TYS Topical Essay questions Compilation (Sec 3)

Chap 1: Cells

1. compare and contrast the similarities and differences between plant cells
and animal cells [6]
Similarities:

Both have nucleus;

Both have cell membrane / mitochondria / RER/SER (any 2);

Differences:
Plant cell have cell wall but animal do not have

Plant cell have chloroplast but animal do not have

Plant cell have a large central vacuole but animal cells have small and numerous vacuoles

2. Identify a named organelle that can only be seen under electron microscope and
state its functions [2/3]

State a specific organ / type of tissue where it has abundance of the organelle
mentioned and explain your answer. [2]
Golgi apparatus:
stores, chemically modifies and packages manufactured proteins in vesicles for
secretion out of the cell

stomach [1] the stomach cells produces and secretes abundance of digestive enzymes
(pepsin) for digestion of proteins. Enzymes are proteins in nature [1]

OR
Mitochondria:
site of aerobic respiration where glucose is oxidised to release energy for cellular
activities

muscles [1] requires lots of energy released from aerobic respiration by mitochondria
for contractions of muscles for movement. [1]

liver [1] requires lots of energy released from aerobic respiration by mitochondria
for high cellular activities / high metabolic rate in detoxification /deamination.

Small intestine [1] requires lots of energy released from aerobic respiration by
mitochondria for absorption of digested nutrients into blood stream via active
transport.

OR
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:
To transport proteins synthesized by ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus for secretion
out of the cell
stomach [1] the stomach cells produces and secretes abundance of digestive enzymes
(pepsin) for digestion of proteins. Enzymes are proteins in nature [1]

OR
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:
synthesises fats and steroids and convert harmful substances into harmless
substances via detoxification

liver [1] liver is responsible for detoxification of harmful substances into less
harmful substances thus its cells will have abundance of SER. [1]

3. Use a named example, describe the relationship between cells, tissue and
organ. [5]
The heart is an example of an organ that carries out the function of circulating blood in
the human body. [1]

The heart consists of different tissues to perform a specific function [1] such as the
muscle tissue, connective tissue, blood tissues and nerve tissues. [1]

These tissues are a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific
function. [1] example muscle tissue contains muscle cells with which synchronize
their contractions to bring about the contraction of the tissue. [1]

OR

The leaf is an example of an organ that carries out the function of making glucose for the
plant through photosynthesis. [1]

The leaf consists of different tissues to perform a specific function [1] such as the
palisade tissue, spongy mesophyll tissue, xylem tissues and phloem tissues. [1]

These tissues are a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific
function. [1] example palisade tissue contains palisade mesophyll cells with
chloroplasts to trap sunlight to make glucose by photosynthesis [1]

4. describe how the protein is synthesized and transported in the cell for secretion.
[6]
A. Proteins made by the ribosomes attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
enter into RER. [1]

B: The manufactured proteins are transported in vesicles that are pinched off from the RER
and are transported to the Golgi apparatus. [1] The vesicles fuse with the Golgi
apparatus and release the contents into the Golgi apparatus. [1]
C: The Golgi apparatus stores and chemically modifies the proteins made by RER and
packages them into vesicles. [1] The secretory vesicles containing the modified
proteins are pinched off from the Golgi apparatus. [1]
 D: The vesicles then move to the cell membrane and fuse with the membrane. This
releases the contents in the vesicles into the outside of the cell. [1]

Chap 2: Movement of substances

1. Compare and contrast between diffusion and osmosis [4]

Similarity:

Both involve net movement of molecules down concentration / water potential

gradient Slow and passive process / does not require additional energy input

Difference: Osmosis is for water molecules only whereas diffusion is for any other

molecules

Osmosis requires a partially permeable membrane, whereas for diffusion is with/without a

partially permeable membrane.

2. Describe and explain how a typical plant cell will respond when soaked in distilled
water. [5]
Higher water potential in distilled water compared to cell sap of plant cell[1]

Net movement of water molecules down the water potential gradient from distilled
water into plant cell[1]

Via osmosis[1]

The cell becomes turgid[1]

The cell wall can withstand the pressure to prevent cell bursting[1]

3. a) Explain how a desert plant absorbs mineral salt and water into the roots.
[6]

Mineral salt

Lower concentration of mineral salt in the soil than in the cell sap of the root hair cell. [1]
Active transport of mineral salt against concentration gradient into the cell,[1] which require
energy released from the oxidation of glucose in mitochondria during aerobic respiration.
[1]

Water

Concentrated cell sap of root hair cell has lower water potential than the soil [1] due to
concentrated mineral salt solution. Net movement of water molecules into the root hair cell
[1] via osmosis across partially permeable cell membrane. [1]
 b) Explain how the use of poison to disrupt mitochondria function will have an
impact on the mineral salt and water transport in the desert plant. [4]
Mineral salt

Lower concentration of mineral salt in the soil than in the cell sap of the root hair cell. Active
transport of mineral salt is disrupted / blocked [1] due to no energy released from the
oxidation of glucose in mitochondria during aerobic respiration. [1]
Water
Cell sap of root hair cell has higher water potential than the soil [1] due to lack of active
transport of mineral salt from soil into root hair cell. Net movement of water molecules out
of the root hair cell via osmosis [1] across partially permeable cell membrane. the plant
losses water and dehydrates.

