements for what the organization must do to manage
processes influencing quality (ISO 9000) or the processes influencing the impact of the
organization’s activities on the environment (ISO 14000).
In both cases, the philosophy is that these requirements are generic. No matter what the
organization is or does, if it wants to establish a quality management system or an
environmental management system, then such a system has a number of essential features
which are spelled out in ISO 9000 or ISO 14000.
15.2.4 THE ISO 9000 FAMILY
ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO 9003 may have stolen the limelight, but to get the maximum
benefits out of ISO 9000, then the whole family should be used in an integrated manner. The
ISO 9000 family consists at present of more than 20 standards and guidelines.
A 10-step model for implementing ISO 9000 is a basis for continuous improvement. The
particular standards and guidelines appropriate to each step are indicated in the brochure,
”Selection and use of ISO 9000” (ISBN 92-67-10267-2).
ISO 9000, with its main parts ISO 9001, ISO 9002 or ISO 9003, the three quality assurance
models against which organizations can be certified works like this:
ISO 9001 sets out the requirements for an organization whose business processes range
from design and development, to production, installation and servicing;
for an organization which does not carry out design and development, ISO 9002 is the
appropriate standard, since it does not include the design control requirements of ISO
9001 – otherwise, its requirements are identical;
ISO 9003 is the appropriate standard for an organization whose business processes do not
include design control, process control, purchasing or servicing, and which basically uses
inspection and testing to ensure that final products and services meet specified
requirements.
So, an organization chooses that its quality system be certified against ISO 9001, ISO 9002
or ISO 9003 according to the business processes covered by the quality system. There is no
difference of quality ranking between the three standards. As mentioned in subchapter 15.1:
General all of these three will be changed to only one - ISO 9001 in the near future.

Chapter 15
15.2.5 TECHNICAL COMMITTEE NO 176 - QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
In the ISO system, standards are developed by national delegations of experts from business,
government and other relevant organizations. They are chosen by the national standards
institutes participating in the technical committee concerned and they are required to present
a consensus position based on the views of stakeholders in their country.
In 1979, a new ISO technical committee was approved: ISO/TC 176, Quality management
and quality assurance. Today, the number of countries participating in ISO/TC 176 is more
than 50, with around another 20 as observers. The new committee set to work and, in 1986
completed its first standards. Published in the early part of 1987, these standards were known
as the ISO 9000 series.
When ISO/TC 176 embarked on the development of generic quality management standards
for worldwide application, it was able to take advantage of a substantial base of national
experience, notably in the United Kingdom and in Canada. Other countries with well-
developed quality management practices, such as Japan, also took a keen interest in the work
of the new committee.
15.2.6 CERTIFICATION AND REGISTRATION
The next concrete steps towards a Quality System are certification, registration and finally
accreditation. These steps however require more detailed manuals from ISO - see subchapter
15.3: Information Publications on Quality System below. Contact the Quality and
Standardization Authority of Ethiopia for details.
The maintaining of the Quality System will often be made by means of regular inspections
by the Authority. The result of the inspection shall be corrected and/or added to the Quality
System in order to keep the Certificate for the future. If the company is unable to maintain a
high quality, the Certificate will be withdrawn by the Authority and the company deleted
from the registration list.
15.3 INFORMATION PUBLICATIONS ON QUALITY SYSTEM
15.3.1 GENERAL
ISO brochure: Compatible technology worldwide
An easy-to-read introduction to ISO and the world of international standardization.
Answers the most common questions asked by newcomers to the field, press and
public. 1994, 20 p., free, ISBN 92-67-10205-2
ISO in brief. 1997, 16 p., free, ISBN 92-67-10250-8
ISO’s long-range strategies 1999-2002: Raising standards for the world
Long-range strategic plan for improvement developed by ISO for the three-year
period (full version). 1998, 18 p., free, ISBN 92-67-10285-0

Chapter 15
NOTE – A summary of the full version exists, in the form of a small brochure
entitled:
ISO in the New Century. 1998, 12 p., free, ISBN 92-67-10290-7
15.3.2 ACCESS TO INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
ISO Catalogue
List of all published ISO standards; updated quarterly by cumulative supplements.
Annual, 1138 p., price group M, CHF 95,50, ISBN 92-67-10291-5
ISO Technical Program
Information on the titles and stages of development of all draft standards.
Biannual, 264 p., bilingual, price group A, CHF 32,50, ISBN 92-67-01111-1
15.3.3 COLLABORATION WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
ISO Liaisons
Detailed list of the International organizations in liaison with ISO.
1995, 8th ed., 180 p., bilingual, price group G, CHF 65,50, ISBN 92-67-01087-5
ISO Development Manuals
A leaflet that presents the manuals intended specifically for developing countries.
1998, 16 p., free, ISBN 92-67-10286-9
Development Manual 1 — Establishment and management of a national standards body
Outline advice for new standards authorities, including examples of national
standards acts.
1994, 2nd ed., 96 p., price group B, CHF 37,50, ISBN 92-67-10204-4
Development Manual 2 — Conformity assessment

The objective of this development manual is to introduce interested persons in
developing countries to the basic concepts of conformity assessment and to indicate
which International guides and technical documents they should refer to in order to
obtain full information on this important subject. 1998, 114 p., price group A, CHF
32,50, ISBN 92-67-10277-X
Development Manual 3 — Training of technical staff — national level and company level
Essentials of training for the various functions of national and company
standardization activities, and some pertinent technical material. 1985, 130 p., price
group D, CHF 49,00, ISBN 92-67-10110-2
Development Manual 4 — Teaching of standardization in institutions of higher learning in

developing countries
Includes introduction, types of standards, organization and elaboration of standards,
metrology, quality assurance/certification and standards in production planning.
Curricula for two courses (short and long) are tabulated with reference to appropriate
chapters. 1987, 114 p., price group B, CHF 37,50, ISBN 92-67-10132-3

Chapter 15
Development Manual 5 — Development and organization of a company standards

department
Helps to provide guidelines for companies towards the establishment of company
standards systems and assists them in using standardization achievements effectively.
1988, 66 p., price group A, CHF 32,50, ISBN 92-67-10145-5
Development Manual 6 — Application of standards
This manual discusses different aspects of the application of standards at all levels
and proposes methodologies for the promotion of their application. 1991, 48 p., price
group A, CHF 32,50, ISBN 92-67-10167-6
Development Manual 7 — Participation in International standardization
The purpose of this manual is to encourage developing countries to participate more
actively in the technical work of ISO and to commit themselves to implementing
International Standards whenever possible in their national standardization systems.
Development Manual 8 — Organization and development of a national standards
information centre
Provides all the background knowledge, technical regulations, organizational
requirements and general advice for setting up a national standards information
centre, the central source for key information for traders, manufacturers and exporters
on standardization, at the national, regional and International levels. 1993, 74 p.,
price group A, CHF 32,50, ISBN 92-67-10189-7
Development Manual 9 — Establishment of a testing laboratory for a national standards
body
This manual is intended to provide guidance for those who undertake to plan and set
up a new national testing laboratory. It defines the basic rules that should be followed
to ensure that this undertaking is carried out in an efficient and orderly manner to
achieve the best utilization of financial and human resources available in the country.
Development Manual 10 — Environmental Management and ISO 14000
The purpose of this manual is to introduce the ISO 14000 series of standards to
readers from developing countries who wish to obtain an overall idea about the
published standards as well as those still in preparation and how they were
developed. It can be of interest to any reader who wants to gain insight into those
aspects of environmental management dealt with by ISO/TC 207, Environmental
management, and its subcommittees. 1998, 137 p., price group D, CHF 49,00, ISBN
92-67-10280-X
The role of standardization in economic development
The complete proceedings of the International Seminar organized by the World Bank
and ISO in 1992; discusses through the various presentations how the inclusion of a
standardization component in projects for developing countries significantly
increases the chances of success of such projects.
1993, 198 p., price group L, CHF 88,50, ISBN 92-67-10184-6

Chapter 15
Launching a standards initiative — Guidelines for developing countries

The purpose of these Guidelines is to help developing countries, members of ISO (or
IEC), to prepare their proposals for the establishment of International Standards in a
way that ensures the maximum chances of success. They prescribe a series of
preparatory studies and actions destined to put the proposals for starting an
International standardization project on track and to keep it there.
1996, 16 p., free
15.3.4 QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT
ISO Standards Compendium — ISO 9000 Quality Management

This compendium groups together the generic ISO quality management and quality
assurance standards. It contains all the International Standards and Final Draft
International Standards which collectively make up the ISO 9000, and the associated
ISO 10000, series of standards.
1998, 7th ed., 436 p., CHF 280,00, ISBN 92-67-10265-6
ISO 9000 on CD-ROM: The complete collection of International Standards for Quality
Management
An electronic version for easy reference, with keyword search, glossary and on-line
help.
1997, CHF 450,00, ISBN 92-67-10257-5
ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 on CD-ROM: The complete collection of International Standards
for Quality Management and Environmental Management
help. 1997, CHF 595,00, ISBN 92-67-10256-7
Selection and use of ISO 9000
This brochure gives a general perspective on the ISO 9000 standards and
demonstrates how they can form a basis for continuous improvement and business
excellence. Advice is given on how to distinguish between the various publications in
the ISO 9000 family, and how they can be used for maximum benefit.1998, 12 p.,
CHF 10,00, ISBN 92-67-10267-2
Certification and related activities: Assessment and verification of conformity to standards
and technical specifications
A decision-making tool for all those who have to evaluate, choose or operate the
various programs used in trade today to demonstrate that products and services
measure up to standards and technical specifications. 1992, 172 p., price group J,
CHF 76,50 ISBN 92-67-10176-5
The ISO Survey of ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 certificates, Seventh cycle - 1997
The 7th cycle uses exactly the same methodology as previous cycles to produce a
country-by-country breakdown of data collected up to and including 1997. There is a
large amount of data on ISO 14000 certification, which has grown rapidly during
1997. 1998, 8p free, ISBN 92-67-10284-2

Chapter 15
15.3.5 ENVIRONMENT
Development Manual 10 — Environmental Management and ISO 14000
The purpose of this Manual is to introduce the ISO 14000 series of standards to
readers from developing countries who wish to obtain an overall idea about the
published standards as well as those still in preparation and how they were
developed. It can be of interest to any reader who wants to gain insight into those
aspects of environmental management dealt with by TC 207 and its Subcommittees.
1998, 137 p., price group D, CHF 49,00, ISBN 92-67-10280-X
ISO 14000 on CD-ROM: The complete collection of International Standards for
Environmental Management
help. 1997, CHF 290,00, ISBN 92-67-10258-3
ISO Standards Compendium: ISO 14000 — Environmental Management
This compendium brings together in one volume all of the published International
Standards developed by ISO Technical Committee 207, Environmental Management.
It also includes Draft International Standards. 1998, 1st ed., price group XA, CHF
185,00, ISBN 92-67-10266-4
ISO 14000 — Meet the whole family!
This brochure provides a list of the ISO 14000 family of standards, ongoing work and
other ISO 14000 publications. It describes two approaches to implementation, and
gives an outline of their application at the organizational level and to products and
services. Business benefits of ISO 14000 are also explained. 1998, 8p., CHF 10,00,
ISBN 92-67-10283-4
15.3.6 INFORMATION AND DOCUMENTATION
International Classification for Standards (ICS)

Serves as a structure for catalogues of International, regional and national standards
and other normative documents, and as a basis for standing-order systems. 1999, 4th
ed., 90 p., price group B, CHF 37,50, ISBN 92-67-10289-3
SI Guide
The SI Guide covers the basics of: the historical background, the principles of the SI,
the base units, derived units, multiples and sub-multiples, additional units, printing
rules, space and time, periodic phenomena, mechanics, heat, electricity and
magnetism, light, acoustics, physical chemistry, atomic and nuclear physics activity,
ionizing radiations, characteristic numbers, and it ends with conversion tables. 1998,
32 p., A6 format sold in packs of 10 for CHF 32,50, plus postage and packing, ISBN
92-67-10279-6.

Chapter 16
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Calculations, Drawings And Specifications
16 CALCULATIONS, DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS

16.1 FORMAT OF CALCULATIONS, DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS
16.1.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
All the design, drawings, specifications and calculations shall be in the English language.
All characters and numbers in drawings shall not be less than 3.5 mm high, and any line
thickness shall not be less than 0.18 mm, to be easily readable when in half size. All
characters shall be drawn with CAPITAL letters.
Reinforcement bars shall be shown in the following format: “67 ∅ 12 s 200 – B2,”
meaning: number of bars, diameter 12 mm, spaced at 200 mm, bar no B2.
The standardized scales used for structures should be: 1:500, 1:250, 1:100, 1:50, 1:25,
1:10, 1:5 or 1:2.5. When in half size the actual scale will be: 1:1000, 1:500, 1:200, 1:100,
1:50, 1:20, 1:10 and 1:5.
All drawings of bridges and structures shall as a first choice be made either as digital files
in “.dwg-format” or other by ERA approved format, and/or on size A1, alternatively at
half size A3 on paper. Originals of drawings shall be submitted to ERA, of an approved
quality (laminated paper), in order to last in the ERA archives for at least 50 years.
The final design calculation sheets that contains all the detailed calculations shall be on
A4-size, although folded A3 size also shall be allowed. A minimum of two copies each
shall be submitted to ERA.
Specifications of reinforcement or steel shall be submitted to ERA in a minimum of two

copies, either on the actual detail drawing or on separate sheets on size A4 as stated
above.
Lists and Tables of post stressed reinforcement cables, lists of piles and other similar lists
shall be made on size A4, although folded A3 size also shall be allowed.
16.1.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN DRAWING/PRELIMINARY PLAN(S)
The preliminary design drawing(s) shall contain a plan, a section and an elevation with
the following information essential for the detail design stage:
• the horizontal alignment of the road approaches and the bridge,
• direction of flow and name of the waterway,
• north point, overall length of bridge, span lengths, clearance heights,
• type of bearings (fixed/expansion),
• width of road, width of bridge,
• inclination of embankment slopes,

Chapter 16
Calculations, Drawings And Specifications Bridge Design Manual - 2002
• the direction of the nearest town and/or the project start and end,
• which traffic load and special loads shall be used for the detail design,
• quantities of flow, design water speed, design water level, normal and lowest
water level,
• cross sections of the waterway in the alignment and 5 m up- and downstream at
elevation,
• contours or spot levels of the river bed and the surrounding ground in the area,
• reference to the soil investigation used, the levels of hard soil layers and bedrock -
if any - from the soil investigation,
• scour protection type and thickness,
• crossfall of bridgedeck, grade of bridge, angle of skew, angle of abutments and
piers,
• the stations of the piers and abutments,
• type of railing, type of joints in railing,
• coordinate system used, bench mark used and its elevation (if a local level is
used it shall be described in detail and give its connection with the National Level
Benchmark Network,
• elevation of footings, type of soils at every support, length of piles if any,
• type of drainage outlets of bridgedeck if any, type of expansion joints if any, type
of hinges
• type of fill behind the abutments, at frame structures the filling should be made at
the same time at the same level behind both abutments, at abutments not founded
on rock the backfill shall be made before the measure between the superstructure
and the abutment is decided upon,
• which Specifications shall be used for the detail design.
16.1.3 DETAIL DESIGN DRAWINGS
When the designs of foundations, substructures and superstructure on the basis of the
preliminary design drawing have been selected, and all the necessary modifications to suit
local requirements and conditions made, the detail designer of ERA or the contractor
must prepare drawings in sufficient detail and with all necessary dimensions to enable the
structure to be built by ERA employees or an outside contractor.
Since the drawings contain all the information required to build the structure, there should
be no need for the builder to consult the designer. In practice, however, liaison between
design office and construction site usually benefits both parties and is particularly helpful
when unforeseen conditions are met. It is common for the Engineer, in consultation with
the designer, to agree to modifications with the contractor, with the aim of saving
unnecessary costs, compensating for poor soils or using different materials to those
specified.
A complete set of “as-built” drawings and calculations is also required for the bridge
inventory. This set should include any modifications that might have been introduced

Chapter 16
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Calculations, Drawings And Specifications
during construction and is to be updated whenever repairs or strengthening, etc take place
on the structure or the river works.
The main drawing contains a plan, longitudinal section and one or more cross sections of
the structure. It is usually drawn to a scale of 1:100 or 1:250 and specifies the following
major dimensions: Abutment and pier width, height, bearing shelf levels and foundation
levels, superstructure span, width and height to the underside, wing wall lengths, heights
and foundation levels, and finished road surface levels over the bridge. Design flood level,
the high flood level and the low water level help to determine the vertical alignment of the
road approaches and the bridge.
The detail substructure drawing should show the elevations, plans and sections selected,
and all the dimensions and levels required for setting out and construction of the
abutments, piers and wing walls. The most common scales are 1:50 or 1:25 for
reinforcement details and 1:10 or 1:5 for smaller details. Concrete and reinforcement
properties and specifications, such as material class, cover thickness, etc should also be
included.
The superstructure main detail drawing should contain plan and sections detailing the
bridge deck girders, etc. It includes material properties and specifications as well as bar
bending schedules for reinforcement. The most common scales are 1:50 or 1:25 and even
1:10 or 1:5 for smaller details
Further detail drawings for bearings, expansion joints etc, at scale 1:25, 1:10 or
sometimes 1:5 are prepared as required.
If some of the above drawings are not in the Road and Bridge Standard Specifications or
in the Bidding documents, the designer must prepare drawings in sufficient detail and
with all necessary dimensions to enable the structure to be built.
Detail design drawings shall contain the following information, if appropriate to the
drawing:
• all necessary technical information on concrete or steel according to the Ethiopian
Building Code Standards, EBCS-2 (concrete) and -3 (steel) 1995 or these
Specifications.
• if piling, actual maximum and minimum pile loads, type of piles, notations on method
of piling, each pile should also be given a unique number.
• length, height and levels of expansion joints as well as diagram of movements.
• specification of steel details and painting program to be used.
• the method of manufacturing and construction, camber, etc if it will affect the rigidity,
lifetime or appearance.
• reinforcement bar length, dimension and their unique number shown both as elevation
and section. All reinforcement in a section shall be shown in the same figure.
• position and details of construction joints and order of concreting stages
• maximum aggregate size in concrete (unless normal size is used)
• if voids (holes) are used in slab the necessary anchoring of it shall be shown
• borehole plan including sections and substrata information.

Chapter 16
Calculations, Drawings And Specifications Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Revisions of detail design drawings during or before construction time shall always be
approved by the Engineer before the work is performed. If nothing else is stated the
drawing shall be sent to the Engineer to be checked and signed. If the revision requires
calculations, these shall be submitted with the drawing, together with information on
which part of the earlier approved calculations is affected.
16.1.4 FINAL REVISION/ AS-BUILT DRAWINGS
Before the Final Acceptance of the entire construction work the Contractor shall submit to
the Engineer duly revised originals or digital files of detail design/construction drawings,
structural calculations and specifications.
16.2 QUALITY CONTROL OF CALCULATIONS AND DRAWINGS
The Contractor and/or the Designer shall be certified by an independent Quality

Institution, which has been approved by ERA. Otherwise he must prove his ability to
check his design calculations and drawings before approval by the Engineer, by
submitting an Object Specific Quality Plan in accordance with the requirements in ISO
9001 or equal (see Chapter 15: The Quality System ISO 9000).
The use of checklists, signed by the Responsible Designer, shall be the common way of
obtaining a high quality.

Appendix CB
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Composite Bridge Design
APPENDIX CB - COMPOSITE BRIDGE, 24 M SPAN, 7.32 m Width
The following calculations is an example of a documentation for a composite bridge with a

span of 24m and a width of 7.32m. The principle dimensions of the bridge are shown in the
figures below.
Figure Longitudinal section
Figure Typical cross section
Four design conditions are checked:
• Strength I
• Service I
• Fatigue
• Construction stage
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page CB-1

Appendix CB
Composite Bridge Design Bridge Design Manual - 2002
CB.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The calculations are based on: ERA BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL-2002

AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL-1996
Resistance factors – steel (Table 10-2)
Plate girders, transverse beams: φf =φc = 1.0 (both flexure and shear)
Shear connectors: φsc = 0.85
Bearing: φb = 1.0
Axial compression: φc = 0.9
Resistance factors – concrete (Table 9-7)
Flexure of reinforced concrete φ = 0.9
Material - Steel
E- modulus: 200 000 Mpa Section 10.1

Poisson ratio: 0.3
Density: γs = 7850 kg/m3 Table 3-4
Thermal expansion: 11.7E-6/deg C Section 10.1
Yield strength
Rolled plates
AASHTO Designation: M270 -Grade 345 Table 10-1

Equivalent to European steel S355
Fy = 345 MPa
Rolled profiles
AASHTO Designation: M270 -Grade 250 Table 10-1

Equivalent to European steel S275
Fy = 250 MPa
Shear connectors
Shear connectors shall be made from cold-drawn bars, Grades 1015, 1018 or 1020, either
semi- or fully killed, conforming to AASHTO M169.
Fy = 345 MPa (minimum yield strength)

Fu = 400 MPa (minimum tensile strength)
Page CB-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix CB
Reinforcement bars
fy = 350 Mpa
Material - Concrete:
Poisson ratio: 0.2 Section 9.3

Thermal expansion: 10.8E-6/°C Section 9.3
Grade: C25
fc' = 20 Mpa Table 9-1
Density: γc = 2400 kg/m3 Section 9.3
Ec = 0.043*γc 1.5*SQR(fc') Equation 9.3
Ec = 22600 Mpa
Concrete cross section area transferred to equivalent steel area.
The equivalent steel area can be calculated by a modular ratio factor for C25 concrete of:
(see AASHTO 6.10.5.1.b)
n=10 Short term loads
n=30 Long term loads
CB.2 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Following PC-programs have been used:
• Main analysis: STAAD3, ver 22.0

• Cross section program: SECTION, ver 3.0
SECTION is a general cross section program for calculation of section properties (see
section CB-8:Appendix A)

Appendix CB
CB.3 STRUCTURAL CROSS SECTIONS
Steel cross section
The steel cross section has a shape as shown in the figure below.
Topflange 325x20
Web 1345x15
Bottom flange 400x35
Figure Steel cross section
Concrete slab - Effective flange width
The gross section for one girder is shown in the figure below.
1410*) 2250
230**)
325
*) exclusive edge beam

**) exclusive cover at top surface (50 mm)
The effective flange width shall be taken as the minimum of:

(ref AASHTO ch. 4.6.2.6.1-interior beam)
1. ¼*24=6m
2. 12*0.23+0.5*0.325=2.92
3. 1.41+2.25=3.66
This means that the effective width is 2.92m.

Appendix CB
For this exampe, the effective width is reduced to 2.0 m for the strength loadcase. This gives
the plastic neutral axis in the web.
Cross section for Strength loadcase
The capacity for the section is based on the plastic moment capacity. This can be calculated
according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.1.3.The forces in the longitudinal reinforcement is
conservatively neglected.
Cross section for Service and Fatigue loadcase
For calculating deflection for the Service loadcase and fatigue stresses, the concrete width is
reduced with a factor of n according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.1.1.b. This represents the short
term composite section. With n=10 for concrete with fc'=20, this gives a concrete effective
width of:
W = 2910/10=291 mm
CB.4 BASIC LOADS
Dead load - DC
Steel
Dead load of steel is 79 kN/m3 Table 3-4
For one beam, the dead load is assumed to be
DCs = 4 kN/m.
Concrete
The following is calculated for one girder.
Overhang slab
The railing including posts is estimated to 2.75 kN/m.
Edge beam including slab to c/l of girder has a cross section of:
A = 1.81*0.258 + 0.4*(0.4-0.24)= 0.531 m2
Slab between girders.
The slab has a thickness of 0.28 m

Appendix CB
A = 2.25*0.28 =0.63 m2
Total load from concrete:
DCc = 2.75 + 24*(0.531+0.632)= 30.7 kN/m
Wearing surface - DW
The wearing surface is estimated to have a thickness of 50 mm. With a density of 22.5
kN/m2, this gives a load of:
DW = 0.05*22.5= 1.125 kN/m2
Or for one girder
DW = 1.125*7.32/2 = 4.1 kN/m
Live load - LL
Strength and service load combinations
Number of lanes: 7.32/3=2 Section 3.8
Lane load: (Section 3.8)
LL = 9.3 kN/m (per lane; design lane=3.0m)
With the lever arm method, the load for one girder can be calculated to:
3000 3000
LL
B A
1410 4500
Moment @ A Î
Rb = 2*LL*(4.5+1.41-3)/4.5 =LL*1.293
LL= 9.3*1.293 = 12.028 kN/m

Appendix CB
Truck load (Section 3.8)
Reacton force on one girder is the total truckload multiplied with a lever arm factor of 1.293.
This means that following truck load is acting on one girder
P2 P1 P1
4300 a = 4300-9000
P1 =145*1.293 = 188 kN
P2 =35*1.293 = 45 kN
Tandem load (Section 3.8)
Reacton force on one girder is the total tandem load multiplied with a lever arm factor of
0.647. This load will not be governing for this bridge.
Fatigue load combination
Number of lanes: 1 (Section 3.8)
With the lever arm method, the load for one girder can be calculated to:
3000
Q
B
A
1410 4500
Moment @ A Î
Rb = Q*(4.5+1.41-1.5)/4.5 =Q*0.98
Truck load (Section 3.8)
Reaction force on one girder is the truckload multiplied with a lever arm factor of 0.98. This
means that following truck load is acting on one girder.
P2 P1 P1
4300 a = 9000

Appendix CB
P1 =145*0.98=142 kN
P2 =35*0.98= 34 kN
Note: a is 9000 for fatigue load Section 3.8
Dynamic Load Allowance - IM
The dynamic load allowance is 33%, ref. Section 3.13, which means a load factor of 1.33.
This load factor is only valid for truck loads and tandem loads.
Wind on Vehicles -WL
Wind on vehicles results in an additional vertical load to be considered in the SERVICE I

loadcase. The wind pressure is 1.5 kN/m acting 1.8m above the road. This gives following
additional vertical load for one beam.
P=1.5 kN/m
1800
1000
B
A
4500
The reaction force at beam B is then
Rb=P*2.8/4.5= 1 kN/m
Temperature
Since the bridge can elongate freely and the thermal expansion coefficent is nearly the same
for concrete and steel, the temperature differnace has no influence on the bridge.
Fatigue load
The average daily number (ADT=average daily traffic) of vehicles is estimated to 300. This
results in an ADDT (number of trucks per day) in one direction of
ADDT = 0.4 * ADT= 120
Based on an rural highway (Section 3.8).
The ADDTSL (number of trucks per day in a single-lane averaged over the design life) can
then be calculated to:

Appendix CB
ADDTSL = 0.85* ADDT = 102
corresponding to a P=0.85 (two lanes, Section 3.8).
Number of cycles can then be calculated to:
N = 365*75*n*ADDTSL = 365*75*1*102 = 2.8E6 according to AASHTO ch 6.6.1.2.4
Based on
n=1 (number of stress ranges per truck; l>12m)

life time = 75 year
Calculations are made with the computer program STAAD in section CB-9:Appendix B.
CB.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS
STRENGTH I - Construction stage
SECTION/Loadfactor
Loads STEEL
Steel 1.25
Concrete 1.25
Wearing surface 1.25
STRENGTH I - Normal stage
SECTION/Loadfactor
Loads STEEL COMPOSIT
Steel 1.25
Concrete 1.25
Wearing surface 1.25
Live load – lane load 1.75
Live load – truck load 1.75*1.33
SERVICE I - Camber
SECTION/Loadfactor
Loads STEEL
Steel 1.0
Concrete 1.0
Wearing surface 1.0

Appendix CB
SERVICE I - Normal stage
Loads Load factors

Wearing surface 1.0
Wind load 1.0
Live load – lane load 1.0
Live load – truck load 1.0*1.33
FATIGUE
Loadfactor
Loads COMPOSIT
Live load – truck load 0.75*1.33=1.0
CB.6 STEEL
STRENGTH - I
Construction stage – ref AASHTO ch 6.10.10
Prior to the concrete hardening, the member is a non-composite beam section, ref figure
below.
Topflange 325x20
Web 1345x15
Bottom flange 450x35
Figure. Section during construction stage
Following cross section values have been calculated by the PC-program SECTION, ref
section CB-8: Appendix A.
Dc = 801 mm (Depth of the web in compression in the elastic range)

Dcp = 923 mm (Depth of the web in compression in the plastic range)
Ix = 1.207E10 mm4 (Moment of inertia)
Sx1 = 1.470E7 mm3 (Section modulus for top flange)
Sx2 = 2.084E7 mm3 (Section modulus for top flange)
J = 8.096E6 mm4 (S.T Venant torsional constant)

Appendix CB
Moment:
The beam shall carry the dead load from the steel beam, the concrete slab and the wearing
surface. Even if the wearing surface not is applied, this load is also representing the deck
form load during the construction stage.
Total load on the beam is :
Q = 4.1 + 30.7 + 4 = 38.8 kN/m
The beam is a simply supported beam with a span of 24m.
Q=38.8 kN/m
A
24000
This gives a moment including a loadfactor of 1.25 of:
M = 1.25*ql2/8 = 1.25*38.8*242/8 = 3492 kNm
The stress in the top flange is then
Sigx= 3492E6/1.470E7= 238Mpa
The reaction force can be calculated to:
RA = 1.25*38.8*24/2=582 kN
Control if the section is a compact section according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.2.2.c
Requirement for a compact section is
2*Dcp/tw<=3.76*Sqr(E/Fyc)
Dcp <= 15/2*3.76*Sqr(2E5/345) = 679
Not fulfilled
Control if the section is a non-compact section according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.3.2.b

Appendix CB
The web slenderness is checked
2*Dc/tw<=6.77*Sqr(E/fc)
with fc = 238 MPa, this gives
Dc<=1472 mm
With Dc= 801, this requirement is fulfilled.
Compression flange slenderness according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.3.3.c
Bf/(2*tf)<=1.38*Sqr(E/(fc*Sqr(2*Dc/tw))
This gives
Bf <= 2*20*1.38*Sqr(2E5/(238*Sqr(2*824/15)) = 494
With bf=325, this requirement is fulfilled
Compression flange bracing according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.3.3.d and 6.10.6.4
Lb<=1.76*rt*Sqr(E/Fyc)
rt = Sqr(1/12*(20*3253+801/3*153)/(20*325+15*801/3) = 73.85
Î
Lb<= 1.76*73.85*Sqr(2E5/345) = 3129 mm
With Lb= 6000 mm, this requirement is not fulfilled.
Moment capacity is then calculated according to AASHTO ch 6.10.6.4
If 2*Dc/tw<=λb*Sqr(E/Fyc)
then
Mn=3.14*E*Cb*Rh*(Iyc/Lb)*Sqr(0.772*(J/Iyc)+9.87*(d/Lb)2)
λb = 4.64 according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.4.2.a

Cb= 1.0
Rh=1.0
Iyc=1/12*20*3253=57.2E6
Lb=6000
J=8.811E6
d=1400

Appendix CB
Dc<=4.64*15/2*Sqr(2E5/345)= 838
With Dc=801, the moment capacity can be calculated to:
Mr=Mn= 4850 MNm
With the acual moment of 3492 kNm , the capacity of the beam is fulfilled.
Distance between braces = 6000 mm
Operating stage
After the concrete has hardened, the member has a composite cross section as shown in the
figure below.
2000
230
25 theor. clearance 325
First the section is controlled if it’s a compact according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.2 or non-
compact section according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.3.
Requirement for a compact section is
2*Dcp/tw<=3.76*Sqr(E/Fyc)
Dcp <= 14/2*3.76*Sqr(E/Fyc) = 633
Dcp (assumed to be placed in the web) can be calculated as according to AASHTO ch

6.10.5.1.4.b:

Appendix CB
Dcp =D/2*((Fyt*At-Fyc*Ac-0.85*fc’*As-Fyr*Ar)/(Fyw*Aw) + 1)
With
Fyt=Fyc=Fyw=345
Ar = 0
At = 400*35=14000
Ac=325*20=6500
Aw=15*1345=20175
fc’=20
As = 2000*230=460000
D = 1345
Dcp= 167
This means that the member fulfills the requirement for a compact section.
Since the concrete supports the compression flange, there is no other requirements to the
section.
The moment capacity can then be calculated to:
Mp=Pw/2/D*(Dcp2+(D-Dcp)2)+Ps*ds+Pc*dc+Pt*dt
according to AASHTO Appendix A6.1
(Note reinforcement forces are neglected according to AASHTO ch 6.10.5.1.3)
with
Pc=325*20*345=2.245E6
Pt=400*35*345=4.83E6
Pw=1345*15*345=6.96E6
Ps=2000*230*0.85*20=7.82E6
ds=230/2+25+20+Dcp=327
dt=1400-20-Dcp-35/2=1195
dc=Dcp+20/2=177
Moment capacity is:
Mr=Mn=Mp=3662+2557+397+5772=12389 kNm
The shear capacity can be calculated as: (according to AASHTO ch 6.10.7.2)

Appendix CB
If D> tw*3.07*Sqr(E/Fyw)
Then
Vn=4.55*tw3*E/D
With
tw=15
E=2E5
Fyw=345
D=1345
Î
D>1108
Vr=Vn=4.55*153*2E5/1345 = 2283 kN
Actual moment and shearforces are calculated based on following factored loads:
Uniform load
Q= 1.25*38.8=49 kN/m (dead load)

Q=1.75*12=21 kN/m (lane load)
Totally: Q = 70 kN/m
Point loads
P2 P1 P1
4300 a = 4300-9000
P1 =1.75*1.33*188=438 kN
P2 =1.75*1.33*45=105 kN
To get max moment and shear at support points, a shall be 4.3m, i.e. the pointloads shall be
as close as possible.
In Section CB-9: Appendix B, the simple beam model has been run to calculate max
moments and shear forces.

