Received: 28 March 2018 | Revised: 11 June 2018 | Accepted: 1 July 2018

DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.13744

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Mangosteen processing: A review

Choothaweep Palakawong1 | Pascal Delaquis2

1
Faculty of Agricultural Technology,
Department of Food Technology, Rajabhat
Maha Sarakham University, Maha Sarakham,
Thailand
2
Agriculture and Agri‐Food
Canada, Summerland Research and
Development Centre, Summerland, British
Columbia, Canada
Correspondence
Pascal Delaquis, Agriculture and Agri‐
Food Canada, Summerland Research and
Development Centre, 4200 Highway 97
South, Summerland, British Columbia V0H
1Z0, Canada.
Email: pascal.delaquis@agr.gc.ca
Abstract
The fruit of the mangosteen tree (Garcinia mangostana L.) has gained increasing ac-
ceptance as a distinctively flavored commodity that is also a rich source of nutrients
and health‐promoting phytochemicals, including prenylated and oxygeneated xan-
thones, flavonoids, flavanols, tannins, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and
other bioactive compounds. The short shelf‐life of fresh mangosteen fruit hinders
distribution from producing regions in tropical or sub‐tropical zones to distant mar-
kets. Consequently, several processing techniques are applied in the manufacture of
food products that exploit the unique gustatory and nutritional properties of mango-
steen. The present review summarizes the chemical properties of mangosteen and
processing technologies applied in the manufacture of minimally processed (fresh‐
cut), frozen, canned, juiced, fermented (wine), dried, and miscellaneous other food
products derived from this unique tropical fruit.
Practical applications
The review summarizes current processing technologies applied in the manufacture
of food products from mangosteen fruit, including minimally processed (fresh‐cut),
frozen, canned, juiced, fermented (wine), dried, and miscellaneous other food prod-
ucts. It is intended to provide a single source of information to guide research and
development of food products formulated with mangosteen as a primary ingredient.

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N There are presently no accurate cumulative statistics on global

The fruit of the mangosteen tree (Garcinia mangostana L.) is consid-
ered to be one of the finest tasting in the world. Mangosteen is a
tropical species believed to have originated in Sunda Island and the
Moluccas of Indonesia (Gunasekera, 2010). It is now grown predom-
inantly in South East Asian countries including India, China, Thailand,
Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Taiwan, Cambodia, the Philippines
and, to a lesser extent, in Sri Lanka and Australia. Production on
comparatively smaller scales is also reported in other regions with
tropical or sub‐tropical climates in the Mediterranean basin, Central
America, and the USA, particularly in Puerto Rico (Gunasekera,
2010; Stone, 2016).
mangosteen production. Annual statistics from the Food and
Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database currently lists
mangosteen in a group of commodities including mangoes and guava
which has nearly doubled in production since 2000 (FAOSTAT, 2018).
Mangosteen production for export is significant in several countries,
notably in Thailand which is the world’s single largest exporter to inter-
national markets (Chomchalow, Songpol Somasri, & Na Songhla, 2008).
According to the Thailand Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives,
199,861 metric tons (MT) were produced and 185,350 MT were ex-
ported in 2015, primarily from areas in the south and southeast that
provide fruit from May to September (Office of Agricultural Economics,
Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives, Thailand, 2015). Mangosteen

© 2018 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

J Food Process Preserv. 2018;42:e13744. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp | 1 of 10

https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13744
2 of 10 | PALAKAWONG and DELAQUIS

TA B L E 1 Nutrients in 100‐g portions of mangosteen fruit, the excellent nutritional properties of the fruit and health‐promoting
canned mangosteen and a blended fruit juice phytochemicals contained therein (Kondo, Zhang, Ji, Kou & Ou, 2009;

