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Power Engineering Master

ELECTRIC MACHINES
Chap 3
Synchronous Machine
By Hamid BENTARZI

3.1 Introduction

• The,electrical machines can be divided into:

– generators – which convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy
– motors – which convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy
• Both types operate through the interaction
between a magnetic field and a set of windings

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3.1 Introduction
•Have a background source of magnetic fields, like permanent magnets
•Add a loop of wire, attached to an axle that can be rotated
•Add “slip rings” that connect the rotating loop to outside wires
• we use circular slip rings with sliding contacts called
brushes

•Rotate the loop at angular frequency

•Magnetic flux changes with time
A
BAcos BAcos t
t B

•This produces EMF

d B
dt

N BAsin t AC Generator
3.1 Introduction

•To improve it, make the loop

repeat many (N) times

N BAsin t

AC Generator
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3.1 Introduction

• Therefore this arrangement produces a

sinusoidal output as shown below

3.2 Construction

Basic parts of a synchronous generator:

Rotor - dc excited winding

Stator - three windings in which the ac
emf is generated

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3.2 Construction Main parts of Synchronous Generator

Stator

ol e r otor
en t-p
Sali

r i cal rotor
Cylind

3.2 Construction

Various Types according to the rotor construction

Salient-pole synchronous machine

Cylindrical or round-rotor synchronous machine

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3.2 Construction
Synchronous Machine Construction
(a)CRSM (b) SPSM

3.2 Construction
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator

Turbine D 1m

L 10 m
Steam d-axis
Stator winding

High speed N
Uniform air-gap

3600 r/min -pole Stator

1800 r/min -pole
q-axis Rotor winding
Direct-conductor cooling (using
hydrogen or water as coolant) Rotor

Rating up to 2000 MVA S

Turbogenerator

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3.2 Construction
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator

Stator

Cylindrical rotor

3.2 Construction
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
1. Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low speeds
(between 50 and 300 r/min)
2. A large number of poles are required on the rotor
d-axis

N Non-uniform
air-gap
D 10 m

q-axis S S

Turbine
N
Hydro (water)

Hydrogenerator

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3.2 Construction
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator

Stator

ro tor
li en t-pole
Sa

3.3 Principle of Operation

Synchronous Machine

•The rotor gets locked to the REMF and rotates unlike

induction motor at synchronous speed under all load
condition
•All conventional power plants use synchronous generators
for converting power to electrical form

•They operate at a better power factor and higher

efficiency than equivalent induction machines

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3.3 Principle of Operation

Operation Principle

The rotor of the generator is driven by a prime-mover

A dc current is flowing in the rotor winding which

produces a rotating magnetic field within the machine

The rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase

voltage in the stator windings of the generator

3.4 Characteristics

Electrical Frequency

Electrical frequency produced is locked or synchronized to

the mechanical speed of rotation of a synchronous
generator:
nm P
fe
120

where fe = electrical frequency in Hz

P = number of poles
nm= mechanical speed of the rotor, in r/min

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3.4 Characteristics
Generated Voltage
The generated voltage of a synchronous generator is given by

EA K
where = flux in the machine (function of IF)
= angular speed
Kc= synchronous machine constant
EA

IF
Saturation characteristic (generated voltage vs field current) of
a synchronous generator.

3.4 Characteristics
Voltage Regulation
A convenient way to compare the voltage behaviour of two
generators is by their voltage regulation (VR). The VR of a
synchronous generator at a given load, power factor, and at rated
speed is defined as

Vnl V fl
VR 100%
V fl

Where Vfl is the full-load terminal voltage, and Vnl (equal to Ef)
is the no-load terminal voltage (internal voltage) at rated speed
when the load is removed without changing the field current.
For lagging power factor (PF), VR is fairly positive, for unity
PF, VR is small positive and for leading PF, VR is negative.

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3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Equivalent Circuit_
o The internal voltage E A produced in a machine is not usually
the voltage that appears at the terminals of the generator.
o The only time E A is same as the output voltage of a phase is
when there is no armature current flowing in the machine.
o There are a number of factors that cause the difference between
EA and V :

– The distortion of the air-gap magnetic field by the current flowing

in the stator, called the armature reaction

– The self-inductance of the armature coils.