Appendix CB
Two controls are done, one at the support and one in the midspan.
Support
Max reaction force is:
V=1697 kN <Vrd = 2282 kN OK!
Midspan:
Max moment is:
M=9769 kN <Mr = 12389 kN OK!
SERVICE - I
Camber
The steel-beams shall be fabricated with a camber so the beams in principle not have any
deflection without traffic load. The camber is calculated based on that the steel section
carries the deadload before the concrete has hardened. This means that the moment of inertia
for this section can be calculated to:
Ix = 1.207E10 mm4 (ref section CB-8)
Total load on the beam is:
Q = 4.1 + 30.7 + 4 = 38.8 kN/m
The beam is a simply supported beam with a span of 24m. This gives a deflection of
D=5ql4/(384EI)= 5*38.8*240004/(384*2E5*1.207E10) = 69 mm
Choose an overheigth of the beam of 80 mm
Deflection by traffic
This loadcase is covered by the SERVICE I loadcombination according to Section 3.3. The
deflection limit is l/500 (Section 2.5).

Appendix CB
The member section in this case is a composite section according the figure below.
2910
230
25 theor. clearance
The concrete area can be transferred to an equivalent steel area by reducing the width with a
factor of 10 accounting for a short term composite section. This means that the moment of
inertia and shear area i vertical direction for this section can be calculated to:
Ix = 3.572E10 mm4
Ref also section CB-8 Appendix A for cross section calculations with the PC-program
SECTION.
Since STAAD takes into account shear deformations, also the shear area is required. This is
calculated only from the steel beam.
Ay = 1345*15= 20175 mm2 (ref CB-8: Appendix A)
Deflection of the composite section is based on following factored loads:
Uniform load
Q= 1.0 kN/m (wind load)

Q=12 kN/m (lane load)
Totally: Q = 13 kN/m
Point loads
P2 P1 P1
4300 a = 4300-9000
P1 =1.33*188 = 250 kN
P2 =1.33*45 = 60 kN

Appendix CB
To get max deflection, a is chosen to 4.3m.
In Section CB-9: Appendix B, the simple beam model has been run to calculate max
deflection.
Max deflection is calculated to 29.2 mm. This means a deflection ration of 24000/29.2 Î
l/822.
Max allowable is 1/500 according to Section 2.3.
Î OK
FATIGUE
Fatigue requirements for web
Flexure
Requirement to webs without longitudinal stiffeners shall satisfy according to AASHTO ch

6.10.4.3
Dcp <= 15/2*5.76*Sqr(2E5/345) = 1040
Calculated Dcp from the construction stage (prior ro composite section) is Dcp= 923 mm.
After the concrete has hardened the composite section results in a Dcp of much less than
923mm. This menas that the allowable elastic flexural stress in the compression flange fcf is:
fcf = Rh*Fyk= 345 MPa
Î no reduction to capacity
DETAIL DESIGN
Shear connectors
The pitch of shear connectors is calculated based on:
• Pitch at fatigue loading

• Pitch at fatigue loading
• Minimum 6 times the stud diameter
Pitch at fatigue loading according to AASHTO ch 6.10.7.4.1.b
The pitch for the shear connectors can be calcualted as:
P = n*Zr*I/(Vsr*Q)

Appendix CB
Where
P = pitch in longitudinal direction in mm

n = number of shear connnectors transverse
I = moment of inertia of short-term composite
Q = first moment of the transformed area about the neutral axis of the short-term composite
Vsr = shear force range under LL+I determined for the fatigue limit state
Zr = shear fatigue resistance of an individual shear connector
Zr can be calculated as .
Zr = α*d2>=38*d2
With
d = 20 (diameter of stud)
α = 238 – 29.5*logN = 238-29.5*log(2.8E6)=47.8
Zr = 47.8*202 = 19.12 kN
I= 3.572E10 mm4 (ref Section CB-8: Appendix A)
Q = 291*230*(1425+230/2-1176.8.)=24.308E6
In Section CB-9: Appendix B, the shear forces are calculated for the beam with following
truckload:
P2 P1 P1
4300 a = 9000
P1 =142 kN
P2 = 34 kN
Max shear at support is 245 kN Î
Vsr = 245 kN
Î
P = 229 mm
Pitch at strength loading according to AASHTO ch 6.10.7.4.4.a
Qr = φsc*Qn
φsc = 0.85

Appendix CB
Qn = 0.5*Asc*Sqr(fc’*Ec)<=Asc*Fu
fc’ = 20 Mpa
Ec = 22600 Mpa
Asc = π*202/4=314 mm2
Fu = 400 Mpa (minimum)
Î
Qn = 0.5*314*Sqr(20*22600) = 105 kN <= 314*400 =125 kN

Î
Qr = 0.85*105 = 89 kN
The nominal horizontal shear force Vh is then calculated as the minimum of:
Vhc = 0.85*fc’*b*ts
Or
Vhs = Fyw*D*tw + Fyt*bt*tt + Fyc*bc*tc
fc’=20 Mpa
b = 2000 mm
bc = 325 mm
bt = 400 mm
ts =230 mm
tt = 35 mm
tc = 20 mm
tw = 15 mm
D = 1345 mm
Fyw = Fyc = Fyt = 345 Mpa
Vhc = 0.85*20*2000*230 = 7820 k N
Vhs = 345*(1345*15 +325*20 + 400*35) = 14032 kN
Vh = 7820 kN
Minimum number of shear connectors (n) between mid point of beam to endsupport is then
n = 7820 / 89 = 87
With two shear connnectors in transverse direction, this gives a pitch of
p = 12000/(87/2) = 275 mm

Appendix CB
Minimum required pitch according to AASHTO ch 6.10.7.4.1.b
p >= 6*D= 6*20 =120 mm
The pitch distance is thus decided to be c/c 120 mm
Stud φ20 c/c 120mm
Bearing stiffeners
The bearing stiffeners are controlled for the strength load combination. This menas that the
maximum reaction force is 1697 kN.
It’s assumed that the bearing stiffners are connected to the bottom flange with a full contact,
thus all vertical force is tranferred by contact between the bottom flange and the bearing
stiffener.
The following calculations follws in principle the requirements from AASHTO ch 6.10.8.2.
Projecting width according to AASHTO ch 6.10.8.2.2
Each stiffener shall have a width limited to:
bf <= 0.48*tp*Sqr(E/Fys)
E = 2E5 Mpa
Fys = 345 Mpa
tp = 20 mm
Î
bf <= 231 mm
Since the bottom flange is 400 mm, this requirement is fulfilled.
Bearing resistance according to AASHTO ch 6.10.8.2.3
Br = φb*Apn*Fys
With
φb = 1.0
Apn = 20*(400-3*15-2*10) =6700 (compenstaed for web to flange weld)
Fys = 345 MPa
Î

Appendix CB
Br = 1.0*6700*345=2311 kN
Br > V = 1697 kN Î OK!
Axial resistance of bearing resistance
The cross section as shown in the figures below is checked for axial compression
130
Pl 20
178
h
400
I I
d = 20+2*9*tw = 20+2*9*15 =290 mm

h= 2*178 + 15 = 371 mm

Appendix CB
As = 290*15+20*(371-15) =11470 mm2

Is = 20*3713/12+(290-20)*153/12 = 85.18 E6 mm4
radius of gyration of the cross section is
rs = Sqr(Is/As)= 86 mm
buckling length is 0.75*D=0.75*1345=1009mm
λ = (1009/86/π)2*Fy/E = 0.023
Pn = 0.66λ*Fy*As= 3975 kN
Pr = 0.9*Pn = 3578 kN
Pr >> Vr =1697 kN Î OK
The stiffener and the web shall fit to the bottom flange so the vertical force can be
transferred by direct contact.
End beam at support
A transverse endbeam is located at each support. This beams can be if the bearings need to
be changed. Lift points are located 500mm from each main girder, see figure below.
HEB400
500 P P
500
4500
Figure. End beam at support for lifting the bridge
Reaction force for one beam is (ref Section 10.2) 582 kN including a loadfactor of 1.25.
Moment and sherforce for the beam is thus
Ms = 582*0.5=291 kNm

Appendix CB
Vs = 582 kN
HEB 400 has following capacities:
Mrd = 250*2.884E6=721 kNm>Ms (elastic)
Since D < 2.46*tw*Sqr(E/Fyk), then
Vrd = 0.58*250*D*tw=0.58*250*(400-2*24)*13.5=689kN > Vs
The profile is thus OK!
Construction stage
During the construction stage, lateral torsional buckling is prevented by transverse beams
every 6 m along the beams, as shown in the figure below.
+-Pu +-Pu
Max
600 HEA 300
4500
Max flange force in the top flange is, (ref Section 10.1)
F =238*325*20=1547 kN
The horizontal force Pu is estimated to be 0.02*P, i.e.:
Pu = 0.02* 1547 = 31 kN
Additional moments from top flange to center of beam:
M = 31*0.6 = 18.6 kNm
The moment is transferred through the flange welds, see figure below.

Appendix CB
120
300
F = 18.6/0.3 = 62 kN
Tau = 62E3/(2*120*5)=55 Mpa < (Fyk/Sqr3) Î OK
The axial stress in the HEA 300 member can be calculated to
Sig = 31E3/11250 = 3 MPa
Î no buckling problem
If the beam is used as support for the formwork during casting of the slab, the beam can be
checked for following load case:
q
4500
q = 0.3*24*6 + 6 (formwork)= 49.2 kN/m
M = q*4.52/8= 125 kNm
W(HEA300) =1.259E6 mm3
Siq = 125E6/1.259E6 = 99 Mpa > Fyk = 250 MPa
The beam can act as support for formwork during construction stage.

Appendix CB
CB.7 CONCRETE
Overhang
400
cL girder
1810
Load and moments:
Dead load
Railing: The railing including posts is estimated to 2.75 kN/m.
Concrete: Edge beam including slab to c/l of girder has a cross section of:
A1= 1.81*0.258 = 0.467 m2 (slab)

A2= 0.4*(0.4-0.24)= 0.064 m2 (edge beam)
DCc1 = 24*0.467 = 11.208 kN/m

DCc2 = 24*0.064 = 1.536 kN/m
Wearing surface: The wearing surface is estimated to have a thickness of 50 mm. With
a density of 22.5 kN/m2, this gives a load of:
D = 0.05*22.5= 1.125 kN/m2
DW = 1.125*1.81 = 2.036 kN/m
Total load: DD = 2.75 + 11.208 + 1.536 + 2.036 = 17.5 kN/m
Moment: MDL = 2.75*1.61 + 11.208*1.81/2 + 1.536*1.61 + 2.036*1.81/2 =

18.886 kNm
Rail load
P = 44.51 kN (Ref Art 2.7 AASHTO 1996)

Appendix CB
I 900+280/2=1140
1610
Mi = 44.51*1.14=50.741 kNm
Effective length for moment:
E = 1140 + 0.833X according to AASHTO ch 4.6.2.1.3
X = 1610
Î
E = 1140 + 0.833*1610= 2.481 m
MRL = 50.741/2.481=20.451 kNm/m
Truck load: (145kN axle)
300
P I
1110
P = 145/2 = 72.5 kN (one wheel)
M = 72.5*1.11=80.5 kNm
E = 1140 + 0.833X
X = 1.11

Appendix CB
E = 1.14+0.833*1.11 = 2.065
MLT = 80.5/2.065 = 39 kNm/m
Lane load: (3.1 kN/m)
Q I
1410
MLL = 3.1*1.412/2= 3.08 kNm/m
Total moment:
Loadcase a) – Deadload+railload:
M = 1.25*MDL + 1.75*MRL = 1.25*18.89 + 1.75*20.45 = 59.4 kNm/m
Loadcase b) – Deadload+truck + lane load:
M = 1.25*MDL + 1.75*1.33*MLT + 1.75*MLL = 1.25*18.89 + 1.75*1.33*39 + 1.75*3.08 =
= 119.8 kNm/m
Design for flexure:
Top layer reinforcement
Assume reinforcement bars: φ = 20 mm

Cover – top surface: 50 mm
Cover – bottom surface: 25 mm
Slab gross thickness: D = 280 mm
d = 280 - φ/2 – top cover = 280 –10-50 = 220 mm
c = As*Fy/(0.85*fc’*b) according to AASHTO ch 5.7.3.1.1

with
fc’ = 20 Mpa

Appendix CB
b = 1000 mm
fy = 350 Mpa
As = 2000 mm2 (assumed)
Î
c = 2000*350/(0.85*20*1000) = 41.17 mm
a = c*β1 = 41.17*0.85= 35mm
As = M /(φ*Fy*(d-a/2)=119.8E6/(0.9*350*(220-35/2))= 1878 mm
according to AASHTO ch 5.7.3.2
Î
φ 20 c/c 165 mm or alternative
φ 12 c/c 160 mm + φ 16 c/c 160 mm
Bottom layer reinforcement
Minimum reinforcement according to AASHTO ch 5.7.3.3.2
δmin > 0.03*fc’/fy = 0.03*20/350=0.002

Î
As = 0.002*280*1000=560mm2
Î
φ 12 c/c 200 mm (bottom minimum reinforcement)
Slab between girders - transverse
400
cL bridge
1810 2250

Appendix CB
Max positive moment:
Max positive moment is by placing one lane in the mid of the bridge.
Dead load moment from overhang
Moment has been calculated for the overhang as: MDL = -18.9 kNm/m
Dead load moment from slab between girder
Concrete: DCc = 24*0.28 = 6.72 kN/m
Wearing surface: D = 0.05*22.5= 1.125 kN/m
Total dead load: D = 6.72+1.125 = 7.845 kN/m
Moment: M = 7.845*4.52/8 = +19.9 kNm/m
P P
CL girder
1350 1800
4500
P = 145/2 = 72.5 kN (one wheel)
M = 72.5*1.35=98 kNm
E = 660 + 0.55S according to AASHTO ch 4.6.2.1.3
With S=4.5 Î
E = 3.13
MLT = 98/3.13 = +31.3 kNm/m

Appendix CB
Lane load: (3.1 kN/m)
Q = 3.1 kN/m
MLL = 3.1*3/2*(0.75+3/4) = +7 kNm/m
Total moment:
Deadload+truck + lane load:
M = 1.25*MDL + 1.75*1.33*MLT + 1.75*MLL = 1.25*(19.9-18.9) + 1.75*1.33*31.2 + 1.75*7
= 86.1 kNm/m
Max negative moment:
Max negative moment is by placing two lanes as far out as possible to the railings.
Dead load moment
From earlier calculations: MDL = 19.9-18.9 = +1.0 kNm/m

600 *)
P P
810 990
CL girder
4500
P = 145/2 = 72.5 kN (one wheel)
M = 72.5*0.81 = -59 kNm (exterior wheel)
M = 72.5*0.99 = +72 kNm (interior wheel)
MLT = 72-59 = 13 kNm/m
E = 1220 + 0.25S AASHTO ch 4.6.2.1.3

Appendix CB
With S=4.5 Î
E = 2345
MLT = 13/2.345 = +5.5 kNm/m
As can be seen from the dead load moment and the truck load moment, there will not be any
negative moment for this bridge.
Design for flexure – positive moment:
Assume reinforcement bars: φ = 16 mm

Cover – top surface: 50 mm
Cover – bottom surface: 25 mm
Slab gross thickness: D = 280 mm
d = 280 - φ/2 – top cover = 280 –8-50 = 222 mm
c = As*Fy/(0.85*fc’*b) according to AASHTO ch 5.7.3.1.1

with
fc’ = 20 Mpa
b = 1000 mm
Fy = 350 Mpa
As = 1500 mm2 (assumed) according to AASHTO ch 5.7.3.2
Î
c = 1500*350/(0.85*20*1000) = 30.82 mm
a = c*β1 = 30.82*0.85= 26.25mm
As = M /(φ*Fy*(d-a/2)=86.1E6/(0.9*350*(220-26/2))= 1321 mm
Î
φ 16 c/c 150 mm (bottom reinforcement)
δmin > 0.03*fc’/fy = 0.03*20/350=0.002

Î
As = 0.002*280*1000=560 mm2
Î
φ 12 c/c 200 mm (top minimum reinforcement)

Appendix CB
Distribution reinforcement – longitudinal direction
The amount of distribution reinforcement in the bottom of the slab shall be a percantage of
the primary reinforcement in transverse direction for positive moment according to
AASHTO ch 5.7.3.3.2:
As = 3840/Sqr(S) <= 67%
With S =4500 Î
As = 3840/Sqr(4500) = 57%
Asreq = 0.57*1321 = 752 mm2

Î
φ 12 c/c 150 mm (bottom longitudinal reinforcement)

Î
φ 12 c/c 200 mm (top longitudinal minimum reinforcement)

Appendix CB
CB.8 APPENDIX A CROSS SECTION CALCULATIONS
CB.8.1 Calculations with SECTION 3.0

Appendix CB

Appendix CB
CB.8.2 Formulas for manual calculations
In the following tables, formulas in bold are the outputs given by SECTION 3.0
CB.8.2.1 I-shaped Steel section characteristics
b1
flange 1 tf1
tw
y G h
Z
ezel web
tf2
flange 2 z
b2
Flange 1 Flange 2 Web Complete Section

Thickness tf1 tf2 tw
Width b1 b2 hw = h-b1-b2
Area A1 = tf1 b1 A2 = tf2 b2 Aw = tw hw A=A1+A2+Aw
Ordinate of Zg1 = tf1/2 Zg2= h-tf2/2 Zgw=tf2 + hw/2 ezel=
center of (Zg1A1+Zg2A2+ZgwAw)
gravity A1+A2+Aw
Moment of Igy1 = b1 tf13/12 Igy2 = b2 tf23/12 Igyw = tw hw3/12
Inertia / Gi / y
axis 1
Moment of In. Iy1=Igy1 + Iy2=Igy2 + Iyw=Igyw + Iy=Iy1+Iy2+Iyw

/G/y axis A1 (Zg1-ezel)2 A2 (Zg2-ezel)2 Aw (Zgw-ezel) 2
Moment of Iz1 = tf1 b13/12 Iz2 = tf2 b23/12 Izw = hw tw3/12 Iz = Igz1 + Igz2 + Igzw
Inertia / z axis
Sec. modulus / Wey1 = Iy _ Wey2 = Iy _
y axis h-ezel ezel
Sec. modulus / Wez1 = 2Iz /b1 Wez1 = 2Iz /b2
z axis
Torsional Ix1= b1 x ft13/3 Ix2= b2 x tf23/3 Ixw=hw tw3/3 Ix = Ix1 + Ix2 + Ixw
2
Constant
Ordinate of the neutral axis in ezpl =A1-A2+h-tf1+tf2
the plastic range. 2tw 2
1
In this formulas, Gi is the Center of Gravity of the considered component ( web or Flanges )
2
This formula is an approximation valid only for section made of thin plates ( like most of I shaped section). The
condition is that ai/bi < 10 for each of the component of the section ( web and flanges) where ai is the thickness and
bi the width of one component.

Appendix CB
CB.8.2.2 Calculation of compostite sections characteristics
bc (Effective width, see paragraph CB3)
concrete tc
flange 1
tw
y G h
ezel web
Z
tf2
flange 2 z
b2
Characteristics Concrete Steel Section Composite Section

(Steel ( Calculated as per
equivalent) previous table)
Thickness tc
Width bc /n
Area Ac=tcbc /n As A=A1+A2+Aw
Ordinate of Zgc = h+ tc/2 Zgs ezel=ZgcAc+ZgsAs
center of gravity Ac+As
Moment of Igyc = bc tc3/12n Igys
Inertia / Gi / y
axis 1
Moment of Iyc=Igyc + Iys=Igys + Iy=Iyc+Iys
Inertia / Center Ac (Zgc-ezel)2 As (Zgs-ezel)2
of Gravity/yaxis
Moment of Izc = tfc bc3/12n Izs Iz =Igz1+Igz2 +Igzw
Inertia / z axis
Section modulus Weyc =Iy /(h+tc-ezel) Wey1 = Iy/ (h-ezel)
/ y axis Wey2 = Iy/ ezel
1
In this formulas, Gi is the Center of Gravity of the considered component ( Concrete stab or steel
beam )

Appendix CB
CB.9 APPENDIX B - Calculations by STAAD
STRENGTH
On the following page, moment and sheardiagram are shown. Therafter, the computer run is
attached.

Appendix CB
PAGE NO. 1

Appendix CB
**************************************************
* *
* S T A A D - III *
* Revision 22.3 *
* Proprietary Program of *
* Research Engineers, Inc. *
* Date= DEC 14, 1999 *
* Time= 16:15:57 *
* *
* USER ID: Research Engineers *
**************************************************
1. STAAD SPACE STRENGTH

2. INPUT WIDTH 72
3. UNIT MMS NEWTON
4. JOINT COORDINATES
5. 1 .000 .000 .000
6. 2 500.000 .000 .000
7. 3 1000.000 .000 .000
8. 4 1500.000 .000 .000
9. 5 2000.000 .000 .000
10. 6 2500.000 .000 .000
11. 7 3000.000 .000 .000
12. 8 3500.000 .000 .000
13. 9 4000.000 .000 .000
14. 10 4500.000 .000 .000
15. 11 5000.000 .000 .000
16. 12 5500.000 .000 .000
17. 13 6000.000 .000 .000
18. 14 6500.000 .000 .000
19. 15 7000.000 .000 .000
20. 16 7500.000 .000 .000
21. 17 8000.000 .000 .000
22. 18 8500.000 .000 .000
23. 19 9000.001 .000 .000
24. 20 9500.001 .000 .000
25. 21 10000.000 .000 .000
26. 22 10500.000 .000 .000
27. 23 11000.000 .000 .000
28. 24 11500.000 .000 .000
29. 25 12000.000 .000 .000
30. 26 12500.000 .000 .000
31. 27 13000.000 .000 .000
32. 28 13500.000 .000 .000
33. 29 14000.000 .000 .000
34. 30 14500.000 .000 .000
35. 31 15000.000 .000 .000
36. 32 15500.000 .000 .000
37. 33 16000.000 .000 .000
38. 34 16500.000 .000 .000
39. 35 17000.000 .000 .000
40. 36 17500.000 .000 .000
41. 37 18000.000 .000 .000
STRENGTH -- PAGE NO. 2
42. 38 18500.000 .000 .000

43. 39 19000.000 .000 .000
44. 40 19500.000 .000 .000
45. 41 20000.000 .000 .000
46. 42 20500.000 .000 .000
47. 43 21000.000 .000 .000
48. 44 21500.000 .000 .000
49. 45 22000.000 .000 .000
50. 46 22500.000 .000 .000
51. 47 23000.000 .000 .000
52. 48 23500.000 .000 .000

Appendix CB
53. 49 24000.000 .000 .000

54. MEMBER INCIDENCES
55. 1 1 2
56. 2 2 3
57. 3 3 4
58. 4 4 5
59. 5 5 6
60. 6 6 7
61. 7 7 8
62. 8 8 9
63. 9 9 10
64. 10 10 11
65. 11 11 12
66. 12 12 13
67. 13 13 14
68. 14 14 15
69. 15 15 16
70. 16 16 17
71. 17 17 18
72. 18 18 19
73. 19 19 20
74. 20 20 21
75. 21 21 22
76. 22 22 23
77. 23 23 24
78. 24 24 25
79. 25 25 26
80. 26 26 27
81. 27 27 28
82. 28 28 29
83. 29 29 30
84. 30 30 31
85. 31 31 32
86. 32 32 33
87. 33 33 34
88. 34 34 35
89. 35 35 36
90. 36 36 37
91. 37 37 38
92. 38 38 39
93. 39 39 40
94. 40 40 41
95. 41 41 42
96. 42 42 43
97. 43 43 44
98. 44 44 45
99. 45 45 46
100. 46 46 47
101. 47 47 48
102. 48 48 49
103. MEMBER PROPERTY AMERICAN
104. 1 TO 48 PRI YD 500. ZD 100.
105. CONSTANT
106. E STEEL ALL
107. DENSITY STEEL ALL
108. POISSON STEEL ALL
109. SUPPORT
110. 1 PINNED
111. 49 FIXED BUT FX MX MY MZ
112. UNITS KNS MET
113. DEF MOV LOAD
114. * TRUCK LOAD
115. TYPE 1 LOAD 105. 438. 438. DIS 4.3 4.3
116. *
117. LOAD 1 DEADLOAD
118. MEMBER LOAD
119. 1 TO 48 UNI GY -70.
120. *
121. LOAD GENERATION 100 ADD LOAD 1

Appendix CB
122. TYPE 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 XINC 0.2

123. PERFORM ANALYSIS
P R O B L E M S T A T I S T I C S
-----------------------------------
NUMBER OF JOINTS/MEMBER+ELEMENTS/SUPPORTS = 49/ 48/ 2

ORIGINAL/FINAL BAND-WIDTH = 1/ 1
TOTAL PRIMARY LOAD CASES = 101, TOTAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM = 289
SIZE OF STIFFNESS MATRIX = 3468 DOUBLE PREC. WORDS
REQRD/AVAIL. DISK SPACE = 12.61/ 989.6 MB, EXMEM = 1967.5 MB
++ Processing Element Stiffness Matrix. 16:16: 0

++ Processing Global Stiffness Matrix. 16:16: 0
++ Processing Triangular Factorization. 16:16: 0
***WARNING - IMPROPER LOAD WILL CAUSE INSTABILITY AT JOINT 49

DIRECTION = MX PROBABLE CAUSE MODELING PROBLEM -.320E-09
++ Calculating Joint Displacements. 16:16: 0
++ Calculating Member Forces. 16:16: 1
124. PLOT BEND FILE

125. PRINT MAX FORCE ENV
MEMBER FORCE ENVELOPE

---------------------
ALL UNITS ARE KNS MET
MAX AND MIN FORCE VALUES AMONGST ALL SECTION LOCATIONS
MEMB FY/ DIST LD MZ/ DIST LD

FZ DIST LD MY DIST LD FX DIST LD
1 MAX 1585.62 .00 2 .02 .00 57

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 805.01 .50 1 -771.76 .50 5
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
2 MAX 1526.01 .00 5 -411.24 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 770.02 .50 1 -1509.69 .50 7
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
3 MAX 1466.56 .00 8 -804.98 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 735.03 .50 1 -2203.33 .50 9
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
4 MAX 1415.25 .00 10 -1181.26 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 700.00 .50 1 -2867.68 .50 12
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
5 MAX 1355.40 .00 13 -1540.00 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 664.96 .50 1 -3489.43 .50 14
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
6 MAX 1305.75 .00 2 -1881.19 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 630.13 .50 1 -4126.71 .50 2
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101

Appendix CB
7 MAX 1270.37 .00 2 -2204.99 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 595.07 .50 1 -4753.20 .50 2
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
8 MAX 1235.59 .00 2 -2511.22 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 559.96 .50 1 -5362.27 .50 2
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
9 MAX 1200.15 .00 2 -2799.98 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 524.99 .50 1 -5938.06 .50 3

.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
10 MAX 1148.73 .00 4 -3071.35 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 489.39 .50 1 -6448.33 .50 6
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
11 MAX 1098.41 .00 6 -3325.03 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 455.47 .50 1 -6940.66 .50 8
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
12 MAX 1037.72 .00 9 -3561.32 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 420.33 .50 1 -7370.90 .50 11
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
13 MAX 986.68 .00 11 -3779.88 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 385.19 .50 1 -7791.46 .50 13
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
14 MAX 927.23 .00 14 -3981.17 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 350.19 .50 1 -8141.66 .50 16
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
15 MAX 876.16 .00 16 -4164.99 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 314.94 .50 1 -8490.63 .50 18
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
16 MAX 816.90 .00 19 -4331.37 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 280.13 .50 1 -8761.79 .50 20
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
17 MAX 765.05 .00 21 -4479.89 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 245.36 .50 1 -9037.92 .50 23
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
18 MAX 704.42 .00 24 -4611.38 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -42.34 .50 4 -9236.94 .50 25
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
19 MAX 653.75 .00 26 -4725.09 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -92.57 .50 6 -9433.43 .50 28
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
20 MAX 594.94 .00 29 -4821.22 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1

Appendix CB
MIN -152.53 .50 9 -9561.12 .50 30

.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
21 MAX 543.45 .00 31 -4900.07 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -203.36 .50 11 -9677.43 .50 33
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
22 MAX 484.28 .00 34 -4961.20 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -263.73 .50 14 -9733.13 .50 35
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
23 MAX 432.33 .00 36 -5004.94 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -315.77 .50 16 -9769.53 .50 38
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
24 MAX 372.71 .00 39 -5031.41 .00 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -375.64 .50 19 -9769.45 .00 38
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
25 MAX 322.07 .00 41 -5031.22 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -426.13 .50 21 -9753.16 .00 40
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
26 MAX 262.12 .00 44 -5005.02 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -486.01 .50 24 -9709.81 .00 43
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
27 MAX 209.18 .00 46 -4961.37 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -536.89 .50 26 -9621.68 .00 45
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
28 MAX 150.90 .00 49 -4900.00 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -595.62 .50 29 -9535.26 .00 27
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
29 MAX 98.89 .00 51 -4821.12 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -646.79 .50 31 -9461.49 .00 29
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
30 MAX 40.98 .00 54 -4724.82 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -707.08 .50 34 -9343.67 .00 32
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
31 MAX -10.59 .00 56 -4611.31 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -758.55 .50 36 -9198.19 .00 34

.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
32 MAX -70.23 .00 59 -4479.99 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -818.59 .50 39 -9000.54 .00 37
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
33 MAX -121.71 .00 61 -4331.35 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -868.15 .50 41 -8783.27 .00 39
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101

Appendix CB
34 MAX -181.86 .00 64 -4164.98 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -928.77 .50 44 -8505.69 .00 42
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
35 MAX -232.68 .00 66 -3981.32 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -980.85 .50 46 -8216.54 .00 44
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
36 MAX -292.83 .00 69 -3780.12 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1040.12 .50 49 -7858.90 .00 47
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
37 MAX -343.37 .00 71 -3561.27 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1091.31 .50 51 -7498.15 .00 49
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
38 MAX -402.99 .00 74 -3324.91 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1150.63 .50 54 -7060.38 .00 52
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
39 MAX -454.51 .00 76 -3071.18 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1202.00 .50 56 -6627.85 .00 54
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
40 MAX -504.18 .00 100 -2799.82 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1261.57 .50 59 -6117.08 .00 56
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
41 MAX -558.00 .00 81 -2511.20 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1312.53 .50 61 -5605.56 .00 59
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
42 MAX -595.19 .00 1 -2205.02 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1372.31 .50 64 -5023.52 .00 61

.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
43 MAX -630.19 .00 1 -1881.19 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1423.17 .50 66 -4431.72 .00 64
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
44 MAX -664.91 .00 1 -1540.06 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1483.17 .50 69 -3777.78 .00 66
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
45 MAX -700.11 .00 1 -1181.22 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1534.73 .50 71 -3106.28 .00 69
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
46 MAX -735.11 .00 1 -804.99 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1593.90 .50 74 -2380.46 .00 71
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
47 MAX -769.94 .00 1 -411.27 .50 1

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1645.34 .50 76 -1628.99 .00 74
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101

Appendix CB
48 MAX -804.97 .00 1 .03 .50 28

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -1696.69 .50 78 -831.43 .00 76
.00 .50 101 .00 .50 101 .00 .50 101
********** END OF FORCE ENVELOPE FROM INTERNAL STORAGE **********
126. FINISH
*************** END OF STAAD-III ***************
**** DATE= DEC 14,1999 TIME= 16:16:19 ****
*********************************************************
* For questions on STAAD-III, contact: *
* Research Engineers, Inc at *
* West Coast: Ph- (714) 974-2500 Fax- (714) 921-2543 *
* East Coast: Ph- (508) 688-3626 Fax- (508) 685-7230 *
*********************************************************
SERVICE - Deflection
On the next page, the max deflection is plotted. Therafter, the computer run is attached.

