ROM MASS MOVEMEN HAZARDOUS ENVIRC OV WHAT IS Mass movements is defined as a large-scale down slope movement of rock and regolith the Earth’s surface mainly due to the force of gravity that are not accompanied by it such as a river, glacier or ocean. They include: nei a moving ager * very slow movement, such as soil: creep ‘* fast movement, such as avalanches © dry movement, such as rock falls © fluid movements, such as mud flows. The down-slope movement of material, whether it be bedrock, regolith, or a mixture of these, is commonly referred to as a landslide. The types of slope processes can be classified according to a number of different features; © speed of movernent © - water content * type of movement — flows, slides, heave © materialic tine eneumuadertdguneler ne laik genes rene’ MASS MOVEMENTS (1) aecue arc! What are the causes of mass movemonts? Lercne hararie tase movements are larg Sale, dow movements of surface matorls tat 36h aed ey soeing agent such as a steam, glacer or wave. They are Wwogerer Te Hearne ey cheat stress (weighh on spe mates and tek shoot resinere (Cecnatt) @ehoned by natural or human processes and reaches a eitica falure pow Increases in shear stross can result from: «Addition of mass by vegetation growth, construction activity and deposition °F ‘dumping, + Ste eot ng oF undorculting ofa slope by erosion processes or human active Destabilization by earthquake tremors, ree movement or trafic vibration. Decreases In shear resistance can result from: + Addition of water to slope materials by rainfall and initration or drainage. + Weathering processes that weaken rock and regolith F eenar ar regetaton that binds the slope materials together and removes sol water by evapotranspiration. ‘The frequency of mass movement Is in uenced by a range of factors, Including 19r% theraeter and structure, soil water conditions, relief, vegetation cover and land vos. Sonne combinations, such as steeply dipping layers of clays and shales in moist cimotes Ste more Thay to be affected. I Ie therefore possible to combine maps of ge08). Topography, cimate, human activity and history of mass movements to identify pattems of varying danger- hazard zening maps. Classification of mass movements Mass movernents may be classified by speed and by the nature of movement of the alected slope materials. Speed depends on the amount of water in the materials (more ‘adds weight and lubrication) and gradient (steeper means more energy) Creep is very slow ~ only a few centimeters per year. The downward distortion of ‘surface layers results from the pull of gravity and disturbance by rain splash. Heaving results from ‘inflation’ at right angles to the slope by wetting or freezing and ‘deflation’ down slope by drying and thawing, Solifluction is the slo¥/ tow of saturated surface material above waterproof “permafrost” during thaw periods. Rapid mass movements involve three types of motion: fal, flow of slide. Falls are fastest Bnd ccour where resistant rocks form ciffs or where there is subsidence into Underground cavities. Faure Flows are most likely when thick layers of unconsolidated material such ‘as clay or eeiearie ash become saturated with water leading to movement as a fuid with no clear shear plane, Slides occur where there are clear lines of weakness such as bedding planes, in Stherwise thick strong layers of rock and regolith, These may be lubricated by water or Stressed by extra weight, leading to the mass moving along the shear plane as a solid. A rotational slump involves a combination of slide and flow.‘Main types of mass movement processes 2 Rockfa Titan movement ssuslipocau cote Reape Slopes inch ec ‘oment or Scetionly whe sate Sirock ude ecome detach and i tarometeess a dope, Tay mye achcheaty Sada proces or teete-thaw o suddenand 1 char ratte, Pesrotl i aca ihe ae tie spe « Rotational sip Arotana sip, orlandp, ees ram 3 landside in thoe the ide plane Concave in shape, {using more of * (Girepalgeremen these we roti be mont onenon form of vile mass movement inte UE Trey ons Se {slang the coast (9. Nec oesone ken Se ane, Borst) and on the eiges of man onde: Thy urcake ear | meat ek agar nse notes Pedal Se | int nwtronsto sry oy cooper eter olay oO ava sottiction isthe sow own ow Sedo of saturated sol frorentock Iisa common process in periglacial Environments, were the Seasonal thawing ofthe Uppermost ayer {the ative layer) Se ln ats teow to oc The water Feduces the effects of cohesion and