– The resistance of the armature coils.

– The effect of salient-pole rotor shapes.

3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Concept of synchronous reactance (1)

• Like dc machines synchronous machines will also have
armature reaction. However unlike dc machine we do not
like to eliminate it, but try to use it to our benefit.

•Essentially, this armature reaction will determine how

m u c h p ow e r c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o or f r om t h e
synchronous machine and limits the current that is
flowing in the synchronous machine and hence provides
inherent short-circuit protection: a great boon when we
are talking about millions of megawatts of power flow!

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3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Concept of synchronous reactance (2)

•Suppose we short-circuit a synchronous generator with the field
circuit excited. By Faraday’s law an emf will be induced in the
stator (armature) which by Lenz’s law has to oppose the original
field on the rotor. It means the resulting armature reaction will
induce an opposing emf to the one produced by the main field.

•One way to represent this is the following circuit where Xar

invokes the effect of armature reaction. This can be proved
as follows: Suppose the original field flux is f= m cos t.
By Farday’s and Lenz’s law this would produce a voltage
Ef= Em sin t. This voltage produces a current and hence flux that
opposes f, under short-circuit. This current then has the form
Isc=-Im cos t. Clearly Ef/jXar= Em sin t/jXar would give such a current.

3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Equivalent Circuit_

IA motor
jXar jXal RA

+ +

+ generator IA
EA Ere V
s

Equivalent circuit of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine

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3.5 Electrical Modelling

Equivalent circuit of CRSM (1)

Machine Machine

Generator (Appx.) Motor(Appx.)

Machine
Machine
Generator (Exact)
Motor(Exact)
•Only difference is in current direction; in a generator it flows
out of it, in case of a motor it flows into it.

3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of CRSM (2)

Machine Machine

Motor(Exact)
Generator (Exact)

Xs=Xar+Xal (Synchronous reactance)

Zs= Ra+jXs (Synchronous impedance)
Xal is leakage Reactance
Ra is armature resistance

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3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuitEquivalent circuit of CRSM (1)

Machine Machine

Generator (Appx.) Motor(Appx.)

Machine
Machine
Generator (Exact)
Motor(Exact)
•Only difference is in current direction; in a generator it flows
out of it, in case of a motor it flows into it.

3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of CRSM (2)

Machine Machine

Motor(Exact)
Generator (Exact)

Xs=Xar+Xal (Synchronous reactance)

Zs= Ra+jXs (Synchronous impedance)
Xal is leakage Reactance
Ra is armature resistance

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3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Phasor Diagram
f

ar
EA
r
jI A X

E res jIAX s
jI A Xl
V I
A
R
IA A
Phasor diagram of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator,
for the case of lagging power factor

Lagging PF: |V |<|EA| for overexcited condition

Leading PF: |V |>|EA| for underexcited condition

3.5 Electrical Equivalent circuit

Three-phase equivalent circuit of a cylindrical-rotor

synchronous machine
The voltages and currents of the three phases are 120o apart in angle,
but otherwise the three phases are identical.

VL-L
V
EA1+ jXs RA
IA1

VL-L =1.41V

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3.6 Electrical Test

Determination of the parameters of the equivalent
circuit from test data
• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator that has been
derived contains three quantities that must be determined in order
to completely describe the behaviour of a real synchronous
generator:
– The saturation characteristic: relationship between IF and (and
therefore between IF and EA)
– The synchronous reactance, Xs
– The armature resistance, RA
•

• The above three quantities could be determined by performing the

following three tests:
– DC test
– Open-circuit test
– Short-circuit test

3.6 Electrical Test

DC Test
– The purpose of the DC test is to determine RA. A variable DC voltage
source is connected between two stator terminals.
– The DC source is adjusted to provide approximately rated stator current,
and the resistance between the two stator leads is determined from the
voltmeter and ammeter readings

VDC
– Then, RDC
I DC
– If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator resistance is
R DC
RA
2
– If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator resistance is
3
RA R DC
2