Appendix CB

Appendix CB
PAGE NO. 1
**************************************************
* *
* S T A A D - III *
* Revision 22.3 *
* Date= DEC 13, 1999 *
* Time= 9:29:41 *
* *
**************************************************
1. STAAD SPACE SERVICE

2. INPUT WIDTH 72
3. UNIT MMS NEWTON
5. 1 .000 .000 .000
6. 2 500.000 .000 .000
7. 3 1000.000 .000 .000
8. 4 1500.000 .000 .000
9. 5 2000.000 .000 .000
10. 6 2500.000 .000 .000
11. 7 3000.000 .000 .000
12. 8 3500.000 .000 .000
13. 9 4000.000 .000 .000
14. 10 4500.000 .000 .000
15. 11 5000.000 .000 .000
16. 12 5500.000 .000 .000
17. 13 6000.000 .000 .000
18. 14 6500.000 .000 .000
19. 15 7000.000 .000 .000
20. 16 7500.000 .000 .000
21. 17 8000.000 .000 .000
22. 18 8500.000 .000 .000
23. 19 9000.001 .000 .000
24. 20 9500.001 .000 .000
25. 21 10000.000 .000 .000
26. 22 10500.000 .000 .000
27. 23 11000.000 .000 .000
28. 24 11500.000 .000 .000
29. 25 12000.000 .000 .000
30. 26 12500.000 .000 .000
31. 27 13000.000 .000 .000
32. 28 13500.000 .000 .000
33. 29 14000.000 .000 .000
34. 30 14500.000 .000 .000
35. 31 15000.000 .000 .000
36. 32 15500.000 .000 .000
37. 33 16000.000 .000 .000
38. 34 16500.000 .000 .000
39. 35 17000.000 .000 .000
40. 36 17500.000 .000 .000
41. 37 18000.000 .000 .000
SERVICE -- PAGE NO. 2
42. 38 18500.000 .000 .000

43. 39 19000.000 .000 .000
44. 40 19500.000 .000 .000
45. 41 20000.000 .000 .000
46. 42 20500.000 .000 .000
47. 43 21000.000 .000 .000
48. 44 21500.000 .000 .000
49. 45 22000.000 .000 .000
50. 46 22500.000 .000 .000

Appendix CB
51. 47 23000.000 .000 .000

52. 48 23500.000 .000 .000
53. 49 24000.000 .000 .000
55. 1 1 2
56. 2 2 3
57. 3 3 4
58. 4 4 5
59. 5 5 6
60. 6 6 7
61. 7 7 8
62. 8 8 9
63. 9 9 10
64. 10 10 11
65. 11 11 12
66. 12 12 13
67. 13 13 14
68. 14 14 15
69. 15 15 16
70. 16 16 17
71. 17 17 18
72. 18 18 19
73. 19 19 20
74. 20 20 21
75. 21 21 22
76. 22 22 23
77. 23 23 24
78. 24 24 25
79. 25 25 26
80. 26 26 27
81. 27 27 28
82. 28 28 29
83. 29 29 30
84. 30 30 31
85. 31 31 32
86. 32 32 33
87. 33 33 34
88. 34 34 35
89. 35 35 36
90. 36 36 37
91. 37 37 38
92. 38 38 39
93. 39 39 40
94. 40 40 41
95. 41 41 42
96. 42 42 43
97. 43 43 44
98. 44 44 45
99. 45 45 46
100. 46 46 47
101. 47 47 48
102. 48 48 49
103. MEMBER PROPERTY
104. 1 TO 48 PRI AX 1E5 IX 1E8 IY 1E8 IZ 3.572E10 AY 1E5 AZ 20175
105. CONSTANT
106. E STEEL ALL
109. SUPPORT
110. 1 PINNED
112. UNITS KNS MET
113. DEF MOV LOAD
114. * TRUCK LOAD - SERVICE
115. TYP 1 LOA 60 250 250 DIS 4.3 4.3
116. *
117. LOAD 1 DEADLOAD
118. MEMBER LOAD
119. 1 TO 48 UNI GY -13.

Appendix CB
120. *
121. LOAD GENERATION 20 ADD LOAD 1
122. TYPE 1 5.0 0.0 0.0 XINC 0.2
-----------------------------------

++ Processing Element Stiffness Matrix. 9:29:42

++ Processing Global Stiffness Matrix. 9:29:42
++ Processing Triangular Factorization. 9:29:42

DIRECTION = MX PROBABLE CAUSE MODELING PROBLEM .000E+00
++ Calculating Joint Displacements. 9:29:42
++ Calculating Member Forces. 9:29:42
124. UNITS MMS NEWS

125. PLOT DISP FILE
126. PRINT JOINT DISPL LIST 20 TO 30
JOINT DISPLACEMENT (CM RADIANS) STRUCTURE TYPE = SPACE

------------------
JOINT LOAD X-TRANS Y-TRANS Z-TRANS X-ROTAN Y-ROTAN Z-ROTAN
20 1 .0000 -.7573 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003

2 .0000 -2.7578 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0012
3 .0000 -2.7621 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0012
4 .0000 -2.7645 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0012
5 .0000 -2.7653 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0012
6 .0000 -2.7648 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0012
7 .0000 -2.7628 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0012
8 .0000 -2.7594 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
9 .0000 -2.7547 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
10 .0000 -2.7485 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
11 .0000 -2.7411 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
12 .0000 -2.7323 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
13 .0000 -2.7221 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
14 .0000 -2.7108 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
15 .0000 -2.6980 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
16 .0000 -2.6841 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
17 .0000 -2.6690 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
18 .0000 -2.6525 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
19 .0000 -2.6350 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
20 .0000 -2.6161 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
21 .0000 -2.5962 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0013
21 1 .0000 -.7721 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003
2 .0000 -2.8100 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
3 .0000 -2.8151 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
4 .0000 -2.8190 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010
5 .0000 -2.8214 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010
6 .0000 -2.8218 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010
7 .0000 -2.8206 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010
8 .0000 -2.8177 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010
9 .0000 -2.8136 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010

Appendix CB
10 .0000 -2.8079 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010

11 .0000 -2.8009 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0010
12 .0000 -2.7925 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
13 .0000 -2.7826 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
14 .0000 -2.7716 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
15 .0000 -2.7590 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
16 .0000 -2.7453 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
17 .0000 -2.7303 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
18 .0000 -2.7138 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
19 .0000 -2.6963 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
20 .0000 -2.6774 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
21 .0000 -2.6574 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0011
22 1 .0000 -.7836 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
2 .0000 -2.8498 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007
3 .0000 -2.8557 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007
4 .0000 -2.8603 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007
5 .0000 -2.8636 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007
6 .0000 -2.8649 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007

------------------
7 .0000 -2.8653 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007

8 .0000 -2.8638 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
9 .0000 -2.8604 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
10 .0000 -2.8553 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
11 .0000 -2.8489 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
12 .0000 -2.8410 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
13 .0000 -2.8315 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
14 .0000 -2.8209 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
15 .0000 -2.8086 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0008
16 .0000 -2.7952 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
17 .0000 -2.7804 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
18 .0000 -2.7641 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
19 .0000 -2.7468 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
20 .0000 -2.7279 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
21 .0000 -2.7080 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0009
23 1 .0000 -.7919 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
2 .0000 -2.8773 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
3 .0000 -2.8839 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
4 .0000 -2.8892 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0005
5 .0000 -2.8932 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0005
6 .0000 -2.8953 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0005
7 .0000 -2.8964 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0005
8 .0000 -2.8956 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0005
9 .0000 -2.8935 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0005
10 .0000 -2.8900 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0005
11 .0000 -2.8845 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
12 .0000 -2.8772 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
13 .0000 -2.8684 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
14 .0000 -2.8582 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
15 .0000 -2.8465 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
16 .0000 -2.8334 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
17 .0000 -2.8190 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
18 .0000 -2.8030 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
19 .0000 -2.7860 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0006
20 .0000 -2.7673 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007
21 .0000 -2.7475 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0007
24 1 .0000 -.7968 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
2 .0000 -2.8922 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
3 .0000 -2.8995 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
4 .0000 -2.9056 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
5 .0000 -2.9102 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
6 .0000 -2.9130 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002

Appendix CB
7 .0000 -2.9149 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002

8 .0000 -2.9148 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003
9 .0000 -2.9134 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003
10 .0000 -2.9107 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003
11 .0000 -2.9060 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003
12 .0000 -2.9004 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003

------------------
13 .0000 -2.8928 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0003

14 .0000 -2.8833 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
15 .0000 -2.8721 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
16 .0000 -2.8597 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
17 .0000 -2.8457 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
18 .0000 -2.8302 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
19 .0000 -2.8135 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
20 .0000 -2.7952 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
21 .0000 -2.7758 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0004
25 1 .0000 -.7985 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
2 .0000 -2.8948 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
3 .0000 -2.9027 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
4 .0000 -2.9094 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
5 .0000 -2.9147 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
6 .0000 -2.9182 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
7 .0000 -2.9207 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
8 .0000 -2.9213 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
9 .0000 -2.9207 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
10 .0000 -2.9186 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
11 .0000 -2.9146 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
12 .0000 -2.9097 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
13 .0000 -2.9029 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
14 .0000 -2.8947 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
15 .0000 -2.8852 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
16 .0000 -2.8736 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
17 .0000 -2.8603 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0001
18 .0000 -2.8454 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
19 .0000 -2.8292 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
20 .0000 -2.8114 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
21 .0000 -2.7924 .0000 .0000 .0000 -.0002
26 1 .0000 -.7968 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
2 .0000 -2.8848 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
3 .0000 -2.8934 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
4 .0000 -2.9008 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
5 .0000 -2.9067 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
6 .0000 -2.9109 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
7 .0000 -2.9140 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
8 .0000 -2.9153 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
9 .0000 -2.9153 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
10 .0000 -2.9139 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
11 .0000 -2.9106 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
12 .0000 -2.9064 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
13 .0000 -2.9003 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
14 .0000 -2.8929 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
15 .0000 -2.8840 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
16 .0000 -2.8734 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
17 .0000 -2.8617 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
18 .0000 -2.8481 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001

Appendix CB
------------------
19 .0000 -2.8327 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001

20 .0000 -2.8156 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
21 .0000 -2.7971 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
27 1 .0000 -.7919 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
2 .0000 -2.8624 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
3 .0000 -2.8716 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
4 .0000 -2.8796 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
5 .0000 -2.8862 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
6 .0000 -2.8910 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
7 .0000 -2.8948 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
8 .0000 -2.8967 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
9 .0000 -2.8973 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
10 .0000 -2.8966 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
11 .0000 -2.8940 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0004
12 .0000 -2.8905 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0004
13 .0000 -2.8851 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0004
14 .0000 -2.8784 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0004
15 .0000 -2.8703 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0004
16 .0000 -2.8604 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0004
17 .0000 -2.8495 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0004
18 .0000 -2.8367 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
19 .0000 -2.8226 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
20 .0000 -2.8072 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
21 .0000 -2.7897 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
28 1 .0000 -.7836 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0002
2 .0000 -2.8276 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
3 .0000 -2.8374 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
4 .0000 -2.8460 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
5 .0000 -2.8533 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
6 .0000 -2.8587 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
7 .0000 -2.8631 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
8 .0000 -2.8657 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0007
9 .0000 -2.8670 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0007
10 .0000 -2.8669 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0007
11 .0000 -2.8650 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0007
12 .0000 -2.8621 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0007
13 .0000 -2.8574 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0007
14 .0000 -2.8514 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0007
15 .0000 -2.8440 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
16 .0000 -2.8349 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
17 .0000 -2.8248 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
18 .0000 -2.8127 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
19 .0000 -2.7995 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
20 .0000 -2.7849 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0006
21 .0000 -2.7684 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0005
29 1 .0000 -.7721 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
2 .0000 -2.7789 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011
3 .0000 -2.7903 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011

------------------
4 .0000 -2.8000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010

5 .0000 -2.8079 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010
6 .0000 -2.8139 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010
7 .0000 -2.8190 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010
8 .0000 -2.8222 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010
9 .0000 -2.8242 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010
10 .0000 -2.8248 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010

Appendix CB
11 .0000 -2.8235 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0009

12 .0000 -2.8214 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0009
13 .0000 -2.8173 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0009
14 .0000 -2.8121 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0009
15 .0000 -2.8054 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0009
16 .0000 -2.7970 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0009
17 .0000 -2.7877 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0009
18 .0000 -2.7764 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
19 .0000 -2.7640 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
20 .0000 -2.7502 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
21 .0000 -2.7346 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0008
30 1 .0000 -.7573 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0003
2 .0000 -2.7181 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0013
3 .0000 -2.7299 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0013
4 .0000 -2.7402 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0013
5 .0000 -2.7492 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0013
6 .0000 -2.7567 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0013
7 .0000 -2.7626 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0012
8 .0000 -2.7665 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0012
9 .0000 -2.7691 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0012
10 .0000 -2.7704 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0012
11 .0000 -2.7698 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0012
12 .0000 -2.7684 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0012
13 .0000 -2.7651 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0012
14 .0000 -2.7605 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011
15 .0000 -2.7546 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011
16 .0000 -2.7470 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011
17 .0000 -2.7384 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011
18 .0000 -2.7280 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011
19 .0000 -2.7163 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0011
20 .0000 -2.7034 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010
21 .0000 -2.6887 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0010
************** END OF LATEST ANALYSIS RESULT **************
127. FINISH
*************** END OF STAAD-III ***************
**** DATE= DEC 13,1999 TIME= 9:29:43 ****
*********************************************************
* West Coast: Ph- (714) 974-2500 Fax- (714) 921-2543 *
* East Coast: Ph- (508) 688-3626 Fax- (508) 685-7230 *
*********************************************************

Appendix CB
FATIGUE
On the following page, sheardiagram is shown. Therafter, the computer run is attached.

Appendix CB

Appendix CB
PAGE NO. 1
**************************************************
* *
* S T A A D - III *
* Revision 22.3 *
* Date= DEC 14, 1999 *
* Time= 16:30:26 *
* *
**************************************************
1. STAAD SPACE FATIGUE

2. INPUT WIDTH 72
3. UNIT MMS NEWTON
5. 1 .000 .000 .000
6. 2 500.000 .000 .000
7. 3 1000.000 .000 .000
8. 4 1500.000 .000 .000
9. 5 2000.000 .000 .000
10. 6 2500.000 .000 .000
11. 7 3000.000 .000 .000
12. 8 3500.000 .000 .000
13. 9 4000.000 .000 .000
14. 10 4500.000 .000 .000
15. 11 5000.000 .000 .000
16. 12 5500.000 .000 .000
17. 13 6000.000 .000 .000
18. 14 6500.000 .000 .000
19. 15 7000.000 .000 .000
20. 16 7500.000 .000 .000
21. 17 8000.000 .000 .000
22. 18 8500.000 .000 .000
23. 19 9000.001 .000 .000
24. 20 9500.001 .000 .000
25. 21 10000.000 .000 .000
26. 22 10500.000 .000 .000
27. 23 11000.000 .000 .000
28. 24 11500.000 .000 .000
29. 25 12000.000 .000 .000
30. 26 12500.000 .000 .000
31. 27 13000.000 .000 .000
32. 28 13500.000 .000 .000
33. 29 14000.000 .000 .000
34. 30 14500.000 .000 .000
35. 31 15000.000 .000 .000
36. 32 15500.000 .000 .000
37. 33 16000.000 .000 .000
38. 34 16500.000 .000 .000
39. 35 17000.000 .000 .000
40. 36 17500.000 .000 .000
41. 37 18000.000 .000 .000
FATIGUE -- PAGE NO. 2
42. 38 18500.000 .000 .000

43. 39 19000.000 .000 .000
44. 40 19500.000 .000 .000
45. 41 20000.000 .000 .000
46. 42 20500.000 .000 .000
47. 43 21000.000 .000 .000
48. 44 21500.000 .000 .000
49. 45 22000.000 .000 .000
50. 46 22500.000 .000 .000
51. 47 23000.000 .000 .000

Appendix CB
52. 48 23500.000 .000 .000

53. 49 24000.000 .000 .000
55. 1 1 2
56. 2 2 3
57. 3 3 4
58. 4 4 5
59. 5 5 6
60. 6 6 7
61. 7 7 8
62. 8 8 9
63. 9 9 10
64. 10 10 11
65. 11 11 12
66. 12 12 13
67. 13 13 14
68. 14 14 15
69. 15 15 16
70. 16 16 17
71. 17 17 18
72. 18 18 19
73. 19 19 20
74. 20 20 21
75. 21 21 22
76. 22 22 23
77. 23 23 24
78. 24 24 25
79. 25 25 26
80. 26 26 27
81. 27 27 28
82. 28 28 29
83. 29 29 30
84. 30 30 31
85. 31 31 32
86. 32 32 33
87. 33 33 34
88. 34 34 35
89. 35 35 36
90. 36 36 37
91. 37 37 38
92. 38 38 39
93. 39 39 40
94. 40 40 41
95. 41 41 42
96. 42 42 43
97. 43 43 44
98. 44 44 45
99. 45 45 46
100. 46 46 47
101. 47 47 48
102. 48 48 49
103. MEMBER PROPERTY AMERICAN
104. 1 TO 48 PRI YD 500. ZD 100.
105. CONSTANT
106. E STEEL ALL
109. SUPPORT
110. 1 PINNED
112. UNITS KNS MET
113. DEF MOV LOAD
114. * TRUCK LOAD
115. TYPE 1 LOAD 34 142 142 DIS 4.3 9.
116. *
117. LOAD GENERATION 100
118. TYPE 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 XINC 0.2

Appendix CB
-----------------------------------

++ Processing Element Stiffness Matrix. 16:30:28

++ Processing Global Stiffness Matrix. 16:30:28
++ Processing Triangular Factorization. 16:30:28

DIRECTION = MX PROBABLE CAUSE MODELING PROBLEM -.320E-09
++ Calculating Joint Displacements. 16:30:28
++ Calculating Member Forces. 16:30:29
120. PLOT BEND FILE

121. PRINT MAX FORCE ENV
MEMBER FORCE ENVELOPE

---------------------
ALL UNITS ARE KNS MET
MAX AND MIN FORCE VALUES AMONGST ALL SECTION LOCATIONS
MEMB FY/ DIST LD MZ/ DIST LD

FZ DIST LD MY DIST LD FX DIST LD
1 MAX 213.86 .00 1 .00 .00 15

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -102.96 .50 4
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
2 MAX 205.92 .00 4 -2.97 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -200.61 .50 6
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
3 MAX 197.98 .00 7 -5.95 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -289.57 .50 8
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
4 MAX 192.67 .00 9 -8.93 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -374.73 .50 11
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
5 MAX 184.72 .00 12 -11.90 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -451.77 .50 13
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
6 MAX 179.84 .00 1 -14.87 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -539.60 .50 1
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
7 MAX 179.91 .00 1 -17.85 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1

Appendix CB
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -629.54 .50 1

.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
8 MAX 179.80 .00 1 -20.83 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -719.46 .50 1
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
9 MAX 179.86 .00 1 -23.80 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -804.26 .50 2

.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
10 MAX 174.52 .00 3 -26.77 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.96 .50 100 -873.52 .50 5
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
11 MAX 169.28 .00 5 -29.75 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.96 .50 100 -942.63 .50 7
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
12 MAX 161.25 .00 8 -32.72 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -997.32 .50 10
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
13 MAX 156.11 .00 10 -35.70 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 5.95 .50 100 -1054.44 .50 12
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
14 MAX 148.10 .00 13 -38.68 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN 3.48 .50 14 -1094.56 .50 15
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
15 MAX 142.72 .00 15 -41.65 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -4.64 .50 17 -1139.80 .50 17
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
16 MAX 134.91 .00 18 -44.63 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -9.70 .46 19 -1166.40 .42 19
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
17 MAX 129.52 .00 20 -47.60 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -17.75 .50 22 -1198.66 .50 22
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
18 MAX 121.45 .00 23 -50.57 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -23.02 .50 24 -1214.40 .42 24
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
19 MAX 116.20 .00 25 -53.55 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -31.08 .50 27 -1230.98 .50 27
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
20 MAX 108.29 .00 28 -56.52 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -36.37 .50 29 -1235.89 .42 29

.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100

Appendix CB
21 MAX 103.05 .00 30 -59.50 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -44.26 .50 32 -1236.92 .29 31
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
22 MAX 95.06 .00 33 -62.47 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -49.52 .46 34 -1236.85 .00 32
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
23 MAX 89.61 .00 35 -65.45 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -57.45 .50 37 -1226.78 .00 34
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
24 MAX 81.89 .00 38 -68.42 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -62.79 .46 39 -1216.17 .00 37
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
25 MAX 76.34 .00 40 -71.40 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -70.85 .50 42 -1194.19 .00 39
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
26 MAX 68.60 .00 43 -74.38 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -75.99 .46 44 -1169.02 .00 42
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
27 MAX 63.32 .00 45 -77.35 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -106.83 .50 2 -1135.15 .00 44
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
28 MAX 55.38 .00 48 -80.32 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -112.01 .50 4 -1133.15 .50 5
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
29 MAX 49.88 .00 50 -83.30 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -119.89 .50 7 -1140.33 .50 7
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
30 MAX 43.48 .00 74 -86.28 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -125.31 .50 9 -1140.32 .17 8
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
31 MAX 39.10 .00 77 -89.25 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -133.39 .50 12 -1138.82 .08 10

.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
32 MAX 36.18 .00 79 -92.23 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -138.67 .50 14 -1132.90 .00 12
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
33 MAX 31.75 .00 82 -95.20 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -146.42 .50 17 -1115.71 .08 15
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
34 MAX 28.79 .00 84 -98.18 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -151.87 .50 19 -1099.00 .00 17

Appendix CB
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
35 MAX 24.45 .00 87 -101.15 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -159.75 .50 22 -1067.17 .00 20
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
36 MAX 21.50 .00 89 -104.12 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -165.01 .50 24 -1038.61 .00 22
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
37 MAX 17.07 .00 92 -107.10 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -173.10 .50 27 -992.21 .00 25
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
38 MAX 14.16 .00 94 -110.07 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -178.30 .50 29 -951.66 .00 27
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
39 MAX 9.76 .00 97 -113.05 .00 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -186.33 .50 32 -891.66 .00 29
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
40 MAX 6.82 .00 99 -112.20 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -191.58 .50 34 -838.28 .00 32
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
41 MAX .69 .00 80 -98.17 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -199.51 .50 37 -766.34 .00 34
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
42 MAX -3.74 .00 83 -84.15 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -204.86 .50 39 -698.36 .00 37

.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
43 MAX -6.62 .00 85 -70.12 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -212.74 .50 42 -614.51 .00 39
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
44 MAX -11.04 .00 88 -56.10 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -218.11 .50 44 -531.95 .00 42
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
45 MAX -13.98 .00 90 -42.08 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -226.04 .50 47 -436.16 .00 44
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
46 MAX -18.37 .00 93 -28.05 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -231.36 .50 49 -339.05 .00 47
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
47 MAX -21.30 .00 95 -14.02 .50 100

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1
MIN -239.29 .50 52 -231.33 .00 49
.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
48 MAX -25.71 .00 98 .00 .50 29

.00 .00 1 .00 .00 1 .00 .00 1

Appendix CB
MIN -244.58 .50 54 -119.64 .00 52

.00 .50 100 .00 .50 100 .00 .50 100
********** END OF FORCE ENVELOPE FROM INTERNAL STORAGE **********
122. FINISH
*************** END OF STAAD-III ***************
**** DATE= DEC 14,1999 TIME= 16:30:45 ****
*********************************************************
* West Coast: Ph- (714) 974-2500 Fax- (714) 921-2543 *
* East Coast: Ph- (508) 688-3626 Fax- (508) 685-7230 *
*********************************************************

Appendix EB
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Steel Reinforced Elastic Bearings Design
APPENDIX EB - STEEL REINFORCED ELASTIC BEARINGS
Dimensions:
L := 350 ⋅mm length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis)
W := 500 ⋅mm width of the bearing in the transverse direction
hr := 11 ⋅mm thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastoneric bearing
hs := 4 ⋅mm thickness of the steel reinforcement
hrt := 99 ⋅mm total elastomeric thickness
n := 6 number of interior layers of elastomer
shape factor for the thickest elastomeric layer: (for rectangular bearings without holes)
L ⋅W
S :=
2 ⋅hr ⋅( L + W) S = 9.36 /1/ 6.2.5.1-1 /4/ 14.7.5.1-1
(8.5)
Material Properties:
G := 1.2 ⋅MPa shear modulus of the elastomer
Fy := 500 ⋅MPa yield strength of steel reinforcement
f´c := 20 ⋅MPa concrete compressiv strength
Loads and rotations:

VS := 1900 ⋅kN maximum total vertical load at the service limit state
VL := 1000 ⋅kN maximum live vertical load at the service limit state
HS := 160 ⋅kN maximum total horisontal load at the service limit state
VS.min := 900 ⋅kN minimum total vertical load at the service limit state
∆ s := 45 ⋅mm maximum shear deformation of the elastomer at the service limit state
θ s := 0.005 ⋅rad rotation about any axis of the pad
Γ := L length of pad if rotation is about its transverse axis, or width of

pad if rotation is about its longitudinal axis
The calculations are based on:

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL, VOL I /1/
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL, VOL II /2/
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL, VOL III /3/
AASHTTO /4/
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page EB-1

Appendix EB
Steel Reinforced Elastic Bearings Design Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Design requirements
Compressive Stress
average compressive stress due to the total load:
σ S := 1.66 ⋅G ⋅S σ S = 18.6 MPa /1/ 6.2.5.3-1 /4/ 14.7.5.3.2-1

(8.7)
σ S := σ S if σ S < 11 ⋅MPa
σ S = 11 MPa
11 ⋅MPa otherwise
VS
σ Sd := σ Sd = 10.9 MPa
L⋅W
condition:= "OK!" if σ Sd ≤ σ S
"No!" otherwise
condition = "OK!"
average compressive stress due to live load:
σ L := 0.66 ⋅G ⋅S σ L = 7.4 MPa /1/ 6.2.5.3-2 /4/ 14.7.5.3.2-2

(8.8)
VL
σ Ld := σ Ld = 5.71 MPa
L⋅W
condition:= "OK!" if σ Ld ≤ σ L
"No!" otherwise
condition = "OK!"
Compressive deflection
VS − VL
σ := σ = 5.143 MPa
L⋅W
ε := 4.3 ⋅% /1/ Fig C 6.2.5.4-1

Figure 8-4
δ := ε ⋅hr ⋅n δ = 2.8 mm (8.11)

/1/ 6.2.5.4-1 /4/ 14.7.5.3.3-1
condition:= "OK!" if δ ≤ 3 ⋅mm

"No!" otherwise condition = "OK!"
Shear Deformation
the bearing shold satisfy: 2 ⋅∆ s ≤ hrt /1/ 6.2.5.5-1 /4/ 14.7.5.3.4-1
(8.12)
hrt = 99 mm
2 ⋅∆ s = 90 mm
condition:= "OK!" if 2 ⋅∆ s ≤ hrt
Page EB-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix EB
Steel Reinforced Elastic Bearings Design Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Combined Compression and Rotation