Chap 3&4: Biological Molecules and Enzymes

1. Compare and contrast between fats and carbohydrates [4]

Similarity:

Made up of elements C,H,O (write out in full words)

energy storage

Differences:
Not fixed ratio of H : O for fats, but for carbohydrates it’s fixed ratio of
2:1 Fats contain twice as much energy as carbohydrates

2. Define condensation and hydrolysis reaction [4]

Condensation – synthesis of larger, more complex substance from chemical bonding of two
smaller, simpler substances with the removal of one molecule of water

Hydrolysis – chemical breakdown of lager, complex substance into two smaller,

simpler substances with the addition of one molecule of water

3. Define enzymes [6]

Biological catalysts[1] Made up of proteins[1]

Speed up chemical reaction via lowering activation energy required to start the

reaction[1] Remain chemically unchanged at the end of reaction thus can be

reused[1]

Specific reactions with specific substrates, which is complementary in shape to active site
of enzyme[1]

Sensitive to temperature and pH / can be denatured by extreme temp or pH[1]

4 a) With reference to the lock and key hypothesis, describe enzymatic reaction.
[4]

Enzyme is the lock, substrate is the key [1]

The three dimensional structure of the substrate must fit complementarily to the
three dimensional structure of the active site on the enzyme [1]

To form enzyme-substrate complex for reaction to form products [1]

The enzyme remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction and can be
reused.[1]

4b) With reference to the figure, explain how the inhibitor works in affecting enzymatic
reaction. [3

The inhibitor has complementary three dimensional shape to the active site of the enzyme
and bind, thus blocking /occupy the active site. [1]

Substrate cannot bind to the active site to form enzyme-substrate complex.

[1] The enzyme reaction is inhibited, no products form. [1]

5 a) Describe and explain how enzyme functions are affected by temperature

[4] *note: must quote data if the Q involves graphical / table result analysis Low
temperature, kinetic energy is low, enzyme is inactive, enzyme activity is low

Temperature increases, kinetic energy increases, more effective collision between enzyme
and substrate in forming more enzyme-substrate complex to form products, enzyme activity
increases

Optimum temperature, enzyme is most active, enzyme activity is the highest

Beyond optimum temperature, enzyme denatured due to change in three dimensional shape
of active site. Enzyme activity drops.

5 b) Describe and explain how enzyme functions are affected by pH [3]

pH too acidic, enzyme denatured due to change in three dimensional shape of active
site. Enzyme activity decrease to zero, rate of reaction drops.

Optimum pH, enzyme is most active, enzyme activity is the highest

pH too alkaline, enzyme denatured due to change in three dimensional shape of active
site. Enzyme activity decrease to zero, rate of reaction drops.

5 c) Describe and explain how enzyme functions are affected by substrate

concentration [3]
Increasing substrate concentration increases rate of enzymatic reaction. [1]
Max rate of reaction is reached when all enzymes’ active sites are
saturated. [1]

Reaction will only increase further if the concentration of enzymes is increased[1]

6. Describe the importance of water in the human body [4]

Solvent in dissolving substances in the blood plasma
Maintain water potential in the blood plasma

Regulate body temperature by evaporation during sweating

Site of chemical reactions in the cell cytoplasm.

Chap 5: Nutrition in Humans

1. Define digestion and absorption [6]
Digestion - Digestion is the process where large, insoluble molecules are broken
down to small, soluble molecules [1] that can be absorbed into the body cells.
Digestion can be a physical process which involves mechanical breakup of
food into smaller pieces to increase surface area to volume ratio for faster
chemical digestion. [1] Digestion can be a chemical process which involves the
breaking of bonds in molecules which involves enzymes. [1]
Absorption - Products of digestion such as glucose and amino acids [1] will be
taken into the bloodstream [1] through the wall of ileum of the small intestine by
processes active transport and diffusion. [1]
2.1 Describe the digestion and absorption processes of protein in mammals [6]

physical digestion in the mouth and stomach to break up into smaller pieces to
increase surface area to volume ratio for faster chemical digestion by enzymes
stomach; pepsin; digest protein into short polypeptides
trypsin from pancreas digest remaining protein into short polypeptides erepsin /
peptidase from small intestine digest short polypeptides into amino acids
Absorption of a.a in the small intestine into blood stream

via active transport and diffusion

2.2 Describe the digestion and absorption processes of starch in mammals [6]
physical digestion in the mouth to break up into smaller pieces to increase
surface
area to volume ratio for faster chemical digestion by enzymes
mouth; salivary amylase; digest some starch into maltose
pancreatic amylase from pancreas digest remaining starch into maltose in the
small intestine

maltase from small intestine digest maltose into glucose

Absorption of glucose in the small intestine into blood stream
via active transport and diffusion

2.3 Describe the digestion and absorption processes of fats in mammals [6]
physical digestion in the mouth to break up into smaller pieces to increase surface
area to volume ratio for faster chemical digestion by enzymes
bile synthesized by liver and secreted by gall bladder for emulsification of fats from
big oil droplet to smaller oil droplets [1] to increase SA to vol ratio for faster rate of
chemical digestion by lipases [1]

pancreatic lipase from pancreas and intestinal lipase digest fats into glycerol and
fatty acids in the small intestine
Absorption of fatty acids and glycerol into epithelial cells in the small intestine[1],
combine to fat globule and absorbed into lacteal via diffusion [1]
3. A sample of the juice taken from the stomach after meal is tested with benedict,
biuret, iodine and ethanol emulsion test. Describe and explain the possible results
of the four food tests on the sample. [4]

Benedict – remain blue / green precipitate; very little maltose is present as stomach
does not have carbohydrase to digest starch to simple sugars

biuret – violet; some protein still present has it is not completely digested in the
stomach by pepsin.

iodine - blue-black; most of starch still present as stomach does not have
carbohydrase to digest starch to simple sugars

ethanol emulsion test – white emulsion; fat is not digested in stomach as it does
not have lipase.

