Ankara University

Engineering Faculty
Department of Engineering Physics
Chapter 2

PEN207 Methods of Analysis and Circuit

Circuit Design and Analysis Theorems

Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Sarı

Methods of Analysis and Circuit Theorems

Content
In this chapter,

• Direct Implementation of Basic Laws • Circuits including only resistors will be analyzed,
• Source Representation and Conversion • Systematic methods for circuit analysis will be
• Mesh Analysis developed,
• Nodal Analysis - Direct Implementation of Basic Laws
• Mesh and Nodal Analysis in Circuits including Dependent - Mesh Analysis
Power Sources - Nodal Analysis
• Y-∆ and ∆-Y Conversions
• Source conversion,
• Superposition Principle
• Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems
• Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

will be learned.

3 4

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 1

 Motivation Motivation
What is the voltage between points A and B and the current passing over 10Ω in the
circuit below ?
10 Ω
What is the current in the circuit below?

I=?
6Ω 2Ω
I=? 2Ω 1Ω
+ A
+
30 V 3Ω +
- -
+ 4Ω 5Ω 7Ω 4Ω 2A
30 V
-
2Ω V=?
V = IR -
B
Solving this circuit is not as easy as it seems?
V 30V
I= = = 10 A No matter how complex the circuit is, is there a way to analysis of the
R 3Ω
5 circuit in a systematic way? 6

Methods of Analysing Circuits Direct Implementation of Basic Laws

• Most generally, an electrical circuit consists of one or more sources
(current and voltage), which supply power to the circuit, a multiple of
loops and a of junctions(nodes).

• Direct Implementation of Basic Laws (Ohms’s - +

R7 R3 e(t)
Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws together) i(t) R6 R1
R5 i2(t)=?
• Mesh Analysis
- +
R2
• Nodal Analysis V5(t)=?
R4 i(t)

• Known quantities usually are the voltage of the source voltage (e(t)) and
the current of the source currents (i(t)).

• Unknown quantities usually are the currents of the voltage sources, the
voltages of the current sources and the voltage (v5(t)) and currents ( i2(t) )
7
on the circuit elements (resistor). 8

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 2

 Direct Implementation of Basic Laws Way to Follow in Circuit Analysis
The equations for finding unknown quantities can be classified: The objective is to There are two circuit combinations that make it easy to identify
write equations as
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) equations, variables:
many as unknown
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) equations, in the circuit
Series Circuits
• Current-Voltage equations of circuit elements (Ohm’s law)
a R1 b R2
Common Current
The total number of independent equations must be equal to the - + - + - I (I)
E + I V1 I V2
number of unknown quantities!

Number of the independent equations as the following: Paralle Circuits

1. The number of independent voltage-current equations of the circuit
elements is equal to the number of elements I1 Is I2
2. The number of independent KCL equations is equal to the number of + + +
one less number of junctions . Common Voltage
V R1 V Is V R2
3. The number of independent KVL equations is equal to the number of -
(V)
- -
independent loops (nodes) (An independent loop is a loop with a
KVL equation containing at least one unknown voltage not found in 9 10
other equations).

Mechanical Equivalent of an Electric Circuit Choosing the Potential Increases and Drops
Current and Voltage Mechanical Equivalent If the current is flowing from
a R b a to b via resistor R, point a
-
B R1 C D R2 E has a higher potential than
A B I +
Potential Energy V
A
U = mgh point b; otherwise the current
I
+ V1 - + V2 - UBC R1 C D does not flow through the
+ F h
+ R network!
E V3 R3 UDE 2
-
UAH E F R
-
G R3 Since the voltage source
+ -
I UFG b I provides power to the circuit,
G +
H H the direction of the current is
E I from a (negative) to b
+ E − V1 − V2 − V3 = 0 +U AH − U BC − U DE − U FG = 0 -
a (positive).
E = V1 + V2 + V3 U AH = U BC + U DE + U FG Note that this is the opposite
of the above situation
11 12

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 3

 Choosing the Potential Increases and Drops
Example 2.1: Find the unknown voltages (V1, V2 and V3) and currents (I1, I2
and I3) in the circuit below. Also, write an equation for the power
balance that shows that the power supplied by the sources is equal to
the power absorbed by the resistors.