Rectangular bearings may be taken to satisfy uplift requirements if they satisfy:
§ θs · § Γ · 2
σ S := 1.0 ⋅G ⋅S ⋅¨ ¸ ⋅¨ ¸ σ S = 9.5 MPa /4/ 14.7.5.3.5-1 (8.13)
© n ¹ © hr ¹
VS
σ Sd :=
L⋅W σ Sd = 10.9 MPa
condition:= "OK!" if σ Sd > σ S
Rectangular bearings subjected to shear should also satisfy:
ª § θ s · § Γ · 2º
σ S := 1.875 ⋅G ⋅S ⋅« 1 − 0.20 ⋅¨ ¸ ⋅¨ ¸ » σ S = 17.5 MPa /1/ 6.2.5.6-1 /4/ 14.7.5.3.5-2
(8.14)
¬ © n ¹ © hr ¹ ¼
VS
σ Sd :=
L⋅W σ Sd = 10.9 MPa
condition:= "OK!" if σ Sd < σ S

Stability of Elastomeric Bearings

Define:
hrt
1.92 ⋅
L
A := A = 0.037 /1/ 6.2.5.7-2 /4/ 14.7.5.3.6-3
(8.16)
2.0 ⋅L
S⋅ 1 +
W
2.67
B := B = 0.0214 /1/ 6.2.5.7-3 /4/ 14.7.5.3.6-4
(8.17)
§
S ⋅( S + 2.0) ⋅¨ 1 +
L ·
¸
© 4.0 ⋅W ¹
If the bridge deck is free to translate horisontally:

G
σ S := σ S = 22.4 MPa /1/ 6.2.5.7-2 /4/ 14.7.5.3.6-1
(8.18)
2A − B
VS
σ Sd := σ Sd = 10.9 MPa
L⋅W
condition:= "OK!" if σ Sd ≤ σ S
Page EB-3 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix GB
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Girder Bridge Design
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB - 16.6m C/C SPAN & 7.32m CLEAR BRIDGE WIDTH

R.C.D.Girder SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN BY LRFD METHOD
Project:
Name of River:
Span : 16.60 m c/c , T-girder bridge
Consultant: Louis Berger Group in association with SABA Engineering plc
Designed by : Henok Aberra ( Str. Engineer)
Checked by : Lennart Rahm (Bridge Engineer)
Case: Statical calculation
Given data:
No of girders = 3
c/c of support = 16.60 m
Clear bridge width B = 7.32 m
No of lane = 2
Face of railing/curb to end of slab = 0.40 m
Multiple presence factor = 1.00
Specification used : ERA Bridge Design Manual 2002
Rear Axle load = P = 145.00 kN

= 72.50 kN
Lane load in the transverse direction = 9.30 kN/3m
= 3.10 kN/m
Design tandem axle load = 110.00 kN
2
wearing surface = 1.10 kN/m
Highway railing design loading, PH= 44.48 kN
Material Properties
Type of concrete: C25 concrete cube or C20 cylinder
fc'= 20.00 Mpa
fc=0.4fc'= 8.000 Mpa
3
gc = 24.000 KN/m
Type of steel :
For bars greater than f20 For bars less than or equal to f20
fyk = 400.00 MPa fyk = 350.00 MPa
fs = 160.00 Mpa fs = 175.00 Mpa
Es = 200000 Mpa
Ec = 0.043*gc*1.5*sqrt(fc') = 22610 Mpa
Others
modular ratio n=Es/Ec= 9
fmoment = 0.9
fshear = 0.85
b= 0.85
Modulus of rupture =fr =0.63sqrt(fc') = 2.82 MPa Eq. 9.5
z in Eq. 9.15 = 30000 kPa
For rebar f > 20 mm
rb = 0.85b1fc'/fy*(599.843/(599.843+fy)) = 0.0217
For rebar f <= 20 mm
rb = 0.85b1fc'/fy*(599.843/(599.843+fy)) = 0.0261
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page GB-1
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Load Factors
Dead load limit state factor = 1.25

Live load limit state factor = 1.75
Dead load service state factor = 1.00

Live load service state factor = 1.30
Fatique Live load factor = 0.75
Preliminary dimensions
girder depth =0.070*s = 1.162 m

girder depth provided = Dgirder = 1.300 m
c/c of girder spacing = 2.600 m
End of slab to center of exterior girder = 1.460 m
web width recommended = 0.376 m
web width provided = 0.380 m
clear span b/n girders = 2.220 m
Top slab thickness = Tslab = 0.220 m
overhang slab thickness provided = 0.220 m
overhang slab thickness near edge beam = 0.180 m
Edge beam depth from side = 0.400 m
Edge beam depth beneath the bottom slab level = 0.205 m
Width of edge beam = 0.400 m
Total top width = 8.120 m
fillet = 0.000 m
Exterior diapragm depth = 1.000 m
Interior diapragm depth = 1.000 m
width of diphragm = 0.250 m
Total No of diaphragm = 3
c/c distance b/n diaphragm = 8.300 m
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.1 Design of overhang
OVERHANG SLAB
GB.1.1 Dead load

total overhang length = 1.270 m
Item weight moment Moment depth of railing = 0.300 m
[KN/m] arm [m] [KNm/m] breadth of railing = 0.250 m
Top slab 6.096 0.635 3.871 distance b/n post and curb end = 0.050 m
Bottom Part of
Edge beam 1.972 1.070 2.110 distance b/n back of railing and end of curb = 0.15 m
railing 1.800 0.995 1.791 depth of post = 0.250 m
post 0.960 1.095 1.051 width of post = 0.300 m
wearing su. 0.957 0.435 0.416 c/c of post = 1.500 m
total 11.785 9.239 height of post = 0.800 m
GB.1.2 Live load
a) Railing load
Railing loads shall be applied on an effective length of E =1140+0.833X, Eq. 7.14
E = 1140+0.833X [mm] where: X- is the distance in mm from the center of the post to
= 1.565 m the point under investigation
According to Art. 2.7 of the AASHTO 1996, the design load, P is ,

P= 44.51 kN height of top of rail from top of curb = 0.90 m
Moment arm = 1.010 m
Therefore the railing live load is as follows:
MRLL = 28.73 kNm/m
b) Truck load
According to Art. 7.4 Slabs/Longitudinal Edges, the wheel is put 300mm from face of rail
Eoverhang = 1140+0.833X Where : X = Distance from load to point of support [mm]
= 1614.8 mm = 570 mm
MLL = 25.59 kNm/m

MLL+I = 34.04 kNm/m
dist. from face of rail to overhanging gir. face = 0.870 m

Lane load moment = 1.173 kNm/m
MTotal = 35.21 kNm/m
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.1.3 Total moment
a) Dead load plus rail live load

MTR = 1.25MDL+1.75MRLL
= 61.82 kNm/m
b) Dead load plus truck live load
MTT = 1.25MDL+1.75MLL
= 73.17 kNm/m
c) Design moment
MD = max(MTR,MTT)
= 73.17 kNm/m
GB.1.4 Design for flexure
Mu= 73.17 kNm/m fmoment = 0.9

dreqd =sqrt(Mu/(frmaxbfy(1-.6rmaxfy/fc')) = 110.76 mm fy = 350.000 MPa
Dreqd =Dreqd+f/2+cover = 168.76 mm fc' = 20.000 MPa
Dprov = 220 mm
dprov=Dprov-f/2-cover = 162.00 mm b= 1000 mm
a=Asfy/(.85fc'b) = 32.85 mm dia. of bar =f = 16 mm
2
As =Mu/(ffy(d-a/2)) = 1595.550 mm /m cover = 50 mm
r max= 0.020
r prov=As/bd = 0.010 OK !
Smax = 330 mm
use f 16 c/c 120 mm
2
As prov. = 1675.52 mm
ALTERNATIVE
use f 16 c/c 190 mm

and
f 12 c/c 210 mm
GB.2 Design of slab
GB.2.1 Design of Interior spans
GB.2.1.1 Dead load

a) Overhang part ( Upto middle of ext. girder)
total overhang length = 1.460 m
moment
Item weight arm Moment depth of railing = 0.300 m
[KN/m] [m] [KNm/m] breadth of railing = 0.250 m
Top slab 7.709 0.730 5.627 distance b/n post and curb end = 0.050 m
Bottom Part of
Edge beam 1.972 1.260 2.485 distance b/n back of railing and end of curb = 0.15 m
railing 1.800 1.185 2.133 depth of post = 0.250 m
post 0.960 1.285 1.234 width of post = 0.300 m
wearing su. 1.166 0.530 0.618 c/c of post = 1.500 m
total 13.607 12.097 height of post = 0.800 m
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
b) Middle part
2
slab = 5.28 KN/m
wearing surface = 1.10 "
2
total 6.38 KN/m
C
GB.2.1.2 Dead load moment
a) Slab with two girders A B
Dead load Moment at the midspan

Conservatively, the flooring system is assumed simply supported b/n girder centers.
M= 5.39 kNm
b) Slab with more than two girders
In slabs continuous over more than two supports the dead load moment at support and midspan can be taken
as midspan moment for simply supported beam reduced by 20%.
2
Md =wl /8*.8 =wl2/10 = 4.31 KNm/m
GB.2.2 Live load moment a b a= 0.50 mm

b= 1.30 mm
a) Slab with two girders
C
Distribution Widths A B
Eoverhang = 1140+0.833X Where : X = Distance from load to point of support [mm]

= 1614.8 mm = 570 mm
Epositive = 660+0.55*S S = girder spacing [mm]

= 2090 mm
Enegitive = 1220+0.25*S
1870 mm
Moverhang = PX/E
= 25.59 kNm
Live load Moment at the interior wheel location
Reaction at Support A = 122.69 kN
Minterior wheel = 13.88 kNm
b) Slab with more than two girders
Two charts were prepared and equations are drived from the "Trend line" both for
positive and negative moments. Though the spacing is center to center of support, consideration
is taken for the reduction with monoliticity and width of the web. For the derivation of the equation
look at the "Slab design coeff." calculations. For slab supported on two girders, the overhang cantilever
moment is compared with this value and the maximum is taken.
Let x be the center to center of girder spacing.
Mneg = 0.1815x5-3.9473x4+29.948x3-100.41x2+160.34x-86.671
= 18.99 kNm/m
and
Mpos = -0.8166x3+7.8442x2-16.085x+30.271
= 27.12 kNm/m
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Impact
According to subchapter 3.13, Table 3-8, the dynamic load allowance is taken to be 33% for the strength limit state
design considerations.
Therefore take I = 0.33
Summary
Dead load moments
Negative moment at support = 4.31 kNm
Positive moment at midspan = 4.31 "
Live load moments
Negative moment at support = 18.99 kNm
Positive moment at midspan = 27.12 "
GB.2.3 Factored design moment

Mneg =1.25MD+1.75(ML+I)= 49.59 KNm/m
Mpos =1.25MD+1.75(ML+I)= 68.52 KNm/m
GB.2.4 Design for flexure

GB.2.4.1 Slab top reinforcement
Mu= 49.59 KNm/m
dreqd =sqrt(Mu/(frmaxbfy(1-.6rmaxfy/fc')) = 91.18 mm fmoment = 0.9
fy = 350.000 MPa
Dprov = 220 mm
2
r max= 0.020
r =As/bd = 0.006 OK !
Smax = 330 mm
use f 16 c/c 190 mm
2
As prov. = 1058.22 mm
GB.2.4.2 Slab bottom reinforcement

Mu= 68.52 KNm/m
dreqd =sqrt(Mu/(frmaxbfy(1-.6rmaxfy/fc')) = 107.18 mm fmoment = 0.9
fy = 350.0 MPa
Dprov = 220 mm
2
r =As/bd = 0.007 OK !
Smax = 330 mm
use f 16 c/c 160 mm
2
As prov. = 1256.64 mm
GB.2.4.3 Distribution reinforcement
According to Eq. 12.12, the amount of distribution reinforcement shall be the percentage of the main
reinforcement steel required for positive moment as given by the following formula:
Percentage = 3840/sqrt(s) <=67%

= 67 % dia. of bar =f = 12 mm
2
As dist = 836.9 mm /m
Smax = 457 mm
use f 12 c/c 130.0 mm
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.3. Design of Girder
GB.3.1 Exterior Girder
GB.3.1.1 Dead load
GB.3.1.1.1 Dead load of girder
Item Weight[KN/m]
overhang 11.785
Top slab 5.861
girder 11.856
fillet 0.000
wearing surface 1.639
Total 31.141
EXTERIOR GIRDER CROSS SECTION
GB.3.1.1.2 Dead load of diaphragm

a) Near center of span b) Near end of span
Item Weight[KN] Item Weight[KN]

Diaphragm 5.19 Diaphragm 5.19
Fillet 0.00 Fillet 0.00
Total 5.19 Total 5.19
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.3.1.1.3 Dead load shear and moment
a Girder
Reaction at support =wL/2 = 258.47 KN

* Point of maximum live load moment =(L/2-.711)/L = 0.457
a x [m] VA [KN] Mo[KNm]

0.00 0.00 258.47 0.00
0.05 0.83 232.62 203.80
0.10 1.66 206.77 386.15
0.15 2.49 180.93 547.05
0.20 3.32 155.08 686.49
0.25 4.15 129.23 804.48
0.30 4.98 103.39 901.02
0.35 5.81 77.54 976.10
0.40 6.64 51.69 1029.73
0.45 7.47 25.85 1061.91
0.50 8.30 0.00 1072.64
b Diaphragm
Reaction at support due to the midway diaphragms = 2.60 KN

0.00 0.00 2.60 0.00
0.05 0.83 2.60 2.16
0.10 1.66 2.60 4.31
0.15 2.49 2.60 6.47
0.20 3.32 2.60 8.62
0.25 4.15 2.60 10.78
0.30 4.98 2.60 12.94
0.35 5.81 2.60 15.09
0.40 6.64 2.60 17.25
0.45 7.47 2.60 19.40
0.50 8.30 2.60 21.56
GB.3.1.2 Live load
GB.3.1.2.1 Lane load ( Uniformly distributed load)
The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 N/mm, uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction.
Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over a 3000 mm width. The
force effects from the design lane load shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.
Line load per meter on the int. gir.for shear = 7.73 kN/m
Reaction at support =wL/2 = 64.13 kN
Line load per meter on the int. gir.for moment = 7.73 kN/m
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
0.00 0.00 64.13 0.00
0.05 0.83 57.71 50.56
0.10 1.66 51.30 95.81
0.15 2.49 44.89 135.72
0.20 3.32 38.48 170.32
0.25 4.15 32.06 199.60
0.30 4.98 25.65 223.55
0.35 5.81 19.24 242.18
0.40 6.64 12.83 255.48
0.45 7.47 6.41 263.47
0.50 8.30 0.00 266.13
GB.3.1.2.2 Standard truck load

a) Transversal distribution of wheel load
I) Distribution coefficient for moment in exterior girder
For one design lane loaded the lever rule method is applied.
Distance of first line of wheel from face of rail = 0.60 m

Distance of second line of wheel from face of rail = 2.40 m
According to Art. 3.8 Live Load/Multiple Presence of Live Load, the multiple presence factor is applied where the lever rule is used.
Rex moment(1) = 1.662
The live load flexural moment for exterior beams with concrete decks may be determined by applying the lane load
fraction specified as follows:
For two or more design lanes are loaded: Where : de is the distance in mm from the face of
rail to exterior face of exterior girder. It is positive
de = 870 m if the exterior web is inboard and vise versa.
Rex moment(2) = (0.77+de/2800)*Rin moment -300 <= de <= 1700
= 0.780
Therefore, Rex moment (1) or for half lane load loading (i.e. one line of load )
Rex moment (2) multiplied by two and the maximum is taken.
According to Art. 3.8 Live Load/Multiple Presence of Live Load, the factors shall not be applied in conjunction with
approximate load distribution factors specified above, except where the lever rule is used.
Rex moment= 1.662
II) Distribution coefficient for shear in exterior girder
For one design lane loaded the lever rule method is applied.
According to Art. 3.8 Live Load/Multiple Presence of Live Load, the multiple presence factor is applied where the lever rule is used.
Rin shear(1) = 1.662
For two or more design lanes are loaded:
Rin shear(2) = (0.6+de/3000)*Rin shear

= 0.768
Therefore, Rex shear (1) or for half lane load loading (i.e one line of load )
Rex shear (2) multiplied by two and the maximum is taken.
Rin shear= 1.662
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
b) Longitudinal distribution of wheel load
CASE-1 P P P/4
CASE-2 P/4 P P
Case -1 Moment and shear at rear wheel position ( truck moving to the right )
a x x1 x2 x3 VA Mo
0.00 0.00 8.000 12.300 16.600 1.861 0.000
0.05 0.83 7.170 11.470 15.770 1.749 1.452
0.10 1.66 6.340 10.640 14.940 1.636 2.717
0.15 2.49 5.510 9.810 14.110 1.524 3.795
0.20 3.32 4.680 8.980 13.280 1.411 4.686
0.25 4.15 3.850 8.150 12.450 1.299 5.391
0.30 4.98 3.020 7.320 11.620 1.186 5.909
0.35 5.81 2.190 6.490 10.790 1.074 6.240
0.40 6.64 1.360 5.660 9.960 0.961 6.384
0.45 7.47 0.530 4.830 9.130 0.849 6.342
0.50 8.30 0.000 4.000 8.300 0.741 6.150
Case -2 Moment and shear at middle wheel position ( truck moving to the left )
a x x1 x2 x3 VA Mo
0.25 4.15 8.150 12.450 0.000 1.241 5.150
0.30 4.98 7.320 11.620 15.920 1.381 5.801
0.35 5.81 6.490 10.790 15.090 1.268 6.293
0.40 6.64 5.660 9.960 14.260 1.156 6.599
0.45 7.47 4.830 9.130 13.430 1.043 6.718
0.50 8.3 4.000 8.300 12.600 0.931 6.650
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of maximum live load shear and moments plus impact at different points
Impact
Take I = 0.330
1+I = 1.330
a x VA Mo VA [KN/m] Mo[KNm/m]
0.00 0.00 2.476 0.000 362.36 0.00
0.05 0.83 2.326 1.931 337.92 283.13
0.10 1.66 2.176 3.613 313.48 531.03
0.15 2.49 2.027 5.047 289.05 743.68
0.20 3.32 1.877 6.232 264.61 921.08
0.25 4.15 1.728 7.170 240.17 1063.25
0.30 4.98 1.578 7.858 215.74 1170.17
0.35 5.81 1.428 8.370 191.30 1250.46
0.40 6.64 1.279 8.777 166.86 1312.73
0.45 7.47 1.129 8.935 142.43 1339.76
0.50 8.30 0.985 8.845 118.71 1331.55
GB.3.1.2.3 Design Tandem
P' for shear = 91.38 kN

P' for moment = 91.38 kN
Spacing b/n the axles = 1.20 m
Case -1 Moment and shear at the left wheel position
P' P'
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
a x [m] x1 [m] x2 [m] VA [KN] Mo[KNm]

0.00 0.00 15.40 16.60 1.928 0.00
0.05 0.83 14.57 15.77 1.828 1.52
0.10 1.66 13.74 14.94 1.728 2.87
0.15 2.49 12.91 14.11 1.628 4.05
0.20 3.32 12.08 13.28 1.528 5.07
0.25 4.15 11.25 12.45 1.428 5.93
0.30 4.98 10.42 11.62 1.328 6.61
0.35 5.81 9.59 10.79 1.228 7.13
0.40 6.64 8.76 9.96 1.128 7.49
0.45 7.47 7.93 9.13 1.028 7.68
0.50 8.30 7.10 8.30 0.928 7.70
Case -2 Moment and shear at the right wheel position
P' P'
a x [m] x1 [m] x2 [m] VA [KN] Mo[KNm]

0.00 0.00 16.60 0.00 1.000 0.00
0.05 0.83 15.77 0.00 0.950 0.79
0.10 1.66 14.94 16.14 1.872 1.91
0.15 2.49 14.11 15.31 1.772 3.21
0.20 3.32 13.28 14.48 1.672 4.35
0.25 4.15 12.45 13.65 1.572 5.33
0.30 4.98 11.62 12.82 1.472 6.13
0.35 5.81 10.79 11.99 1.372 6.77
0.40 6.64 9.96 11.16 1.272 7.25
0.45 7.47 9.13 10.33 1.172 7.56
0.50 8.30 8.30 9.50 1.072 7.70
Summary :- The maximum live load shear and flexure with impact at different points are as follows

0.00 0.00 298.4 0.00
0.05 0.83 279.9 234.94
0.10 1.66 261.3 444.39
0.15 2.49 242.7 628.33
0.20 3.32 224.2 786.78
0.25 4.15 205.6 919.73
0.30 4.98 187.0 1027.18
0.35 5.81 168.5 1109.13
0.40 6.64 149.9 1165.59
0.45 7.47 131.3 1196.54
0.50 8.30 112.8 1202.00
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.3.1.2.4 Summary of total dead and live load moments
According to subchapter 3.3, the coefficients for load factor service load design are as follows:
For standard truck & lane , design tandem loading
Vu = 1.25VDL+1.75VLL+I Vs = VDL+VLL+I
Mu = 1.25MDL+1.75MLL+I Ms = MDL+MLL+I
The load summary adds up the dead loads and the maximum of the two live load cases,
(i.e standard truck & lane loading).
a x Vu[KN/m] Mu[KNm/m] Vs[KN/m] Ms[KNm/m]

0.00 0.00 960.45 0.00 732.13 0.00
0.05 0.83 885.38 752.93 674.51 574.03
0.10 1.66 810.31 1417.37 616.90 1080.80
0.15 2.49 735.24 1993.33 559.28 1520.29
0.20 3.32 660.16 2480.79 501.67 1892.52
0.25 4.15 585.09 2879.76 444.06 2197.48
0.30 4.98 510.02 3190.24 386.44 2435.17
0.35 5.81 434.95 3427.30 328.83 2616.79
0.40 6.64 359.87 3606.01 271.21 2753.53
0.45 7.47 284.80 3696.23 213.60 2823.01
0.50 8.30 210.99 3697.96 156.92 2825.21
GB.3.2 Interior Girder

GB.3.2.1 Dead load
GB.3.2.1.1 Dead load of girder
Item Weight[KN/m]
Top slab 11.722
girder 9.850
fillet 0.000
wearing surface 2.860
Total 24.431
INTERIOR GIRDER CROSS SECTION
GB.3.2.1.2 Dead load of diaphragm
a) Near center of span b) Near end of span
Item Weight[KN] Item Weight[KN]

Diaphragm 10.39 Diaphragm 10.39
Fillet 0.00 Fillet 0.00
Total 10.39 Total 10.39
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.3.2.1.3 Dead load shear and moment
a) Girder
Reaction at support =wL/2 = 202.78 KN
* Point of maximum live load moment =(L/2-.711)/L = 0.457

0.00 0.00 202.78 0.00
0.05 0.83 182.50 159.89
0.10 1.66 162.22 302.95
0.15 2.49 141.95 429.18
0.20 3.32 121.67 538.58
0.25 4.15 101.39 631.15
0.30 4.98 81.11 706.89
0.35 5.81 60.83 765.79
0.40 6.64 40.56 807.87
0.45 7.47 20.28 833.12
0.50 8.30 0.00 841.53
b) Diaphragm
Reaction at support due to the midway diaphragms = 5.19 KN

0.00 0.00 5.19 0.00
0.05 0.83 5.19 4.31
0.10 1.66 5.19 8.62
0.15 2.49 5.19 12.94
0.20 3.32 5.19 17.25
0.25 4.15 5.19 21.56
0.30 4.98 5.19 25.87
0.35 5.81 5.19 30.18
0.40 6.64 5.19 34.49
0.45 7.47 5.19 38.81
0.50 8.30 5.19 43.12
GB.3.2.2 Live load
GB.3.2.2.1 Lane load
Remark: In the following Table impact and the transversal distribution factors are included.
Line load per meter on the int. gir.for shear = 8.03 kN/m
Line load per meter on the int. gir.for moment = 6.71 kN/m
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
a x VA [KN/m] Mo[KNm/m]
0.00 0.00 66.63 0.00
0.05 0.83 59.97 43.91
0.10 1.66 53.30 83.20
0.15 2.49 46.64 117.86
0.20 3.32 39.98 147.90
0.25 4.15 33.31 173.33
0.30 4.98 26.65 194.12
0.35 5.81 19.99 210.30
0.40 6.64 13.33 221.86
0.45 7.47 6.66 228.79
0.50 8.30 0.00 231.10
GB.3.2.2.2 Standard truck load

a) Transversal distribution of wheel load
I) Distribution coefficient for moment in interior girder
The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks may be determined by applying the lane load
fraction specified as follows:
For one design lane loaded:

According to Art. 3.8 Live Load/Multiple Presence of Live Load, the distribution factor where single lane approximation distribution
is used has to be divided by 1.20.
0.4 0.3 3 0.1
Rin moment(1) = 0.06+(S/4300) (S/L) (Kg/Lts ) Where :
= 0.441 (Kg/Lts3) may be taken as 1.0
1100 <=S <=4900
For two or more design lanes are loaded: 6000 <=L <=73000
0.6 0.2 3 0.1

Rin moment(2) = 0.075+(S/2900) (S/L) (Kg/Lts )
= 0.721
Therefore, Rin moment (1) or for half lane load loading (I.e one line of load )
Rin moment(2) multiplied by two and the maximum is taken.
According to Art. 3.8 Live Load/Multiple Presence of Live Load, the factors shall not be applied in conjunction with
approximate load distribution factors specified above, except where the lever rule is used.
Rin moment= 1.443
II) Distribution coefficient for shear in interior girder
For one design lane loaded:

According to Art. 3.8 Live Load/Multiple Presence of Live Load, the distribution factor where single lane approximation distribution
is used has to be divided by 1.20.
Rin shear(1) = 0.36+S/7600 Where :
= 0.585 1100 <=S <=4900
6000 <=L <=73000
For two or more design lanes are loaded:
Rin shear(2) = 0.2+S/3600-(S/10700)2.0

= 0.863
Therefore, Rex shear (1) or for half lane load loading (I.e one line of load )
Rex shear (2) multiplied by two and the maximum is taken.
Rin shear= 1.726
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
b) Longitudinal distribution of wheel load
Summary of maximum live load shear and moments plus impact at different points
a x VA Mo VA [KN/m] Mo[KNm/m]
0.00 0.00 2.476 0.000 376.49 0.00
0.05 0.83 2.326 1.931 351.10 245.87
0.10 1.66 2.176 3.613 325.71 461.13
0.15 2.49 2.027 5.047 300.32 645.80
0.20 3.32 1.877 6.232 274.93 799.85
0.25 4.15 1.728 7.170 249.54 923.31
0.30 4.98 1.578 7.858 224.15 1016.16
0.35 5.81 1.428 8.370 198.76 1085.88
0.40 6.64 1.279 8.777 173.37 1139.95
0.45 7.47 1.129 8.935 147.98 1163.43
0.50 8.30 0.985 8.845 123.34 1156.29
GB.3.2.2.3 Design tandem
P' for shear = 64.36 kN

P' for moment = 48.48 kN

0.00 0.00 231.6 0.00
0.05 0.83 216.4 141.72
0.10 1.66 201.2 268.12
0.15 2.49 186.0 379.20
0.20 3.32 170.7 474.94
0.25 4.15 155.5 555.36
0.30 4.98 140.3 620.46
0.35 5.81 125.1 670.23
0.40 6.64 109.9 704.68
0.45 7.47 94.6 723.80
0.50 8.30 79.4 727.59
GB.3.2.2.4 Summary of total dead and live load moments
According to subchapter 3.3, the coef. for load factor service load design are as follows:
For standard truck & lane , and design tandem loading
Vu = 1.25VDL+1.75VLL+I Vs = VDL+VLL+I
Mu = 1.25MDL+1.75MLL+I Ms = MDL+MLL+I
The load summary adds up the dead loads and the maximum of the two live load cases,
(i.e standard truck & lane loading).
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

0.00 0.00 918.83 0.00 697.41 0.00
0.05 0.83 849.05 635.52 644.13 483.83
0.10 1.66 779.27 1196.45 590.84 911.05
0.15 2.49 709.49 1682.79 537.56 1281.65
0.20 3.32 639.71 2094.53 484.27 1595.64
0.25 4.15 569.93 2431.67 430.99 1853.01
0.30 4.98 500.15 2694.22 377.70 2053.76
0.35 5.81 430.37 2895.26 324.42 2207.62
0.40 6.64 360.59 3047.88 271.13 2324.31
0.45 7.47 290.81 3125.90 217.85 2384.38
0.50 8.30 222.34 3129.33 165.54 2387.83
GB.3.3 Summary of Girder shear and moment for design

0.00 0.00 960.45 0.00 732.13 0.00
0.05 0.83 885.38 752.93 674.51 574.03
0.10 1.66 810.31 1417.37 616.90 1080.80
0.15 2.49 735.24 1993.33 559.28 1520.29
0.20 3.32 660.16 2480.79 501.67 1892.52
0.25 4.15 585.09 2879.76 444.06 2197.48
0.30 4.98 510.02 3190.24 386.44 2435.17
0.35 5.81 434.95 3427.30 328.83 2616.79
0.40 6.64 360.59 3606.01 271.21 2753.53
0.45 7.47 290.81 3696.23 217.85 2823.01
0.50 8.30 222.34 3697.96 165.54 2825.21
FACTORED LOADS MOMENT DIAGRAM

y = -59.586x2 + 937.13x + 15.07
4000
3500
3000
2500
Mu [KNm]
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
x [m]
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
SERVICE LOADS MOMENT DIAGRAM

y = -45.376x2 + 714.8x + 11.195
3200
2800
2400
2000
Ms [KNm]
1600
1200
800
400
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
x [m]
GB.3.4 Design for Flexure
GB.3.4.1. Exterior girder design
The reinforcement c/c spacing limits according to subchaper 7.3 are as follows:
min. horizontal c/c spacing b/n bars in the web = 0.11 m

min. horizontal c/c spacing b/n bundle bars = 0.11 m
Prov. No of bar in the bottom flange =a= 4
min.vertical c/c spacing b/n bars =s= 0.09 m
max. No of bar per row in the web =b= 4
center of bottom bar to bottom of girder =x= 0.07 m
center of bottom corner bar to nearest side of girder = 0.07 m
GB.3.4.1.1 Effective flange width for flexural compression
The total width of slab effective as a T-girder flange shall not exceed one fourth of
the span length of the girder, c/c spacing b/n girders( if total No of girders is greater or equal to 3), half of c/c spacing
b/n girders plus over hang length (where the effective flange width overhanging on one side of the web shall not exceed
six times the thickness of slab) plus half web width.
The effective flange width may be taken as one-half the effective width of the adjacent interior beam plus the least of:
- one-eighth of the effective span length
- 6.0 times the average thickness of the slab, plus the greater of half the web thickness or one quarter of the
width of the top flange of the basic girder, or
- the width of the overhang
befff comp.= 2.760 m
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.3.4.1.2 Web width for computation of equivalent concrete area for Serviceability requirements
befff dist.= 0.380 m
GB.3.4.1.3 Serviceability Requirements

For flexural members designed with reference to load factor and strengths by strength design method, stresses at service
load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements for fatigue and for distribution of reinforcement.
The requirements for control of deflection shall also be checked.
GB.3.4.1.3.1 Fatigue stress limits
Spacing b/n the 35kN and 145kN axels = 4.30 m

Spacing b/n the 145kN and 145kN axels = 9.00 m
Impact
Take I = 0.150
1+I = 1.150
Design Truck moment
Case -1 Moment at rear wheel position (truck moving to the right )
a = x/L x x1 x2 x3 VA Mo
0.00 0.00 3.300 7.600 16.600 1.508 0.000
0.05 0.83 2.470 6.770 15.770 1.395 1.158
0.10 1.66 1.640 5.940 14.940 1.283 2.129
0.15 2.49 0.810 5.110 14.110 1.170 2.913
0.20 3.32 0.000 4.280 13.280 1.058 3.512
0.25 4.15 0.000 3.450 12.450 0.958 3.975
0.30 4.98 0.000 2.620 11.620 0.858 4.272
0.35 5.81 0.000 1.790 10.790 0.758 4.403
0.40 6.64 0.000 0.960 9.960 0.658 4.368
0.45 7.47 0.000 0.130 9.130 0.558 4.167
0.50 8.30 0.000 0.000 8.300 0.500 4.150
Case -2 Moment and shear at middle wheel position (truck moving to the left )
a = x/L x x1 x2 x3 VA Mo
0.25 4.15 3.450 12.450 0.000 0.958 3.975
0.30 4.98 2.620 11.620 15.920 1.098 4.399
0.35 5.81 1.790 10.790 15.090 0.985 4.657
0.40 6.64 0.960 9.960 14.260 0.873 4.727
0.45 7.47 0.130 9.130 13.430 0.760 4.611
0.50 8.3 0.000 8.300 12.600 0.690 4.658
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary:- The maximum of the above moments is taken
Remark :- The maximum of the two live load distribution coefficient is taken.
- The multiple presence factor is not considered for fatique limit state analysis.
Mdead Mdead M truck M truck

a = x/L Exterior Interior Exterior Interior
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0
0.05 205.96 164.20 153.2 96.8
0.10 390.46 311.58 283.6 179.7
0.15 553.51 442.12 391.1 249.0
0.20 695.11 555.83 475.8 304.5
0.25 815.26 652.71 543.0 349.1
0.30 913.95 732.76 589.4 381.1
0.35 991.19 795.98 615.2 400.4
0.40 1046.98 842.36 620.2 407.2
0.45 1081.32 871.92 604.5 401.3
0.50 1094.20 884.65 604.5 402.1
Max 1094.20 884.65 620.22 407.15
The stress range in straight reinfororcement resulting from the fatique load combination, specified in Table 3-2, shall
not exceed :
ff = 145-0.33fmin+55(r/h) [MPa] r/h = 0.3
fLL = 50.37 MPa
fDL =fmin = 88.86 MPa
ff = 132.18 MPa OK !
GB.3.4.1.3.2 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcements

To control flexural cracking of the concrete, tension reinforcement shall be well distributed within the maximum
flexural zones. To prevent this kind of cracking, the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load ,fs, in
ksi shall not exceed the value computed by ,
1/3
fs = z/(dcA) <=0.6fy ----------- eq (9.15)
= 240.00 MPa
The live and dead load moment stress is,
fs = fLL + fDL = 229.43 MPa OK !!