4. In the gastric bypass surgery, a portion of the stomach is removed to help

patient in controlling obesity. Describe and explain the possible implication of the
surgical procedure and changes to the patient’s lifestyle as a result. [4]
Protein digestion will be less efficient/less protein digested as there’s less pepsin in the
stomach to digest proteins to polypeptides[1] patient has to decrease intake of
proteins/increase intake of amino acids [1]

Smaller stomach not able to store as much food / stomach stores less food[1] patient has to
take frequent small meals [1]
less gastric juice thus less HCL to activate pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion [1]
patient has to decrease intake of proteins/increase intake of readily absorbed amino acids
[1]

*any 2 out of 3

5.1 Describe the role of bile in digestion process [3]

Physical digestion in emulsification of fats to breakup big fat globules into smaller
fat globules
To increase surface area to volume ratio for faster chemical digestion by lipase
[1] into glycerol and fatty acids [1]

5.2 Gall stones is a medical condition in which it can block the bile duct and the
pancreatic duct, preventing the release of the bile juice and pancreatic juice into the
duodenum. Describe and explain the possible impact on nutrient digestion if this was
to happen. [5]
Pancreatic duct:

Absence of lipase/No lipase to digest fat into fatty acids and glycerol [1] Absence of
trypsin/No trypsin to digest proteins into short polypeptide [1] Absence of pancreatic
amylase/no pancreatic amylase to digest starch into maltose [1] Bile duct:

No/less emulsification of fat globules to smaller fat globules, thus reduce surface area to
volume ratio[1] decreasing the rate of fat digestion by lipase [1]

OR

Hydrochloric acid from gastric juice might burn the internal lining of the duodenum as it is
not neutralised by the alkaline pancreatic juice and bile [1] intestinal digestive enzymes
will denature in acidic pH, thus unable to digest nutrients. [1]

6. Explain how the small intestine is adapted in absorption of digested nutrients in

mammals [6]

*note: max marks given to surface area points are [2]

long; to increase time for more efficient absorption of digested nutrients
inner wall is folded; to increase surface area for faster absorption of digested
nutrients
presence of numerous finger-like projections called villi on the folds; increase
surface area for faster absorption of digested nutrients
wall of each villus made of one layer of epithelial cells to shorten distance for
faster diffusion and active transport.

presence lacteal in villus for faster absorption of fats via diffusion

rich in blood capillaries for faster absorption of glucose and amino acids via
diffusion and active transport
continuous blood flow to maintain steep concentration gradient between blood and
lumen of intestines for faster diffusion of digested nutrients into blood capillaries

7. Explain how the villus is adapted in absorption of digested nutrients in mammals

[4]
wall of villus made of one layer of epithelial cells to shorten distance for faster
diffusion

presence of microvilli on epithelial cells to further increase surface area to volume

ratio for faster absorption of digested nutrients

presence lacteal in villus for faster absorption of fats via diffusion

 rich in blood capillaries for faster absorption of glucose and amino acids via
diffusion and active transport
continuous blood flow to maintain steep concentration gradient between blood and
lumen of intestines for faster diffusion of digested nutrients into blood capillaries

8. Describe the functions of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism.

[6]

Maintain constant blood glucose level in the blood plasma

increase blood glucose level above normal receptor Islet of Langerhans in the
pancreas get stimulated corrective mechanism to release more insulin stimulate the
liver and skeletal muscles excess glucose convert into glycogen to be stored blood
glucose level back to normal [3]
decrease blood glucose level below normal receptor Islet of Langerhans in
pancreas get stimulated corrective mechanism for more glucagon production
stimulate liver stored glycogen convert back into glucose to be released into
blood stream blood glucose level back to normal [3]

9. Describe the fate of amino acids in the liver. [4]

Amino acids used to synthesize plasma proteins in the liver

Excess amino acids goes through deamination.
The amino group will be converted to urea to be excreted out of the body The
carbon residue will be converted into glucose and then into glycogen to be
stored in the liver

10. Describe the long term and short term effect of excessive alcohol
consumption on the human body. [6]
Short term
Memory loss; Longer reaction time; Reduced self – control,
hang-over Long term

Liver cirrhosis; gastric ulcers; Addiction leading to withdrawal symptoms ; obesity ;

11. Describe the functions of the liver [5] *overview Q

Produces bile which emulsifies fats in physical digestion [1]
breaks down the haemoglobin to form bile pigments and stores the iron
released. [1]
Excess amino acids are deaminated where their amino groups are removed and
converted to urea for excretion. [1]

Detoxification of harmful substances such as alcohol by alcohol

dehydrogenase and breaking them down into less harmful substances [1]

Regulates blood glucose level with the aid of insulin and glucagon [1]

12. Describe the parts played in the digestion and assimilation of food by
the pancreas and liver. [6]
1) The pancreas
Digestive juice to small intestine: lipase (fats to glycerol & f.a) trypsin (protein
to short polypeptides), amylase (starch to maltose)
Islet of Langerhans secrete insulin to regulate blood glucose level by
stimulating liver / skeletal muscles to take up excess glucose and convert to
glycogen
Islet of Langerhans secrete glucagon stimulating liver to convert stored
glycogen to glucose when starving.