Since the voltage source

20Ω
I provides power to the circuit,
b c

+
+ the direction of the current is I1 V1 I2 I3
E I V R from a (negative) to b +
- (positive). 6Ω 5Ω
- d E=140 V V2 V3 I=18 A
a -
Note that current is in the
same direction
+Vab I -Vcd I

Potential rise Potential drop

13 14

1. step: First group equations are voltage-current relations of the elements

Solution:The first thing to do for the solution is to determine the reference (resistors). Since there are 3 resistors in the circuit, 3 Ohm's Law
directions for unknown voltages and currents. equations can be written:

• Since the 140V source and the 20Ω resistor are connected in series,
the current I1 passes through both. Therefore, the voltage V1 is as
20 Ω Resistor: V1 = (20Ω) I1 ….. 1
shown (the point where the current enters is positive and the point
where it exits is negative). 6 Ω Resistor : V2 = (6Ω) I 2 ….. 2

• The resistors 6Ω, 5Ω and the 18A current source are connected in
parallel, so they see a common V voltage (V2=V3) Accordingly,
5 Ω Resistor : V3 = (5Ω) I 3 = V2 ….. 3

directions of currents I2 and I3 are determined as follows.

20Ω
20Ω
I3 I1 +
V1 - I2 I3
I1 + - I2
V1 + + + +
+ + +
5Ω V2 E=140 V V2 6Ω V2 5Ω 18A
E=140 V V2 6Ω V3=V2 18A
- - -
- - -
-

15 16

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 4

 3. Step: KVL equations are written. The only independent loop in the circuit is the
2. Step: KCL equations are written. Although the number of junctions (nodes)
loop on the left (I) (Other loops (II and III) are not independent because they
appears to be 4 (a, b, c and d), there are actually two (ab = A and cd = B).
give the same unknown).
20Ω a A b
20Ω a A b
I1 + - I2 I3
V1 + - I2 I3
+ +
I1 V1
+
V2 6Ω V2 5Ω + +
E=140 V 18A +
- - - E=140 V V2 6Ω V2 5Ω 18 A
- - -

I II III
c B d
20Ω c B d
A
KCL for junction A:
I1 + - I1 18 A KVL equations (I): +140 − V1 − V2 = 0 ….. 5
V1
+ + I2 I3 +
I1 − I 2 − I 3 + 18 = 0
E=140 V V2 6 Ω V2 5Ω 18A ….. 4
KVL equations (II): +V2 − V2 = 0 Same!
- - - (Loops II and III are not
KCL for junction B will be
independent loops!)
the same as junction A KVL equations (III): +V2 − V2 = 0
(Number of independent 17 18
B − I1 + I 2 + I 3 − 18 =…..
0 4 junction is one less).

The solutions of the above five equations can be found by any method.
Write a statement for the power balance indicating that the power supplied by the
Ohm’s Law (R1) V1 = ( 20Ω ) I1 ….. 1
sources is equal to the power absorbed by the resistors.
Ohm’s Law(R2) V2 = ( 6Ω ) I 2 ….. 2 Currents: I1=4A, I2=10A and I3=12A can be found
Ohm’s Law(R3) V3 = ( 5Ω ) I 3 ….. 3 V1=80V;
KCL equations (For A): V2=60V bulunur.
I1 − I 2 − I 3 + 18 = 0….. 4 I1=4A 20Ω
KVL equations (For A): 140 − V1 − V2 = 0 ….. 5 + - I2=10A I3=12A
V1=80V
It is usually written in either KCL or KVL equations to eliminate either current or + + +
voltage variables (equations 1-2-3 in equation 4): E=140 V V2=60V 6Ω V2 5Ω 18A
- - -
1 1 1
V1 − V2 − V2 + 18 = 0….. 6
20Ω 6Ω 5Ω
From Eqs 5 and
V1 + V2 = 140 Power Supplied = Power Consumed
V1=80V;
−3V1 + 22V2 = 1080 V2=60V found
19 20
Akım denklemlerinden (1-3), akımlar I1=4A, I2=10A ve I3=12A bulunur.

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 5

 Power balance can be calculated as follows: Example-2.2: The following circuit contains a 30V constant voltage source
on the left loop and a current dependent current source (supplying
current proportional with I1) is connected to the current on the right
Power supplied to the circuit: loop. Find unknown voltages (V1 and V2) and currents (I1, I2 and I3)

Voltage Source: P=E.I=(140 V).(4 A) = 560 W

Current Source: P=E.I=(60 V).(18 A) = 1080 W 3Ω 2I1
Total: 1640 W
I1 V1 I2 I3
+

Power Consumed in the circuit: E=30V V2 4Ω 10Ω

-
5 Ω Resistor: P=RI2=(5 Ω).(12 A)2 = 720 W
6 Ω Resistor: P=RI2=(6 Ω).(10 A)2 = 600 W
20 Ω Resistor: P=RI2=(20 Ω).(4 A)2 = 320 W
Total: 1640 W