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3.6 Electrical Test

Open-circuit test
• The generator is turned at the rated speed
• The terminals are disconnected from all loads, and the field current
is set to zero.
• Then; the field current is gradually increased in steps, and the
terminal voltage is measured at each step along the way.
• Thus, it is possible to obtain an open-circuit characteristic of a
generator (EA or V versus IF) from this information

IF
+
Vdc Vt

3.6 Electrical Test

Short-circuit test

• Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit the terminals of

the generator through a set of ammeters.
• Record the armature current Isc as the field current is increased.
• Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic.
IF
A
+
Isc
Vdc A

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3.6 Electrical Test

Determination of Xs

• For a particular field current IFA, the internal voltage EA (=VA) could
be found from the occ and the short-circuit current flow Isc,A could
be found from the scc.
• Then, the synchronous reactance Xs could be obtained using

VA EA
Z s , unsat R A2 X s2,unsat
I scA
EA or Vt (V) Air-gap line
OCC Isc (A) X s , unsat Z s2, unsat R A2
Vrated
SCC : RA is known from the
DC test.
VA
Isc,B
Since Xs,unsat>>RA,
Isc, A
IF (A) EA Vt , oc
IFA IFB X s ,unsat
I scA I scA

3.6 Electrical Test

Xs under saturated condition
EA or V (V) Air-gap line
OCC Isc (A)
At V = Vrated, Vrated
SCC

VA
V rated E A Isc,B
Z s , sat R A2 X s2, sat Isc, A
I scB IFA IFB
IF (A)

X s , sat Z s2, sat R A2 : RA is known from the DC test.

Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram under SC condition

jXs RA EA
+ V =0
IA
EA + V =0 IA
jIAXs

IARA

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3.6 Electrical Test

Short-circuit Ratio
Another parameter used to describe synchronous generators is the
short-circuit ratio (SCR). The SCR of a generator defined as the
ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open
circuit to the field current required for the rated armature current
at short circuit. SCR is just the reciprocal of the per unit value of
the saturated synchronous reactance calculated by

EA or V (V) Air-gap line

Isc (A)
OCC I F _ Vrated
Vrated
SCC
SCR
I F _ Iscrated
Isc,rated
1
X s _ sat in p.u.
IF (A)
IF_V IF_Isc rated
rated

3.7 Electrical Modelling

Phasor diagram of CRSM

Note: is +ve for (a) generator and –ve for (b) motor

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3.7 Electrical Modelling

Effect of Load Change (Field constant)

Note: Er same as Ef
Va same as Vt
Ra has been neglected

3.7 Electrical Modelling

Effect of Field Change (Load constant)

Note: Er same as Ef
Va same as Vt
Ra has been neglected

Question: 1)Why is the loci of stator current and excitation voltage

moves on a straight line?
2) What is happening to power factor as field is changed?

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3.7 Electrical Modelling

Effect of Field Change (Load constant)

for a generator

a Power
Ia2
Ef2 jIa2Xs Ef1
jIa1Xs a Power

Vt
Ia1

3.8 Applications
Conclusion for effect for field change with
constant load on power factor
•For motor with increased (decreased) excitation power factor becomes
leading (lagging)

•For generator with increased (decreased) excitation power factor

becomes lagging (leading)

•Unloaded overexcited synchronous motors are sometimes used

to improve power factor. They are known as synchronous condensers

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3.7 Electrical Modelling

SPSM and the concept of Direct and

Quadrature Axes
Since in the salient pole machine the reluctance of the machine
varies with the position of the pole, flux due to armature reaction
varies with power factor. Thus Xar alone is no longer sufficient
for the equivalent circuit.

Reluctance is minimum along polar (direct) axis. Hence component

of the armature reaction acting along this axis produce maximum flux.
Let this component be Fad.

Reluctance is maximum along the inter-polar (quadrature )axis.

Hence the component of the armature reaction acting along this axis
produce minimum flux. Let this component be Faq.