Remark : The maximum stress at midspan is checked above. For bar cut-off points indirect check is done by calculating
the theoritical minimum bar cut-off lengthes to satisfy the requirement in the tables below.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.3.4.1.4 Reinforcement proportioning
Mmax = 3698 KNm coef. of d = 1.000
The following parameters are read from trendline eq. on the moment diagram charts.
y = ax2+bx+c
Factored moment a= -59.586 b= 937.13 c= 15.07
Service load moment a= -45.38 b= 714.8 c= 11.195
No of bar(or N) 15 14 12 10 8 6 OK !
bar size [mm] 32 32 32 32 32 32 OK !!
2
As[mm ] 12063.7 11259.5 9651.0 8042.5 6434.0 4825.5
No of row(or k) 4 4 3 3 2 2
x bar [m] 0.196 0.186 0.160 0.142 0.115 0.100
d [m] 1.10 1.11 1.14 1.16 1.19 1.20
r 0.0040 0.0037 0.0031 0.0025 0.0020 0.0015
fy[Mpa] 400.000 400.000 400.000 400.000 400.000 400.000
a[mm] 102.845 95.989 82.276 68.563 54.851 41.138
Asf[mm2 ] - - - - - -
As-Asf[mm2 ] 12063.72 11259.47 9650.97 8042.48 6433.98 4825.49
a'[mm] - - - - - -
Mu[KNm] 4571.28 4322.11 3817.83 3253.49 2681.21 2048.88
theo. dist. from midspan of Mu - 0.000 0.000 3.173 4.571 5.700
Remark Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam
rn 0.0356 0.0329 0.0276 0.0226 0.0177 0.0131
t/d 0.199 0.197 0.193 0.190 0.186 0.183
k 0.236 0.228 0.210 0.191 0.172 0.152
kd [mm] 260.78 253.63 238.90 221.62 203.59 182.76
j 0.925 0.926 0.931 0.936 0.943 0.949
2
A [mm /bar] 9930.67 10081.63 10133.33 10792.00 10925.00 12666.67
fs of eq.8-61 [MPa] 240.00 240.00 240.00 240.00 240.00 240.00
Ms [KNm] 2955.37 2789.74 2458.20 2092.59 1725.03 1319.19
theo.dist.from midspan of Ms[m] - 1.320 3.272 4.445 5.350 6.187
Where:
xbar - centroid of rein. from bottom of girder
xbar = (ax+b((k-1)x+s(k-1)k/2))/N
d = D-xbar
r =As/beff*d
a =Asfy/.85fc'b
If T-Beam
Asf=0.85fc'(b-bw)hf /fy
a' =(As-Asf)fy/0.85fc'bw
Mu =Muf+Muw ,if T-Beam
Muf =fAsf fy(d-hf/2)
Muw=f(As-Asf)fy(d-a/2)
If Rect. Beam
Mu=fAsfy(d-a/2)
2
k =(rn+0.5(t/d) )/(rn+t/d)
2 3
j =(6+6t/d+2(t/d) +(t/d) (1/2rn))/(6-3t/d),for kd>t
j =1-k/3, for kd<=t
A-is eff. tension area, in square inches of concrete surrounding the
flexural reinforcement and having the same centroid as that rein.
divided by the number of bars.
1/3
fs =z/(dcA) <=0.6fy
Ms =Asfsjd
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Extension length required at bar cutoff
Extension length reqd beyond the point at which it is no longer required is given by ;
Lext reqd = max( 15*dia of bar,deff,1/20 of clear span length )

= 1129.1 mm
Bar cut-off locations
Length of standard hook = 0.635 m

cover to hooked bar at end = 0.05 m
Total superstructure length = 16.90 m
Moment at
theor. Length with
Bar size No.of Cutoff Theor. extension
Bar type [mm] bar/gir. [KNm] Length [m] [m]
G6 32 1 4322.11 2.641 4.899

G5 32 2 3817.83 6.543 8.801
G4 32 2 3253.49 8.889 11.147
G3 32 2 2681.21 10.700 12.958
G2 32 2 2048.88 12.373 14.631
G1 32 6 - 17.751 17.751
GB.3.4.2. Interior girder design
The reinforcement c/c spacing limits according to subchapter 7.3 are as follows:
min. horizontal c/c spacing b/n bars in the web = 0.11 m
min. horizontal c/c spacing b/n bundle bars = 0.11 m
Prov. No of bar in the bottom flange =a= 4
min.vertical c/c spacing b/n bars =s= 0.09 m
max. No of bar per row in the web =b= 4
center of bottom bar to bottom of girder =x= 0.07 m
center of bottom corner bar to nearest side of girder = 0.07 m
GB.3.4.2.1 Effective flange width for flexural compression
The total width of slab effective as a T-girder flange shall not exceed one fourth of
the span length of the girder,c/c spacing b/n girders( if total No of girders is greater or equal to 3).
For interior girder, the effective flange width may be taken as the least of:
- one-quarter of the effective span length
- 12.0 times the average thickness of the slab, plus the greater of half the web thickness or one quarter of the
width of the top flange of the girder, or
- the average spacing of the adjacent beams
befff comp.= 2.600 m
GB.3.4.2.2 Web width for computation of equivalent concrete area for Serviceability requirements
befff dist.= 0.380 m
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.3.4.2.3 Reinforcement proportioning
Mmax = 3697.96 KNm

The following parameters are read from trendline equation in the moment diagram charts.
y = ax2+bx+c
Factored moment a= -59.586 b= 937.13 c= 15.07
Service load moment a= -45.38 b= 714.8 c= 11.195
No of bar(or N) 15 14 12 10 8 6
bar size [mm] 32 32 32 32 32 32
2
As[mm ] 12063.7 11259.5 9651.0 8042.5 6434.0 4825.5
No of row(or k) 4 4 3 3 2 2
x bar [m] 0.196 0.186 0.160 0.142 0.115 0.100
d [m] 1.10 1.11 1.14 1.16 1.19 1.20
r 0.0042 0.0039 0.0033 0.0027 0.0021 0.0015
fy[Mpa] 400.000 400.000 400.000 400.000 400.000 400.000
a[mm] 109.174 101.896 87.339 72.783 58.226 43.670
Asf[mm2 ] - - - - - -
As-Asf[mm2 ] 12063.72 11259.47 9650.97 8042.48 6433.98 4825.49
a'[mm] - - - - - -
Mu[KNm] 4557.54 4310.14 3809.04 3247.38 2677.30 2046.68
theo. dist. from midspan of Mu - 0.000 0.000 3.192 4.579 5.703
Remark Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam Rect.Beam
rn 0.0378 0.0350 0.0293 0.0240 0.0188 0.0139
t/d 0.199 0.197 0.193 0.190 0.186 0.183
k 0.243 0.234 0.216 0.197 0.176 0.156
kd [mm] 268.58 261.14 245.79 227.72 208.82 186.92
j 0.923 0.925 0.930 0.935 0.941 0.948
2
A [mm /bar] 9930.67 10081.63 10133.33 10792.00 10925.00 12666.67
fs of eq.8-61 [MPa] 240.00 240.00 240.00 240.00 240.00 240.00
Ms [KNm] 2951.56 2785.97 2454.52 2088.98 1722.34 1317.58
theo.dist.from midspan of Ms[m] - 1.366 3.286 4.454 5.356 6.190
Where:
xbar - centroid of rein. from bottom of girder
xbar = (ax+b((k-1)x+s(k-1)k/2))/N
d = D-xbar
r =As/beff*d
a =Asfy/.85fc'b
If T-Beam
Asf=0.85fc'(b-bw)hf /fy
a' =(As-Asf)fy/0.85fc'bw
Mu =Muf+Muw ,if T-Beam
Muf =fAsf fy(d-hf/2)
Muw=f(As-Asf)fy(d-a/2)
If Rect. Beam
Mu=fAsfy(d-a/2)
2
k =(rn+0.5(t/d) )/(rn+t/d)
2 3
j =(6+6t/d+2(t/d) +(t/d) (1/2rn))/(6-3t/d),for kd>t
j =1-k/3, for kd<=t
A-is eff. tension area, in square inches of concrete surrounding the
flexural reinforcement and having the same centroid as that rein.
divided by the number of bars.
1/3
fs =z/(dcA) <=0.6fy
Ms =Asfsjd
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Bar curtailment
The following parameters are read from trendline equation in the moment diagram chart.
y = ax2+bx+c
a= -59.586 b= 937.13 c= 15.07

cover to hooked bar at end = 0.05 m
Total superstructure length = 16.90 m
Moment at
theor. Length with
Bar size No.of Cutoff Theor. extension
Bar type [mm] bar/gir. [KNm] Length [m] [m]
G5 32 1 4310.14 2.731 4.989
G4 32 2 3809.04 6.571 8.830
G3 32 2 3247.38 8.909 11.167
G2 32 2 2677.30 10.712 12.970
G1 32 2 2046.68 12.379 14.637
G 32 6 - 17.751 17.751
GB.3.5 Design for Shear for Exterior and Interior girders

According to Eq. 12.25 and 12.26, Design of cross sections subject to shear shall be based on:
Vu <= fVn and Vn =Vc+Vs
The shear stress carried by concrete is calculated as
b= 2.00
vc =0.083*b*sqrt(fc') = 0.742 MPa
fvc = 0.668 MPa
For the shear in excess of the concrete capacity, the value carried by shear reinforcement is given by
the equation as follows:
For shear reinf. perpendicular to the axis of the member, Vs=Avfyd/s
===> s=Avfy/(v-fvc)bw
Maximum spacing requirements
According to eq. 12.34,, Av>=0.083sqrt(fc')bw s/fy ==> s<=Avfy/(0.083sqrt(fc')bw)

where:
bw = 380 mm
smax=Avfy/(0.083sqrt(fc')bw) = 561.3 mm Dia. of shear rein. = 12 mm
No of legs = 2
fy = 350.000 MPa
fs = 175.000 MPa
Moreover, according to Eq. 12.35 fshear = 0.9
If Vu < 0.1fc'bvdv, then: If Vu >= 0.1fc'bvdv, then:
smax <= 0.8dv<=600mm smax <= 0.4dv<=300mm
dv = 1062.79 mm
0.1fc'bvdv = 807.7238 kN Vu = 960.45 kN
smax = 300.00 mm
=
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Therefore, the max. spacing is the smaller of the two.
smax = 300 mm
Sections located less than a distance d from support may be designed for the same shear,V,
as that computed at a distance d. But in this case the shear at support is considered.
Vd = 859.4 kN
Spacing at different points
vmax=Vd/bw*d = 2.048 MPa davg = 1129.07 mm

smin=fAvfy/(v-fvc)bw = 130.0 mm bw = 380 mm
FACTORED LOADS SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM
1100
1000
900
800
700
Vu [KNm]
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
x [m] y = -89.471x + 958.16
The shear eq. from the shear force trendline is as follows : V = -ax+b
a = 89.471
b = 958.16
spacing bar size No of legs fy v-fvc v V dist.from sup No of sp.
[mm] [mm] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [KN] [m]
60 12 2 350.00 - - - - 1
130 12 2 350.00 1.442 2.110 885.39 0.813 12
150 12 2 350.00 1.250 1.918 822.98 1.511 10
200 12 2 350.00 0.938 1.606 688.90 3.009 4
250 12 2 350.00 0.750 1.418 608.45 3.909 0
250 12 2 350.00 0.750 1.418 608.45 3.909 18
Total length = 8420 mm
N.B . The first bar shall be put at a distance not farther than half the minimum spacing from c/l of support.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.4 Computation of skin reinforcement
The skin reinforcement on each face is given by the following formula.
N.B. Skin reinforcement is needed for D>900mm.
Ask>=0.001(d-760) ; but the spacing of bar shall not be greater than the lesser of d/6 or 300.
2
Ask >= 0.001(d-30) [mm /mm] Where: d is in inches.
2
>= 369.071 mm /m f of bar for skin rein. = 16 mm
smax = 180 mm
Use 2 f 16 c/c 180.0 mm
GB.5 Computation of Deflection
GB.5.1 Calculation of moment of inertias
GB.5.1.1 Calculation of gross moment of inertia
Remark : For simplifying the calculation the slab surface is assumed level, i.e. without crossfall.
The center of gravity from bottom of girder is calculated as follows:
Area ycg
Part [m2] [m] Area*ycg
Slab 2.12 1.19 2.52 Ycg = S[Area*ycg]/S[Area]
Girder 1.2312 0.54 0.66 = 0.95 m
Sum 3.35 3.18
y* = ABS(ycg-Ycg)
Area y*
Part [m2] [m] Icg A*(y*)2 Icg+A*(y*)2
Slab 2.12 0.24 0.01198 0.12096 0.1329
Girder 1.2312 0.41 0.11967 0.20789 0.3276
Sum, Ig = 0.4605 m4
GB.5.1.2 Calculation of effective moment of inertia

3 3
Ie = [Mcr/Ma] Ig+[1-(Mcr/Ma) ]Icr <=Ig
Mcr = fr*Ig/yt
= 1364.39 kN.m
No. of
W [kN/m] girder (No.Gir)*W
Dead load of Exterior girder = 31.14 2 62.28
Dead load of Interior girder = 24.43 1 24.43
SUM Wt = 86.71 kN/m
Ma = Wt*L2/8
= 2986.81 kNm
From previous calculation, kd for the factored live and dead load is used for the computation.
kd = 260.78 mm
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Area ycg
Part [m2] [m] Area*ycg
Slab 2.116 1.17 2.48 Ycg = S[Area*ycg]/S[Area]
Girder 0.046 1.06 0.05 = 1.17 m
Transformed reinf. 0.109 0.20 0.02
Sum 2.16 2.52 y* = ABS(ycg-Ycg)
Area y*
Part [m2] [m] Icg A*(y*)2 Icg+A*(y*)2
Slab 2.116 0.0024 0.01198 0.00001 0.0120
Girder 0.046 0.1077 0.00001 0.00054 0.0005
Transformed reinf. 0.109 0.9713 0.00000 0.10244 0.1024
Sum, Icr = 0.1150 m4
Therefore, the effective moment of inertia is,

Ie = [Mcr/Ma]3Ig+[1-(Mcr/Ma)3]Icr <=Ig
4
= 0.1479 m
GB.5.1.3 Calculation of dead load deflection using the effective moment of inertia
The maximum deflection is calculated as follows:
4
Def. Max. = 5[w*l ] Ec = 22610 Mpa
384EIe
= 25.64 mm
Since the instantaneous deflection is based on Ie, the long term deflection may be taken as the
instantaneous deflection multiplied by the following factor.
Factor = 3.0-1.2(As'/As)>=1.6
Where
As' = area of compression reinforcement (mm2)
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement (mm2)
Since As' =0, the multiplying factor is 3.0
Factor = 3.0
Long term deflection = 76.91 mm
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix GB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GB.5.1.4 Calculation of live load deflection using the effective moment of inertia
The live load deflection at middspan for different loading conditions that is analogous to the moving
load pattern is given as follows:
P P P/4
- When investigating the maximum absolute deflection, all design lanes should be loaded; and all
supporting components should be assumed to deflect equally.
- The live load portion of load combination Service I of Table 3-3( i.e, load factors for both live
and dead load equal to 1.0) with dynamic load allowance factor should be applied.
P with IM = 385.7 kN w lane load = 18.6 N/mm
x =l/2 = 8.3 def. Lane =5wl4/(384EI) = 5.50 mm
-2
Px/(6eIl) = 9.61E-12 mm
According to Chapter 3,
- The live load deflection should be taken as the larger of :
* That resulting from the design truck alone, or
* That resulting from 25 percent of the design truck together with the design lane load.
Def at
midspan
Def at (0.25*Axle
midspan +
(axle) Lane)
a x x1 x2 x3 [mm] [mm]
0.00 0.00 8.000 12.300 16.600 10.52 8.13
0.05 0.83 7.170 11.470 15.770 13.21 8.80
0.10 1.66 6.340 10.640 14.940 15.59 9.40
0.15 2.49 5.510 9.810 14.110 17.61 9.90
0.20 3.32 4.680 8.980 13.280 19.20 10.30
0.25 4.15 3.850 8.150 12.450 20.32 10.58
0.30 4.98 3.020 7.320 11.620 20.91 10.73
0.35 5.81 2.190 6.490 10.790 20.98 10.74
0.40 6.64 1.360 5.660 9.960 20.54 10.64
0.45 7.47 0.530 4.830 9.130 19.61 10.40
0.50 8.30 0.000 4.000 8.300 18.32 10.08
Therefore, the maximum live load deflection is the maximum of the tabulated values above.
Def. Live load Max = 20.98 mm

For Vehicular load, the deflection limit is equal to Span/800.
Span/def. Live load Max = 791 ~ 800, OK !
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix MB
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Masonry Bridge Design
APPENDIX MB - MASONRY BRIDGE, 12 M SPAN, 7.32 M WIDTH
The following calculations is an example of a documentation for a masonry bridge with a

span of 12 and a width of 7.32m. The principle dimensions of the bridge are shown in the
figures below:
Two design conditions are checked:
• Strength I
• Service I
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page MB-1

Appendix MB
Masonry Bridge Design Bridge Design Manual - 2002
MB.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The calculations are based on:
ERA BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL-2002
Material –Sandstone
E- modulus: 10 000 Mpa Table 7-2

Fc: 35 Mpa Table 7-2
Density: γs = 2725 kg/m3 Table 3-4 (Stone Masonry)
MB.2 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Following PC-programs have been used:
• EXCEL
• Strip-step2
Page MB-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Appendix MB
MB.3 STRUCTURAL CROSS SECTION
MB.3.1 Input Dimensions
L= 12 m Span opening
r1= 4,25 m intenal arc
r2= 7,75 m intenal arc
eh= 1,75 m
ev= 3,031 m
Zfilling= 1,5 m
Ztop= 7,1 m
dt= 0,85 m thickness at crown (top)
da= 2,05 m thickness at abutment
rEA= r2+dt m External Arc
Node 9 dt External Arc

Zfilling Node 7
Centre of Gravity
Ztop
r2 Internal Arc
Node 1 r1 60o 30o Y

da α2 ev
α1
eh
L
α1= 20.6
α2= 39.4

Appendix MB
Internal Arc External Arc Center of Gravity

Node
YIA ZIA YEA ZEA YCG YCG
1 6 0 8.048 0.000 7.024 0.000
2 5.935 0.738 7.649 0.900 6.792 0.819
3 5.744 1.454 7.150 1.748 6.447 1.601
4 5.431 2.125 6.557 2.533 5.994 2.329
5 5.006 2.732 5.878 3.246 5.442 2.989
6 4.482 3.256 5.123 3.877 4.802 3.566
7 3.875 3.681 4.300 4.417 4.088 4.049
8 2.006 4.455 2.226 5.276 2.116 4.865
9 0.000 4.719 0.000 5.57 0.000 5.144

Appendix MB
MB.4 LOADING
MB.4.1 Dead load - DC

qEH= k0*γSS*(Ztop-ZCG) Horizontal Earth Pressure
qEV= γRG*(Ztop-ZEA) Vertical Earthfill
qDC= γSM*d Dead Load of Stone Masonry
k0= 0,45 Loose Sand Table 3-22 for OCR=1
γLS = 18 kN/m3 Loose Sand Table 3-4
γRG = 22,5 kN/m3 Rolled Gravel Table 3-4
γSM = 27,3 kN/m3 Stone Masonry (Sandstone) Table 3-4
h= thickness
3
I = d /12 m4/m
Node XCG ZCG qEV qEH d I

2 2 4
[m] [m] [kN /m] [kN /m] [m] [m /m]
1 7,024 0,000 159 57 2,05 0,716
2 6,792 0,819 139 51 1,72 0,425
3 6,447 1,601 120 44 1,44 0,247
4 5,994 2,329 102 38 1,20 0,143
5 5,442 2,989 86 33 1,01 0,087
6 4,802 3,566 72 28 0,89 0,059
7 4,088 4,049 60 24 0,85 0,051
8 2,116 4,865 40 18 0,85 0,051
9 0,000 5,144 34 16
10 -2,116 4,865 40 -18 0,85 0,051
11 -4,088 4,049 60 -24 0,85 0,051
12 -4,802 3,566 72 -28 0,89 0,059
13 -5,442 2,989 86 -33 1,01 0,087
14 -5,994 2,329 102 -38 1,20 0,143
15 -6,447 1,601 120 -44 1,44 0,247
16 -6,792 0,819 139 -51 1,72 0,425
17 -7,024 0,000 159 -57 2,05 0,716

Appendix MB
MB.4.2 Surcharge Load - LS
∆PLS= k0*γSS*heq
heq = 1,7 m when wall height < 1.5 m Table 3-25
heq = 0,76 m < 6.0 m
∆PLS,t
1,5
∆PLS,b
The surcharge load from highway loading may be taken as given in Table 3-25
Let ∆PLS,t (earth loading on the upper surface) and ∆PLS,b (earth loading on the bottom)
be the earth pressure from the surcharge and linearly varying load
∆PLS,t= 13,8 kN/m2

∆PLS,b= 9,4 kN/m2
ZCG ∆PLS
Node
[m] [kN2/m]
1 0,000 9,4
2 0,819 10,1
3 1,601 10,7
4 2,329 11,2
5 2,989 11,8
6 3,566 12,2
7 4,049 12,6
8 4,865 13,2
9 5,144 13,4
10 4,865 -13,2
11 4,049 -12,6
12 3,566 -12,2
13 2,989 -11,8
14 2,329 -11,2
15 1,601 -10,7
16 0,819 -10,1
17 0,000 -9,4

Appendix MB
MB.4.3 Live Load
MB.4.3.1 Lane Load - LL subsection 3.8
qLL = 9,3 kN/m Uniformly Lane Load/traffic lane (traffic lane = 3.0 m)
W= 8,12 m Total witdth of superstructure (2 traffic lanes)
qLL = 9.3*2/W = 2,3 kN/m2 Uniformly Lane Load/m
MB.4.3.2 Design Truck subsection 3.8
4.3 m 4.3 to 9.0 m
PTruck1 PTruck2 PTruck2
Zfilling
lTruck
ε = 1,33 The Dynamic Factor Table 3-8

lTire = 0,2 m According to subsection 3.9: Tire Contract Area
Zfilling= 1,5 m
PTruck1 = 35 kN
PTruck2 = 145 kN
PTruck1 = 2*35*ε /(lTire+2*Zfilling)/W = 3,6 kN/m2
PTruck2 = 2*145*ε /(lTire+2*Zfilling)/W = 14,8 kN/m2
lTruck= 3,2 m

Appendix MB
MB.4.3.3 Design Tandemsection 3.8: Design Tandem

1.2 m
PTandem PTandem
Zfilling
lTandem
ε = 1,33 The Dynamic Factor

lTire = 0,2 m According to section 3.9: Tire Contact Area
Zfilling= 1,5 m
PTandem = 110 kN
PTandem = 4*110*ε /(1.2+W Tire+2*Zfilling)/W= 16,4 kN/m2
lTandem= 4,4 m

Appendix MB
MB.5. LOAD COMBINATIONS Table 3-22
Load Case
LC-ASLS LC-ASI
At Strength limit state
Max Min At Service I
qDC 1,25 0,9 1,0
qEH 1,35 0,9 1,0
qEV 1,25 0,9 1,0
∆PLS 1,75 0 1,0
qLL 1,75 0 1,0
PTruck 1,75 0 1,0
PTandem 1,75 0 1,0

Appendix MB
MB.6. CONTROL OF COMPRESSION LINE AND EDGE PRESSURE
-The compression line shall be within the core limit at 3 point, when the eccentricity
e=M/N < d/6 : both the abutment and the crown
The calculation of the forces in the bridge is made with the computer program
Strip-Step2
positive direction
Legend
M N N
M
Q Q
Node i Node i+1
i Is the first node of the beam.

i+1 Is the second node of the beam.
M the beam bending moment per unit of length in the local Y-direction
N the beam nomal force per unit of area in the local Y-direction
Q the beam transverse force per unit of area in the local Y-direction
-The edge pressure σedge < fcall edge

σedge= N/d+(-)M*6/d2
fcall edge = 0.14*fc Mpa Table 7-2
fc = 35 Mpa Table 7-2 (Sandstone)
fcall edge = 4,9 Mpa

Appendix MB
MB.6.1 Load case - DC Dead Load of Stone Masonry
Node
M N d d/6 e σedge,max σedge,min
[kNm/m] [kN/m] [m] [m] [m] [MN/m2] [MN/m2]
1 92 -308 2,05 0,341 0,299 OK -0,02 -0,28
2 35 -266 2,048 0,341 0,132 OK -0,08 -0,18
2 35 -273 1,72 0,287 0,128 OK -0,09 -0,23
3 -3 -240 1,721 0,287 0,013 OK -0,15 -0,13
3 -3 -244 1,44 0,239 0,012 OK -0,18 -0,16
4 -24 -218 1,437 0,239 0,110 OK -0,22 -0,08
4 -24 -220 1,20 0,200 0,109 OK -0,28 -0,08
5 -33 -201 1,20 0,200 0,164 OK -0,31 -0,03
5 -33 -201 1,01 0,169 0,164 OK -0,39 -0,01
6 -32 -186 1,01 0,169 0,172 - -0,37 0,00
6 -32 -185 0,89 0,149 0,173 - -0,45 0,03
7 -23 -174 0,89 0,149 0,132 OK -0,37 -0,02
7 -23 -170 0,85 0,142 0,135 OK -0,39 -0,01
8 7 -151 0,85 0,142 0,046 OK -0,12 -0,24
8 7 -148 0,85 0,142 0,047 OK -0,12 -0,23
9 19 -142 0,85 0,142 0,134 OK -0,01 -0,32

Appendix MB
MB.6.2 Load case LC-ASAt Strength limit sate
Node
M-min N d d/6 e σedge,max σedge,min
1 310 -961 2,05 0,341 0,323 OK -0,03 -0,91
2 141 -881 2,05 0,341 0,160 OK -0,23 -0,63
2 141 -904 1,72 0,287 0,156 OK -0,24 -0,81
3 36 -669 1,72 0,287 0,054 OK -0,32 -0,46
3 36 -681 1,44 0,239 0,053 OK -0,37 -0,58
4 -15 -597 1,44 0,239 0,025 OK -0,46 -0,37
4 -15 -600 1,20 0,200 0,025 OK -0,56 -0,44
5 -20 -551 1,20 0,200 0,036 OK -0,54 -0,38
5 -20 -549 1,01 0,169 0,036 OK -0,66 -0,43
6 -2 -516 1,01 0,169 0,004 OK -0,52 -0,50
6 -2 -512 0,89 0,149 0,004 OK -0,59 -0,56
7 23 -518 0,89 0,149 0,044 OK -0,41 -0,75
7 23 -508 0,85 0,142 0,045 OK -0,41 -0,79
8 65 -584 0,85 0,142 0,111 OK -0,15 -1,23
8 65 -580 0,85 0,142 0,112 OK -0,14 -1,22
9 76 -589 0,85 0,142 0,129 OK -0,06 -1,32
Node
M-max N d d/6 e σedge,max σedge,min
1 -266 -812 2,05 0,341 0,328 OK -0,78 -0,02
2 -224 -763 2,05 0,341 0,294 OK -0,69 -0,05
2 -224 -755 1,72 0,287 0,297 - -0,89 0,01
3 -186 -871 1,72 0,287 0,214 OK -0,88 -0,13
3 -186 -866 1,44 0,239 0,215 OK -1,14 -0,06
4 -157 -840 1,44 0,239 0,187 OK -1,04 -0,13
4 -157 -838 1,20 0,200 0,187 OK -1,36 -0,04
5 -141 -789 1,20 0,200 0,179 OK -1,25 -0,07
5 -141 -786 1,01 0,169 0,179 - -1,60 0,05
6 -118 -743 1,01 0,169 0,159 OK -1,42 -0,04
6 -118 -739 0,89 0,149 0,160 - -1,72 0,06
7 -91 -691 0,89 0,149 0,132 OK -1,46 -0,09
7 -91 -679 0,85 0,142 0,134 OK -1,55 -0,04
8 -40 -539 0,85 0,142 0,074 OK -0,97 -0,30
8 -40 -537 0,85 0,142 0,074 OK -0,96 -0,30
9 -25 -508 0,85 0,142 0,049 OK -0,81 -0,39