fricion, ths preg ‘movement. The term galilucton eferstaselianien Gen «thes place on top of oven ground The kay thing about a lands ie that movement takes place along 3 fat or planar slide plane andsies commonly (cca along bedding planes, particulary when the undeyiog beds impermeable leading to» igh motsture content hich illubriat the slide surtace andsides are wry rid ‘an cause huge damage and os fie dMuditow se When si or RS ‘ic vweakrock, uch 3 day orvoleaic 25h Becomes sted ny fw done Such Rows can bestow but most cera hy Srevey rapid hee ual éepends on the water content ofthe ate Mustows often forma sous volcanic ‘tard (8 page 1) 35 melted show and ie from voleano jms can combine wth ash to form dency ows ed lahore, Lahars caused serious los of lean Sorrces Bropery i the eruptions of Nevado dl fle, Coes (1985) nd Pinatubo, Pippin 558 f Soilcreep ined Sai ped up akin he wt hdd wal feta presre Sel Cgep ivolves a heave process whereby individ partes sist 304 fallin response to expansion and tontacion doc ening and ding or treetig and thawing. liza very oe ete ek2 Ceplount We jroerares Ned Cota knee obak & lardebole ane desenbe Me corewe tah Od wncday LANDSLIDE wists become harordowd - (19) A landslide is a sudden downhill movement of part of a slope along a flat or planar slide plane. Landslides commonly occur along bedding planes, particularly when the underlying bed is impermeable leading to a high moisture content which will lubricate the slide surface, * Landslides are very rapid and can cause huge damage and loss to life. There are usually several factors that combine to cause a slope to collapse or fai. It is ‘worth distinguishing between these factors that can make a slope unstable and those ‘that actually trigger a slide. ‘The following factors contribute to slope instabi + Slope gradient The steeper the slope, the more likely itis to collapse. If a slope is made steeper by undercutting, either naturally by action of a river or the sea or unnaturally by human ‘excavation, itis more likely to fal + Rock type Rocks have different strength and abilities to retain a slope angle. Tough rocky such as granite or schist can be stable at very steep angles whereas weaker sands and clays can slip downhill at the gentlest of angle. Some rocks are permeable, letting ‘water pass through them, whereas others are impermeable and unable to transmit ‘water. If water can pass through one rock but not the one beneath it, it might pond- up underground and lubricate a landslide. * Geological structure If lines of weaknesses such as bedding planes (the junctions between beds of sedimentary rocks), faults and joints are aligned downslope they encourage slope collapse. + Waterlogging Water held within rock and soil can exert considerable outwards pressure thus weakening the cohesion of material on a slope. The saturation of a slope is one of the most frequent causes of slope faifure, © Drought Very dry conditions, particularly in generally wet environments, can lead to shrinkage clays and the formation of cracks. Both can weaken the material and ‘make it more prone to collapse, particularly after a period of heavy rain. : ren 1998 * PMefer Up -8. - Heneawn’s » Micarnpua Candie Levert en \9 to Dfurmeone Wks Celene rebates nrnctotectes 4* Slope loading Buildings and other develop more likely to move. nts can exert 2 downward force on slope, making it ° Deforestation Curing down trees and moving down vegetation Vulnerable to collapse. The roots of plants help hold soil together and plants also use up some of the water that might be present in a slope. Furthermore, lack of vegetation cover means that rainfall will no longer be intercepted. Interception slows down the impact ofa storm on a slope. can make 2 slope much more © Weathering Tropical regions, with high temperatures and heavy rainfall, often have deeply Weathered soils which are’ very weak and unstable on a slope and # prone to landslides, ‘Trigger mechanisms If slope is potentially unstable, it may only need a very minor additional circumstances to tigger movement and collapse. There are three particularly common trigger mechanisms. * Heavy rainfall ai Ifa slope is already saturated and lubricated, heavy rain will result in a sudden surget of water which may overcome friction and cause the slope to collapse. This is probably the most widespread cause of slope failure. * Earthquake It is easy to understand how an earthquake, in shaking the ground, will