3.7 Electrical Modelling

SPSM and the concept of Direct and

Quadrature Axes (continue )
Xd=Xad+Xal=(d)irect axis synchronous reactance)
Xq=Xaq+Xal= (q)uadrature axis synchronous reactance)
Xad= d(irect) axis armature reactance =wLad
Xaq = (q)uadrature axis armature reactance=wLaq
Xal = leakage reactance

Fad=LadId
Faq=LaqIq
Id= d(irect) axis component of the armature current
Iq = (q)uadrature axis component of the armature current
Ia=Iq±jId

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3.7 Electrical Modelling

Explaining d-q axes using diagrams

3.7 Electrical Modelling

Equivalent circuits of SPSM

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3.7 Electrical Modelling

Power Angle Characteristics of SPSM

3.8 Applications

Parallel operation of synchronous generators

There are several major advantages to operate generators in

parallel:

• Several generators can supply a bigger load than one machine

by itself.
• Having many generators increases the reliability of the power
system.
• It allows one or more generators to be removed for shutdown
or preventive maintenance.

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3.8 Applications Synchronization

Before connecting a generator in parallel with another
generator, it must be synchronized. A generator is said to be
synchronized when it meets all the following conditions:
• The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
• The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
• The phase angles of the two a phases must be equal.
• The oncoming generator frequency is equal to the
running system frequency.

Generator 1
b Load
c
Switch
a/

Generator 2 b/

c/

3.8 Applications Synchronization

Generator Load

Rest of the
power system

Xs1
EA1

Xs2
Generator EA2

G
Xsn Infinite bus
EAn V, f are constant
Xs eq = 0

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3.8 Applications
Concept of the infinite bus

When a synchronous generator is connected to a power system,

the power system is often so large that nothing the operator of the
generator does will have much of an effect on the power system.
An example of this situation is the connection of a single
generator to the Canadian power grid. Canadian power grid is so
large that no reasonable action on the part of one generator can
cause an observable change in overall grid frequency. This idea is
idealized in the concept of an infinite bus. An infinite bus is a
power system so large that its voltage and frequency do not vary
regardless of how much real or reactive power is drawn from or
supplied to it.

3.8 Applications
Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
Pe, Qe

Vt

Fig. Synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus.

• P>0: generator operation

• P<0: motor operation
• Positive Q: delivering inductive vars for a generator action or
receiving inductive vars for a motor action
• Negative Q: delivering capacitive vars for a generator action or
receiving capacitive vars for a motor action

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3.8 Applications
Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
Pe, Qe
Vt

• The real and reactive power delivered by a synchronous

generator or consumed by a synchronous motor can be
expressed in terms of the terminal voltage Vt, generated voltage
EA, synchronous impedance Zs, and the power angle or torque
angle .
• Referring to Figure, it is convenient to adopt a convention that
makes positive real power P and positive reactive power Q
delivered by an overexcited generator.
• The generator action corresponds to positive value of , while
the motor action corresponds to negative value of .

3.8 Applications
Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
Pe, Qe
The complex power output of the generator in volt- V
amperes per phase is given by
_
S P jQ V I *A
where:
V = terminal voltage per phase
IA* = complex conjugate of the armature current per phase

Taking the terminal voltage as reference

_
V V j0

the excitation or the generated voltage,

_
EA E A cos j sin

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3.8 Applications
Active and reactive power-angle characteristics
and the armature current,
_ _ Pm
_
EA V E A cos V jE A sin Pe, Qe
IA Vt
jX s jX s

where Xs is the synchronous reactance per phase.

_ _
* E A cos V jE A sin
S P jQ V I A V
jX s
V E A sin V E A cos V2
j
Xs Xs

V E A sin
P &
Xs
V E A cos V2
Q
Xs

3.8 Applications

Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
P e, Q e
V

V E A sin V E A cos V2
P & Q
Xs Xs

• The above two equations for active and reactive powers hold
good for cylindrical-rotor synchronous machines for negligible
resistance
• To obtain the total power for a three-phase generator, the above
equations should be multiplied by 3 when the voltages are line-to-
neutral
• If the line-to-line magnitudes are used for the voltages, however,
these equations give the total three-phase power

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3.8 Applications

Steady-state stability limit

3V E A
Total three-phase power: P sin
Xs

The above equation shows that the power produced by a synchronous

generator depends on the angle between the V and E A . The maximum
power that the generator can supply occurs when =90o.
3V E A
Pmax
Xs

The maximum power indicated by this equation is called steady-state

stability limit of the generator. If we try to exceed this limit (such as by
admitting more steam to the turbine), the rotor will accelerate and lose
synchronism with the infinite bus. In practice, this condition is never reached
because the circuit breakers trip as soon as synchronism is lost. We have to
resynchronize the generator before it can again pick up the load. Normally,
real generators never even come close to the limit. Full-load torque angle of
15o to 20o are more typical of real machines.