2) The liver
Bile to emulsify fats to increase SA / vol ratio for faster chemical digestion
by lipase.
Regulate blood glucose level by stimulated by insulin to take up excess
glucose and convert to glycogen, or stimulated by glucagon to convert stored
glycogen back to glucose.
Deamination of excess a.a to form urea to be excreted.

13. Using named examples and with reference to the chemicals stored, explain
the parts played by storage organs in animals. [6]

Liver – iron storage from breakdown of haemoglobin, used in new haemoglobin and
RBC synthesis

Gall bladder –bile storage produced by liver used for emulsification of fats in
physical digestion of fats to increase SA/vol ratio
Large intestine – storage of undigested substances in the form of faeces. Reabsorb
water and mineral salts
Chapter 12: Nutrition in Plants
1. Describe the process of photosynthesis [4]
Chlorophyll in chloroplast to absorb light energy and convert to chemical energy
Photolysis of water to form oxygen gas and hydrogen ions

Take in CO2 through stomata via diffusion down the concentration gradient from the
environment into the leaf
CO2 is reduced into glucose by combining with hydrogen ions and chemical energy
during light independent reaction

2. Describe the fates of the glucose after it’s synthesized in the leaf.
[4] Excess glucose converted to starch and store in the leaf

Convert into sucrose to load into phloem via active transport to transport to
other parts of the plant via translocation
Combine with nitrates in mineral salt to form amino acids

Convert to fats to be stored

Used in aerobic respiration to release energy for cellular activities
*any 4

3. Explain how rate of photosynthesis can be affected by:

Temperature [4]
Note: data required for graphical / table result analysis
When the temperature is low, rate of photosynthesis is low as enzymes are
inactive. [1]
There is an increased in the rate of photosynthesis due to increased kinetic energy
of enzymes that increase chance of successful collisions to form more enzyme
substrate complex to form products. [1]

Rate of photosynthesis is the highest as it is the optimum temperature and the

enzymes are most active. [1]
Fall in the rate of photosynthesis beyond optimum temp as enzyme is denatured due
to deformed three dimensional shape of active site. [1]

Light intensity [3]

Increase; More chlorophyll activated to convert more light E to chemical E[1] , rate
of photo increases to synthesize more glucose [1]
Until optimum intensity is reached, reaction is maximum, light is no longer limiting [1]

Carbon dioxide concentration [3]

Increase; higher substrate concentration [1]; rate of photo increases to synthesize

more glucose [1]
Until maximum rate of reaction is reached when all the enzymes are saturated, CO2
conc is no longer limiting [1]

4. Describe the general mechanism of stomata opening during the day [6] Glucose
formed in photosynthesis [1] release energy through aerobic respiration[1] Conc.
of potassium ions (K+) increases in the guard cells via active transport.[1] The
water potential of cell sap of the guard cells is lowered.[1]

Net movement of water molecules from adjacent epidermal cells into guard cell by
osmosis.[1]

Guard cells swell and become turgid. [1]

This causes the guard cells to become curved and pull the stoma open
[1]. OR (reverse)

At night, no photosynthesis to produce glucose, no active transport to maintain

conc gradient of K+ ions. [1]
conc. of potassium ions (K+) in guard cell is higher than outside, diffuse out down the
conc gradient [1]
The water potential of the cell sap of guard cells is increased.[1]
Net movement of water molecules from guard cell out to adjacent epidermal cells
by osmosis.[1]
Guard cells are plasmolysed and become flaccid. [1]
This causes the guard cells to close the stoma pore [1].

5. Describe and explain how the leaf is adapted for photosynthesis [6]
∙ Petiole / leaf stalk ;
∙ holds leaf in position to
absorb maximum light energy [1]
∙ Thin broad lamina / leaf blade ;
∙ increase surface area to volume ratio for maximum absorption of light
 energy [1]
∙ Waxy cuticle ;
∙ prevents excess water loss / reduces water loss through evaporation from
the leaf / transparent for maximum light to enter the leaf [1]
∙ Stomata present in epidermal layers/lower epidermis ;
∙ Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in as raw materials for photosynthesis and
oxygen to diffuse out of the leaf [1]
∙ Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll ;
∙ Chlorophyll absorbs and transforms light energy to chemical energy used
In the manufacture of sugars [1]
∙ More chloroplasts in the upper palisade tissue/in palisade mesophyll cells ;
∙ More light energy can be absorbed near the leaf surface [1]
∙ Interconnecting air spaces ;
∙ Allow rapid diffusion/ gaseous exchange of carbon dioxide / oxygen into
and out of mesophyll cells [1]
∙ Veins containing xylem and phloem situated near mesophyll cells ; ∙ Xylem
transport water and dissolved mineral salts from roots to mesophyll cells / phloem
transport sucrose and amino acids away from the leaf [1] ∙ Presence of guard cells
∙ Regulate / control the opening and closing of stomata for gaseous
exchange
∙ thin layer of moisture on mesophyll cells
∙ Allow gases to dissolve for diffusion to occur

*Any 6

6. Outline the pathway of a carbon dioxide molecule from the time it enters the
leaf until it eventually becomes part of a glucose molecule in a leaf cell. [5]

Photosynthesis used up / depletes CO2 as raw material, causing lower conc in the
leaf [1].

