RESEARCH METHOD & METHODOLOGY
(part 1)
Research Method
- In any research, a method is vital to
generating and Enriching the body of
empirical knowledge across Disciplines
and to systematically obtain data.
- Almeida et al. (2016) refer research
method to the Philosophical,
theoretical, conceptual, and analytic
Perspective research. It can be
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed
method.
- Ariola (2006) other institutions call it
research design, Which refers to the
plan, structure, and strategy of
Investigation conceived to obtain
answers to research problems or
questions; and to control variance.
Deductive Method
– So called a top-down approach, the
Research paper is presented from the
General to the specific.
– It starts from a theory about the topic And
then narrows it down to specific Hypothesis
to be tested.
– It is a process that starts with simple True
statements (axiom) about a Phenomenon
and then uses these axioms To build a
logical system of explanation About said
phenomenon.
Inductive Method
- So-called the deductive method
turned upside down or bottom-up
approach.
- It starts with simple observations of
nature or phenomenon, patterns or
trends, irregularities, formulate
hypotheses and end up with
developing general theories or laws,
or drawing conclusions.
REASEARCH APPROACHES
1. Descriptive Research
-it finds answer to the questions
who, what, where, when, and how
-It describes a situation, or a given
state of affairs in terms of specified
aspects or factors What maybe
describes are characteristics of
individuals or groups (farmers,
Students, administrators,
entrepreneurs, patients, etc.) or
physical Environments (schools,
business establishments, hospitals,
cooperatives, etc.) Or conditions
(epidemic, calamities, leadership
styles, anxiety levels, sales and
Profits, productivity)
EXAMPLES:
I. “The Management Style of Riverside
College”
II. “Tardiness and Absenteeism Among
Nursing Students”
III. “Smoking Habits of Nursing Students
and Clinical Instructors”
Descriptive Survey Method
(analyze,interpret)
- Used by graduate and
undergraduate students when They
attempt to analyze, interpret, and
report the Present status of their
subject matter of problem.
- Deals with the cross-section of the
present time
- . Applicable in big sample or larger
population.
- Uses Questionnaire or other
instruments to generate data.
Descriptive Normative Method (status)
- Describes the status of events and
people or subjects as they exist.
- Data are processed through
Observation.
- These are discrete data which come
to the researcher through written
records.
- It deals with standardized
instruments like mental ability test,
personality test, stress
questionnaire, moral and job
satisfaction questionnaire.
Descriptive Correlational Method
(Relationship +, -)
- Used to determine whether there is
a Relationship that exists between
two or more Quantifiable variables,
and if there is, to What extent or
degree the relationship is.
- Such, relationships could either be
positive (+) or negative (-) and the
degree or extent (strength) or
relationship.
Descriptive Evaluative Method (Judges)
- Judges the goodness of an existing
program.
- It is directed to whether a particular
program Achieved its goal or not.
- Seeks to find out Whether the
criterion was met or not.
Descriptive Assessment Method
(fact-finding, Nh, Nv, Nj)
- This is a fact-finding activity that
describes Conditions that exist at a
particular time such as Practices and
beliefs.
- No hypotheses are Proposed or
tested.
- No variable relationships are
examined and no recommendations
for actions are suggested.
- There is no element of Value
judgment
Descriptive Comparative Method
(Relationship-similarities/differences)
- Provides an explanation about the
extent of Relationship between two
or more variables.
- The researcher examines the
relationship Including similarities or
differences among several variables.
- The variable studied might represent
characteristics of the same group of
respondents or those of separate
groups.
Descriptive Continuity Method
(Knowledgeable, genetic method)