21 22

Solution:The first step for the solution is to determine the reference directions Step 1: First Group equations, there are 3 Ohm's Law equations:
for unknown voltages and currents.
• The circuit has 3 resistors, two junctions and two independent
loops. Ohm’s Law (R1) V1 = ( 3Ω ) I1 ….. 1
• Three Ohm's Law equations, one KCL and two KVL equations can
be written.
Ohm’s Law (R2) V2 = ( 4Ω ) I 2 ….. 2

• Although I1 and 2I1 currents are unknown for now, we can take Ohm’s Law (R3) V4 = (10Ω ) (2 I1 ) ….. 3
reference directions as follows:

2I1
I 3 = 2 I1
3Ω I. junction 2I1 3Ω
- - I1 + - I2 + - I3
I1 + V1 I2 +
V3 I3 V1 V3
+ + + -
+ -
E=30V V2 4Ω V4 10Ω E=30V V2 4Ω V4 10Ω
- + - - +
-
I. loop II. loop
23 24
II. junction

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 6

 Step 2: KCL equations are written. The number of independent junctions is one Step 3: Write the KVL equations. KVL are written around I and II loops
(junction A)

3Ω 2I1
3Ω A 2I1
I1 + - I2 + -
+ - I2 + - V1 V3
I1 V1 V3 + + -
+ + -
E=30V V2 4Ω V4 10Ω
E=30V V2 4Ω V4 10Ω - +
-
- - +
I. loop II. loop
A B
B
KVL for loop I:
KCL for junction A: I1 − I 2 + 2 I1 = 0 ….. 4 (Starting from A to point A) 30 − V1 − V2 = 0 ….. 5

KCL for junction B: − I1 + I 2 − 2 I1 = 0 ….. 4’

KVL for loop II:
(Starting from B to point B) V2 − V3 + V4 = 0 ….. 6
Equation 4 and 4' are same! 25 26

Comment: Example-2.1 and Example-2.2 illustrate the application of the

The solutions of the above five equations can be found by any method.
method of Direct Implementation of Basic Laws in the easiest and
clearest manner.
From current eqs. (1-3), the currents I1=2A, 2I1=4A and I2=6A can be found The obtained equations can be made more compact by two
simplification.
1- Defining the current variable in terms of the voltage variable (or
From eqs. 5 and 6: V2=24V vice versa): such a simplification will allow it to be written without
V3=64V the need to explicitly write Ohm's Law. Using KCL for junction A:
V4=40V can be found
1 1 1
2I1 I1 − I 2 − I 3 + 18 = 0 ….. 4 V1 − V2 − V2 + 18 = 0 ….. 6
3Ω 20Ω 6Ω 5Ω
I1 + - I2 + - 20Ω
V1 V3 A
+ + -
I1 + - I2 I3
E=30 V V2 4Ω V4 10Ω V1
- + + + +
-
E=140 V V2 6Ω V2 5Ω I=18A
- - -

27 28

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 7

 2- In the second simplification, the need to write either KCL equations or KVL 3Ω 10Ω
equations is avoided by selecting the variables in terms of other previously
selected variables. I1 + V1 - I2 -
V3 + I3
For example, in Example-2.1, the voltage V1 is 140-V2 (from KVL). + +
E=30V V2 4Ω
140 − V1 − V2 = 0 ….. 5 - KVL -
1 1 1
V1 − V2 − V2 + 18 = 0 ….. 6
20 6 5 V1 V1 = 140 − V2
1 1 1
(140 − V2 ) + V2 + V2 + 18 = 0 KCL: + I1 − I 2 + I 3 = 0
20Ω 6Ω 5Ω 30 − V1 − V2 = 0
1 1 1 V1 = 30 − V2
20Ω + V1 − V2 + V3 = 0
3Ω 4Ω 10Ω
I1 + - I2 I3 1 1 1
V1 KCL in terms of KVL : (30 − V2 ) − V2 + V3 = 0
+ + + 3Ω 4Ω 10Ω
E=140V V2 6Ω V3 5Ω I=18A +V2 + V3 = 0
- - - 1 1 1
KVL (30 − V2 ) − V2 − V2 = 0 V3 = −V2
29
3Ω 4Ω 10Ω 30