Nutrient Unit Fresh Canned Juice Ovalle‐Magallanes, Eugenio‐Pérez, & Pedraza‐Chaverri, 2017; Xie,
Sintara, Chang, & Ou, 2015). The nutrient content of fresh mangosteen
Energy kcal 76 73 48
fruit and some processed products are shown in Table 1 and polyphe-
Protein g 0.5–0.7 0.41 0.32
nol, flavonoid, flavanol, tannin, anthocyanin, ascorbic acid, and carot-
Total lipids g 0.1–1.0 0.58 0
enoid concentrations measured in a raw fruit are provided in Table 2.
Carbohydrate g 5.6–19.8 17.91 10.65 Some success has been achieved in the distribution of fresh man-
Fiber, total g 0.3–5.1 1.8 0 gosteen to overseas markets, primarily by ensuring degree of ripeness
dietary
at harvest, temperature control in transit and rapid delivery of suitably
Calcium mg 0.01–18.0 12 0 packaged fruit. Nevertheless, it remains a difficult commodity to distrib-
Iron mg 0.2–1.0 0.3 0 ute in the fresh state. Consequently, there is increasing interest in the de-
Magnesium mg 13.0 13 21 velopment of minimally, fully processed or derived mangosteen products
Phosphorus mg 0.02–18.0 8 NR to extend the availability and enhance the economic value of this unique
Potassium mg 45.0 48 NR plant resource. The present summarizes key information on the charac-
Sodium mg 7.0 7 NR teristics of mangosteen fruit and processes that are employed to this end.
Zinc mg 0.1 0.21 NR
Vitamin C mg 1.0–66.0 2.9 19.5
2 | M A N G OS TE E N PRO D U C TI O N A N D
Thiamin mg 0.03–0.09 0.054 NR
FRU IT C H A R AC TE R I S TI C S
Riboflavin mg 0.0–0.06 0.054 NR
Niacin mg 0–0.3 0.286 NR
Mangosteen reproduces asexually and is classified as an apomictic
a
Vitamin B−6 mg NR 0.018 NR
plant. Because seed is derived only from maternal tissue all trees are
Folate µg NR 31 NR
expected to be clonal. However, field studies have shown that tree
Vitamin A µg NR 2 0 morphology, flower color and fruit shape are variable. Several varie-
Vitamin A IU NR 35 NR ties are recognized in some regions and genetic variability in produc-
Adapted from Gebhardt and Thomas (2002), Osman and Millan (2006), ing trees has been confirmed using Random Amplified Polymorphic
USDA Food Composition databases (2018), Department of Agriculture
DNA analysis (Sobir, 2007). The mangosteen tree is very slow grow-
and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia (2018).
a
NR: not reported.
ing but can attain 25 m in height, with a straight trunk and evenly
spaced branches. Commercial orchard trees are generally between 3
and 6 m in height to facilitate picking. When provided with appropri-
is also becoming an increasingly important export commodity in other ate care and management the trees bear fruit 5–6 years after field
countries where it was once grown almost exclusively for domestic planting. Full ripeness is normally achieved within 113–119 days after
consumption, such as Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Diczbalis, flower opening. Because bruising can cause the pulp to turn from
;FAO, 2004, 2004). Growth in production is clearly sustained by rising white to brown and lessen consumer appeal harvesting is primarily
global trade in tropical fruit. However, demand for mangosteen fruit, accomplished using non‐mechanized techniques to lessen the risk of
processed products, and extractives is fueled by increasing reports of fruit damage. Trees can produce approximately 500 fruit per harvest
at maturity and the yield steadily increases over 30–45 bearing years
TA B L E 2 Concentrations of bioactive compounds in fresh to reach 1,000–3,000 fruit/tree. Productivity gradually declines
mangosteen fruit. Values are in g/dry weight after 45 years although some trees can bear fruit beyond 100 years
Compounds Unit Concentration (Department of Agriculture & Fisheries, Queensland, Australia, 2018;
Diczbalis, 2009; Ketsa & Paull, 2011; Osman & Milan, 2006).
Polyphenols mgGAEa 7.51 ± 0.3
Laboratory‐based studies have shown that ripening fruit can be
Flavonols mgCE 0.24 ± 0.01
assigned to six stages of maturity based on changes in color ranging
Flavanals μgCE 2.88 ± 0.2
from nearly white or yellow/green to deep purple or black (Palapol et
Anthocyanins mgGCE 6.82 ± 0.3
al., 2009). Individual countries have developed maturity indices based
Tannins mgCE 2.81 ± 0.1
on fruit color and other fruit characteristics to assist growers with
Vitamin C mg 12.35 ± 0.6 the selection of appropriate harvest intervals for specific marketing
Total carotenoids μg/g 1.47 ± 0.07 strategies (Table 3). Fully ripe fruit is rounded, 4–8 cm in diameter, and
β‐Carotene μg/g 0.38 ± 0.02 weighs 55–90 g. The inedible outer and inner rind (pericarp) comprises
Adapted from Gorinstein et al. (2011). approximately 60% of the fruit weight. In ripe fruit the rind is purple
a
CE: catechin equivalent; GAE: gallic acid equivalent; CGE: cyanidin‐3‐ in cross section, white on the inside and is easily removed to recover
glucoside equivalent. the edible white aril (Ketsa & Paull, 2011). The unripe mangosteen rind
PALAKAWONG and DELAQUIS | 3 of 10