Appendix MB
MB.6.3 Load case LC-ASAt Service I
Node
M-min N d d/6 e σedge,max σedge,min
1 171 -823 2,05 0,341 0,208 OK -0,16 -0,65
2 65 -755 2,05 0,341 0,086 OK -0,28 -0,46
2 65 -769 1,72 0,287 0,085 OK -0,32 -0,58
3 -5 -704 1,72 0,287 0,007 OK -0,42 -0,40
3 -5 -713 1,44 0,239 0,007 OK -0,51 -0,48
4 -44 -644 1,44 0,239 0,068 OK -0,58 -0,32
4 -44 -646 1,20 0,200 0,068 OK -0,72 -0,36
5 -49 -593 1,20 0,200 0,083 OK -0,70 -0,29
5 -49 -592 1,01 0,169 0,083 OK -0,87 -0,30
6 -33 -552 1,01 0,169 0,060 OK -0,74 -0,35
6 -33 -548 0,89 0,149 0,060 OK -0,86 -0,37
7 -7 -535 0,89 0,149 0,013 OK -0,65 -0,55
7 -7 -525 0,85 0,142 0,013 OK -0,68 -0,56
8 39 -500 0,85 0,142 0,078 OK -0,26 -0,91
8 39 -497 0,85 0,142 0,078 OK -0,26 -0,91
9 49 -498 0,85 0,142 0,098 OK -0,18 -0,99
Node
M-max N d d/6 e σedge,max σedge,min
1 -80 -852 2,05 0,341 0,094 OK -0,53 -0,30
2 -113 -790 2,05 0,341 0,143 OK -0,55 -0,22
2 -113 -793 1,72 0,287 0,142 OK -0,69 -0,23
3 -121 -736 1,72 0,287 0,164 OK -0,67 -0,18
3 -121 -736 1,44 0,239 0,164 OK -0,86 -0,16
4 -112 -695 1,44 0,239 0,161 OK -0,81 -0,16
4 -112 -694 1,20 0,200 0,161 OK -1,05 -0,11
5 -101 -653 1,20 0,200 0,155 OK -0,97 -0,12
5 -101 -650 1,01 0,169 0,155 OK -1,23 -0,05
6 -85 -615 1,01 0,169 0,138 OK -1,10 -0,11
6 -85 -612 0,89 0,149 0,139 OK -1,33 -0,05
7 -63 -577 0,89 0,149 0,109 OK -1,12 -0,17
7 -63 -567 0,85 0,142 0,111 OK -1,19 -0,14
8 -16 -519 0,85 0,142 0,031 OK -0,74 -0,48
8 -16 -516 0,85 0,142 0,031 OK -0,74 -0,47
9 0 -492 0,85 0,142 0,000 OK -0,58 -0,58

Appendix MB
MB.7 APPENDIX A- CALCULATIONS BY STRIP-STEP2

Appendix MB
NORDCAD AB S T R I P STEP 2 PC-02-920901 Bridge Manual Ethiopia PAGE :

CONSTRUCTION TYPE FRAME Masonry bridge 12 m length 1 :
ECHOPRINT BROKONSULT AB TEL 08/6309700 FAX 7326385
0 PROJECT IDENT CONSTR.IDENT NO DATE
Pro.nr 98034 B.M. Ethiopia 991116
0
0U N I T S : SI-SYSTEM
0 LENGTH METER
0 ANGLES RADIAN
0 LOADS, FORCES KILONEWTON
0 STRESSES, MODULUS OF ELASTICITY MEGAPASCAL
0 MASSES TONS
0 TEMPERATURES KELVIN
0 FREQUENCES HERTZ
0
0EXCEPTIONS FROM THESE STANDARD-UNITS ARE:
0 ANGLES IN SYSTEM OF GEOMETRY AND

ROTATIONS IN DEFORMATION RESULTS DEGREES (360)
0 DISPLACEMENTS IN DEFORMATION RESULTS MILLIMETER
1

0
M A T E R I A L C O N S T A N T S
I K I E0 I G0/E0 I DENSITY I OMEGA T I EPSILON I PHI- I

I I I I I *100000 I *100000 I CREEP I
I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I
1000 33000 .400 1.000

0
E L E M E N T T Y P E S
I TYPE I WORK I E I DEN- I CREEP I R I CROSS I F I D I H I K*I I K*A I K*AQ I

I I I G I SITY I IND I I SECTN I I I I I I I
I------I--------I--------I-------I-------I-------I-------I-------I-------I-------I---------I---------I---------I
102 N 33000 .000 2.050 716.000 2050.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 1.720 425.000 1720.000
203 N 33000 .000 1.720 425.000 1720.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 1.440 247.000 1440.000
304 N 33000 .000 1.440 247.000 1440.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 1.200 143.000 1200.000
405 N 33000 .000 1.200 143.000 1200.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 1.010 87.000 1010.000
506 N 33000 .000 1.010 87.000 1010.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 .890 59.000 890.000
607 N 33000 .000 .890 59.000 890.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 .850 51.000 850.000
708 N 33000 .000 .850 51.000 850.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 .850 51.000 850.000
809 N 33000 .000 .850 51.000 850.000

BEAM 13200 1.000 .850 51.000 850.000
1

0
G E O M E T R Y O F T O T A L S Y S T E M
I JOINT I Y I Z I DELTA Y I DELTA Z I HINGE I ALFA I ELEMENT I JOINT I

I BEGIN I I I I I REACT. I I TYPE I END I
I--------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I--------I

Appendix MB
1 -7.024 .000 102 2

FIXED
2 -6.792 .819 203 3
3 -6.447 1.601 304 4
4 -5.994 2.329 405 5
5 -5.442 2.989 506 6
6 -4.802 3.566 607 7
7 -4.088 4.049 708 8
8 -2.116 4.865 809 9
9 .000 5.144 -809 10
10 2.116 4.865 -708 11
11 4.088 4.049 -607 12
12 4.802 3.566 -506 13
13 5.442 2.989 -405 14
14 5.994 2.329 -304 15
15 6.447 1.601 -203 16
16 6.792 .819 -102 17
17 7.024 .000 102 16

FIXED
1

0
S T A N D A R D L O A D C A S E S
I LOADCASE I J O I N T I R I W I LOAD- I P-Y I P-Z I M I

I NAME I BEGIN-END I I I TYPE I I I I
I----------I-------------I-------I-------I-------I---------I---------I---------I
qdd 1-2 .000 DISTR -2.05

1.000 DISTR -1.72
2-3 .000 DISTR -1.72
1.000 DISTR -1.44
3-4 .000 DISTR -1.44
1.000 DISTR -1.20
4-5 .000 DISTR -1.20
1.000 DISTR -1.01
5-6 .000 DISTR -1.01
1.000 DISTR -.89
6-7 .000 DISTR -.89
1.000 DISTR -.85
7-8 .000 DISTR -.85
1.000 DISTR -.85
8-9 .000 DISTR -.85
1.000 DISTR -.85
9-10 .000 DISTR -.85
1.000 DISTR -.85
10-11 .000 DISTR -.85
1.000 DISTR -.85
11-12 .000 DISTR -.85
1.000 DISTR -.89
12-13 .000 DISTR -.89
1.000 DISTR -1.01
13-14 .000 DISTR -1.01
1.000 DISTR -1.20
14-15 .000 DISTR -1.20
1.000 DISTR -1.44
15-16 .000 DISTR -1.44
1.000 DISTR -1.72
16-17 .000 DISTR -1.72
1.000 DISTR -2.05


Appendix MB
0
S T A N D A R D L O A D C A S E S (CONT.)

I----------I-------------I-------I-------I-------I---------I---------I---------I
qev 1-2 .000 DISTR -43.34

1.000 DISTR -37.88
2-3 .000 DISTR -56.11
1.000 DISTR -48.44
3-4 .000 DISTR -63.40
1.000 DISTR -53.89
4-5 .000 DISTR -65.44
1.000 DISTR -55.17
5-6 .000 DISTR -63.87
1.000 DISTR -53.48
6-7 .000 DISTR -59.64
1.000 DISTR -49.70
7-8 .000 DISTR -55.44
1.000 DISTR -36.96
8-9 .000 DISTR -39.66
1.000 DISTR -33.71
9-10 .000 DISTR -33.71
1.000 DISTR -39.66
10-11 .000 DISTR -36.96
1.000 DISTR -55.44
11-12 .000 DISTR -49.70
1.000 DISTR -59.64
12-13 .000 DISTR -53.48
1.000 DISTR -63.87
13-14 .000 DISTR -55.17
1.000 DISTR -65.44
14-15 .000 DISTR -53.89
1.000 DISTR -63.40
15-16 .000 DISTR -48.44
1.000 DISTR -56.11
16-17 .000 DISTR -37.88
1.000 DISTR -43.34

0

I----------I-------------I-------I-------I-------I---------I---------I---------I
qeh 1-2 .000 DISTR 54.84

1.000 DISTR 49.07
2-3 .000 DISTR 46.66
1.000 DISTR 40.26
3-4 .000 DISTR 37.36
1.000 DISTR 32.26
4-5 .000 DISTR 29.15
1.000 DISTR 25.31
5-6 .000 DISTR 22.10
1.000 DISTR 18.75
6-7 .000 DISTR 15.69
1.000 DISTR 13.45
7-8 .000 DISTR 9.18
1.000 DISTR 6.88
8-9 .000 DISTR 2.35
1.000 DISTR 2.09
9-10 .000 DISTR -2.09
1.000 DISTR -2.35
10-11 .000 DISTR -6.88
1.000 DISTR -9.18
11-12 .000 DISTR -13.45
1.000 DISTR -15.69
12-13 .000 DISTR -18.75
1.000 DISTR -22.10
13-14 .000 DISTR -25.31
1.000 DISTR -29.15
14-15 .000 DISTR -32.26
1.000 DISTR -37.36
15-16 .000 DISTR -40.26
1.000 DISTR -46.66
16-17 .000 DISTR -49.07
1.000 DISTR -54.84

Appendix MB

0

I----------I-------------I-------I-------I-------I---------I---------I---------I
dpls 1-2 .000 DISTR 9.04

1.000 DISTR 9.72
2-3 .000 DISTR 9.24
1.000 DISTR 9.79
3-4 .000 DISTR 9.08
1.000 DISTR 9.51
4-5 .000 DISTR 8.59
1.000 DISTR 9.05
5-6 .000 DISTR 7.90
1.000 DISTR 8.17
6-7 .000 DISTR 6.84
1.000 DISTR 7.06
7-8 .000 DISTR 4.82
1.000 DISTR 5.05
8-9 .000 DISTR 1.73
1.000 DISTR 1.75
9-10 .000 DISTR -1.75
1.000 DISTR -1.73
10-11 .000 DISTR -5.05
1.000 DISTR -4.82
11-12 .000 DISTR -7.06
1.000 DISTR -6.84
12-13 .000 DISTR -8.17
1.000 DISTR -7.90
13-14 .000 DISTR -9.05
1.000 DISTR -8.59
14-15 .000 DISTR -9.51
1.000 DISTR -9.08
15-16 .000 DISTR -9.79
1.000 DISTR -9.24
16-17 .000 DISTR -9.72
1.000 DISTR -9.04
1

0
T R A C K S
I NAME I J O I N T I H-W I TRACK WIDTH AT I

I I BEGIN-END I I BEGIN I END I
I------I-------------I---------I---------I---------I
FB 1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
0
T R A F F I C L O A D E L E M E N T S
I LOAD I S I POINTLOAD I UNIFORM LOAD I IND I

I ELEMENT I I P-LOAD I P-UNL. I P-LOAD I P-UNL. I I
I----------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I
qLL 2.30 .00
p-truck11 .000 3.60 .00

3.200 3.60 .00
3.200 .00 .00
4.300 .00 .00

Appendix MB
4.300 14.80 .00
7.500 14.80 .00
7.500 .00 .00
8.600 .00 .00
p-truck21 .000 14.80 .00

3.200 14.80 .00
3.200 .00 .00
4.300 .00 .00

0
T R A F F I C L O A D E L E M E N T S (CONT.)
I LOAD I S I POINTLOAD I UNIFORM LOAD I IND I

I ELEMENT I I P-LOAD I P-UNL. I P-LOAD I P-UNL. I I
I----------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I---------I
p-truck31 .000 14.80 .00

3.200 14.80 .00
3.200 .00 .00
4.300 .00 .00
4.300 3.60 .00
7.500
p-tandem .000 16.40 .00

4.400
0
T R A F F I C L O A D C A S E S
I LOADCASE I DECELERATION I TRACK I DYNAMIC I L O A D E L E M E N T I

I NAME I PART OF VERTI EXCENTR I NAME I FACTOR I NAME I NAME I NAME I
I----------I-------------I---------I---------I-----------I----------I----------I----------I
qLL FB qLL
p-truck1 FB p-truck11 FREE p-truck21
p-truck2 FB p-truck21 FREE p-truck31
p-tandem FB p-tandem
0
L O A D C O M B I N A T I O N S
I LOADCOMBINATION I - L O A D C A S E - I STRESS I K- I
I NAME I ART I NAME I TYPE I FACTOR I ALTER I IND I CREEP I
I----------I------I----------I--------I--------I--------I--------I--------I
qdc qdd DEAD 27.300
qev qev DEAD 1.000
qeh qeh DEAD 1.000

0
L O A D C O M B I N A T I O N S (CONT.)
I----------I------I----------I--------I--------I--------I--------I--------I
qLL MENV qLL LIVE 1.000

QENV
NENV
RMENV
RYENY
RZENV
dpls MENV dpls LIVE 1.000

QENV
NENV
RMENV
RYENY
RZENV

Appendix MB
p-truck MENV p-truck1 LIVE 1.000 ALTER

QENV p-truck2 LIVE 1.000 ALTER
NENV
RMENV
RYENY
RZENV
p-tandem MENV p-tandem LIVE 1.000

QENV
NENV
RMENV
RYENY
RZENV
Live-Load MENV p-truck LIVE 1.000 ALTER

QENV p-tandem LIVE 1.000 ALTER
NENV qLL LIVE 1.000
RMENV
RYENY
RZENV

0
L O A D C O M B I N A T I O N S (CONT.)
I----------I------I----------I--------I--------I--------I--------I--------I
LC-ASLS MENV qdc DEAD .900

qdd LIVE .350
QENV qev DEAD .900
NENV qev LIVE .350
RMENV qeh DEAD .900
RYENY
RZENV
qeh LIVE .450
dpls LIVE 1.750
Live-Load LIVE 1.750
LC-ASI MENV qdc DEAD 1.000

QENV qev DEAD 1.000
NENV qeh DEAD 1.000
RMENV dpls LIVE 1.000
RYENY
RZENV
Live-Load LIVE 1.000
1

RESULTS BROKONSULT AB TEL 08/6309700 FAX 7326385
0
G R O S S F O R C E S
I I qdc I qev I qeh I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I I M I N I Q I M I N I Q I M I N I Q I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 92. -308. -61. 145. -508. -122. -188. 39. 139.
2.000 35. -266. -73. 37. -475. -131. -88. 27. 96.
2.000 35. -273. -36. 37. -489. -64. -88. 40. 91.
3.000 -3. -240. -51. -26. -448. -82. -25. 25. 57.
3.000 -3. -244. -16. -26. -455. -18. -25. 33. 53.
4.000 -24. -218. -33. -53. -412. -45. 9. 17. 28.
4.000 -24. -220. -2. -53. -415. 13. 9. 21. 25.

5.000 -33. -201. -19. -57. -375. -20. 23. 6. 7.
5.000 -33. -201. 10. -57. -374. 33. 23. 7. 6.

6.000 -32. -186. -7. -45. -340. -5. 23. -6. -6.
6.000 -32. -185. 19. -45. -338. 42. 23. -7. -5.
7.000 -23. -174. 2. -26. -311. 3. 16. -17. -12.

Appendix MB
7.000 -23. -170. 37. -26. -304. 66. 16. -19. -8.
8.000 7. -151. -9. 10. -266. -26. -8. -35. -15.
8.000 7. -148. 30. 10. -264. 44. -8. -38. -5.

9.000 19. -142. -19. 19. -254. -33. -20. -42. -6.
9.000 19. -142. 19. 19. -254. 33. -20. -42. 6.

10.000 7. -148. -30. 10. -264. -44. -8. -38. 5.
10.000 7. -151. 9. 10. -266. 26. -8. -35. 15.

11.000 -23. -170. -37. -26. -304. -66. 16. -19. 8.
11.000 -23. -174. -2. -26. -311. -3. 16. -17. 12.
12.000 -32. -185. -19. -45. -338. -42. 23. -7. 5.
12.000 -32. -186. 7. -45. -340. 5. 23. -6. 6.

13.000 -33. -201. -10. -57. -374. -33. 23. 7. -6.
13.000 -33. -201. 19. -57. -375. 20. 23. 6. -7.

14.000 -24. -220. 2. -53. -415. -13. 9. 21. -25.
1

0

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -24. -218. 33. -53. -412. 45. 9. 17. -28.

15.000 -3. -244. 16. -26. -455. 18. -25. 33. -53.
15.000 -3. -240. 51. -26. -448. 82. -25. 25. -57.
16.000 35. -273. 36. 37. -489. 64. -88. 40. -91.
16.000 35. -266. 73. 37. -475. 131. -88. 27. -96.
17.000 92. -308. 61. 145. -508. 122. -188. 39. -139.
1

0
I I qLL MAX-M I qLL MIN-M I qLL MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 21. -10. -9. -10. -15. 1. -7. -11. 2.

2.000 13. -8. -8. -9. -14. -6. -9. 2.
2.000 13. -9. -7. -9. -14. 2. -7. -10. 3.

3.000 8. -8. -6. -8. -14. 1. -5. -8. 2.
3.000 8. -9. -5. -8. -14. 3. -6. -10. 4.

4.000 4. -7. -4. -6. -14. 1. -4. -8. 3.
4.000 4. -7. -3. -6. -14. 3. -5. -9. 4.

5.000 1. -5. -2. -5. -15. -2. -8. 3.
5.000 1. -5. -1. -5. -15. 2. -3. -9. 4.

6.000 1. -2. 1. -5. -16. -1. -1. -8. 3.
6.000 1. -2. 1. -5. -16. 1. -2. -10. 4.

7.000 2. -4. 1. -5. -13. -1. -8. 3.
7.000 2. -3. 2. -5. -13. 2. -2. -12. 5.

8.000 4. -7. -1. -3. -8. 1. -8. 2.
8.000 4. -7. 1. -3. -8. 2. -2. -11. 5.

9.000 4. -8. -1. -2. -6. -1. 1. -7. 2.
9.000 4. -8. 1. -2. -6. 1. 1. -7. 4.

10.000 4. -7. -1. -3. -8. -2. 2. -3. 1.
10.000 4. -7. 1. -3. -8. -6. 3.

11.000 2. -3. -2. -5. -13. -2. -4. 1.

Appendix MB
11.000 2. -4. -1. -5. -13. 1. -2. -9. 2.

12.000 1. -2. -1. -5. -16. -1. -1. -8. 2.
12.000 1. -3. -1. -5. -16. 1. -2. -10. 3.

13.000 1. -5. 1. -5. -15. -2. -10. 3.
13.000 1. -5. 2. -5. -15. -1. -12. 4.

14.000 4. -7. 3. -6. -14. -3. 2. -12. 4.
1

0
I I qLL MAX-M I qLL MIN-M I qLL MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 4. -7. 4. -6. -14. -1. 1. -13. 6.

15.000 8. -9. 5. -8. -14. -3. 6. -13. 6.
15.000 8. -8. 6. -8. -14. -1. 5. -13. 8.

16.000 13. -9. 7. -9. -14. -2. 12. -13. 8.
16.000 13. -8. 8. -9. -14. 10. -14. 10.

17.000 21. -10. 9. -10. -15. -1. 18. -14. 10.
1

0
I I qLL MIN-Q I qLL MAX-N I qLL MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 18. -14. -10. 11. -25. -8.

2.000 10. -14. -10. 5. -23. -8.
2.000 12. -13. -8. 5. -24. -5.

3.000 5. -13. -8. -22. -6.
3.000 6. -13. -6. -22. -2.

4.000 1. -13. -6. -2. -21. -4.
4.000 2. -12. -4. -2. -21. -1.

5.000 -1. -12. -4. -4. -20. -2.
5.000 -10. -3. -4. -20. 1.

6.000 -2. -10. -3. -3. -18. -1.
6.000 -1. -8. -2. -3. -18. 2.

7.000 -2. -9. -2. -2. -17.
7.000 -4. -1. -2. -17. 4.

8.000 -6. -3. 1. -15. -1.
8.000 2. -3. -1. 1. -14. 3.

9.000 1. -7. -4. 2. -14. -2.
9.000 1. -7. -2. 2. -14. 2.

10.000 -2. -11. -5. 1. -14. -3.
10.000 1. -8. -2. 1. -15. 1.

11.000 -2. -12. -5. -2. -17. -4.
11.000 -8. -3. -2. -17.

12.000 -2. -10. -4. -3. -18. -2.
12.000 -1. -8. -3. -3. -18. 1.

13.000 -3. -9. -4. -4. -20. -1.
13.000 -2. -8. -3. -4. -20. 2.

14.000 -5. -9. -4. -2. -21. 1.
1

Appendix MB

0
I I qLL MIN-Q I qLL MAX-N I qLL MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -4. -8. -3. -2. -21. 4.

15.000 -6. -10. -4. -22. 2.
15.000 -5. -8. -2. -22. 6.

16.000 -7. -10. -3. 5. -24. 5.
16.000 -6. -9. -2. 5. -23. 8.

17.000 -7. -11. -2. 11. -25. 8.
1

0
I I dpls MAX-M I dpls MIN-M I dpls MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 -59. 10. 36. -59. 10. 36.

2.000 -32. 8. 28. -32. 8. 28.
2.000 -32. 12. 27. -32. 12. 27.

3.000 -12. 9. 20. -12. 9. 20.
3.000 -12. 11. 18. -12. 11. 18.

4.000 1. 7. 11. 1. 7. 11.
4.000 1. 9. 10. 1. 9. 10.

5.000 7. 4. 5. 7. 4. 5.
5.000 7. 4. 4. 7. 4. 4.
6.000 9. -1. -1.
6.000 9. -1. -1.

7.000 7. -6. -4.
7.000 7. -6. -3.

8.000 -3. -16. -7.
8.000 -3. -17. -2.

9.000 -8. -21. -3.
9.000 -8. -21. 3. -8. -21. 3.

10.000 -3. -17. 2. -3. -17. 2.
10.000 -3. -16. 7. -3. -16. 7.

11.000 7. -6. 3. 7. -6. 3.
11.000 7. -6. 4. 7. -6. 4.

12.000 9. -1. 1. 9. -1. 1.
12.000 9. -1. 1. 9. -1. 1.

13.000 7. 4. -4.
13.000 7. 4. -5.
14.000 1. 9. -10.
1

0

Appendix MB
I I dpls MAX-M I dpls MIN-M I dpls MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 1. 7. -11.
15.000 -12. 11. -18.
15.000 -12. 9. -20.

16.000 -32. 12. -27.
16.000 -32. 8. -28.

17.000 -59. 10. -36.
1

0
I I dpls MIN-Q I dpls MAX-N I dpls MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 -59. 10. 36.

2.000 -32. 8. 28.
2.000 -32. 12. 27.

3.000 -12. 9. 20.
3.000 -12. 11. 18.

4.000 1. 7. 11.
4.000 1. 9. 10.
5.000 7. 4. 5.
5.000 7. 4. 4.
6.000 9. -1. -1. 9. -1. -1.
6.000 9. -1. -1. 9. -1. -1.

7.000 7. -6. -4. 7. -6. -4.
7.000 7. -6. -3. 7. -6. -3.

8.000 -3. -16. -7. -3. -16. -7.
8.000 -3. -17. -2. -3. -17. -2.

9.000 -8. -21. -3. -8. -21. -3.
9.000 -8. -21. 3.

10.000 -3. -17. 2.
10.000 -3. -16. 7.

11.000 7. -6. 3.
11.000 7. -6. 4.
12.000 9. -1. 1.
12.000 9. -1. 1.
13.000 7. 4. -4. 7. 4. -4.
13.000 7. 4. -5. 7. 4. -5.

14.000 1. 9. -10. 1. 9. -10.
1

0
I I dpls MIN-Q I dpls MAX-N I dpls MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 1. 7. -11. 1. 7. -11.

15.000 -12. 11. -18. -12. 11. -18.
15.000 -12. 9. -20. -12. 9. -20.

16.000 -32. 12. -27. -32. 12. -27.

Appendix MB
16.000 -32. 8. -28. -32. 8. -28.

17.000 -59. 10. -36. -59. 10. -36.
1

0
I I p-truck MAX-M I p-truck MIN-M I p-truck MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 101. -43. -42. -49. -73. 8. -23. -45. 12.

2.000 66. -38. -40. -44. -68. 3. -25. -46. 10.
2.000 66. -43. -34. -44. -67. 12. -25. -44. 17.
3.000 37. -37. -32. -36. -65. 6. -23. -44. 14.
3.000 37. -41. -26. -36. -63. 15. -23. -42. 20.
4.000 17. -30. -22. -28. -85. -1. -18. -43. 16.
4.000 17. -33. -17. -28. -85. 11. -18. -40. 22.
5.000 8. -23. -6. -25. -82. -4. -11. -42. 17.
5.000 8. -23. -2. -25. -81. 8. -11. -39. 22.

6.000 9. -13. 5. -24. -75. -5. -5. -42. 16.
6.000 9. -12. 7. -24. -76. 5. -5. -39. 22.

7.000 14. -19. 5. -24. -65. -3. 1. -43. 16.
7.000 14. -17. 8. -24. -64. 10. -14. -74. 26.

8.000 22. -33. -4. -16. -39. 8. -43. 11.
8.000 22. -33. 4. -16. -38. 10. -4. -58. 25.

9.000 22. -36. -5. -9. -28. -4. 8. -40. 11.
9.000 22. -36. 5. -9. -28. 4. 8. -36. 21.

10.000 22. -33. -4. -16. -38. -10. 15. -19. 9.
10.000 22. -33. 4. -16. -39. 5. -32. 15.

11.000 14. -18. -8. -24. -64. -10. 3. -22. 5.
11.000 14. -19. -5. -24. -65. 3. -4. -34. 11.

12.000 9. -13. -7. -24. -76. -5. -1. -32. 9.
12.000 9. -14. -5. -24. -75. 6. -15. -49. 14.

13.000 8. -23. 3. -25. -81. -8. -3. -49. 14.
13.000 8. -23. 6. -25. -82. 4. -7. -55. 21.

14.000 17. -33. 17. -28. -85. -11. 11. -55. 21.
1

0
I I p-truck MAX-M I p-truck MIN-M I p-truck MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 17. -30. 22. -28. -85. 1. 7. -57. 29.

15.000 37. -41. 26. -36. -64. -15. 32. -57. 29.
15.000 37. -37. 32. -36. -65. -6. 27. -58. 37.
16.000 66. -44. 34. -44. -67. -12. 59. -58. 37.
16.000 66. -38. 40. -44. -69. -3. 53. -57. 45.
17.000 101. -43. 42. -49. -73. -8. 92. -57. 45.
1


Appendix MB

0
I I p-truck MIN-Q I p-truck MAX-N I p-truck MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 92. -57. -45. -27. -97. -4.

2.000 54. -57. -45. -28. -94. -11.
2.000 59. -58. -37. -28. -95. 1.

3.000 27. -58. -37. -27. -92. -6.
3.000 32. -57. -29. -27. -92. 6.

4.000 7. -57. -29. -25. -90. -2.
4.000 11. -55. -21. -25. -89. 10.

5.000 -7. -55. -21. -22. -87. 2.
5.000 -3. -49. -14. -22. -86. 14.

6.000 -15. -49. -14. -19. -84. 6.
6.000 -1. -32. -9. -19. -82. 18.

7.000 -4. -34. -11. -15. -79. 10.
7.000 3. -22. -5. -15. -75. 25.

8.000 5. -32. -15. 4. -65. 3.
8.000 15. -19. -9. 7. -63. 18.

9.000 8. -36. -21. 11. -60. -2.
9.000 8. -40. -11. 12. -60. 3.

10.000 -4. -58. -25. 7. -63. -18.
10.000 8. -43. -11. 4. -66. -3.

11.000 -14. -74. -26. -15. -75. -26.
11.000 1. -43. -16. -15. -79. -10.

12.000 -5. -40. -22. -19. -82. -18.
12.000 -5. -42. -16. -19. -84. -6.

13.000 -11. -40. -22. -22. -86. -14.
13.000 -11. -42. -17. -22. -87. -2.

14.000 -18. -40. -22. -25. -89. -11.
1

0
I I p-truck MIN-Q I p-truck MAX-N I p-truck MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -18. -43. -16. -25. -90. 2.

15.000 -23. -42. -20. -27. -92. -7.
15.000 -23. -44. -14. -27. -92. 6.

16.000 -25. -44. -17. -28. -95. -2.
16.000 -25. -46. -10. -28. -94. 11.

17.000 -23. -46. -12. -28. -97. 4.
1

0
I I p-tandem MAX-M I p-tandem MIN-M I p-tandem MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I

Appendix MB
1.000 101. -36. -40. -60. -70. 7. -45. -69. 16.
2.000 68. -33. -38. -56. -69. 3. -40. -63. 12.
2.000 68. -38. -33. -56. -68. 12. -46. -67. 22.
3.000 41. -34. -31. -48. -69. 6. -36. -61. 16.
3.000 41. -38. -26. -48. -67. 16. -41. -65. 25.
4.000 19. -31. -23. -38. -68. 6. -27. -60. 18.
4.000 19. -34. -19. -38. -67. 16. -32. -63. 27.
5.000 5. -9. 4. -30. -68. 3. -20. -64. 18.
5.000 5. -8. 5. -30. -67. 12. -22. -63. 27.

6.000 10. -16. 6. -26. -67. -2. -13. -66. 18.
6.000 10. -15. 8. -26. -67. 7. -13. -63. 27.

7.000 17. -24. 6. -25. -61. -3. -6. -66. 18.
7.000 17. -22. 10. -25. -60. 9. -6. -61. 31.

8.000 27. -41. -5. -19. -42. 3. -63. 13.
8.000 27. -41. 6. -19. -41. 11. 3. -57. 28.

9.000 26. -52. -7. -6. -19. 3. 11. -45. 13.
9.000 26. -53. 7. -6. -18. 8. 11. -41. 25.

10.000 27. -41. -6. -19. -41. -11. 17. -22. 10.
10.000 27. -41. 5. -19. -42. 17. -19. 16.

11.000 17. -22. -10. -25. -60. -9. 11. -6. 4.
11.000 17. -24. -6. -25. -61. 3. -18. -41. 9.

12.000 10. -15. -8. -26. -67. -7. -10. -41. 9.
12.000 10. -16. -6. -26. -67. 2. -14. -46. 15.