Since the voltage on the 2Ω resistor is requested, let’s show it as V1 and the other
Example-2.3: Find the voltage between the terminals of the 2Ω resistor in the unknowns as V2 and V3. Other voltages can be expressed in terms of these voltages.
circuit below. To facilitate the solution, specify all currents in terms of
voltage variables and use the KVL equations when selecting variables.
R5=15Ω
+ -
V5
15Ω III. loop
A
5Ω B
5Ω C
- + + - + -
- I1 V2 V3 25V
5Ω 5Ω R6=1Ω + +
-
+ V1 R1=2Ω R4=1Ω 5A
- + - -
25V +
1Ω 30V I. loop II. loop
+ V=? 2Ω 1Ω 5A - D
+
30V Voltage between resistor R6 (I. loop KVL): V6 Ω = +V2 − V1 + 30 ….. 1
-
Voltage between resistor R4 (II. loop KVL): V4 Ω = +V1 − V3 − 25 ….. 2
31 32
Voltage between resistor R5 (III. loop KVL): V5 Ω = +25 + V3 − V2 ….. 3

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 8

 2. Step: Currents at intersections must be written. There are 4 junctions (A, B, C If we multiply denominator of the equations by 30
and D), so 3 independent equations can be written.
− 30V1 + 38V2 − 2V3 = −850
R5=15Ω −15V1 − 6V2 − 6V3 = 0
+ - − 30V1 − 2V2 + 38V3 = −650
I5
-(V2 –V3-25) − I1 − I 2 − I 3 = 0
Common solution of multivariable
I + I 2 + I5 = 0 equations can be done by using
A 5Ω I2 I
B 3 5Ω C + I3 − I 4 − I5 − 5 = 0 determinants and Cramer Rule: b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1
I + - + - b2 a22 a23 a21 b2 a23 a21 a22 b2
- - V2 +
I1 V3 25V a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1
I4 b3 a32 a33 a b a33 a a b
R1=1Ω V2 –V1+30 + + a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 x1 = x = 31 3 x = 31 32 3
+ V1 2Ω R4=1Ω 5A a11 a12 a13 2 a11 a12 a13 3 a11 a12 a13
V1 –V3-25 a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3
+ - - a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23
30V a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
- D
V1 potential: −850 38 −2
1 1 1 0 −6 −6
KCL for junction A: (V2 − V1 + 30) + V2 + (V2 − V3 − 25) = 0 ….. 4
1Ω 5Ω 15Ω −650 −2 38 −360000
1 1 1 V1 = = = 10 V
KCL for junction B: − V2 − V1 − V3 = 0 ….. 5 −30 38 −2 −36000
5Ω 2Ω 5Ω
1 1 1 −15 −6 −6
KCL for junction C: − ( −V2 + V3 + 25) + V3 − (V1 − V3 − 25) − 5 = 033.. 6 34
15Ω 5Ω 1Ω −30 −2 38

Solution: Let us express all voltages in terms of current variables and use KCL
equations in the selection of variables. First, we define currents I1, I2 and I3.
Example-2.4: Calculate the current through the 15Ω resistor in the circuit
Other resistors can be found in the KCL equations.
below. To simplify the solution, specify all voltages in terms of current
variables and use KCL equations when selecting variables. 15Ω
Ohm's Law was
- + I1 expressed in
closed form in
15Ω II. loop eqs. 1-3.

A I1+I2 5Ω B (+I1+I3+5) 5Ω C
I=?
+ - + - + -
- V2 V3 25V
5Ω 5Ω I2 1Ω + +
+ 2Ω I3 1Ω 5A
+ -
+ I. loop - -
25V (+I2-I3-5) III. loop
1Ω 30V
2Ω 1Ω 5A - D
+
30V
Loop I: +30 − V 1Ω − V2 − V 2 Ω = 0
+30 − (1Ω ) I 2 − ( 5Ω ) ( I1 + I 2 ) − ( 2Ω ) ( I 2 − I 3 − 5) = 0… 1
-
Loop II: +V 15 Ω + 25 + V 5 Ω + V 5Ω = 0 + (15Ω ) I1 + 25 + ( 5Ω ) ( I1 + I 3 + 5) + ( 5Ω ) ( I1 + I 2 ) = 0… 2
35
Loop III: +V 2 Ω − V 5Ω − 25 − V 1Ω = 0 + ( 2Ω ) ( I 2 − I 3 − 5) − ( 5Ω ) ( I1 + I 3 + 5) − 25 − I 3 = 0… 3