CO2 diffuse from environment down concentration gradient via the stomata into
intercellular spaces [1]
CO2 dissolve in the thin film of moisture on the spongy mesophyll cell

[1] Dissolved CO2 diffuse into the cell and into the chloroplasts. [1]

Combines with hydrogen ions and chemical energy to reduce into glucose during
photosynthesis [1] OR Combines with water in the presence of light to synthesize
glucose during photosynthesis [1]

7. Describe and explain the concept of ‘compensation point’. [4]

Rate of photosynthesis can vary according to light intensity which increases
during the day and decreases at night. Rate of respiration stays constant
throughout the day [1]
Compensation point is when the rate of photosynthesis becomes equal to the rate
of respiration [1]

which means that the amount of O2 given out during photosynthesis is equal to the
amount of O2 taking in during respiration. Which also means that the amount CO2
taken in during photosynthesis is equal to the amount of CO2 given out during
respiration[1].

thus there is no net movement of O2 and CO2 via the stomata between the
atmosphere and the leaf through the process of diffusion [1].

8. Describe what may happen to the waste products of respiration in a plant

[5] Co2

Used as raw material for photo in chloroplast in the presence of light to synthesize
glucose by combining with water molecules

Diffuse out of leaf via stomata down the conc gradient

H2O
Used as raw material for photo in chloroplast in the presence of light to synthesize
glucose by combining with CO2
Evaporate to form W.V and diffuse out of leaf via stomata down conc gradient during
transpiration

Maintain turgidity of plant cell for mechanical support

9. Explain how most forms of life are dependent on the processes involved in
plant nutrition, including reference to bacteria. [6]

CO2

Removal of atmosphere CO2 as raw material for photosynthesis, excess CO2 in the
air is toxic when accumulated
Maintain carbon cycle by taken in atmtmospheric CO2 and convert to
organic substance during photosynthesis to pass down the food chain.

O2

Release of O2 as product of photosynthesis. Living things use O2 for aerobic

respiration to oxidise glucose to release E for cellular activities
Bacteria require O2 for decomposition of dead organic matter to inorganic substance
for recycling of nutrients / nutrient cycle.

glucose
during photosynthesis, convert light energy to chemical energy in
synthesizing glucose to be passed down the food chain
Used as energy source to release E for cellular activities OR used in synthesizing
protoplasm for growth and repair

10. describe and explain how environment in a green house can be regulated
to optimise vegetation growth. [6]
Light – install lights to increase light intensity for higher rate of photo to produce
glucose [2]

Temp- install heater to regulate optimum temp for maximum rate of enzyme activity
for photo [2]

CO2 conc- install air conditioner to increase CO2 conc for more raw materials
for photo to produce more glucose [2]

Water – install irrigation system to optimize water supply for more raw materials for
photo to produce more glucose [2]

11. Compare between plants grown in bright and shady conditions. Suggest
and explain possible differences in their adaptations for survival. [4]
Shady plants have bigger / broader leaves than bright condition plants [1] more SA
to absorb more light for photo [1]

Shady plants have more conc of chloroplast than bright condition plants [1] to absorb
more light and convert to chemical E for photo [1]

Chap 12: Transport in Plants

1. Define Translocation [3]
Transport of sucrose and amino acids from the leaf to the other parts of the plant
via active transport in the phloem.

2. Describe the adaptations of the phloem vessel in translocation of nutrients

[4] Sieve tube cell / element:

Little protoplasm to minimise obstruction to flow [1]

Sieve tube plate with pores to facilitate efficient transport of sucrose and amino acids
along the sieve tube element [1]
Companion cells
Abundant mitochondria – release E during aerobic respiration for active transport of
sucrose and amino acids into phloem [1] and support sieve tube cell survival [1]

3a) Compare and contrast between the functions of xylem and phloem
[5] Similarities:

Xylem and phloem both transport substances/materials to different parts of the

plant. [1]

Xylem and phloem both transport substances as a dissolved solution to different

parts of the plant. [1]

Differences:
Xylem transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves while phloem
transports sucrose and amino acids from the leaves to other parts of the plant. [1]
Xylem transports water and mineral salts in one direction up the plant while
phloem transports sucrose and amino acids in both directions. [1]

Xylem transports water and mineral salts by root pressure, transpiration pull and
capillary action while phloem transports sucrose and amino acids by active
transport which requires energy released from the mitochondria of companion
cells. [1]

3b) Compare and contrast between the structures of xylem and phloem
[4] Similarity

Both are made up of cells forming a cylindrical tube [1]

Both lacks protoplasm for efficient transport of fluids without obstruction.
[1] Differences

Phloem is made up of living cells whereas xylem is dead

Phloem is made up of two kinds of cells sieve tube cell and companion cell, whereas
xylem is made up of one kind of cells
Xylem has lignin deposit along its wall for mechanical support but phloem does
not have.
4. Describe and explain how the carbon in an atmospheric CO2 can be found in the
starch molecule of a potato tuber of the plant. [4] *summaries the steps

CO2 in the atmosphere diffuse into the leaf via stomata. CO2 is used during
photosynthesis to form / synthesize glucose in the leaf
The glucose containing the carbon is converted to sucrose and loaded into phloem
via active transport to be transported

Sucrose is transported to the roots where it is taken by the potato tuber and
converted back to glucose for cellular activities.

Excess glucose is converted to starch to be stored in the potato tuber.