TA B L E 3 Harvesting maturity indices used by Malaysian, Australian, and Thai mangosteen growers

Malaysia Australia Thailand

Maturity
stage Peel color Description Color index Characteristics Acceptability Color stage Characteristics

0 Yellowish green Pulp and rind are Even‐white‐yellow Pulp and rind not
with red not separable, or white‐yellow separable, pulp
patches pulp would with green would develop poor
develop poor patches or gray flavor, copious
flavor spots yellow gum in the
rind
1 Pale yellow or Quality of the pulp Pale pH 3.9, Brix Not acceptable Pale yellow or Pulp and rind not
green with still low yellow‐ % < 12 green with pink separable, pulp
pink spots green spots would develop poor
flavor, gum still
plentiful in rind
2 Light yellow‐ Rind and pulp can Botchy pink pH 3.3, Brix Not acceptable Light yellow‐pink Rind and pulp can be
pink with pink be separated, will % < 14 separated with
patches develop good difficulty, good
flavor quality can be
achieved
3 Evenly pink Suitable for export Pinkish red pH 3.2, Acceptable Evenly pink Rind and pulp can be
Brix% > 16 separated easily,
little gum in rind.
Suitable for export
4 Red or brownish Suitable for export Maroon‐red pH 3.2, Acceptable Red or red‐brown Rind and pulp can be
red Brix% > 16 separated easily,
suitable for export,
almost ready for
consumption
5 Red‐purple Suitable for Dark pH 3.2, Acceptable Red‐purple No gum in rind,
consumption maroon‐ Brix% > 16 suitable for
violet consumption
6 Purple, dark Suitable for Violet‐black pH 3.6, Acceptable Purple, dark purple No gum in rind,
purple or black consumption Brix% < 16 or black without suitable for
purple consumption

Adapted from Osman and Millan (2006), Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia (2018).