trigger landslides. Very often it is landslide that cause the greatest loss of life duting an earthquake. Apart from simply dislodging material, earthquake tremors can cause some materials, or example silts, to become jelly-like and extremely vulnerable to collapse. This is liquefaction. * Basal excavation In additional to making a slope potentially unstable, excavation at the base of slope may also be responsible for triggering a landslide, In 1998, 66 people perished at Catak in Turkey when a newly created 55° slope collapsed following the excavation of a road cutting.How do people cope with hazards ¢ (Hazards Ma sed by muss movements? agement / Methods of prevention) There are several ways in which the hazards arising from mass movement an be managed. Methods include: © Increasing slope stability : > By engineering techniques such as drainage pipes could be inserted into the slope to more easily allow water to get out end avoid increases in fluid pressure, the possibility of liquefaction, or increased weight tothe addition of water > Terracing or ‘regrading’ to reduce the slope angle. > Stabilizing by using retaining walls, rock anchors or steel mesh. > Covered or sprayed steep slopes with coucrete to prevent rock falls. ‘The drawbacks to this approsch are the cost involved and the responsibility for enforcement. Officials regulations can set the required building standards, but cnsuring they are observed is often not easy ~ even in countries with efficient government systems. This form of hazards management is sometime called “modification of the event”, + Avoiding the danger ‘This requires that hazards are assessed and then mapped to show areas most at risk. Planning and building controls can be used 10 avoid development in the most hazardous zones, If development has already taken place, systems for forecasting, swarming and evacuation are needed. This form of hazards management is sometimes called “modification of vulnerability”. © Managing landslides ‘This solution is only undertaken where people are at risk and sufficient resources are available. Near Mt, Sakurajima, Japan for instance, conerete and metal barriers and deflectors are built in stream beds and on volcanic sloges,where lahara might ‘occur, These techniques slow and give people warning and tle to evacuate. Similar techniques are used to reduce the risk from snow avalanches in alpine resorts. Insurance Private insurance companies rarely provide cover in the most hazardous locations and charge above normal premiums for areas at tisk. This act as a disincentives to development, Sometimes insurance companies charge lower premiums ifthe are satisfied, for example, that all safety procedures have ‘been follows on a hill slope development. Systems of insurance do not reduce the likelihood of mass movement but they do reduce the financial risk involved.eeu Ker nahire ned nonusers & avatar cies. C/ vfeoop AVALANCHES pe tei an cure avalanches occur, Ur eee te Tetra oee Nature of avalanches Avalanches are rapid movements of snow, ice, rock, or earth down a slope. It occurs like a landslide, when the weight (mass) of material is sufficient to overcome friction. This allows the debris to descend at a considerable speed under the force of gravity (mass movement). The average of descend is 40-60km (but video reordings have shown extreme speeds in excess of 200km/hr. They are common in mountainous areas: >» newly -fallen snow may fall off older snow, especially in winter (a dry avalanche), in spring partilly-melted snow moves (a wet avalanche), often triggered by skiing. Avalanches frequently occur on steep slopes over 22°, especially on north-facing, slopes where the lack of sun inhibits the stabilization of snow. Debris avalanches are a rapid mass movement of sediments, often associated with Saturated ground conditions. Mod hen ardous when ‘rigeered ley earfaquokes 1 Hoe locaher of ceWlenend Suo nvatanchat coeur Unoter 16 What cocobetarar atm Causes of avalanches io ibeltone) kasturi ‘© Heavy snowfall compressing and adding weight to earlier falls, especially on windward slopes. * Steep slopes of over 25° where stability is reduced and friction is more easily overcome, * A sudden increase in temperature, especially on south-facing slopes and in Alps, uider the fohn wind conditions. ‘+ Heavy rain falling upon snow (more likely in Scotland than in Alps). + Deforestation, partly for new ski-runs, which reduces slope stability. * Vibrations