5. describe and explain the ‘ringing’ experiment for the function of phloem.
[3/4] The outer layer of bark is removed, which contains the phloem vessel.
[1]

Sucrose and amino acids cannot be transported / obstructed / accumulate at the

cut region, lowering water potential at that region. [1]
Net movement of water molecules from neighbouring xylem / tissue cells into the
region down WP gradient via osmosis [1]

The obstructed region swell, forming a bulge. [1]

6. Describe how a molecule of water is transported from the roots to the leaf [5]

Net movement of water molecule from the soil into the cell sap of root hair cell down
water potential gradient [1] via osmosis [1]
Osmosis through adjacent cells down the water potential gradient into the root [1]
Transport up the xylem via capillary action, root pressure and transpiration pull [1]
Osmosis into mesophyll cells in leaf from xylem [1]

7. Describe how mineral salts / chemical compounds is transported from the roots to
the leaf [5]
diffusion from the soil into cell sap of root hair cell down conc gradient OR Active
transport into the root hair cell against conc gradient using energy released from
aerobic respiration by mitochondria. [1]
Diffusion through adjacent cells into the root [1]
Dissolved in solution [1] and transport up the xylem via capillary action, root pressure
and transpiration pull [1]
Diffusion into mesophyll cells in leaf from xylem [1]
8. Explain how potometer can be used to measure the rate of transpiration in a
plant [4]
It is assumed that the rate of absorption of water by the plant is equal to the rate
of transpiration from the plant. [1]

As the water is taken up by the plant, the air bubble moves towards the plant. [1]

By measuring the distance moved by the air bubble per unit time[1], we can measure
the rate of water loss / transpiration from the leafy shoot. [1]

9. Describe and explain the process of transpiration in the leaf [5]

Water molecules move out of the mesophyll cells by osmosis [1] to form a thin
film of moisture [1] around the mesophyll cells, before water evaporates into the
intercellular air spaces in the spongy mesophyll as water vapour [1]; the loss of
water by the cell due to evaporation creates a suction force which draws water
from neighbouring cells closer to the xylem. The suction force is called transpiration
pull.[1] water vapour from the intercellular air spaces in the leaf diffuse to the
atmosphere down the concentration gradient through the stomata [1] on the
lower epidermis

10. Explain how the following factors will affect rate of

transpiration [4] Wind

In moving air, the rate of water loss from the shoot is greater than in still air. [1]
The movement of air removes water vapour around the leaf[1]. This sets up a
steeper concentration gradient of water vapour between the leaf and the
atmosphere [1] increasing the rate of diffusion of water vapour out of the stomata
of the leaves into the surrounding air down the concentration gradient. [1]

Humidity
In high humidity, the rate of water loss from the shoot is lower. [1] high humidity
indicated saturation of water vapour in the air [1]. This sets up a less steep
concentration gradient of water vapour between the leaf and the atmosphere [1]
decreasing the rate of diffusion of water vapour out of the stomata of the leaves
into the surrounding air down the concentration gradient. [1]
Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the
layer of moisture on mesophyll cell into the intercellular spaces. [1] This
increases the concentration of water vapour and causing steeper concentration
gradient of water vapour between the intercellular spaces of the leaf and the
air.[1] This increases the rate of diffusion of water vapour out of the stomata of
leaf into the air[1], thus rate of transpiration increases. [1]
Light intensity
Increase light intensity increase rate of transpiration[1]. More photosynthesis in
guard cells to pump in more K+ ions[1], more osmosis of water molecules into
guard cells to swell turn more turgid[1], stomata open bigger allowing more water
vapour to diffuse out [1] from intercellular space to environment.

11. Describe and explain the advantage and disadvantage of wilting in

plants [4] Definition of wilting:

Wilting is due to excessive water loss in plants via transpiration. It is the net water
loss as rate of transpiration is higher than rate of water absorption from the roots
Advantages

Reduce excessive water loss through transpiration [1] by reducing surface area
of leaf and closure of stomata[1]
Disadvantages
Reduced rate of photosynthesis [1] due to reduced surface area of leaf thus less
light absorbed by chlorophyll [1]
OR closure of stomata [1] to reduce taking in of CO2 as raw material
for photosynthesis, rate of photo drops [1]

12. Explain how plants support itself in the upright position. [5]
Xylem has lignin deposited along its wall / lignified wall to provide
mechanical support. [1]
Xylem form bundles in stem to further strengthen its structure and provide
mechanical support. [1]
The plant cells have concentrated cell sap to lower water potential [1] so net
movement of water molecules will enter the cells via osmosis[1], causing the cell to
swell and become turgid / maintain turgidity. Providing structural support. [1]

13. Explain why having stomata open in daylight is an advantage to plants [4]
take in CO2 as raw material via diffusion to increase rate of photosynthesis to
synthesize glucose [1]
Diffusion of excess oxygen out as by product [1]
Promote transpiration allowing water vapour to diffuse out down the conc gradient to
cool down the plant [1]
Increase transpiration promote transpiration pull to transport water up the xylem from
the roots for constant supply of water in the leaves as raw material for photosynthesis
to synthesize glucose [1]

Increase transpiration promoting transpiration pull to transport water up the xylem

from the roots for constant supply of water in the leaves to maintain turgidity in
mesophyll cells for mechanical /structural support and to prevent wilting of plant
[1]

Chap 6: transport in humans

1. Explain how the blood functions to protect the body against infections [4]
Lymphocytes produce antibodies [1] to agglutinate pathogens [1] and
neutralise toxins [1] and the phagocytes engulf and ingest pathogens by
phagocytosis. [1]

2. Explain why it is impossible for a person of bloodtype A to receive B type

blood during blood transfusion? [3]
Bloodtype A has A antigen on the surface of the RBC, thus the blood plasma
contain B antibodies / anti-B[1]. Blood type B has B antigen on the surface of the
RBC, upon transfusion, the anti-B in plasma will bind with the transfused B antigen
RBCs and cause agglutination[1]. Agglutination of RBCs will cause blockage in
blood vessels resulting in heart attack or stroke[1].