13.000 5. -9. -5. -30. -67. -12. -1. -46. 15.
13.000 5. -9. -4. -30. -68. -3. -4. -49. 22.

14.000 19. -34. 19. -38. -67. -16. 14. -49. 22.
1

0
I I p-tandem MAX-M I p-tandem MIN-M I p-tandem MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 19. -31. 23. -38. -68. -6. 11. -49. 28.
15.000 41. -38. 26. -48. -67. -16. 36. -49. 28.
15.000 41. -34. 31. -48. -69. -6. 32. -48. 35.
16.000 68. -38. 33. -56. -68. -12. 62. -48. 35.
16.000 68. -33. 38. -56. -69. -3. 59. -45. 42.
17.000 101. -36. 40. -60. -70. -7. 94. -45. 42.
1

0
I I p-tandem MIN-Q I p-tandem MAX-N I p-tandem MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 94. -45. -42. -57. -70. 12.

2.000 59. -45. -42. -47. -70. 12.
2.000 62. -48. -35. -50. -69. 4.

3.000 32. -48. -35. -47. -69. 4.
3.000 36. -49. -28. -37. -69.

4.000 11. -49. -28. -37. -69.
4.000 14. -49. -22. -31. -68. 1.

5.000 -4. -49. -22. -30. -68. 1.

Appendix MB
5.000 -1. -46. -15. -28. -68. 5.

6.000 -14. -46. -15. -24. -68. 5.
6.000 -10. -41. -9. -25. -67. 11.

7.000 -18. -41. -9. -16. -67. 11.
7.000 11. -6. -4. -20. -64. 19.

8.000 17. -19. -16. 3. -63. 13.
8.000 17. -22. -10. 2. -57. 28.

9.000 11. -41. -25. 26. -53. -5.
9.000 11. -46. -13. 26. -53. 5.

10.000 3. -57. -28. 3. -57. -28.
10.000 3. -63. -13. 4. -63. -12.

11.000 -6. -61. -31. -20. -64. -19.
11.000 -6. -66. -18. -16. -67. -10.

12.000 -13. -63. -27. -25. -67. -10.
12.000 -13. -66. -18. -24. -68. -5.

13.000 -22. -63. -27. -28. -68. -5.
13.000 -20. -64. -18. -30. -68. -1.

14.000 -32. -64. -27. -31. -68. -1.
1

0
I I p-tandem MIN-Q I p-tandem MAX-N I p-tandem MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -27. -60. -18. -37. -69.

15.000 -41. -65. -25. -37. -69.
15.000 -36. -61. -16. -47. -69. -4.

16.000 -46. -67. -22. -51. -69. -4.
16.000 -40. -63. -12. -47. -70. -12.

17.000 -45. -70. -16. -57. -70. -12.
1

0
I I Live-Load MAX-M I Live-Load MIN-M I Live-Load MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 122. -46. -49. -70. -85. 8. -52. -80. 18.

2.000 82. -41. -47. -65. -84. 3. -46. -72. 14.
2.000 82. -47. -40. -65. -83. 15. -54. -77. 25.
3.000 48. -42. -38. -55. -83. 7. -41. -69. 18.
3.000 48. -47. -31. -55. -81. 18. -47. -74. 29.
4.000 23. -38. -27. -44. -82. 7. -31. -68. 21.
4.000 23. -41. -22. -44. -80. 18. -37. -73. 31.
5.000 10. -27. -7. -35. -83. 2. -23. -71. 21.
5.000 10. -28. -3. -35. -82. 14. -25. -72. 31.
6.000 12. -19. 7. -30. -83. -4. -14. -74. 21.
6.000 12. -17. 9. -30. -82. 8. -15. -72. 31.

7.000 19. -27. 7. -29. -74. -4. -7. -74. 21.
7.000 19. -25. 12. -29. -74. 11. -9. -73. 36.
8.000 31. -48. -5. -22. -50. 3. -71. 14.
8.000 31. -47. 7. -22. -48. 13. 1. -68. 33.

Appendix MB
9.000 30. -61. -8. -10. -33. -4. 12. -53. 15.
9.000 30. -61. 8. -10. -33. 5. 12. -47. 28.

10.000 31. -47. -7. -22. -48. -13. 19. -25. 12.
10.000 31. -48. 5. -22. -50. 17. -25. 18.

11.000 19. -25. -12. -29. -74. -11. 3. -27. 6.
11.000 19. -27. -7. -29. -74. 4. -5. -43. 13.

12.000 12. -17. -9. -30. -82. -8. -3. -40. 11.
12.000 12. -19. -7. -30. -83. 4. -16. -57. 18.

13.000 10. -28. 4. -35. -82. -14. -1. -56. 18.
13.000 10. -28. 8. -35. -83. -2. -5. -61. 26.

14.000 23. -41. 22. -44. -80. -18. 17. -60. 26.
1

0
I I Live-Load MAX-M I Live-Load MIN-M I Live-Load MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 23. -38. 27. -44. -82. -7. 8. -70. 35.

15.000 48. -47. 31. -55. -81. -18. 38. -70. 35.
15.000 48. -42. 38. -55. -83. -7. 32. -71. 45.
16.000 82. -47. 40. -65. -83. -15. 71. -71. 45.
16.000 82. -41. 46. -65. -84. -3. 64. -71. 55.
17.000 122. -46. 49. -70. -85. -9. 110. -71. 55.
1

0
I I Live-Load MIN-Q I Live-Load MAX-N I Live-Load MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 111. -71. -55. -16. -121. -12.

2.000 64. -71. -55. -23. -117. -19.
2.000 71. -71. -45. -23. -118. -3.

3.000 32. -71. -45. -27. -114. -12.
3.000 38. -70. -35. -27. -115. 4.

4.000 8. -70. -35. -27. -111. -5.
4.000 17. -60. -26. -27. -110. 10.

5.000 -5. -60. -26. -26. -107.
5.000 -1. -57. -18. -26. -106. 15.

6.000 -16. -57. -18. -22. -102. 6.
6.000 -2. -40. -11. -22. -100. 19.

7.000 -5. -43. -13. -17. -96. 10.
7.000 3. -27. -6. -18. -92. 29.

8.000 17. -25. -18. 4. -80. 3.
8.000 19. -25. -12. 8. -77. 21.

9.000 12. -47. -28. 14. -74. -4.
9.000 12. -53. -15. 14. -74. 4.

10.000 1. -68. -33. 8. -77. -21.
10.000 3. -71. -14. 4. -81. -3.

11.000 -8. -73. -36. -17. -92. -29.
11.000 -7. -74. -21. -17. -96. -10.

12.000 -15. -72. -31. -22. -100. -20.

Appendix MB
12.000 -14. -74. -21. -22. -102. -6.

13.000 -25. -72. -31. -26. -106. -15.
13.000 -23. -72. -21. -26. -107. -1.

14.000 -37. -73. -31. -27. -110. -10.
1

0
I I Live-Load MIN-Q I Live-Load MAX-N I Live-Load MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -31. -68. -21. -27. -111. 5.

15.000 -47. -75. -29. -27. -115. -4.
15.000 -41. -70. -18. -27. -114. 12.

16.000 -53. -78. -25. -23. -119. 3.
16.000 -45. -72. -14. -23. -117. 19.

17.000 -52. -80. -18. -16. -122. 11.
1

0
I I LC-ASLS MAX-M I LC-ASLS MIN-M I LC-ASLS MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 310. -961. -169. -266. -812. 100. -236. -804. 117.
2.000 141. -881. -225. -224. -763. 1. -190. -742. 19.
2.000 141. -904. -101. -224. -755. 107. -204. -746. 124.
3.000 36. -669. -134. -186. -871. -24. -151. -691. 24.
3.000 36. -681. -38. -186. -866. 98. -163. -695. 123.
4.000 -15. -597. -60. -157. -840. -48. -109. -650. 24.
4.000 -15. -600. 24. -157. -838. 69. -138. -801. 120.
5.000 -20. -551. -30. -141. -789. -31. -76. -628. 19.
5.000 -20. -549. 47. -141. -786. 80. -101. -757. 119.
6.000 -2. -516. -8. -118. -743. -24. -73. -608. 21.
6.000 -2. -512. 64. -118. -739. 79. -91. -721. 120.
7.000 23. -518. -6. -91. -691. -12. -51. -691. 31.
7.000 23. -508. 98. -91. -679. 128. -54. -678. 170.
8.000 65. -584. -62. -40. -539. -63. 13. -531. -19.
8.000 65. -580. 90. -40. -537. 79. 13. -617. 136.
9.000 76. -589. -78. -25. -508. -67. 37. -486. -25.
9.000 76. -589. 78. -25. -508. 67. 20. -621. 121.
10.000 65. -580. -90. -40. -537. -79. 32. -496. -36.
10.000 65. -585. 63. -40. -539. 63. 31. -589. 103.
11.000 23. -508. -98. -91. -679. -128. -6. -510. -66.
11.000 23. -518. 6. -91. -691. 11. -20. -545. 42.

12.000 -2. -512. -64. -118. -739. -79. -27. -552. -29.
12.000 -2. -516. 8. -118. -743. 24. -67. -701. 53.

13.000 -20. -550. -47. -141. -786. -80. -62. -610. -13.
13.000 -20. -551. 31. -141. -789. 31. -89. -750. 81.
14.000 -15. -600. -24. -157. -838. -69. -32. -658. 13.
1

Appendix MB
0
I I LC-ASLS MAX-M I LC-ASLS MIN-M I LC-ASLS MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -15. -598. 60. -157. -840. 48. -65. -819. 122.
15.000 36. -681. 38. -186. -866. -98. 9. -882. 51.
15.000 36. -669. 134. -186. -871. 24. -1. -881. 176.
16.000 141. -904. 101. -224. -755. -107. 121. -945. 109.
16.000 141. -881. 225. -224. -763. -1. 109. -936. 241.
17.000 310. -961. 169. -266. -812. -100. 289. -1005. 180.
1

0
I I LC-ASLS MIN-Q I LC-ASLS MAX-N I LC-ASLS MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 289. -1005. -180. -144. -664. 85. 68. -1094. -104.
2.000 110. -936. -241. -111. -616. -5. -43. -1017. -179.
2.000 121. -946. -109. -111. -611. 81. -42. -1032. -37.
3.000 -1. -881. -176. -80. -570. -8. -104. -956. -118.
3.000 9. -882. -51. -80. -565. 72. -104. -963. 17.

4.000 -66. -819. -122. -55. -532. -12. -128. -893. -70.
4.000 -32. -658. -13. -55. -528. 62. -128. -894. 55.
5.000 -89. -749. -81. -37. -503. -17. -125. -833. -35.
5.000 -62. -611. 13. -37. -501. 53. -125. -830. 82.
6.000 -67. -702. -53. -49. -479. -16. -78. -783. -11.
6.000 -27. -552. 29. -49. -477. 51. -78. -777. 97.
7.000 -20. -544. -42. -30. -452. -6. -50. -749. 1.
7.000 -6. -511. 66. -30. -444. 85. -51. -733. 151.
8.000 31. -588. -103. 8. -407. -44. 10. -687. -67.
8.000 32. -496. 36. 8. -405. 63. 15. -681. 108.

9.000 20. -621. -121. 17. -394. -52. 24. -670. -79.
9.000 37. -487. 25. 17. -394. 52. 24. -670. 79.
10.000 13. -617. -136. 8. -405. -63. 15. -682. -108.
10.000 14. -531. 19. 8. -407. 44. 10. -688. 67.

11.000 -54. -678. -171. -30. -444. -85. -50. -734. -152.
11.000 -51. -691. -31. -30. -452. 6. -50. -749. -1.

12.000 -91. -722. -120. -49. -477. -51. -78. -777. -97.
12.000 -73. -608. -21. -49. -479. 16. -78. -783. 11.
13.000 -101. -758. -119. -37. -501. -53. -125. -830. -82.
13.000 -76. -628. -19. -37. -503. 17. -125. -833. 35.
14.000 -138. -801. -120. -55. -528. -62. -128. -894. -55.
1

0
I I LC-ASLS MIN-Q I LC-ASLS MAX-N I LC-ASLS MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I

Appendix MB
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -109. -650. -24. -55. -532. 12. -127. -893. 70.
15.000 -163. -696. -123. -80. -565. -72. -104. -963. -18.
15.000 -151. -691. -24. -80. -570. 8. -104. -956. 118.

16.000 -204. -747. -124. -111. -611. -81. -43. -1032. 36.
16.000 -190. -742. -19. -111. -616. 5. -43. -1017. 179.

17.000 -236. -804. -117. -144. -664. -85. 67. -1094. 104.
1

0
I I LC-ASI MAX-M I LC-ASI MIN-M I LC-ASI MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 171. -823. -94. -80. -852. -63. -847. 9.

2.000 65. -755. -155. -113. -790. -77. -94. -778. -66.
2.000 65. -769. -49. -113. -793. 33. -102. -787. 43.
3.000 -5. -704. -113. -121. -736. -49. -106. -723. -37.
3.000 -5. -713. -13. -121. -736. 55. -112. -729. 65.
4.000 -44. -644. -66. -112. -695. -43. -98. -674. -18.
4.000 -44. -646. 25. -112. -694. 55. -104. -678. 77.
5.000 -49. -593. -34. -101. -653. -29. -82. -637. -6.
5.000 -49. -592. 49. -101. -650. 62. -85. -636. 84.
6.000 -33. -552. -11. -85. -615. -21. -68. -606. 3.
6.000 -33. -548. 65. -85. -612. 64. -69. -602. 87.
7.000 -7. -535. -4. -63. -577. -10. -40. -577. 14.
7.000 -7. -525. 104. -63. -567. 106. -42. -566. 130.
8.000 39. -500. -54. -16. -519. -56. 12. -523. -35.
8.000 39. -497. 77. -16. -516. 80. 10. -518. 102.
9.000 49. -498. -66. -492. -65. 30. -491. -42.
9.000 49. -499. 66. -492. 65. 22. -506. 89.

10.000 39. -497. -77. -16. -516. -80. 24. -492. -56.
10.000 39. -501. 54. -16. -519. 56. 22. -494. 74.
11.000 -7. -525. -104. -63. -567. -106. -24. -526. -86.
11.000 -7. -536. 4. -63. -577. 10. -32. -551. 24.

12.000 -33. -548. -65. -85. -612. -64. -48. -571. -45.
12.000 -33. -552. 11. -85. -615. 21. -61. -590. 36.
13.000 -49. -592. -49. -101. -650. -63. -68. -625. -31.
13.000 -49. -593. 35. -101. -653. 29. -72. -630. 58.
14.000 -44. -647. -25. -112. -694. -55. -51. -675. -10.
1

0
I I LC-ASI MAX-M I LC-ASI MIN-M I LC-ASI MAX-Q I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -44. -644. 66. -112. -695. 43. -60. -683. 85.
15.000 -5. -713. 13. -121. -736. -55. -16. -736. 17.
15.000 -5. -704. 113. -121. -736. 49. -21. -734. 120.
16.000 65. -769. 49. -113. -793. -33. 54. -793. 54.
16.000 65. -755. 155. -113. -790. 77. 47. -784. 164.
17.000 171. -823. 94. -80. -852. 159. -848. 100.
1

Appendix MB

0
I I LC-ASI MIN-Q I LC-ASI MAX-N I LC-ASI MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1.000 160. -848. -100. -10. -767. -9. 33. -899. -57.
2.000 47. -784. -164. -49. -706. -80. -40. -831. -128.
2.000 54. -793. -54. -49. -710. 19. -40. -840. -12.
3.000 -21. -734. -120. -65. -654. -56. -80. -776. -87.
3.000 -16. -736. -17. -65. -655. 37. -80. -781. 22.
4.000 -60. -683. -85. -67. -606. -38. -95. -724. -55.
4.000 -51. -674. 10. -67. -605. 47. -95. -724. 46.
5.000 -72. -630. -58. -59. -566. -27. -92. -676. -31.
5.000 -68. -625. 31. -59. -564. 52. -92. -674. 64.
6.000 -61. -590. -36. -54. -532. -18. -68. -635. -13.
6.000 -48. -571. 45. -54. -530. 56. -68. -631. 75.
7.000 -32. -551. -24. -33. -502. -7. -44. -604.
7.000 -24. -526. 86. -33. -493. 94. -44. -592. 121.
8.000 22. -494. -74. 8. -453. -49. 10. -549. -53.
8.000 24. -492. 56. 8. -450. 70. 13. -544. 88.

9.000 22. -506. -89. 19. -438. -58. 24. -533. -65.
9.000 30. -491. 42. 19. -438. 58. 24. -533. 65.
10.000 10. -518. -102. 8. -450. -70. 13. -544. -88.
10.000 12. -523. 35. 8. -453. 49. 10. -549. 53.

11.000 -42. -566. -130. -33. -493. -94. -44. -592. -121.
11.000 -40. -577. -14. -33. -502. 7. -43. -604.

12.000 -69. -602. -87. -54. -530. -56. -68. -631. -75.
12.000 -68. -606. -3. -54. -532. 18. -67. -635. 13.
13.000 -85. -636. -84. -59. -564. -52. -92. -674. -64.
13.000 -82. -637. 6. -59. -566. 27. -92. -676. 31.

14.000 -104. -678. -77. -67. -605. -47. -95. -725. -46.
1

0
I I LC-ASI MIN-Q I LC-ASI MAX-N I LC-ASI MIN-N I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
14.000 -98. -674. 18. -67. -606. 38. -95. -724. 55.
15.000 -113. -730. -65. -65. -655. -37. -80. -781. -23.
15.000 -106. -723. 37. -65. -654. 56. -80. -777. 87.
16.000 -102. -788. -43. -49. -710. -19. -40. -840. 11.
16.000 -94. -778. 66. -49. -706. 80. -40. -831. 128.
17.000 -63. -847. -9. -10. -767. 9. 33. -899. 56.
1

0

Appendix MB
R E A C T I O N S

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I I R-ETA I R-ZETA I R-M I R-ETA I R-ZETA I R-M I R-ETA I R-ZETA I R-M I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -143. -279. 92. -256. -456. 145. 144. -188.
17 143. -279. -92. 256. -456. -145. -144. 188.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I qLL MAX-RM I qLL MIN-RM I qLL MAX-RETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -11. -7. 21. -3. -15. -10.
17 3. -15. 10. 11. -7. -21. 14. -21. -11.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I qLL MIN-RETA I qLL MAX-RZETA I qLL MIN-RZETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -14. -21. 11. -14. -22. 11.
17 14. -22. -11.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I dpls MAX-RM I dpls MIN-RM I dpls MAX-RETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 38. -59. 38. -59.
17 -38. 59.
1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I dpls MIN-RETA I dpls MAX-RZETA I dpls MIN-RZETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I

Appendix MB
1
17 -38. 59.
1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I p-truck MAX-RM I p-truck MIN-RM I p-truck MAX-RETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -52. -30. 101. -12. -73. -49. -2.
17 12. -73. 49. 53. -30. -101. 60. -56. -75.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I p-truck MIN-RETA I p-truck MAX-RZETA I p-truck MIN-RZETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -60. -50. 79. -30. -92. -28.
17 -2. 30. -92. 28.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I p-tandem MAX-RM I p-tandem MIN-RM I p-tandem MAX-RETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -48. -24. 101. -12. -69. -60.
17 12. -69. 60. 48. -24. -101. 53. -36. -85.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I p-tandem MIN-RETA I p-tandem MAX-RZETA I p-tandem MIN-RZETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -53. -36. 84. -4. -71. -45.
17 4. -71. 45.
1

Appendix MB

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I Live-Load MAX-RM I Live-Load MIN-RM I Live-Load MAX-RETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -59. -31. 122. -15. -84. -70. -2.
17 15. -84. 70. 59. -31. -122. 74. -78. -86.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I Live-Load MIN-RETA I Live-Load MAX-RZETA I Live-Load MIN-RZETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -74. -71. 90. -44. -114. -16.
17 -2. 44. -114. 16.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I LC-ASLS MAX-RM I LC-ASLS MIN-RM I LC-ASLS MAX-RETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -424. -878. 310. -125. -809. -266. -99. -662. -144.
17 125. -809. 266. 425. -879. -310. 450. -961. -246.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I LC-ASLS MIN-RETA I LC-ASLS MAX-RZETA I LC-ASLS MIN-RZETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -450. -949. 254. -229. -662. 44. -398. -1024. 67.
17 99. -662. 144. 229. -662. -44. 398. -1024. -67.

1


Appendix MB
0
R E A C T I O N S
I I LC-ASI MAX-RM I LC-ASI MIN-RM I LC-ASI MAX-RETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -314. -766. 171. -232. -819. -80. -217. -735. -10.
17 232. -819. 80. 314. -766. -171. 329. -813. -135.

1

0
R E A C T I O N S
I I LC-ASI MIN-RETA I LC-ASI MAX-RZETA I LC-ASI MIN-RZETA I

I POINTS I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I--------------------------------I
I-----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
1 -329. -806. 139. -255. -735. 49. -299. -849. 32.
17 217. -735. 10. 255. -735. -49. 299. -849. -33.

1

CONSTRUCTION TYPE FRAME Masonry bridge 12 m length -1 :
0
0T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
0
ECHOPRINT PAGE
0 UNITS 1
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 2
ELEMENT TYPES 2
GEOMETRY OF SYSTEM 3
STANDARD LOADCASES 4
TRACKS 8
TRAFFIC LOAD GROUPS 8
TRAFFIC LOADCASES 9
LOADCOMBINATIONS 9
0
RESULTS
0 I LOAD COMBINATION I STABI- I STRESSES I GROSS - I REAC- I DEFOR- I

I NAME I LITY I I FORCES I TIONS I MATIONS I
I------------------I----------I----------I----------I----------I----------I
qdc 12 42
qev 12 42
qeh 12 42
qLL 14 43
dpls 18 45
p-truck 22 47
p-tandem 26 49
Live-Load 30 51
LC-ASLS 34 53
LC-ASI 38 55
0
LAST PAGE OF THIS CALCULATION 56
1

Appendix RW
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Retaining Wall Design
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX RW - DESIGN OF R.C. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

Project:
Consultant: Louis Berger in association with SABA Engineering plc
Designed by : Henok Aberra ( Structural Engineer)
Date of design :- 29/09/98
General Notes
Specification used : ERA Bridge Design Manual-2002
Back fill material is assumed level and traffic surcharge load is incorporated.
W9
W8
W1
H [height of wall]
W2
W4
W6
W3 W5
W7
Input Dimensions
Recommended value
Height of wall, H = 5.00 m
Stem top thickness,T1 = 0.25 m
Stem bottom thickness,T2 = 0.40 m
Depth of heel cantilever,T5 = 0.40 m
Tappering slope,y1 = 0.10
End depth of heel cantilever,T3 = 0.21 m
End depth of toe cantilever,T4 = 0.30 m
Length of heel cantilever,L1 = 1.95 m
Length of toe cantilever,L2 = 1.00 m 1.01 m
Length of footing, L = 3.35 m 3.50 m
Height of fill, H2 = 4.80 m
Free board of wall height on top = 0.00 m
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page RW-1
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Material Properties
Yield stength of reiforcemement steel, fy for f <=20 = 350.0 Mpa

Yield stength of reiforcemement steel, fy for f >20 = 400.0 Mpa
Cylinderical compressive strength at 28 days, fc' = 20.0 Mpa
Unit weight of concrete,gc = 24.00

Unit weight of soil,gs = 19.22
Active earth pressure coef. Ka = 0.38 Soil type fT ff
ff = 38 Deg. Clay 0.85 22
fT = 0.9 Sand 0.8 25
fT*tan ff= 0.70 Gravel 0.9 38
Coef. of friction b/n concrete and foundation material = 0.70
Foundation material (Soil, Rock)= soil
Bearing resistance of the foundation material = 250.00 kN/m2
2
qsurcharge = 16.24 kNm
Load Factors
Max Min
Active Horizontal earth pressure = 1.50 0.90
Vertical earth pressure = 1.35 1.00
Dead load of components = 1.25 0.90
1.0 Dead Load
Resisting
Centroidal moment
distance (Weight
Weight from toe X centroidal
Material Portion [kN/m] [m] distance)
concrete W1 27.6 1.13 31.05
" W2 8.28 1.30 10.76
" W3 3.84 1.2 4.61
" W4 1.20 0.67 0.80
" W5 7.20 0.50 3.60
" W6 4.56 2.05 9.35
" W7 9.59 2.375 22.79
Concrete Total 62.28 82.96
soil W8 176.06 2.375 418.14

soil W9 6.63 1.35 8.95
Surcharge 34.11 2.3 78.44
Soil Total 216.79 505.53
2.0 Lateral Pressure
The surcharge load from highway loading may be taken as given in Table 3-25
Wall Height[m] heq [m] A chart can be prepared for the interpolation
<=1.50 1.70 between heights of 1.5 and 9.0 m.
3.0 1.20
6.0 0.76
>=9.0 0.61
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Highway Surcharge load
2.00 y = -0.0034x3 + 0.077x2 - 0.6266x + 2.478
1.50
heq [m]
1.00
Wall Height[m] heq [m]
0.50 1.5 1.70
3.0 1.20
0.00
6.0 0.76
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 9 0.61
Wall height [m]
heq [m] Polynomial (heq [m])
Let P1 & P2 be the earth pressure from the surcharge and linearly varyng load.
Arm from Driving

foundation Moment
Force level about Toe
P1 30.86 2.5 77.14
P2 91.30 1.7 152.16
sum 122.15 229.30
3.0 Bearing pressure beneath footing
The bearing pressure beneath footing is calculated by the factored loads. According to Tables 3-2 & 3-3,
the dead load of the wall and the surcharge loads are factored by the minimum or maximun value; whereas, the lateral
pressure is factored by the maximum value.
a ) With min. factors for dead and surcharge load and max. factor for lateral pressure
The summation of moment about toe, Msum = 236.24 kNm
The eccentricity e , is therefore,

e =L/2-Msum/V = 0.809 m e<L/4, OK !!
I ) When the foundation material is rock e>L/6, Look at Case -2
Case -1 When e<=L/6
q heel = -36.59 kN/m2 OK !!

q toe = 199.48 kN/m2 OK !!
-36.59
199.48
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Case -2 When L/6<e<=3/8*L
qmax =2V/[3(L/2-e)] = 210.08 kN/m2
L1 =3[L/2-e] = 2.598 m
210.08
L1 = 2.598 m
II ) When the foundation material is soil
qmax*Le =V and qmax*Le*(L-Le/2) =V(L/2+e)
From the above two eq's qmax and Le can be calculated.
Le =V/qmax = 1.732 m
V
qmax =V(L/2+e)/[Le(L-Le/2)] = 157.56 kN/m2
qmax = 157.6 kN/m2
Le = 1.732 m
b ) With max. factors for dead and surcharge load and max. factor for lateral pressure
The summation of moment about toe, Msum = 442.22 kNm
The eccentricity e , is therefore,

e =L/2-Msum/V = 0.481 m e<L/4, OK !!
I ) When the foundation material is rock e<=L/6, Look at Case -1
Case -1 When e<=L/6
q heel = 15.22 kN/m2 OK !!

q toe = 205.98 kN/m2 OK !!
15.22
205.98
Case -2 When L/6<e<=L/4
qmax =2V/[3(L/2-e)] = 206.96 kN/m2
L1 =3[L/2-e] = 3.581 m
206.96
L1 = 3.581 m
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
II ) When the foundation material is soil
qmax*Le =V and qmax*Le*(L-Le/2) =V(L/2+e)
From the above two eq's qmax and Le can be calculated. V
Le =V/qmax = 2.387 m
qmax = 155.2 kN/m2
2
qmax =V(L/2+e)/[Le(L-Le/2)] = 155.22 kN/m
Le = 2.387 m
4.0 Stability
4.1 Stability against overturning
For foundation on soil, the location of the resultant of the reaction forces shall be within the middle half of the base.
For foundation on rock, the location of the resultant of the reaction forces shall be within the middle three-fourth
of the base. This condition is already checked above.
4.2 Stability against sliding
Driving force = 122.15 kN

Resisting force = 152.44 kN Resisting force > Driving force, OK !!
5. Design of components
5.1 Design of stem
5.1.1 Design for Flexure
The moment at the base of the stem is calculated as;
Net height of fill on stem = 4.60 m
Msurcharge = 65.29 kNm/m

Mvaryng = 118.48 "
Msum = 183.78 "
The factored moment for design is therefore,
Mfact. = 275.67 kNm/m
The cracking moment given by :

Ig =bh3/12 = 5.3E+09 mm4
Mcr =frIg/yt = 75.13 KNm/m yt= 200 mm
fr = 2.817 MPa
The amount of reinforcement shall be adequate to develop a factored flexural resistance at least equal to the
lesser of :
- 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the
modulus of rupture, fr, of the concrete.
- 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combinations.
Besides the area of reinforcement shall not be less than the minimum shrinkage and temprature reinforcement.
Since bar S2 is cut at some point up the spacing at bottom shall not be greater than half the maximum spacing.
Mu = 275.67 KNm/m
Dprov. = 400 mm
As = Mu/ffy(d-a/2) beff = 1000 mm
2
= 2460.47 mm fy = 400 MPa
fc' = 20 MPa
a = Asfy/(.85fc'b) f= 0.9
= 57.89 mm fbar = 20 mm
cover = 50 mm
dprov = 340 mm
b1 = 0.85
use f 20 S1 c/c 120 mm
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2
As prov. = 2618 mm Smax = 450 mm
r max. = 0.75rb =0.75(0.85b1fc'/fy*(599.843/(599.843+fy)))= 0.0163
r prov. = As/bd = 0.0077 OK !!
Half bar cut off location
2
As' =As/2 = 1308.30 mm
The distance from top to the point where half of the reinforcement is not required (i.e "y") can be found by trial and error
to equalize the moment by the factored lateral pressure and the moment that can be resisted by half of the bar.
My My
y
My = factor*(q(y-y*)2/2+kags(y-y*)3/6) ---- (1) of eq (1) of eq (2)
My = fAs'fy(d-As'fy/1.7fc'b)----------------- (2) 2.65 119.52 123
Where d = y/(H-T5)*(T2-T1)+T1-cover-f/2
y* is the free board given on top Hint : It is preferable if My of eq (2) is slightly
greater than My of eq (1).
lext reqd = max( 15*dia of bar,deff)

= 340 mm
Therefore, the bar can be cut at the following distance from top of wall.
Bar cut off point from top of wall = 2.31 m
5.1.2 Check for Wide beam Shear
Usually, since T2 is not small as compared to the stem height, we take the shear force
at the bottom of the wall.
Vhoriz.factored = 183.23 kN/m
Allowable shear stress is given by : vc = 0.166sqrt(fc') f shear = 0.9
= 0.742 Mpa
The maximum allowable factored shear force that can be resisted by the concrete section is:
Vall =f*vc*b*d = 227.17 kN/m > Vhoriz, OK !
5.2 Design of toe cantilever
5.2.1 Design for Flexure
a
The factored pressure from underneath minus weight of cantilever is,
qtoe = 150.36 kN/m2
2
q a-a = 147.96 kN/m Wc
The factored moment for design is therefore,
Mfact.a-a = 74.78 kNm/m
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The factored pressure from underneath minus weight of cantilever is,

qtoe = 148.02 kN/m2
2
q a-a = 145.62 kN/m
Mfact.a-a = 73.61 kNm/m
Therefore, the maximum moment at section a-a for design is,
Mfact.a-a (max)= 74.78 kNm/m
The cracking moment given by Eq.(12.39) as follows:

Ig =bh3/12 = 5.3E+09 mm
4

fr = 2.817 MPa
lesser of :
Besides the area of reinforcement shall not be less than the minimum shrinkage and temprature reinforcement.
Since bar T2 is cut at some point up the spacing at bottom shall not be greater than half the maximum spacing.
Mu = 90.16 KNm/m
Dprov. = 400 mm
2
= 924.83 mm fy = 350 MPa
fc' = 20 MPa
a = Asfy/(.85fc'b) f= 0.9
= 19.04 mm fbar = 12 mm
cover = 75 mm
dprov = 319 mm
b1 = 0.85
use f 12 T1 c/c 120 mm
As prov. = 943 mm2 Smax = 450 mm
r max. = 0.75rb =0.75(0.85b1fc'/fy*(599.843/(599.843+fy)))= 0.0196
r prov. = As/bd = 0.0030 OK !!
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
b
qtoe = 150.36 kN/m2
2
q b-b = 157.56 kN/m d
V factored b-b= 104.84 kN/m
2
qtoe = 148.02 kN/m
2
q b-b = 155.22 kN/m
V factored b-b= 103.26 kN/m b
V factored b-b(max) = 104.84 kN/m

= 0.742 Mpa
5.3 Design of heel cantilever
5.3.1 Design for Flexure b a

wt. of soil + Surcharge
a ) With min. factors for dead and surcharge load
and max. factor for lateral pressure
Wc d
Case -1 When the foundation material is rock
2
q a-a = 96.85 kN/m
2
q end = 0.00 kN/m b a
The length of pressure application Lh is,
Lh = 1.20 m
The average pressure by the weight of soil, surcharge and heel cantilever is given as,
2
qsoil+surcharge+cantilever= 113.06 kN/m b a
wt. of soil + Surcharge
Case -2 When the foundation material is soil
qmax = 157.56 kN/m2 Wc d

Lh = 0.33 m
Assume counter clock-wise moment as positive.
Ma-a = 206.29 kNm/m b a
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Case -1 When the foundation material is rock
2
q a-a = 126.26 kN/m
2
q end = 15.22 kN/m
The length of pressure application Lh is,
Lh = 1.95 m
The average pressure by the weight of soil, surcharge and heel cantilever is given as,
2
qsoil+surcharge+cantilever= 152.89 kN/m
Case -2 When the foundation material is soil
qmax = 155.22 kN/m2

Lh = 0.99 m
Assume counter clock-wise moment as positive.
Ma-a = 215.07 kNm/m
Therefore, the maximum moment is taken for design.
Mfact.a-a (max) = 215.07 kNm/m

The craking moment given by eq.(8.2) as follows:
Ig =bh3/12 = 5.3E+09 mm4
fr = 2.817 MPa
lesser of :
Mu = 215.07 KNm/m
Dprov. = 400 mm
2
= 1869.26 mm fy = 400 MPa
fc' = 20 MPa
a = Asfy/(.85fc'b) f= 0.9
= 43.98 mm fbar = 20 mm
cover = 50 mm
dprov = 340 mm
b1 = 0.85
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
use f 20 H1 c/c 160 mm
As prov. = 1964 mm2 Smax = 450 mm
r max. = 0.75rb =0.75(0.85b1fc'/fy*(599.843/(599.843+fy)))= 0.0163
r prov. = As/bd = 0.0058 OK !!
2
q end = 157.56 kN/m
2
q b-b = 0.00 kN/m
Lh = 0.00 kN/m
2
q end = 155.22 kN/m
2
q b-b = 155.22 kN/m
Lh = 0.65 kN/m
Therefore, the maximum shear at section b-b for design is,
Vfactored = 220.47 kN/m

= 0.742 Mpa
5.4 Shrinkage and temprature reinforcement
According to section 5.10.8, the area of reinforcement for walls and footings in each direction shall not be less than :
As = 0.0015Ag fbar = 10 mm
>= 487.5 mm2
Use f 10 c/c 320 mm
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
H [height of wall]
Bar Schedule
300
Bar S1
400 400 f 10 S1* c/c 240 mm
300
L= 1400 mm
4753
f 20 S1 c/c 240 mm
L= 5153 mm
400
Bar S2
f 20 S2 c/c 240 mm
2616 L= 3016 mm
400
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix RW
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Bar S3
f 10 S3 c/c 320 mm
4850 L= 5000 mm
150
Bar T1
175
3250
f 12 T1 c/c 240 mm
L= 3425 mm
Bar T2
175
1550
f 12 T2 c/c 240 mm
L= 1725 mm
Bar H1
2262
300
80
f 20 T1 c/c 160 mm
L= 2642 mm
Bar Schedule and quantities per linear meter

Size Length Weight
Bar [mm] Number/m [mm] [kg]
S1 20 4.17 5153 52.96
S1* 10 4.17 1400 3.60
S2 20 4.17 3016 31.00
S3 10 3.13 5000 9.64
H1 20 6.25 2642 40.73
T1 12 4.17 3425 12.67
T2 12 4.17 1725 6.38
Distri. 10 54 1000* 33.30
Grade 20 Concrete--------------------- 2.59 m3
Reinforcement Steel-------------------- 190.27 kg
* indicates that the actual length is the length of the wall minus cover
The fraction number of bar is due to per linear assumption.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Slab Bridge Design
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB - 6.0m Clear SPAN & 4.50m CLEAR BRIDGE WIDTH

R.C.Slab SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN BY LRFD METHOD
Project:
Name of River:
Span : 6.00 m , Slab Bridge
Consultant: Louis Berger Group in association with SABA Engineering plc
Designed by : Henok Aberra ( Str. Engineer)
Assumptions
- Main reinforcements are placed parellel to center line of roadway.
- The bottom of the slab is assumed level.
- Center to center of support is assumed perpendicular to supports, not neccesarily
parallel to centerline of roadway.
- The additional amount of concrete thickness for crossfall is not considered for
the flexural design, but the weight is included as dead load.
Dimensions
Clear span Lc= 6.00 m

No. of bays = 1
No. of piers= 0
Curb/Edge beam width (top) = 0.40 m
Curb/Edge beam width (bottom) = 0.40 m
Additional Curb/Edge beam depth = 0.00 m
Width of abutment = 0.40 m
Center to center of abutment perpendicular to Support S = L = 6.40 m
Total length of superstructure = 6.80 m
Clear width of superstructure = 4.50 m
Total width of superstructure = 5.30 m
No of lane = 1
Cross fall = 2 %
Railing depth = 0.30 m
Railing width = 0.25 m
Post depth = 0.25 m
Post width = 0.25 m
Post height = 0.60 m
Average post spacing = 1.50 m
Skewness angle = 0.00 Deg.
Loading type: Notional load, Design Tandem
Material Properties
Type of concrete: Grade 20
fc'= 20.00 Mpa
fc=0.4fc'= 8.28 Mpa
gc = 24.00 KN/m3
Type of steel :
For bar with size greater than f20, For bar with size less than or equal to f20,
Grade-60 Grade-40
fyk = 400.00 MPa fyk = 300.00 MPa
fs = 165.57 Mpa fs = 137.97 Mpa
Es = 199945.33 Mpa
Ec = 21525.28 Mpa
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page SB-1
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Others
modular ratio n=Es/Ec= 9
fmoment = 0.90
fshear = 0.90
b= 0.85
odulus of rupture =fr =7.5sqrt(fc') = 2.83 MPa
z in Eq. 9.15 = 30246.92 KPa
For rebar f > 20 mm

rb = 0.85b1fc'/fy*(599.843/(599.843+fy)) = 0.0214
For rebar f <= 20 mm

rb = 0.85b1fc'/fy*(599.843/(599.843+fy)) = 0.0371
Load Factors
Dead load limit state factor = 1.25

Live load limit state factor = 1.75
Dead load service state factor = 1.00

Live load service state factor = 1.00
Fatique Live load factor = 0.75
I. Dead load moments:

Assume Dslab= 0.38 m
take Dslab= 0.38 m
Dead load:
2
W_slab=Dslab*24= 9.76 KN/m
Post & railing load = 0.98 "
Weight of wearing surface ws= 1.10 "
========
Total DL= 11.83 KN/m2
* Point of maximum live load moment = (s/2-.711)/s = 0.389
Dead load moments at different points
a x [m] VA [KN/m]Mo[KNm/m]
0.00 0.00 37.87 0.00
0.05 0.32 34.08 11.51
0.10 0.64 30.30 21.81
0.15 0.96 26.51 30.90
0.20 1.28 22.72 38.78
0.25 1.60 18.94 45.45
0.30 1.92 15.15 50.90
0.35 2.24 11.36 55.14
0.40 2.56 7.57 58.17
0.389 2.49 8.40 57.61
0.45 2.88 3.79 59.99
0.50 3.20 0.00 60.59
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
II. Live load moments:
Distribution of live load laterally: (see section 12-8 Eq. 12.40)
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane, I.e., two lines
E1 = 250+0.42sqrt(L1W1) L1 = 6400.0 mm
= 2696.1 mm/lane load W1 = 5300.0 mm
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than one lane
E2 = 2100+0.12sqrt(L1W1)<=W/NL L1 = 6400.0 mm
= 2798.9 mm/lane load W1 = 5300.0 mm
E= 2.70 m
Impact factor I = 1+IM/100Where IM = 33 % (for Servicibility limit state design)

= 1.33
a) HS20-44
wheel load W= 72.500 KN

Live load/m = LL/m = W/E = 26.89 KN/m
Total LL/m+I = 2P = 71.53 KN/m ( For two line of wheel or lane loading)
b) Design Tandem/Military Loading
wheel load W= 55.000 KN

Live load/m = LL/m = W/E = 20.40 KN/m
Total LL/m+I = 2P = 54.26 KN/m ( For two line of wheel or lane loading)
c) Lane load
load = 9.30 KN/m

load per meter width= 3.45 KN/m
3.0 m
9.3 KNm
6.40
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Case -1 Moment and shear at rear wheel position ( truck moving to the right )
a) HS20-44 Loading
4.267 4.267
p P
x =a*s P/4
o
A B
X1
X2
X3
s= 6.40
a x x1 x2 x3 VA VA [KN] Mo Mo [KNm]
0.00 0.00 0.00 2.13 6.40 1.333 95.37 0.000 0.00
0.05 0.32 0.00 1.81 6.08 1.233 88.22 0.395 28.23
0.10 0.64 0.00 1.49 5.76 1.133 81.06 0.725 51.88
0.15 0.96 0.00 1.17 5.44 1.033 73.91 0.992 70.95
0.20 1.28 0.00 0.85 5.12 0.933 66.76 1.195 85.45
0.25 1.60 0.00 0.53 4.80 0.833 59.60 1.333 95.37
0.30 1.92 0.00 0.21 4.48 0.733 52.45 1.408 100.71
0.35 2.24 0.00 0.00 4.16 0.650 46.49 1.456 104.15
0.40 2.56 0.00 0.00 3.84 0.600 42.92 1.536 109.87
0.45 2.88 0.00 0.00 3.52 0.550 39.34 1.584 113.30
0.50 3.20 0.00 0.00 3.20 0.500 35.76 1.600 114.45
Case -2 Moment and shear at middle wheel position ( truck moving to the left )
4.267 4.267
p/4 P p
x =a*s
X1
X2
X3
s= 6.40
a x x1 x2 x3 VA VA [KN] Mo Mo [KNm]
0.30 1.92 0.21 4.48 0.00 0.733 52.45 1.408 100.71
0.35 2.24 0.00 4.16 0.00 0.650 46.49 1.456 104.15
0.40 2.56 0.00 3.84 0.00 0.600 42.92 1.536 109.87
0.389* 2.49 0.00 3.91 0.00 0.611 43.70 1.521 108.81
0.45 2.88 0.00 3.52 0.00 0.550 39.34 1.584 113.30
0.50 3.20 0.00 3.20 0.00 0.500 35.76 1.600 114.45
* --- Indicates point of maximum live load moment for spans which can fully contain the truck length.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
b) Design Tandem/Military Loading

1.219
p p
x =a*s
X1
X2
s= 6.40
a x x1 x2 VA VA [KN] Mo Mo [KNm]
0.00 0.00 5.18 6.40 1.810 98.19 0.000 0.00
0.05 0.32 4.86 6.08 1.710 92.76 0.547 29.68
0.10 0.64 4.54 5.76 1.610 87.34 1.030 55.90
0.15 0.96 4.22 5.44 1.510 81.91 1.449 78.63
0.20 1.28 3.90 5.12 1.410 76.48 1.804 97.90
0.25 1.60 3.58 4.80 1.310 71.06 2.095 113.69
0.30 1.92 3.26 4.48 1.210 65.63 2.322 126.01
0.35 2.24 2.94 4.16 1.110 60.21 2.485 134.86
0.40 2.56 2.62 3.84 1.010 54.78 2.584 140.23
0.389 2.49 2.69 3.91 1.031 55.97 2.568 139.35
0.45 2.88 2.30 3.52 0.910 49.35 2.619 142.13
0.50 3.20 1.98 3.20 0.810 43.93 2.590 140.56
c) Lane load
Lane load moments at different points
a x [m] VA [KN/m]Mo[KNm/m]
0.00 0.00 11.04 0.00
0.05 0.32 9.93 3.36
0.10 0.64 8.83 6.36
0.15 0.96 7.73 9.01
0.20 1.28 6.62 11.30
0.25 1.60 5.52 13.25
0.30 1.92 4.42 14.84
0.35 2.24 3.31 16.07
0.40 2.56 2.21 16.95
0.389 2.49 2.45 16.79
0.45 2.88 1.10 17.48
0.50 3.20 0.00 17.66
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of maximum live load shear and moments at different points
VA [KN] Mo VA [KN] Mo [KNm]

x (HS20-44) [KNm] (Tandem) (Tandem) VA Mo
a
[m] + (HS20-44) + + [KN/m] [KNm/m]
Lane + Lane Lane
0.00 0.00 106.41 0.00 109.23 0.00 109.23 0.00
0.05 0.32 98.15 31.58 102.70 33.04 102.70 33.04
0.10 0.64 89.89 58.24 96.17 62.25 96.17 62.25
0.15 0.96 81.64 79.96 89.64 87.64 89.64 87.64
0.20 1.28 73.38 96.75 83.11 109.20 83.11 109.20
0.25 1.60 65.12 108.61 76.58 126.94 76.58 126.94
0.30 1.92 56.87 115.54 70.05 140.85 70.05 140.85
0.35 2.24 49.81 120.22 63.52 150.93 63.52 150.93
0.40 2.56 45.12 126.82 56.99 157.19 56.99 157.19
0.389 2.49 46.15 125.60 58.41 156.15 58.41 156.15
0.45 2.88 40.44 130.79 50.46 159.62 50.46 159.62
0.50 3.20 35.76 132.11 43.93 158.22 43.93 158.22
Summary of total dead and live load moments at Service load
Ms =MDL+MLL and Vs =VDL+VLL
a x Vs [KN/m]Ms[KNm/m]
0.00 0.00 147.10 0.00
0.05 0.32 136.78 44.55
0.10 0.64 126.46 84.07
0.15 0.96 116.15 118.54
0.20 1.28 105.83 147.98
0.25 1.60 95.51 172.38
0.30 1.92 85.20 191.75
0.35 2.24 74.88 206.07
0.40 2.56 64.56 215.36
0.389 2.49 66.82 213.76
0.45 2.88 54.24 219.61
0.50 3.20 43.93 218.82
Summary of factored dead and live load moments
Mu =1.25MDL+1.75MLL and Vu =1.25VDL+1.75VLL
a x Vu [KN/m]Mu[KNm/m]
0.00 0.00 238.49 0.00
0.05 0.32 222.33 72.21
0.10 0.64 206.16 136.21
0.15 0.96 190.00 192.00
0.20 1.28 173.84 239.58
0.25 1.60 157.68 278.95
0.30 1.92 141.52 310.11
0.35 2.24 125.36 333.06
0.40 2.56 109.19 347.79
0.389 2.490 112.73 345.27
0.45 2.88 93.03 354.32
0.50 3.20 76.87 352.64
DESIGN TANDEM + LANE LOADING HAS GOVERNED !!
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Design for flexure
a) Main reinforcement parallel to traffic
The cracking moment given by Eq.12.39 as follows:

3 4
Ig =bh /12 = 4.6E+09 mm
Mcr =frIg/yt = 68.11 KNm/m yt= 190.00 mm
fr = 2.830 MPa
and the maximum factored live load plus dead load moment is;
Mu = 354.32 KNm/m
Reinforcement
Therefore, a moment satisfying the provisions of section 3.3 and Art 7.2 Minimum combination is taken for design
Mu = 354.32 KNm/m
Dprov. = 380 mm
= 3211.25 mm2 fy = 400.00 MPa
fc' = 20.00 MPa
a = Asfy/(.85fc'b) f= 0.90
= 73.02 mm fbar = 24 mm
cover = 25 mm
dprov = 343 mm
use f 24 c/c 140 mm
As prov. = 3231.35 mm2 Smax = 450 mm

r max. = 0.75rb = 0.0160
r prov. = As/bd = 0.0094 OK !!
Checking Distribution of Flexural Reinforcements

To control flexural cracking of the concrete, tension reinforcement shall be well distributed within the maximum
flexural zones. To prevent this kind of cracking, the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load ,fs, in
MPa shall not exceed the value computed by ,
1/3
fs = Z/(dcA) <=0.6fy ----------- Eq(9.14)
Where :Z = crack width parameter in N/mm

For modernate climate, Z= 30000 N/mm
dc = depth of concrete measured from extreme tension fiber to center of
bar ; for calculation purpose, the thickness of clear cover used to
compute dc shall not be taken greater than 50mm.
= 37.0 mm
A = area of concrete having the same centroid as the principal tension
renforcement and bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section
and a straigth line parallel to the neutral axis, divided by the
number of bar.
= 10425 mm
Therefore,
fs = 240.0 Mpa
From the above calculation ---- jd = 314.4 mm
The stress at service stress is calculated as follows:

The moment at service load is
Ms = 219.61 kNm/m
The reinforcement required to control the width of crack is given as follows:
2
use f 24 c/c 140 mm ===> As prov. = 3231.35 mm /m
fs =M/(Asjd) = 216.2 Mpa OK !
r max. = 0.75rb = 0.0160

r prov. = As/bd = 0.0094
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
b) Distribution steel for main reinforcment parallel to traffic
To take into account for load distribution normal to traffic use distribution steel,
Percentage =100/sqrt(s 21.82 % dia of dist. bar = 16 mm

As dist = 705.18 mm2/m
Provide f 16 c/c 280 mm
Check for Shear

Vmax = 238.49 KN/m
wable shear stress is given by : vc = 2sqrt(fc')
= 0.76 Mpa
Therefore the reqd. depth for shear is given by;

dreqd =Vmax/vc*b = 315.58 mm
Dreqd =dreqd + f/2 cover = 352.58 mm OK !
Design of edge beam
The amount of additional reinforcement required at the edge beam is given by,
According to Art. 7.4 Slabs/Edge Support Dprov. = 380.00 mm

live load moment = 154.28 KNm beff = 1348 mm
Total moment Mu = 269.99 KNm fy = 400.00 MPa
fc' = 20.00 MPa
As = Mu/ffy(d-a/2) f= 0.90
= 2527.87 mm2 fbar = 24 mm
cover = 50 mm
a = Asfy/(.85fc'b) dprov = 318.00 mm
= 42.64 mm
use 6 f 24
Extension length required at bar cutoff
ext reqd = max( 15*dia of bar,deff,1/20 of clear span length )

= 360.00 mm
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Bar cutoff
a= -40.090 b= 238.490 c= 0.000

cover to hooked bar at end = 0.05 m Bar s [m] s1 [m]
Total superstructure length = 6.80 m Number 38 12
Length 6.40 5.38
Moment & Shear force Diagram
400.00
350.00 y = -40.09x2 + 238.49x + 1E-12
300.00
Mu[KNm/m]
Mu [KNm],Vu [KN]
250.00
200.00
Polynomial
150.00 (Mu[KNm/m])
100.00
50.00
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
x [m]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix SB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6.0m SLAB BRIDGE and 4.5m Clear RDWY Width
REINFORCING BAR SCHEDULE

TOTAL TOTAL
SIZE LENGTH
BAR NUMBER LENGTH WEIGHT SHAPE
[mm] [m]
[m] [Kg]
S 24 38 6.40 243.06 863
S1 24 12 5.38 64.56 229
S2 16 24 5.25 126.00 199
S3 12 14 6.70 93.80 83
S4 12 17 5.81 98.77 88
ESTIMATED QUANTITIES
ITEM No DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTITY
3
406(1) GRADE 20 CONCRETE m 14.7 ( Level bottom surface )
407(1) REINFORCEMENT STEEL Kg 1375
- R.C. BRIDGE RAILING m 13.60
BAR TYPE & SPACING

For bar S Provide f 24 c/c 0.14 m
For bar S1 Provide f 24 c/c 0.14 m
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Timber Bridge Design
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Appendix TB - 12m Span, 4.5 m width Timber Bridge

Project:
Name of River:
Span: 12m Span, 4.5 m width TIMBER BRIDGE
Consultant: Louis Berger Group (BROKONSULT AB) in Association with SABA Engineering PLC
Designed by: J. Packelen 20/12/1999
TB.1 GENERAL
TB.1.1 Specifications
ERA Bridge Design Manual-2002
TB.1.2 Material Proporties
TB.1.2.1 Timber Class F17 Stress Grade 1 Strength Group S1
Working stress parallel to grain 17 Mpa
Modification Factor for Resistance F= Fo*Cf*Cm*Cd
Beams w*h=300*300 F= 17*1,0*1,0*1,0= 17 MPa
Deck Beams w*h=100*200 F= 17*1,0*1,0*1,0= 17 MPa
Deck Planks w*h=150*75 F= 17*1,3*1,0*1,0= 22,1 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity E= Eo*Cm
Flexural Design E= 5 000*1,0= 5 000 Mpa
Deformation Design E= 9 000*1,0= 9 000 Mpa
TB.1.2.2 Steel
Connector plates M270M fy= 250 Mpa
Dowels (reinforcement bars dia 20) fy= 400 Mpa
Wood Screws M16 4.6 fy= 400 Mpa
Modulus of Elasticity E= Eo*Cm
Flexural Design E= 200 000*1,0= 200 000 Mpa
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Ethiopian Roads Authority Page TB-1
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TB.2 LOADING
TB.2.1 Loads
Permanent Load
DC Dead Load Deck (0,2+0,075)*4,5*9,6 = 2,64*4,5 = 11,88 kN/m

Kerb 2*(0,3+0,2)*0,25*9,6 = 2,40 kN/m
Railing 2*(0,25*0,25+0,2*0,2*2,1/1,8)*9,6 = 2,10 kN/m
Beams 3*0,3*1,2*9,6 = 10,37 kN/m
Live Load
LL Vehicular Load
Deck Width = 4,5m thus one Design Lane
Multiple Presence Factor = 1,20 l = 5,31*72,5 = 385 mm (Truck)

l = 5,31*55 = 292 mm (Tandem)
Tire Contact Length l = 2,28*1,75*(1+0,33)*P = 5,31*P
IM Dynamic Load Allowance = 33 %
TB.2.1 Load Factors and Combination
The following shall be satisfied
Σµ∗γ∗Q < φ∗R
Load modifier µ= µd∗µr∗µl= 1,0*1,0*1,0 = 1,0
Load Combination
Strength-1 Factor γ
Dead Load DC 1.25
Vehicular Load LL 1.75

Dynamic Allowance IM 0,33*LL Truck & Tandem 1.75
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TB.3 FORCES
TB.3.1 Permanent load
Girder Load assuming deck slab supported by riged girders
Forces in deck and load on girders are analyzed for loads in 2.11 by continous girder program
Load on Exterior Girder = 6,99 kN/m Load on Interior Girder = 2,40 kN/m
TB.3.2 Live Load
Load distribution between girders
Load on exterior girder according to lever rule
Qe = P/3 + P*0,75/3,4 = 0,554P
Load on interior girder assuming deck slab supported by riged beams
Qi = a/(2*l)*(3-(a/l)^2)*P = 0,8/(2*1,7)*(3-(0,8/1,7)^2)*P = 0,654 P
where l = beam spacing and a = wheel load distance from outer supports
Exterior girders will be designed for the following Loads Factor Strength-1
q = 7,29+3,46 = 10,75 kN/m Dead Load 1.25 13.4
Q = 1,2*1,33*0,554*145 or 35 = 128 or 31 kN Truck Load 1.75 224 or 54
Q = 1,2*1,33*0,554*110 = 97 kN Tandem Load 1.75 170
q = 1,2*0,554*9,3 = 6,2 kN Lane Load 1.75 10.8
Interior girders will be designed for the following Loads
q = 1,81+3,46 = 5,27 kN/m Dead Load 1.25 6.6
Q = 1,2*1,33*0,654*145 or 35 = 151 or 37 kN Truck Load 1.75 265 or 64
Q = 1,2*1,33*0,654*110 = 115 kN Tandem Load 1.75 201
q = 1,2*0,654*9,3 = 7,3 kN Lane Load 1.75 12.8
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TB.4 GIRDERS
TB.4.1 System analyzis
The main girders are composed of sawn beams bundled by dowels (reinforcement bars)
driven through drilled vertical holes.
Beams including dowel forces are analyzed by computer program for plane frames
in order to simulete the slip between beams.
Forces in load combination Strength-1 are considered.
Truck or tandem loads are moved with increments of 1 m from support and outwards.
For maximum shear lane load appears from the first wheel and outwards.
The three main beams are designed identically and the interior beam forces are governing
Simulation of slip between beams due to deformations in dowel groups
The slip is about 2 mm for the dowel design load (P = 350 kN/m see Section 6)
For the verticals in the frame system thus the following stiff-ness criterium is valid
δ/2 = P*(L/2)^3/(3*E*I) = P*(L/2)^3/(3*E*B*D^3/12) = P/(2*E*B)*(L/D)^3
D/L = (P/(δ*E*B))^(1/3) = ( 0,34/(0,002*5000*0,3)^(1/3) = 0,5
where L = length of verticals B = width of vertical

D = fictious depth of verticals E = modulus of elasticity
TB.4.2 Dowel Forces from system analyzis
Node Bar Load Case V length Shear

Force / m
1 25 DL 35
Truck x=1,5 376
Total S-1 411 1.25 329
2 27 DL 48
Truck x=3,5 508
Total S-1 556 1.5 371
3 29 DL 35
Tandem x=5 389
Total S-1 424 1.5 283
4 31 DL 18
Tandem x=5 272
Total S-1 290 1.5 193
400
350 329
371
300
283
250 193
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4
Série1
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TB.5 DECK
TB.5.1 System
TB.5.2 Load
Deck loads are computed by continous beam program for unfactored loads
Dead load = 2.64 kPa factor = 1.25
Live Load Tandem 110/(0,5+0,5)/1,2 = 91.7 kPa * factor = 1,2*1,33*1,75 = 1,33*2,1

Lane 9,3/3= 3.1 kPa factor = 1,2*1,75 = 2.1
* 122 kPa including dynamic load allowance

The live tandem wheel load is assumed to be evenly distributed over the axle spacing by the planks
TB.5.3 Beam Forces from system analyzis
Design Deck Moment over inner beams
M = 1,25*0,1 + 2,1*19,6 = 41 kNm/m
Deck Beam Spacing 0,45 m W = (0,15/0,3)*0,2^2/6 = 0,0033 M^3
σ = M/W = 0,041*0,0033 = 12,4 Mpa
TB.6 DOWELS
TB.6.1 Dowel Dimensions
Dowels are made of ordinary dia 20 mm reinforcement bars
TB.6.2 Dowel Groups
Each dowel group is designed for the actual shear force according to system analyzis
TB.6.2.1 Design Dowel Force is
Rr = φ*Rn where Rn = 26*d^2*√2*√fy/180 Rr = 0,8*26*20^2*√400/90 = 17,5 kN
TB.6.2.2 Minimum Dowel Spacing
S = 7*d = 7*20 = 140 parallel to grain S = 4*d = 4*20 = 80 not parallel to grain
TB.6.2.3 Dowel Group Capacity
Group 1 Spacing 150 mm 3/0,15*17,5 = 350 kN/m
Group 2 Spacing 225 mm 3/0,225*17,5 = 233 kN/m
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FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

PLANNING STAGE / FEASIBLITY

PRELIMINARY DESIGN / LAYOUT OF

OTHER STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES AND

THE QUALITY SYSTEM ISO 9000

CALCULATIONS, DRAWINGS AND

COMPOSITE BRIDGE, 24 M SPAN,

STEEL REINFORCED ELASTIC

16.6 M & 7.32 CLEAR BRIDGE WIDTH

MASONRY BRIDGE, 12 M SPAN,

DESIGN OF R.C. CANTILEVER

6.0 M CLEAR SPAN & 4.50 M CLEAR

12 M SPAN, 4.5 M WIDTH TIMBER

1. Ato Fesseha Taffese

Mr. Michael S. Nyquist - Louis Berger Group Project Manager

1. Geometric Design Manual-2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

This area to be competed by the

MANUAL CHANGE CHANGE NO._____________

Submitted by: __________________ Approved by: ____________________________

Head of Design (Branch, Divisio ERA General Manager

Date: ___________________ Date: ___________________

Manual change Form 1-1

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

The authors of the manual are listed in the preface.

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vii

4 Planning Stage/Feasibility Study/Site Investigation

5 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts

Page viii Ethiopian Roads Authority

6.3 Foundations ........................................................................................................... 6-2

11 Other Structural Materials

12 Detail Design of Bridges and Structures

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ix

12.2 Notations .........................................................................................................12-1

13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

14 Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel, Concrete and Masonry Arch Bridges

15 The Quality System ISO 9000

16 Calculations, Drawings and Specifications

Page x Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xi

Figure 2-1 Definition of Bridge Dimensions ................................................................. 2-2

Figure 4-1 Sketch of Bridge Site .....................................................................................4-9

Page xii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 5-1 Compacted Fill Under a Bridge Footing....................................................... 5-6

Figure 7-1 Free Body Diagrams ...................................................................................... 7-4

Figure 8-1 Steel Roller Bearing ....................................................................................... 8-2

Figure 9-1 Factor kc for Volume to Surface Ratio .......................................................... 9-5

Figure 12-1 Reduced Footings Dimensions .................................................................... 12-5

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xiii

Figure 14-1 Flow Chart for Rating Procedure .................................................................14-8

Page xiv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Table 2-1 Minimum Dimensions ...................................................................................... 2-4

Table 3-1 Limit States....................................................................................................... 3-4

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xv

Table 6-4 Resistance Factors for Buried Structures ........................................................6-13

Table 9-1 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder and Cube

Submitted by: Approved by: __________

Date: _ Date: _