 - The researcher is knowledgeable
about the operation of natural or
social forces Which may be obtained
by watching them analytically at
stated intervals in their development
over a long period of time as seen
desirable and possible.
- It is also called genetic method.
Descriptive Trend and Perspective Method
(Past, present, future)
- This is based upon a longitudinal
consideration of data, indicating
what has Been happening in the
past, what the present situation
reveals, and based on these data it
projects what is likely to happen in
the future.
Example:
1. Cohort Study – samples a
particular or specific population
whose members. Do not change
over a period.
Example: Rise of Classroom
Teachers’Position After
Earning Masteral Degree in
Five Years Time
2. Trend Study – samples a
population whose members change
over time. Example: Trends in Health
and Wellness Supplements by the
Year 2030
3. Panel Study – the researcher
selects a sample right at the
beginning of the Study and survey
the same individuals at different
times during the survey.
Descriptive Narrative Method (Result,
Ncom, Noanal)
- Tells about the results of the study.
No comparative nor analysis made.
Example:Opinion of male students
on abortion.Use of Tawa- Tawa in
the cure of Covid-19
Descriptive Ex-post Facto Method (causal-
comparative)
- Also known as causal-comparative
research or after-the-fact research.
- The researcher tries to establish a
causal effect between the existing
conditions.
- The researcher wants to find out the
answer to questions but cannot
manipulate the independent
variable/s for practical or ethical
reasons.
- The Researcher realizes that a
condition exists and is unsure about
What have been its cause.
Examples:
1. “Teaching strategies fathers
applied in their Children with
mathematical difficulties”
2.“Efficacy of Mother Tongue on the
learning process of Grade 1 pupils”
Descriptive Case Study Method (intensive
analysis, typical/not unique)
- It is an intensive analysis of a single
Subject.
- Examines a social unit, and the unit
may be a single typical individual, a
 family, a social group, asocial
institution, or a community.
- This study is undertaken on the
premise that someone who is typical
(not unique), or a target population
can be located and studied.
2. Exploratory method
(probing/exploring)
•The investigator is after probing or
exploring areas where little is Known
about the research Problem.
Example: Feasibility and pilot Studies
Exploratory Research
- Examines what is already known
about a topic and what additional
Information may be relevant
- It rarely answers a specific question
but instead presents the
foundational knowledge of a subject
as a precursor to further research
- It is applied to lesser-known issues
and phenomena
Example: You may consider what is
currently known about the success
of yearlong maternity and paternity
leave programs.
- Your research Includes gathering all
relevant information and compiling
it in an accessible format that wasn’t
available previously.
- Your findings may reveal gaps in
knowledge, leading to additional
studies in the future.
a) “Domestic Violence: Ideas,
Experiences, and Needs of Married
Men”
b) “Menopause: Working Women’s
Perceptions, Experiences and Coping
Strategies”
3. Explanatory Method
(understand/explain)
- It seeks to understand or explain a
prevailing situation or explain a
relationship between factors which
may have already been identified,
and why the relationship exists.
- it seeks more specific answers to
“why” and “how” questions.
EXAMPLE:
A researcher wants to study the onset of
severe anxiety by a teenager following a
natural disaster. The researcher will
explain that the anxiety was a direct
cause of the Natural disaster.
a) “Relationship Between Alcohol
Intake and Domestic Violence
Among Married Men”
b) “Extent of Exposure to
Advertising Materials and
Expenditure Patterns of Young
Professionals”
c) Why job stress contributes to
burnout or why low morale can
lead to lower Productivity among
employees?
4. Causal-Comparative Method
(explanatory/ex-post-facto) (cause
and effect)
- Also called explanatory research;