2b). explain why is blood type O considered ‘universal donor’ and blood type
AB considered ‘universal recipient’? [4]
Blood type O
Bloodtype O has no antigens on the surface of the RBC, however the blood
plasma contain both A and B antibodies / anti-A and anti-B[1]. Upon transfusion,
only the RBC is donated, thus it will not react with any blood type antibodies
from the recipient blood plasma. No agglutination will occur [1].
Blood type AB
Bloodtype AB has both A and B antigens on the surface of the RBC, however the
blood plasma do not contain A and B antibodies / anti-A and anti-B[1]. Upon
transfusion, it will not react with any cell types from donor. No agglutination will
occur [1].

3. Explain how the blood functions to prevent entry of foreign body from wounds
[4] Damaged tissues and platelets release an enzyme known as thrombokinase.
Thrombokinase converts prothrombin in blood plasma to thrombin in the
presence of calcium ions.

Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads

which form a mesh to entangle blood cells and form a clot to seal the wound,
thus preventing pathogens entering the wound causing infections / disease.

4. Describe how carbon dioxide is transported from the tissue cells to the
lungs to be breathed out. [6] *combined with respiration chap
CO2 produced during aerobic respiration in tissue cells and diffuse out of cell into
blood plasma down concentration gradient

CO2 diffuse into RBC and combines with water molecule to form carbonic acid in the
presence of carbonic anhydrase

The carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions and hydrogencarbonate ions to
dissolve into the blood plasma to be transported. The hydrogen ions in blood plasma
helps in regulating blood pH.

Transport via blood to the right side of the heart via vena cava, then to the lungs via
pulmonary artery.

In the lung, hydrogen ions and hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse into RBC and
recombine to form carbonic acid.

carbonic acid is converted back into CO2 and water molecule in the presence of
carbonic anhydrase in RBC
CO2 diffuse into alveoli down the conc gradient to be breathed out during exhalation

5. Describe how a molecule of oxygen is transported from the alveoli to the

heart muscles [6]

Molecule of oxygen dissolves in the layer of moisture on the surface of the

alveolus and diffuse from alveoli into blood down the conc gradient

Binds with haemoglobin in RBC to form oxyhaemoglobin and transported in the

blood capillaries

Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary
veins
Atrial systole, muscles in left atrium contracts forcing more oxygenated blood into
left ventricle.

Ventricular systole, muscles in left ventricle contracts and increase in pressure

higher than aorta opens semi-lunar valve and forces oxygenated blood into the
aorta
The oxygenated blood flows into coronary artery to supply the heart muscles with
oxygen for aerobic respiration to release energy for muscle contraction.

6. Explain how high altitudes will have an impact on the oxygen transport in the
human body and briefly describe how the body can adapt to the environment.
[4]
High altitude has lower air pressure and lower concentration of O2. The
concentration gradient between the air and the blood in the lung is less steep[1],
thus rate of diffusion of O2 from air space into blood in the lung will decrease.
Less O2 will bind to haemoglobin in RBC thus less O2 transported in body
tissues. [1]

The body will adapt to the environment by increase the production of RBC and
haemoglobin [1] to be able to carry more / sufficient O2 to meet the body
oxygen demand for aerobic respiration to release energy for normal cellular
activities[1].

7. Describe and explain the effects of smoking in oxygen transport in humans

[2/3] *combine with respiration chap
Carbon monoxide in smoke binds irreversibly to haemoglobin forming
carboxyhaemoglobin [1]; reduce transport of O2 in haemoglobin[1]; less O2 supplied
to tissues for aerobic respiration to release E for normal cellular activities [1]

8. Compare and contrast between the structures of artery and vein.

[4] Similarity

Muscular and elastic tissue present

One cell thick endothelium present

Differences
Vein has wider lumen than artery to accommodate more blood per unit time Vein has
semi-lunar valves along the vessel to prevent backflow of blood while artery
don’t have
Artery has thicker muscular and elastic layer compared to vein for stretching and
recoiling to push the blood in spurts along artery, giving rise to pulse.
9. Explain how the presence of valves would help in maintaining one directional flow
of blood in the heart [6]
*note the 5 steps to ans cardiac Q: name of process muscle contract
/relax pressure changes valves opening /closing blood flow direction

The one directional flow is always from the atrium to the ventricle and then to the
aorta / pulmonary artery. [1]

During passive filling, both atrium and ventricle undergo diastole, bicuspid and
tricuspid valve are open to allow blood to flow from atria into ventricles. [1]

During atrial systole, muscles in atria contracts and pressure increases, bicuspid and
tricuspid valve are still open to allow more blood to flow from atria into ventricles. [1]

Ventricular systole, muscles in ventricles contract, the bicuspid and tricuspid valve
close to prevent the backflow of blood into the atria when the pressure in the
ventricle is higher than that of the atria [1]
When the pressure of the ventricle is higher than that of the aorta / pulmonary artery,
semi-lunar valve is forced open and blood is forced from ventricles into the aorta /
pulmonary artery [1]
During ventricular diastole, muscles in ventricles relax. the semi-lunar valve close to
prevent backflow of blood back into ventricle as the pressure in ventricle drops below
the pressure of aorta / pulmonary artery [1]
When pressure in ventricle drop below the pressure of atria, bicuspid / tricuspid valve
open again to allow passive filling from atria to ventricles for the next cycle. [1]