triggered by off-piste skiers, any nearby traffic and dangerously, earth movements, | * Very long, cold, dry winters followed by heavy snowfalls in spring. Under this conditions, earlier falls of snow will tun into ice over which later falls will slide (Some local perceive this to pose the greatest avalanche risk). Redtogualn «Sek on aumbanclne 4 it ptraw ®vele rastaiip dim: HOM A de down S Sangeny peg g 24/07 ok aver gO temfhr « 43 Besitoried fo sem deap Effects on lives and properties a 2 if * Avalanches can block roads and railways, cut off power supplies and telecommunications are under extreme conditions, destroy buildings and cause loss of life j * Between 1980 and 1991 there were, in Alpine Europe alone, 1 210 recorded avalanche death, of whom nearly half were skiers. * This death rate is increasing as the popularity of skiing grows and alpine weather become less predictable (a record total of 145 deaths in 1998 — 1999). Prediction and monitoring © There is a close link between avalanche and > time of the year — almost 80% of avalanche in the French Alps occur between Jamuary and March (the avelanche season). > altitude — over 90% occur between 1 500 and 3 000m. * Although it is possible to predict when and in which regions avalanches are most likely to occur, it is less easy to predict where an event is likely to happen. It is this unpredictability that makes avalanches a major environmental hazard in alpine areas. * However, despite this uncertainty, many avalanches do tend to follow certain “tracks”. Consequently as well as setting up early waming systems and training rescue teams, it is possible to take some measures to try to protect life and property.a ae a ae May/June 2010 5 Figs 3A and 3B show two types of snow avalanche. (a) Explain how such avalanches occur and describe one method employed to limit their hazardous effects. [10] The two avalanches are that of powder avalanches and slab avalanches Powder avalanches usually start from a single point and accumulate snow as they descend. Most common following heavy snow on a smooth frosted surface. Snow will ride UP on a cushion of air in front of which can be a blast wave. ‘Two types of snow avalanche Fig. 38 Slab avalanches are caused by a slab of compact snow slipping forward. Requires wind speeds of 16-50km/h to maintain movement and occurs in very cold periods{Methods could be reinforcing buildings, placing wind baffles, snow fences, tree planting artificially triggering avalanches. Preventing access to dangerous slopes} Slabs avalanches are usually much larger than loose/powder avalanches and cause more destruction. nA started | “ 5 Je Fig. 38 #For methods employed to limit avalanches hazardous effects, refer to note on managing the hazards - avalanches.{b) To what extent are the hazards produced by mass movements on slopes the result of human activities? [15] This includes all hazardous mass movements and is not limited to snow avalanches. Mass movements are triggered when shear strength is exceeded by shear stress. In hazard terms this is frequently the result of earthquakes, volcanic activity or slope failure through water (pore) pressure as the result of storms / heavy rainfall Human activities can produce instability in slopes through activities such as mining, quarrying, undercutting, off-piste skiing, ete. or through inadequately constructed dams. In terms of hazardous outcomes human influence is probably a minor impact. Refer to Pg. 9 and 10 for answers ~ Pg. 9 Natural slope failure Pg. 10 Human Mismanagement of Slopes. Try giving well argued case that explains and exemplifies the hazards associated with mass movement.(b) Describe and evaluate the methods used to limit the hazardous effects of avalanches and other forms of mass movement. [15] Here it is necessary to go beyond snow and ice, although | suspect many will dwell upon the various ways in which snow avalanches are limited. Using explosives to detonate dangerous snow slopes, preventing off piste skiing, erecting diversion barriers above settlements and the training of search and rescue teams have all been tried with varying success. In most cases of hazardous mass movements the main approach is to stop or to limit activities that destabilise slopes. Disafforestation, undercutting, mining, dumping of slag heaps or the placement of reservoirs or buildings on top of unstable slopes. Little can be done to prevent large scale mass movements consequent upon