also known as ex-post facto ( the
investigator delves in analyzing the
possible effect of a factor which
 cannot Be manipulated and 2 General Classifications Of Research
controlled).
A) Qualitative
- it seeks to determine cause-and-
effect relationships between B) Quantitative
variables
- It identifies how much one variable
may cause a change in the other Qualitative Research (no numerical data)
- It is important for evaluating current
- It involves non-numerical data, such
processes and procedures and
as opinions and literature
determining if and how changes
- It uses descriptions to obtain the
should take place
meanings and feelings involved in a
Example:
situation
a.) A business studies employee
- Businesses often use qualitative
retention rates before and after
research to determine consumer
instituting a work-from-home policy
opinions and reactions.
after six months of employment to
see if the approach increases
employee retention.
b.) A guidance counsellor who is
after singling out the variables Include:
associated with failing marks in
• Focus groups, Surveys, Participant
some college courses or a health
comments, Observations, Interviews
science student who Is interested in
the incidence of lung cancer among Example: A marketing organization presents
heavy smokers. a new commercial to a focus group before
airing it publicly to receive feedback.
The company collects non- numerical
5. Causal-Comparative Method
data—the opinions of the focus group
- Also known as Ex-post Facto, the
participants—to make decisions.”
investigator delves in analyzing the
possible effect of a factor which 1. “Experiences and Needs of Victims of
cannot be manipulated and Child Abuse Among Elementary School
controlled. Pupils”
Example: A guidance counsellor who
2.“Menopause: Women’s Perceptions and
is after singling out the variables
Experiences”
associated with failing marks in
some college courses or a health 3.“Underground Economy: A Survival
science student who is interested in Strategy of Public School Employees”
the incidence of lung cancer among
heavy smokers.
• Historical Research (past events)
A systematic study of past events or
occurrences through description and
analysis.
It is research about the events that
occurred in the past such as the
study of the origin of the capital
punishment.
• Ethnographic Research (cultural,
indigenous)
A systematic process of observing,
describing, exploring, documenting,
and analyzing the life ways and
cultural beliefs of a group of people
particularly the indigenous people.
• Phenomenological Research
(experience a phenomenon)
A systematic study of lived
experiences of individuals through
description and analysis.
It is research on how one or more
individuals experience a
phenomenon such as a study of the
experiences of children who lived at
the orphanage.
• Hermeneutic Research
(experience=tool)
A research tradition that uses the
lived Experiences of people as a tool
for better Understanding of the
social, cultural, Political, and
historical context in which Those
experiences occur.
• Human Ethology (biology of human
behavior )
Known as the biology of human
behavior Studies behavior as it
evolves in its natural Context.
It explores through observation
Method the universal behavioral
structures
• Ecological Psychology (human
behavior=environment)
A study that focuses on the
influences of the environment on
human behavior and aims to identify
the principles that explain the
interdependence of humans and
their environmental context.
• Grounded Theory Research
(grounded reality)
A systematic collection of data
through observations and interviews
to generate a comprehensive
explanation of phenomenon
grounded on reality.
• Discourse Analysis (understand
rules)
A research tradition that attempts to
understand rules, mechanisms, and
structures of conversation.
The domain of inquiry used by
sociolinguists focus on human
communication.
• Ethno-methodologic Study
(interpret social world)
Concerned with the discovery of
how people make sense of everyday
activities and interpret their social
 world to behave in socially
acceptable ways.