10. Account for the four chambers of the heart and explain why the chambers of
the heart have different muscle thickness [4]
The ventricles generally have thicker muscles than the atria [1] the atria only need to
force blood into the adjacent ventricles during atrial systole, thus less force and
pressure are needed. Ventricles need to pump blood out of the heart to other organs
thus need more force and pressure generated [1]

The left ventricle has thicker muscle than the right ventricle [1] as it is responsible for
pumping blood to the rest of the body, thus need to generate more force and
pressure. Right ventricle only need to pump blood to the lungs which are close to the
heart. [1]
11. explain how blood is continuously returned from the rest of the body back to
the heart. [3]
During diastole of the heart, the pressure in the heart drops which create a suction
force to allow blood to flow back to the heart [1]
The skeletal muscles along the veins will squeeze on the veins during contractions to
help pushing the blood along. [1]
The presence of semi lunar valves in the veins will prevent backflow of blood thus
only allow blood to move towards the heart [1]

12. Explain why heart rate increases during exercise [3] * combined with
respiration chap
Vigorous contraction of muscles require increasing energy demand[1]
Heart rate increases and pump more volume of blood at faster rate to muscles to
supply more oxygen and glucose [1]
for increasing aerobic respiration to release more E to meet energy demand [1]

Chap 7: Respiration

1. For strenuous exercises, 20% of energy comes from aerobic respiration

whereas 80% of energy comes from anaerobic respirations.
For less strenuous exercises, 80% of energy comes from aerobic respiration
whereas 20% of energy comes from anaerobic respirations.

Explain the statements [6]

Type of exercise with vigorous / less vigorous muscular contractions; with

higher / lower energy demand [1]
Aerobic respiration is insufficient / sufficient to release the energy to meet the
demand [1]

More / less compensation from anaerobic respiration to release energy to meet the
energy demand resulting in more / less lactic acid production [1]

More / less oxygen debt to pay back to remove the lactic acid during post exercise
[1]

2. Given that both a regular athlete and a normal individual carried out the same
activity with the same intensity, compare the two individuals in terms of lactic acid
production. Explain your answer. [4]
The regular athlete should have less lactic acid production than the normal
individual [1]

Regular athlete has more efficient heart pumping action to transport more blood
rich in oxygen and glucose to skeletal muscles per unit time. [1]
Increase aerobic respiration to release more energy in meeting the
energy demand of the activity [1]

Less anaerobic respiration needed thus less lactic acid production for
regular athlete than normal individual [1]
3. Explain why oxygen uptake remains high during post-exercise [4]
Repay oxygen debt in the form of lactic acid build up at start of exercise; Lactic acid
transported to liver [1]
Post exercise oxygen uptake to oxidise some lactic acid to release E
[1] Energy used to convert the remaining lactic acid to glucose [1]

Excess glucose to convert into glycogen to be stored in the liver or transported to

muscles to store as glycogen in the muscles [1]

4. Compare and contrast between aerobic and anaerobic respirations in humans

[4] Similarity

Release energy
Require glucose as raw material
Require enzymatic reactions

Difference
Amount of E released is more for aerobic than anaerobic
Aerobic requires O2 whereas anaerobic don’t need

Aerobic produces CO2 and water as products whereas anaerobic produce lactic
acid.

5 Describe the adaptations of the alveoli / alveolus in gaseous exchange.

Alveoli [4] *any 4 pts

Increase surface area for faster diffusion of gases

Rich in blood capillaries for faster rate of exchange of gases between blood
and alveoli
Constant blood flow to maintain steep conc gradient of O2 and Co2 between blood
and air in the alveoli for faster rate of diffusion

Each alveolus wall made of one layer of epithelial cells; shorter distance for
faster diffusion of gases

Layer of moisture in each alveolus to dissolve the gases for diffusion

Alveolus [3] *singular
Wall made of one layer of epithelial cells; shorter distance for faster diffusion of
gases
Layer of moisture to dissolve the gases for diffusion
Constant blood flow to maintain steep conc gradient of O2 and Co2 between blood
and air in the alveoli for faster rate of diffusion

6. Describe the mechanism of inhalation and the impact of a punctured lung on the
breathing process [6]
Mechanism
Diaphragm contracts and flattens down.
External intercostal muscles contract and internal intercostal muscles relax rib
cage is raised upwards and outwards
Thoracic volume increases, pressure in the lung decreases to lower than outside
environment, pressure difference cause air to draw into the lungs

Impact of punctured lung

Free exchange of air between external environ and inside thoracic cavity through
the punctured opening
No pressure difference can be generated
No air will be forced into the lung for gaseous exchange. Lung collapse.

7. Describe and explain the effects of smoking on pregnant mothers [6]

Tobacco contain carbon monoxide which binds irreversibly to haemoglobin in
red blood cells to form carboxyhaemoglobin [1] hence decreasing the oxygen
carrying capacity of the red blood cells. [1] Developing fetus will have
insufficient oxygen supply to release energy during aerobic respiration for
cellular activities in normal development [1]
Tobacco also contains nicotine which can diffuse across the placenta to be
passed to the fetus [1]. It will increase risks of blood clots forming and narrowing
of blood vessels in the fetus, causing reduced blood supply [1] less transport of
O2 and glucose for aerobic respiration to release energy for cellular activities
in normal development. [1]