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 9

 Notes on Circuit Analysis-1:
System of equations giving the currents (three equations three unknowns):
a 4Ω b c 3Ω
5 I1 + 8 I 2 − 2 I 3 = 40
−25 I1 − 5I 2 − 5I 3 = 50
Va =?
+
5I1 − 2 I 2 + 8I 3 = −60 14V Vab =?
- Vbc =?
KCL for junction A: b1 a12 a13 d
b2 a22 a23 Vad =?
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1
b a32 a33
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 x1 = 3 Current in the Circuit:
a11 a12 a13
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3 a21 a22 a23
+14V − I (4Ω) − I (3Ω) = 0
14V
a31 a32 a33 I= = 2A
From Cramer’s Rule, the current I1: (4Ω + 3Ω)

40 8 −2 Va = ?
50 −5 −5
Vab = I (4Ω) = (2 A).(4Ω) = 8V
−60 −2 8 −2000 The minus sign indicates that
I1 = = = −2 A the current I1 is in the
5 8 −2 1000 Vbc = IR = (2 A)(0Ω) = 0V
opposite direction to the
−25 −5 −5 Vad = (2 A)(4Ω) + (2 A)(3Ω) = 14V
selected direction. 37 38
5 −2 8

Notes on Circuit Analysis-2: Notes on Circuit Analysis-3:

1Ω a 3Ω 1Ω 3Ω a
+ + + Vab =?
14V Vab =? 6V 14V 6Ω
- - -
b b
Current in the circuit:
1Ω a 3Ω 14V − I (1Ω) − I (3Ω) − 6V = 0 Since no current will flow through the 3Ω resistor the Vab voltage
+ - + - 14V − 6V
+ I= = 2A will be equal to the voltage (Va`b) on the 6Ω resistor.
+ I + (1Ω + 3Ω)
14V Vab 6V
- - +Vab − I (3Ω) − 6V = 0
-b
Vab = ( 2 A)(3Ω) + 6V = 12V… 1 1Ω 3Ω Current in the circuit:
a' a
1Ω 3Ω 14V − I (1Ω ) − I (6Ω) = 0
a +
14V
+14V − I (1Ω) − Vab = 0 I
+ - + + - 14V 6Ω Va`b=12V I=
(1Ω + 6Ω)
= 2A
+ I + -
Vab = 14V − (2 A)(1Ω)+ = 12V… 2 b Vab = Va′b = ( 2 A)(6Ω) = 12V
14V Vab 6V
- -
39 40
-b

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 10

 Notes on Circuit Analysis-4: Notes on Circuit Analysis-5:
1Ω a 7Ω a b
Vab =?
+ +
14V Vab =? 24V 5Ω 2Ω 4A
- -
b c

Since there is no current passing through 1Ω resistor Vab Let's try to find the voltage of point a and b (according to a point
will be equal the voltage of the voltage source. that we specify as ref. point, for example point c).
Current flowing through the left loop (I):
Current in the circuit: 7Ω a b +24V − I a (7Ω) − I a (5Ω) = 0
+ 24V
Ia = = 2A
+14V − (0 A)(1Ω) − Vab = 0 + Ib (7Ω + 5Ω)
+
24V Ia 5Ω 2Ω 4A Va = (2 A)(5Ω) = 10V
Vab = +14V
-
I c Current flowing through the right loop (II):
- - II
Vb = ( 4 A)(2Ω) = 8V
41 42
Va − Vb = 10V − (8V ) = 2V

Notes on Circuit Analysis-6: Notes on Circuit Analysis-7:

7Ω a b
Vab =? Vab =?
Vab =? a a
+
24V 5Ω 2Ω 4A
4A 5Ω 4A 5Ω 10Ω
-
c
b b
Let's try to find the voltage of point a and b (according to a point (a) (b)
that we specify as ref. point, for example point c). What is the voltage Vab=?
Current flowing through the left loop (I):
7Ω a b +24V − I a (7Ω) − I a (5Ω) = 0 5Ω.10Ω 200
24V Vab = ( 4 A)(5Ω) = 20V Vab = ( 4 A)( )= V
+ Ia = = 2A 5Ω + 10Ω 15
- Ib (7Ω + 5Ω)
+
24V Ia 5Ω 2Ω 4A Va = (2 A)(5Ω) = 10V
-
I Current flowing through the right loop (II):
- c + II
Vb = ( −4 A)(2Ω) = −8V
43 44
Va − Vb = 10V − (−8V ) = 18V