• Biographical Research (study of life-

interesting people)
A systematic study of the life of an
Interesting individual who made
Excellent and remarkable
Contributions to specific discipline,
Profession, country and to the
world, e.g., the life of a hero or
philosopher.
• Survey research, Descriptive research,
• Case Study Research (cases) Correlational research
A form of qualitative Research that is
Example: A car manufacturer compares the
concerned with a detailed account
number of sales of red Sedans compared to
and analysis of one or more cases
white sedans.
under study as a study of the
sleeping pattern of elderly hospital The research uses objective data
patients.
The sales figures for red and white sedans—
Quantitative Research (numerical data, to draw conclusions.
tables and graphic)
1. “The Socioeconomic Profile of
- It depends on numerical data, such Households in Upland Communities in the
as statistics and measurements, to Province of Antique”
investigate specific questions, like
2.” Health Seeking Behavior and Health
who, what, where or when the
Status of Retired School Teachers”
results are usually presented in
tables or graphs Quantitative Research
Types:
• This design indicates the degree of
intervention, the nature of any
comparisons, the methods used to control
extraneous variables, and the timing and
location of data collection.
• It has no permanent typology because it
varies depending on the dimensions of
research, i.e., the element of control over
the independent variables, the type of
comparison, among other things.
Classifications:
Experimental Design
Non-experimental Design
Fundamental Research
- Also known as basic or theoretical
research
- Designed to help researchers better
understand certain phenomena
- It looks at how things work but does
not seek to find how to make them
work better
- Attempts to broaden your
understanding and expand scientific
theories and explanations
Example: A company studies how
different product placements affect
product sales. This study provides
information and is knowledge-
based.
Applied Research
- Designed to identify solutions to
specific problems or find answers to
questions
- It offers knowledge that is applicable
and implementable
Types of applied research include:
Technological: This research looks
for ways to improve efficiency in
products, processes and production.
Scientific: This research measures
certain variables to predict
behaviors, outcomes and impact.
Example: A student working on a
doctorate in education studies ways
to Increase student involvement in
the classroom. This research focuses
on a defined problem and is
solution-based.
1. “The Effect of Gender
Sensitivity Training on Men’s
Involvement in Child Care
2. “Remedial Teaching: Its Effect
on the Performance of Slow
Learner”
Action Research
- Refers to examining actions,
assessing their effectiveness in
bringing about the desired outcome
and choosing a course of action
based on those results
- It is typically used in educational
settings for teachers and principals
to perform a type of self-assessment
and course correction
Example: A teacher collects data about their
methods of teaching Fifth-grade math. At
the end of the first school quarter, they
Discovered only 33% of students
demonstrated proficiency in the Concepts.
As a result, the teacher implements new
methods for the Second quarter.
Classification Research
-- It seeks to identify and classify individual
elements of a group Into larger groups or
subgroups. Example: Researchers study an
animal species, placing them In defined
categories based on shared characteristics,
such as:
• Body segmentation
• Type of habitat
• Reproductive methods
• Diet
Cross-sectional Research
- Also called synchronous, research
studies a group or subgroup at one
point in time participants are
generally chosen based on specific
shared Characteristics, such as age,
gender or income, and researchers
Examine the similarities and
differences within and between
Groups
- The group is often used as a
representation of a larger population
Example: A company researches the sales
techniques of its top 10% of salespeople
and compares them to those of its bottom
10%. This gives the company insights into
the most successful and least successful
sales methods.

Field Research
Comparative Research
- It occurs wherever the participants
--It identifies similarities and differences
or subjects are or“on location”
between two Individuals, subjects or
- It requires onsite observation and
groups.
data collection
Example: A business owner reviews new
Example: A manufacturing plant hires an
hire training documentation and discovers
environmental engineering firm to test the
that new employees receive much of the
air quality at the plant to ensure it complies
same information at orientation and in their
with federal health and safety
initial departmental training. The owner
requirements. The researchers travel to the
incorporates materials into one session to
plant to collect samples.
allow more time for department-specific
training.
Laboratory Research Types of studies:
- It occurs in a controlled laboratory • Cost analysis
rather than in the field
• Cost-benefit analysis
- This study demands strict adherence
to certain conditions, such as • Program evaluation
eliminating variables or timing
• Needs analysis
conditions
- It includes chemical experimentation Example: An agency may research how a
and pharmacological research policy for vaccine distribution
Example: A pharmaceutical company Will affect residents in rural areas. The
researches a new drug formula to outcome may change where the
determine if it would benefit diabetes Government sets up free shot clinics.
patients. Researchers closely monitor
chemical interactions in laboratory settings
before moving to the next step. Pure Research
- Also known as “basic” or
“fundamental” research)
Mixed Research
- It is exploratory in nature and is
- It includes both qualitative and conducted without any practical
quantitative data
- The results are often presented as a
mix of graphs, words and images
Example: A car manufacturer asks car
buyers to complete a survey after buying a
red or white sedan. Questions focus on how
much the color impacted their decision and
other opinion-based questions.