3.8 Applications
Steady-state power-angle or torque-angle characteristic of a
cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine (with negligible
armature resistance).
Real power or torque

Pull-out torque
as a generator

generator

motor

Pull-out torque
as a motor

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3.8 Applications
Pull-out torque
The maximum torque or pull-out torque per phase that a two-pole
round-rotor synchronous motor can develop is
Pmax Pmax
max
m ns
2
60

where ns is the synchronous speed of the motor in rpm

P or Q

Fig. Active and reactive power as a function of the internal angle

3.8 Applications
V curves

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Example 1
A rectangular loop of wire 20 cm by 20 cm with 50
turns is rotated rapidly in a magnetic field B, so that
the loop makes 60 full rotations a second. At t = 0 the
loop is perpendicular to B. (a) What is the EMF
generated by the loop, in terms of B at time t? (b)
What B-field do we need to get a maximum voltage of
170 V?

Example 1
A rectangular loop of wire 20 cm by 20 cm with 50 turns is rotated
rapidly in a magnetic field B, so that the loop makes 60 full rotations a
second. At t = 0 the loop is perpendicular to B. (a) What is the EMF
generated by the loop, in terms of B at time t? (b) What B-field do we
need to get a maximum voltage of 170 V?
a) •The angle is changing constantly with time t
•After 1/60 second, it must have gone in one loop
full circle 1 of
2 60 120
wire
•The flux is given by: B NA B NABcos NABcos t
•The EMF is given by:
d E
E NAB sin t 50 0.04 120 Bsin t 754Bsin t
dt
b) 170 754B B 0.225 T

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Example 2

A 200 kVA, 480-V, 60-Hz, 4-pole, Y-Connected synchronous

generator with a rated field current of 5 A was tested and the
following data was taken.
a) from OC test – terminal voltage = 540 V at rated field
current
b) from SC test – line current = 300A at rated field current
c) from Dc test – DC voltage of 10 V applied to two terminals,
a current of 25 A was measured.
1. Calculate the speed of rotation in RPM
2. Calculate the generated emf and saturated equivalent circuit
parameters (armature resistance and synchronous reactance)

j1.02 0.2
Solution to Example 2
1. +
fe = electrical frequency = Pnm/120 + IA
EA V
fe = 60Hz
P = number of poles = 4
nm = mechanical speed of rotation in r/min.
So, speed of rotation nm = 120 fe / P
= (120 x 60)/4 = 1800 r/min
2. In open-circuit test, IA = 0 and EA = V
EA = 540/1.732
= 311.8 V (as the machine is Y-connected)
In short-circuit test, terminals are shorted, V = 0
EA = IAZs or Zs = EA /IA =311.8/300=1.04 ohm
From the DC test, RA=VDC/(2IDC)
= 10/(2X25) = 0.2 ohm

Synchronous reactance Z s , sat R A2 X s2, sat

X s , sat Z s2, sat R A2 1.04 2 0 .2 2 1.02

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Example 3
A 480 V, 60 Hz, -connected, four pole synchronous generator has the OCC
shown below. This generator has a synchronous reactance of 0.1 ohm and
armature resistance of 0.015 ohm. At full load, the machine supplies 1200 A
and 0.8 pf lagging. Under full-load conditions, the friction and windage
losses are 40 kW, and the core losses are 30 kW. Ignore field circuit losses.