earthquakes. Level 3 Give a balanced account of the methods employed although there may be some concentration on avalanches. The methods will be assessed in the case of avalanches by costleffectiveness, but other forms of mass movement will be considered. (12-15) Level 2 Mostly snow avalanches with only passing reference to the more general problems of maintaining slope stability. Some limited evaluation of the methods outlined. (7-11) Level 1 Few methods of limiting the impact of mass movements restricted to ideas such as stopping loud noises in snow environments or ploughing along contours in other areas. No evaluation. (0-6)Managing the Hazards / Methods used / employed to limit the hazardous effeets of lope eer Op AVALANCHES Altiagh avaiancher canst be preventtd ,4 parte TO veBuce wer impact — The avalanche threat can be reduce by creating a series of smaller avalanches through controlled explosions and therefore reduce the risk of a major event as the snow pack is much reduced, This however. Bye 9 nsive iethod of cgntrol. ppetey ne ae mush rede, TR ene Ey NA eNO LIU I 4 1 Sagev avaPon cle: 2. tm Sas’ where there is extensive tourism and winter sports, risk management involves mapping avalanche paths and attempting to control human activities. At times of high risk, ski areas and even roads may be closed and skiers directed to safer slopes: major ski resorts will issue daily bulletins on the avalanche risk. 3. Keeping the snow on the mountain side or trying to deflect it once it has moved is the purpose of the engineering solutions. = fences will trap snow on the upper slopes - deflection structures can be built to protect houses and pylons (a large vertical steel tower supporting high-tension power lines), and - avalanches sheds have been constructed to protect transport routes Such engineering techniques may be successful but many complain about the expense and the unsightly nature of the constructions. 4. Afforestation had been tried in some areas as a mean of slowing down slides of snow but this form of protection takes years to mature.CASE STUDY: THE EUROPEAN AVALANCHES OF 1999 (CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE MONTROC and LE TOUR AVALANCHE) ‘The avalanches that killed 18 people in the Alps in February 1999 were the worst in the area for nearly 100 years. Moreover, they occurred in the area that was though to be fairly safe. In addition, precautionary measures had been taken, such as enormous avalanches wall to defend the village of Taconnaz. However, the villages of Montroc and Le Tour, locate at the head of Chamonix Valley, had no such defences. At Montroc, heavy snow fell on Monday and Tuesday. Sheer weight of new snow causes massive avalanches. Tuesday 9 February 1999, a tidal wave of now 150m wide and 6m high crashes down into the Chamonix Valley and travelled at a speed of up to ‘90kmV/hr and buries much of the village of Montroc. 10 people killed, 11 rescued unhurt, 5 with minor injuries, 1 with seriously injured. Two believed missing, 18 chalets destroyed. Rescue work was hampered by the low temperatures (-7°C), which caused the snow to compact and made digging almost impossible, only mechanical diggers can hack their way through to the chalets Nothing could have been done to prevent the avalanche and avalanches warning had been given the day before, as the region had experienced up to 2m of snow in just 3 days. Ongoing avalanche monitoring meant that villagers and tourists in the ‘safe’ zone though that they were safe. Meteorologist have suggested that disruption of weathers pattems resulting from global warming will lead to increased snow fall in the Alps, which will be heavier and later in the season. This would mean that the conventional wisdom regarding avalanche safe zone would need to be re-evaluated.2-26 Firp > Re Maes mereicent, as le pe Maw We (xXrard Cfo) 2 SLOPE FAILURE AND MASS MOVEMENT , Wet 8 Goplain Ane Coresmadener, wala el, a, c1s wereen Lo frptaih Ke cue ty walang War Why are rapid mass movements hazardous? “o- ‘er aew (1) beceiy’ ha dar ge * There is often very litle waming. Stress may Build ahd strength may be reduced gradually. The movement may be triggered by a range of events, or a combination of events, that is not easily predicted. * There is great energy and mass involved, Settlements may be “bulldozed” or buried very quickly. + Movement may be very rapid especially in mountain areas, * People are brought into contact with mass movement