end- use in mind

Policy Research
- It examines the effects of current
government or social policies or
predicts the potential effects of
proposed policies related to the
distribution of resources
- This often works within government
agencies and conduct the following
- It is driven by gut instinct, interest,
curiosity or intuition, and simply
aims to advance knowledge and to
identify/explain relationships
between variables
EXAMPLE:
1.“Factors Associated with Tardiness and data can be analyzed using statistical
Absenteeism Among Senior High School
Students”

2.“Attitudes Towards Health and Smoking

Habits of Health Service providers”

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART2)
Research Methodology
• is an outline of the overall data collection
and analysis strategy that will be used to
implement the research cycle
• it is Chapter 3 of the research paper which
deals with the question “How does the
researcher answer the questions stated in
Chapter 1?”
procedures
• the final written report has a set structure
consisting of introduction, literature and
theory, methods, results, and discussion
• researchers engage in this form of inquiry
have assumptions about testing theories
deductively, building in protections against
bias, controlling for alternative or
counterfactual explanations, and being able
to generalize and replicate the findings

RM should:
_ Be compatible with the preliminary data
analysis plan
_ Be designed in a way that ensures the
intended scope of the research (i.e.
objectives and research questions) can be
feasibly achieved to the required quality,
given the time, resources and access
available
Quantitative Research Design
Qualitative Research Design
• is an approach for testing objective
theories by examining the relationship • an approach for exploring and
among variables understanding the meaning individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human
• variables, in turn, can be measured,
problem
typically on instruments, so that numbered
• the process of research involves emerging
questions and procedures
• data typically collected in the participant’s
setting, data analysis inductively building
from particulars to general themes, the
researcher making interpretations of the
meaning of the data
• the final written report has a flexible
structure
• researchers engage in this form of inquiry
support a way of looking at research that
honors an inductive style, a focus on
individual meaning, and the
Mixed Method Research Design
• an approach to inquiry involving collecting
both quantitative and qualitative data,
integrating the two forms of data
• using distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and theoretical
frameworks
• the core assumption of this form of
inquiry is that the integration of qualitative
and quantitative data yields additional
insight beyond the information provided by
either the quantitative or qualitative data
alone
POSTPOSITIVISM:
Phillips and Burbules (2000) cited key
assumptions, the following:
1.knowledge is conjectural (and
antifoundational)—absolute truth can never
be found. Thus, evidence established in
research is always imperfect and fallible. It
is for this reason that researchers state that
they do not prove a hypothesis; instead,
they indicate a failure to reject The
hypothesis.
2. Research is the process of making claims
and then refining or abandoning some of
them for other claims more strongly
warranted. Most quantitative research, for
Example, starts with the test of a theory.
3. Data, evidence, and rational
considerations shape knowledge. In
practice, the researcher collects information
on instruments based on measures 3. The basic generation of meaning is always
completed by the participants or by social, arising in and out of interaction with
observations recorded by the researcher. a human community.