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 11

 Real Voltage Sources and Source Conversion Real Voltage Source and Source Conversion
Power sources used may approach the ideal, but never be ideal! Real (Voltage) source and its I-V curve: Eoc: Open Circuit voltage
Ideal Voltage Source V Isc: Short Circuit current
RL=∞
Load E oc Ideal Case
+ I=0 V I
R=∞
Eoc
Eo + slope = Ro = −
- Eo Voltage I sc
V RL RL=0
Source
- I
I
Isc
+ I=I Real
R Line equation of above I-V grafic:
Eo Case
- An ideal voltage source tries to keep the voltage V = Eoc − Ro I
constant even if the load R is zero, which is Equvalent circuit for above equation:
Ro I
unrealistic.
+
I=∞
+
Eo R=0 Eo = RI +
- Eoc V + Eoc − Ro I = V ….. 1
R → 0 Eo = cons tan t = 0.∞ - A real Voltage Source, can be modeled
45 - with an ideal voltage source (Eoc) and a 46
Not Realistic! serial resistor (internal) (Ro).

Real Current Source and Source Conversion Real Current Source and Source Conversion
Power sources used may approach the ideal, but never be ideal! A real (Current) power source and its I-V curve: Eoc: Open Circuit voltage
Ideal Current Sources Isc: Short Circuit current
V
A
RL=∞ Ideal Case
I=Io E Load Eoc Eoc
I Slope = Ro = −
Io R=∞ + I sc
Source RL
V
B -
RL=0
I I
I=I Real Isc
Io
Io R Expression of the line (in current) in the I-V graph
An ideal current source tries to keep the current Case above: 1
constant, even though the load R is infinite, I = I sc − V
I
Ro
which is unrealistic.
I=∞ Equvalent circuit for above
+ equation
Io VAB=0 V R=0 + 1
Isc Ro V I = I sc − V ….. 2
I o = Eo / R Ro
- A real Current Source, can be modeled
- with an ideal current source (Isc) and a 48
Not Realistic! R → ∞ Io = 0 / ∞ 47 parallel resistor (internal) (Ro).

PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 12

 Important Note! Source Conversions
Ideal sources can not be converted to each other. In order to be converted
To convert any Voltage Source indication to Current Source indication:
sources must have internal (Ro) resistance!
1 Eoc V
Current Source: I = I sc − V = I sc − GoV I= −
+ Ro Ro Ro
E A
- Eoc 1
If: I sc = and Go ≡ Then the above circuits are
Ro Ro identical to the I-V graphs.
Ideal source
Voltage Source:
Ro To convert any Current Source indication to Voltage Source indication :

I sc I
+ V= −
Ro Go Go
E
-

A
I sc 1 Then the above circuits are
Eğer: Eoc = and Ro ≡ identical to the I-V graphs.
Go Go
49 50
Real sources

Example-2.55: Show that the current passing through the 9Ω resistor in the Solution-2.55:
circuit with voltage source below is the same when the voltage 3Ω
source in the circuit is converted to the current source.
+
3Ω 12V 9Ω Ead 12
IL = = = 1A
- ( 3Ω + 9Ω ) ( 3Ω + 9Ω )
+
12V 9Ω
-
IL=? E=12 V Ro=3Ω
4A 3Ω 9Ω
E = Ro I 12V = (3Ω) I
I =4A

(3Ω).(9Ω) VL 9V
VL = R.(4 A) = (4 A) = 9V IL = = = 1A
(3Ω + 9Ω) 9Ω 9Ω

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PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 13

 Homework-2.55:In the following circuit, make sure that the voltage across the Example-2.5: Convert the following voltage source to an equivalent current
9Ω load resistor will be the same when the current source in the source (a) and the current source to an equivalent voltage source (b).
circuit is converted to the voltage source.

+
+ ?
4A 3Ω 9Ω VL=? (a) 56V V I=? Ro=?
- 2Ω -

? -
(b) 4Ω I=2A ?V
?Ω +

53 54

Solution: (a) Solution: (b) Isc=2A Ro=4Ω

Voc=56V Ro=2Ω

Voc = Ro I sc (56 V ) = (2 Ω) I sc Voc = Ro I sc Voc = (4 Ω)(2 A) = 8 V

1 1 I sc = 28 A 1 1
Go = = = 0,5 mho Go = = = 0.25 mho
Ro 2 Ω Ro 4 Ω

+
+ ? ?
V -
56V Ro=2Ω
- 4Ω I=2A 8V
2Ω - I=28A +
4Ω

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PEN207-Circuit Design & Analysis:Chapter-2 14