by the attractiveness of slopes. Human activity in the form of construction of roads and housing eacot sear slopes is a frequent cause of mass movement and inevitably * Mining activity frequently takes place in areas of steep relief and waste is dumped on slopes. Case studies Aim to recall the following points from case studies: location, disaster event, disruption caused, relief efforts, re-construction, Pe fallure- little or no human influence causing tho event { Mt. Huascaran, Peru, S. America, 1970: Earthquake related avalanche, tce and snow had built up on the unstable summit of Mi Huascaran, North of the Nevado del Rulz voleano, Columbia; S. A merica, 198 Eruption related lahar, Megma moved up beneath ice and snow covered peak. A small mudlfow that sea ance. Warning was ignored. Eruption released huge volumes ot Foentater added to torrential rain. Resulting lahar 30m high travelled at 80km/h 30km down valley to the town of Amero 22,000 Pop. Town was buned beneath 8m deep layet of mud and rocks- 21,000 dead Honduras and Nicaragua, Central America, 1998: Hurricane Mitch, ‘clone related mudsif : Mitch's torrential rain caused the volcano’s south side to Telapse triggering a mudslide that destroyed several small towns aru cut through the Pan American highway. In Honduras, floods in’ tne capital Tegucigalpa reached 8 storeys high in places. Gros Ventre valley, Wyoming, USA, 1926: Aeltweter lubricates bedrock. Spring snowmelt and heavy’ rains percolated through sandslons beds to impermeable shales below, lubricating the bedding plane. Beds dip lowsass the tuor at 20 degrees. Sandstone layer slipped over the shale forming » temporary dam that eventually burst, flooding the lower valley. 9Human mismanagement of slopes, Vaiont dam, Piave Valley, Italy Apis: Reservolr_construction_on inappropriate gelology. Dam built in narrow valley with steep sides consisiting of alternating layers of lays and limestone. Heavy rain saturated the clays and slopes collapsed into the reservoir sending a wav of water over the dam and down valley destroying the town of Langerone ~ 1900 dead. ‘Aborfan, S. Wales, U.K, 1968: Inappropriately dumped waste material ‘Waste from coal mining was tipped high on steep sides of a narrow valley over a line of springs. Following a wel October and a night of heavy rain the pressure of water resulted in the failure of the tip material which moved suddenly downhill land engulfed a junior school just after 9,00 am. 116 children and 5 teachers died ‘The coal mine was closed and other potentially dangerous tips were lowered and reprofiled Hong Kong, 1948 - 1998: Poorly planned urbanization. Rapid post war population growth forced residential development of steep slopes. Inadequate construction techniques and poor slope maintenance resulted in many small land slips and 480 deaths. Specialist authority set up to supervise has led to great reduction in frequency and scale of Isips. Campania region, Southern Italy, 1998: Unplanned development _in tectonically active regio! ‘May, 1998, after two weeks of heavy rain, mudslides throughout Campania Killed nearly 300 people. Much of the disaster was due to human error: * Clay soils of the surrounding mountains were left unprotected after forest fires and deforestation. + Houses had been built on hillsides identified as landslide zones ~ over 20% of houses in the vilage of Sarno were built without planning permission. 10ndslide prone environment be managed mme ase Study Japan’s Landslide Mitigation Prog This is a model for other countries to follow. The Japanese Islands are a dangerous combination of hilly topography and unconsolidated voleanic deposits, threatened by typhoons. Afer many decades of severe looses of life and properties, the Government - identified mass movement danger zones by studying past events, geology. topography and land use. = set up laws in 1958, giving planning control over how land ean be used an what types of building are permitted in hazard prone areas. = encouraged research into advanced engineering techniques that led to preventive measures such as slope soil drainage networks, retaining walls, sop re-profiling and terracing, = the government sponsors a strong programme of public education and broadeasts warnings of landslide danger. Schools and workplaces practice drills for response to warnings = hazards zones are made well known and safety areas ident can seek refuge. ied where people The programme has been