4. Research seeks to develop relevant, true

statements, ones that can serve to explain
the situation of concern or that describe the
causal relationships of interest. In Transformative Worldview
quantitative studies,Researchers advance
Mertens (2010) viewed transformative
the relationship among variables and pose
worldview or paradigm As:
this in terms of questions or Hypotheses.
1.It places central importance on the study
5. Being objective is an essential aspect of
of lives and experiences of diverse groups
competent inquiry; researchers must
that have traditionally been marginalized
examine methods and conclusions for bias.
For example, standard of validity and 2.pecial interest for diverse groups is how
reliability are their lives have been constrained by
oppressors and the strategies that they use
to resist, challenge, and subvert these
Constructivism: constraints
In discussing constructivism, Crotty (1998) 3.Focuses on inequities based on gender,
identified several race, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation,
and socioeconomic class that result in
Assumptions:
asymmetric power relationships
1.human beings construct meanings as they
4.inks political and social action to these
engage with the world they are interpreting.
inequities
Qualitative researchers tend to use open-
ended questions so that the participants 5.ses a program theory of beliefs about how
can share their Views. a program works and why the problems of
oppression, domination, and power
2. Humans engage with their world and
make sense of it based on their historical
and social perspectives— we are all born
_-_Pragmatism_-_
into a World of meaning bestowed upon us
by our culture. Thus, qualitative researchers Cherryholmes (1992) and Morgan (2007)
seek to understand the context or setting of viewed pragmatism as Philosophical basis
the participants through visiting this context for research:
and gathering information personally. They
• Pragmatism is not committed to any one
also interpret what they find, an
system of philosophy and reality. This
interpretation shaped by the researcher’s
applies to mixed methods research in that
own experiences and background.
inquirers draw liberally from both
quantitative and qualitative assumptions theoretical lens that is reflective of social
when they engage in their research. justice and political aims.
• Individual researchers have a freedom of • Pragmatists have believed in an external
choice. In this way, researchers are free to world independent of the mind as well as
choose the methods, techniques, and that lodged in the mind. But they believe
that we need to stop asking questions about
Procedures of research that best meet their
reality and the laws of nature
needs and purposes.
(Cherryholmes, 1992). “They would simply
• Pragmatists do not see the world as an like to change the subject” (Rorty, 1990, p.
absolute unity. In a similar way, mixed xiv).
methods researchers look to many
• Thus, for the mixed methods researcher,
approaches for collecting and analyzing data
pragmatism opens the door to multiple
rather than subscribing to only one way
methods, different worldviews, and
(e.g., quantitative or qualitative).
different assumptions, as well as different
• Truth is what works at the time. It is not forms of data collection.
based in a duality between reality
independent of the mind or within the
mind. Thus, in mixed methods research,
investigators use both quantitative and
qualitative data because they work to
provide the best understanding of a
research problem.

Pragmatism continued… Quantitative Research Design in details…

• The pragmatist researchers look to the • Traditional, positivist scientific method.
what and how to research based on the
intended consequences— where they want • Refers to a general set of orderly,
to go with it. Mixed methods researchers disciplined procedures to acquire
need to establish a purpose for their mixing, information.
a rationale for the reasons why quantitative
and qualitative data need to be mixed in the
first Place.
• Pragmatists agree that research always
occurs in social, historical, political, and
other contexts. In this way, mixed methods
studies may include a postmodern turn, a
• The researcher progresses logically
through a series of steps, according to pre-
specified plan of action.

• Researchers gather empirical evidence –

that is rooted in objective reality and
Gathered directly or indirectly through the
senses.

• The degree to which research findings can

be generalized to individuals other than
those who participated in the study
(referred to as the generality of the
Research) is a widely used criterion for QUANTITATIVE: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
assessing the quality of quantitative Studies.
Example: • True Experimental Designs – it is
considered a ‘true Experiment’ if:
1.Checking for the presence or absence of #_ The researcher has control over
skin inflammation, determining the anxiety the independent Variables:
level of a patient, and measuring the weight #_The researcher has control over
of newborn infant from some type of formal the treatment and the subjects;
measurement, and is analyzed with #_There must be one experimental
statistical procedures (numeric Information) and one comparison or Control
group; and
#_Subjects are randomly assigned
Quantitative expounded… either to control group or
experimental group
• It is based on the concepts of
manipulation and control phenomena and
the verification of results validating
empirical data.
• It frequently uses a deductive or theory-
testing approach.