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

Example 3

a) What is the speed of rotation of the generator?

b) How much field current must be supplied to the generator to make the
terminal voltage 480 V at no load?
c) If the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws 1200 A at 0.8
pf lagging, how much field current will be required to keep the terminal
voltage equal to 480 V?
d) How much power is the generator now supplying? How much power is
supplied to the generator by the prime-mover?
What is the machine’s overall efficiency?
e) If the generator’s load were suddenly disconnected
from the line, what would happen to its terminal voltage?

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Problem 1

Solution of Problem 1

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Solution of Problem 1 Cont’d

3.9 Synchronous Motor

P, Q
Motor
Vt

• A synchronous motor is the same physical machine as a

generator, except that the direction of real power flow is
reversed
• Synchronous motors are used to convert electric power to
mechanical power
• Most synchronous motors are rated between 150 kW (200 hp)
and 15 MW (20,000 hp) and turn at speed ranging from 150
to 1800 r/min. Consequently, these machines are used in
heavy industry
• At the other end of the power spectrum, we find tiny single-
phase synchronous motors used in control devices and
electric clocks

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3.9 Synchronous Motor

Operation Principle
• The field current of a synchronous motor produces a steady-
state magnetic field BR
• A three-phase set of voltages is applied to the stator windings of
the motor, which produces a three-phase current flow in the
windings. This three-phase set of currents in the armature
winding produces a uniform rotating magnetic field of Bs
• Therefore, there are two magnetic fields present in the machine,
and the rotor field will tend to line up with the stator field, just
as two bar magnets will tend to line up if placed near each other.
• Since the stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor magnetic
field (and the rotor itself) will try to catch up
• The larger the angle between the two magnetic fields (up to
certain maximum), the greater the torque on the rotor of the
machine

3.9 Synchronous Motor

Vector Diagram

• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is exactly same as

the equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator, except that the
reference direction of IA is reversed.

• The basic difference between motor and generator operation in

synchronous machines can be seen either in the magnetic field
diagram or in the phasor diagram.

• In a generator, EA lies ahead of V , and BR lies ahead of Bnet. In a

motor, EA lies behind V , and BR lies behind Bnet.

• In a motor the induced torque is in the direction of motion, and in a

generator the induced torque is a countertorque opposing the
direction of motion.

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3.9 Synchronous Motor

Vector Diagram
IA Bs
V
jIA Xs
Bnet
sync

EA BR

Fig. The phasor diagram (leading PF: overexcited and |Vt|<|EA|) and
the corresponding magnetic field diagram of a synchronous motor.

V
jIA Xs

IA EA

Fig. The phasor diagram of an underexcited synchronous

motor (lagging PF and |Vt|>|EA|).

3.9 Synchronous Motor

Torque versus Electrical Load Angle

1
Normalized Torque, Power

0.5

Generator
0

Tmax,Pmax
Motor
-0.5

-1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Delta(Radians)

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3.9 Synchronous Motor

Application of Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors are usually used in large sizes because
in small sizes they are costlier as compared with induction
machines. The principal advantages of using synchronous
machine are as follows:
– Power factor of synchronous machine can be controlled
very easily by controlling the field current.
– It has very high operating efficiency and constant speed.
– For operating speed less than about 500 rpm and for high-
power requirements (above 600KW) synchronous motor
is cheaper than induction motor.
In view of these advantages, synchronous motors are
preferred for driving the loads requiring high power at low
speed; e.g; reciprocating pumps and compressor, crushers,
rolling mills, pulp grinders etc.

3.9 Synchronous Motor

Torque versus Speed

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Example 4
A six-pole 60 Hz synchronous motor is operating with a developed
power of 5 hp and a torque angle of 5o. Find the speed and developed
torque. Suppose that the load increases such that the developed torque
doubles. Find the new torque angle. Find the pull-out torque and
maximum developed power for this machine.

Example 4
An eight-pole, 240 V-rms, 60 Hz, delta connected synchronous motor
operates with a constant developed power of 50 hp and a torque angle
of 15o and unity power factor. Suppose the field current is increased
by 20%. Find the new torque angle and power factor. Is the new power
factor lagging or leading? Assume linear magnetic characteristics.

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 2/27/2023

Problem 2 & its Solution

Problem 2 & its solution

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