successful; in 1976 there were 300 deaths and 130,000 cases of property damage, but in 1983 — the worst year for landslides since the start of the programme — 125 lives were lost and less than 2.000 homes damaged.The use of geo-materials for erosion and sediment control, Fraser's Hill, Pahang, Malaysia In Malaysia, research on bioengineering has involved studies on plant selection for the fe-vegetation of cut slopes along highways. Bioengineering designs have great potential and application in Malaysia because in deforested upland sites, landslides are common, Particularly during the wetter month between November and January. Fraser's hill is an area of lower montane forest and receives 200-410 mm of rainfall each month. Post- landslide restoration works involving conventional civil designs are costly and sometimes nor practical at remote sites. Because of these constraints and the low risk {o lives and property, bioengineering was the option taken for erosion control, slope stabilization and vegetation establishment Two study plots were chosen and one control plot. Initial work involved soil nailing, using 300 lives stakes of angsana tree branches and 200 cut stems of ubi kayu Subsequently, major ground works involved the installation of geo-structures. Tall saplings of Toona sinensis, afast growing trees species, were then planted at the toes of the slope for long-term stability. Live stakes and cut stems ‘+ At the end of 6 months, the live stakes became living trees. + Ahigh percentage of angsana stakes (93%) sprouted leaves within a week. + Vegetation cover on slopes helped reduce soil erosion because shoots lowered the intensity of raindrops falling on the exposed soils. * Furthermore, roots functioned like mini soil nails to increase the shear strength of surface soils, * Thus, live stakes were effective in stabilizing unstable slopes, and their use in bioengineering should be promoted in the wet tropics. Slope stability * Without the erosion control measures, there was aggressive soil erosion during heavy downpours, which caused scouring of the steep slope below the tarred road and resulted in an overhang of the road shoulder. Trapped sediments and vegetation establishment After one year about 75% of one study site was covered by vegetation, while 90% of the second plot was revegetated. There was no more incidence of landslide at these two plots. However, at the control plot, there was further soil erosion, which resulted in further undercutting of the slope face. At the control plot, after 1 year, only seven plant species were present. These were weeds. The poor vegetation cover is probably due to unstable soil conditions caused by frequent soil erosion and minor landslides.Evaluation ae The use of geo-materials has been very successful at Fraser's Hill, Pahang. « The geo-structures were installed at a cost of US$3078, which was cheaper than restoration works using conventional civil structures such as rock gabions, which would cost US$20,000 «As the site is fairly remote, higher transportation and labour costs would have contributed to the higher cost of constructing rock gabion at this site + On the other hand, the geo-materials, which were abundantly available locally, were relatively cheap to make or purchase, and this contributed to the low project cost. The geo-structures were non-polluting, required minimal _post-installation maintenance, were visually attractive and could support greater biodiversity within the restored habitats. + The geo-materials used in the project, such as coir rolls and straw wattles, biodegrade after about a year and become organic fertilisers for the newly established vegetation. « After 18 months, the restored cut slopes were almost covered by vegetation, and there was no further incident of landslide. The geo-structured installed on site were cost-effective and visually attractive. The restored cut slopes were more stable and supported biological diversity. Overall, it was a major success Bioengineering is the use of vegetation in engineering, for example the selection of suitable plants species for the recolonization of areas following landslides. Geo-materials refer to the use of naturally occurring materials such as vegetation in engineering. Geo-structures are structures constructed from geo-materials such as bamboo bundles (fachines), coir rolls and straw wattles. Q. Evaluate the success of one management scheme in a hazardous ment that you have studied.