• Researchers concerned with the use of

numbers and statistical Analyses.
• In a phenomenological study, the
researcher attempt to measure, that is, to A. Pretest-posttest controlled group design
attach numeric values that express quantity. _Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
• It focuses on a relatively small portion of _A pretest is given to both groups
the human experience (e.g., weight gain,
depression, chemical dependency).
_The experimental group receives the
treatment while the control group does not
_A posttest is given to both groups
Summary:
R → 01 → X → 02 (experimental group)
R → 01 → 02 (control group)
Where: R stands for random selection
01 stands for pretest
02 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention
B. Posttest only controlled group design
_Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
_The experimental group receives the
treatment while the control group does not
receive the treatment
_ A posttest is given to both groups
Summary:
R → X → 02 (experimental group)
R → 02 (controlled group)
Where: R stands for random selection
02 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention
C. Solomon four-group design
– it is considered as the most prestigious
experimental design. It minimizes threats to
both internal and external validity.
_subjects are randomly assigned to one or
four groups
_Two of the groups (experimental group 1
and control group 1) are pretested
_ The other two groups (experimental group
2 and control group 2) receive routine or no
treatment
_ A posttest is given to all four groups
• Quasi-experimental design
– it is a design in which either there
is no control group, or the subjects
are not randomly assigned to
groups.
A. Non-equivalent controlled group
design.
– This design is similar to the
pretest-posttest control group
design except that there is no
random assignment of subjects to
the experimental and control
groups.
Summary:
01 → X → 02 (experimental group)
 01 → 02 (control group) Attitudes, and behaviors as they
currently exist in a population
B. Time-series design. (Wilson, 1990).Ca
– The researcher periodically
observes or measures the subjects.
01 → 02 → 03 → X → 04 → 05 → 06

Where:
01, 02, 03 stand for pretest (multiple
observations)
04, 05, 06 stand for posttest
(multiple observations)

• Pre-experimental.
– This experimental design is
considered very weak, as the
researcher has little control over the
research.

A. One-shot case study.

– a single group is exposed to an
experimental treatment and
observed after the treatment.
Summary: X → 0

B. One-group pretest-posttest
design.
– It provides a comparative
description of a group of subjects
before and after the experimental
treatment.
Summary: 01 → X → 02

QUANTITATIVE: NON-
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Survey Studies. – The investigations
are conducted through self-report.
Surveys generally ask respondents to
report on their attitudes, opinions,
Perceptions, or behaviors. It aims at
describing characteristics, opinions,

Qualitative Research Designs
• The term qualitative research is very
general and includes a range of methods
and designs (Boyd, 2001).
• What these methods all have in common
is that they approach research questions
holistically and with a focus on human
experience and the ways that people create
meaning in their lives.
• It is called the “naturalistic method of
inquiry of research”.
• It deals with the issue of human
complexity by exploring it directly.
• The emphasis is on the complexity of
humans, their ability to shape and create
their own experience, and the idea that
truth is a composite reality.
• Naturalistic investigations place heavy
emphasis on understanding the human
experience as it is lived, usually through the
careful collection and analysis of data that
are narrative and subjective.
Qualitative Research Designs expounded…
• Qualitative research focuses on gaining
insights on and an understanding of an
Individual’s perception of events.
• It is concerned with in-depth descriptions
of people or events and their interpretation
of circumstances.
• Data are collected through unstructured
interviews and participant observation.
• The researcher synthesizes the patterns
and themes in the data instead of focusing
on the testing of hypotheses.
• The researcher must not be limited by
existing theories but must be open to new
ideas and new theories.
• The researcher does not have to be
concerned with numbers and complicated
statistical analyses.
• It emphasizes the dynamic, holistic, and
individual aspects of human experience and
attempts to capture those aspects in their
entirety within the contest of those who are
experiencing them.
• It entails inductive process. It involves
subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry,
which sometimes causes concerns about
the nature of conclusion.
Types of Qualitative Research Designs his/her findings are trustworthy, often going
back to the study and discussing his/her
understanding of it with the participants.

Research Design
- a plan or strategy for conducting the
research

- spells out the basic strategies that

researchers adopt to develop evidence that
is accurate and interpretable
- deals with matters such as selecting
participants for the research and preparing
for data collection

Characteristics for Good Research Design

1. Freedom from bias

2. Freedom from confusing/confusion

3. Control of extraneous variables
4. Statistical correctness for testing
hypothesis
Phases in a Qualitative Study (Polit, et al.,
2006)

1. Orientation and overview. – embarks on Classifications of Research Designs

a study not having the vaguest idea on a
Exploratory Research
topic. It determines what is salient about
the phenomenon or culture of interest. - Is a type of research conducted for a
problem that has not been clearly
2. Focused exploration. – involves a focused
defined. Exploratory research helps
scrutiny and in-depth exploration of the
determine the best research design,
aspects of the phenomenon judged to be
data collection method and
salient. The questions asked and the types
selection of subjects
of people invited are shaped based on the
outcome of the first phase.
3. Confirmation and closure. – the
researcher undertakes efforts to prove that
Characteristics of Exploratory research Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
- results are not useful in decision making; - requires more skills
can only provide insight into a given
- does not identify cause behind the
situation
phenomenon
- it is not typically generalizable to the
- response rate is low
population at large
- results can change over the period of time
- informal

- relying on secondary research

Descriptive Research
- refers to research that provides an
accurate portrayal of characteristics of a
particular individual, situation, or group
- AKA Statistical Research
- a means of discovering new meaning,
describing what exists, determining the
frequency with which something occurs,
and categorizing information
- deals with everything that can be counted
and studied
Experimental Research
- Objective, systematic, controlled
investigation for the purpose of
predicting and controlling
phenomena and examining
probability and causality among
selected variables
Advantages of Experimental Research
- Best establishes cause-and-effect
relationships
Disadvantages of Experimental Research
- artificiality

- feasibility
Advantages of Descriptive Research
- unethical
- people/individual studied are unaware so
they act naturally

- less expensive and time consuming that
qty experiments
- collects large amount of notes for detailed
studying
- used to describe- not make conclusions
Components of the simplest experimental
design
- 2 variables (independent and dependent)
- 2 participants (controlled and
experimental)
Classification of Research Design According
to Approach
1. Experimental
2. Non-experimental
Classification of Research Design Accdg to
Measurement and Data analysis
1. quantitative
2. qualitative
Quantitative Research
- Systematic, empirical investigation of
any phenomena via statistical,
mathematical or computational
technique
Scientific methods that makes a
Quantitative Research
1. generation of models, theories and
hpotheses
2. development of instruments and
methods for measurement
3. Experimental control and manipulation of
variables
4. collection of empirical data
5. Modelling and analysis of data
6. evaluation of results
Advantages of Quantitative Research
- allows researcher to measure and analyze
data
- researcher is more objective about
findings of the research
- quantitative research can be used to test
hypotheses in experiments bc of its ability
to measure data using statistics
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
- main disadvantage is the context of the
study is ignored
- does not study things in a natural setting
or discuss meaning of things have for
different people
- a larger sample of population must be
studied for more accurate results
Qualitative Research
- dealing with phenomena that are difficult
to quantify mathematically (beliefs,
meaning, attributes, and symbols)
- aims to gather an in-depth understanding
of human behavior and the reasons that
govern such behavior.
Advantages of Qualitative Research
- enables more complex aspects of a
person’s experience
- fewer restriction or assumptions
- not everything can be quantified r
quantified easily
- Good for exploratory research and
hypothesis generation
- participants are able to provide data in
their own words
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research
- more difficult to determine the validity Basic Research
and reliability of linguistic data
- AKA Fundamental or pure
- more subjectivity involved in analyzing the
- research driven by a scientist’s curiousity
data
or interest in a specific question
- “Data overload” – open ended questions
- NOT TO CREATE OR INVENT SOMETHING
create lots of data
Applied Research
- time consuming
- scientific study and research that seeks to
solve practical problems
Classifications of Research Design According
- USED TO FIND SOLUTIONS
to time frame
Classifications of Research accdg to time
1. Longitudinal
line
2. Cross Sectional
1. Retrospective
Cross Sectional
2. Prospective
- observational study
- involves observation of variables from
subjects at one specific point in time

- we can see differences between groups

Longitudinal
- observational study

- involves repeated observations of the

same variables from the same subjects over
a period of time
- we can see differences in the variables
between groups as well as time
Classifications of Research Design Accdg to
Motive or Objective
- Basic Research

- Applied Research