contains yellow latex derived from secretory ducts which can accu-
mulate on the exocarp leading to the appearance of yellow to red-
dish‐brown “resin” spots that severely impact marketability. Moreover,
latex contact with the aril can induce yellow to brown discoloration
and the appearance of a bitter taste (Dorly et al., 2008). It should be
noted, however, that browning could also result from the release of
polyphenol oxidase (PPO) contained within pericarp tissues (Deylami,
Rahman, Tan, Bakar, & Olusegun, 2016). The mechanisms leading to
the accumulation of latex on the external fruit surface or aril are not
completely understood but control of irrigation methods, fertilizer ap-
plication and calcium sprays applied to the fruit before harvest have
been shown to lessen preharvest occurrence (Dorly et al., 2011; Syah,
Mansyah, Affandi, Purnama, & Fatria, 2013). Mechanical damage oc-
casioned by dropping or compression of the fruit during harvest or
postharvest handling can also induce physiological changes in the rind
leading to changes in color and hardening caused by an increase in
phenolic metabolism ultimately leading to lignin biosynthesis (Bunsiri,
Ketsa, & Paull, 2003). The biochemical basis of alterations in rind color
and texture has been examined in some detail due to their adverse
effect on fruit quality and acceptability (Ketsa & Atantee, 1998;
Tongdee & Suwanagul, 1989). Kamdee et al. (2014) provide an over-
view of the complex metabolic pathways underlying color changes and
lignin biosynthesis in mangosteen fruit. These authors also have char-
acterized lignin biosynthesis genes and have identified a transcription
factor involved in cell wall thickening, lignin biosynthesis, and stress
response in mangosteen rind subjected to mechanical injury. In addi-
tion, mechanical damage can induce browning of the aril, possibly due
to the release of PPO (Deylami et al., 2016).
Mangosteen pericarp tissues are rich in tannins and anthocy-
anins (Du & Francis, 1977; Pothitirat, Chomnawang, Supabphol,
& Gritsanapanm, 2009) and a wide range of phenolic compounds
including prenylated and oxygenated xanthones and others of in-
terest in pharmacology, cosmetics, and as functional food addi-
tives due to their nutraceutical properties (Ovalle‐Magalanes et
al., 2017; Suksamrarn et al., 2003; Xie, Sintara, Chang, & Ou, 2015;
Zadernowski, Czaplicki, & Naczk, 2009). Some of the rind is used
in the production of powders or extracts rich in bioactive mole-
cules or in the production of a red anthocyanin‐based dye for use
4 of 10 | PALAKAWONG and DELAQUIS
as a natural colorant for cotton and silk yarn (Chairat, Bremner, &
Chantrapromma, 2007). Nevertheless, rind is a significant waste
stream and ongoing research is directed at finding alternative uses
for the material for food or non‐food uses, such as cellulose‐based
food emulsifiers (Winuprasith & Manop, 2013) or natural photosen-
sitizers (Maiaugree et al., 2015).
The edible aril (pulp) consists of 5–7 snowy white, translucent,
soft and intensely flavored segments which each contain 2–3 “seeds”,
which are technically not true seeds as they bear a non‐sexual em-
bryo. In fully ripe fruit the aril may contain 17.2% soluble solids, 0.73%
titratable acidity and a pH near 3.5 (Osman & Millan, 2006; Palapol
et al., 2009). The most abundant sugars and organic acids by order of
occurrence are reported to be glucose, fructose, sucrose, malic acid,
and citric acid, although relative concentrations may vary with loca-
tion and tree age (Setiawan, 2012, 2012). Bioactive polyphenols are
also found in the aril, although in lower concentrations than found
in the pericarp. For example, Wittenauer, Falk, Schweiggert‐Weisz,
and Carle (2012) found that the total xanthone content of the aril
on a dry weight basis was approximately one tenth of that found
in the pericarp. The aril also contains the browning enzyme PPO.
Falguera et al. (2011) showed that PPO activity in mangosteen aril
was the highest among 12 tropical fruits and that juice extracted
from arils showed the highest color differences 90 min after crush-
ing. Macleod and Pieris (1982) studied the volatile components of
the aril and found it to contain a relatively small quantity of aroma
components (about 3 μg/kg). The most important were the esters
hexyl acetate, cis‐hex‐3‐enyl acetate, and the alcohol cis‐hex‐3‐en‐l‐
o1, with the two former constituents being described as having char-
acteristic mangosteen odor in sensory analysis.
Mangosteen is climacteric and continues to ripen after har-
vest. Shelf‐life is typically limited to 5–7 days at temperatures be-
tween 25°C–35°C due to rapid physiological changes leading to
drying or wilting of the calyx, pericarp hardening or discoloration,
and infections by a range of fungal plant pathogens (Vo, Jitareerat,
Uthairatanakij, Limmatvapirat, & Kato, 2016). Like many tropical
species mangosteen is sensitive to low temperatures and subject
to chilling injury when stored below 4°C–5°C (Gunasekera, 2010;
Manurakchinakorn, Nuymark & Issarakraisila, 2014). Chilling injury
may manifest as pericarp hardening, browning of the aril, calyx and
stem shriveling, changes in flavor and higher susceptibility to decay
(Chechom, Ketsa, & Van Doorn, 2003; Manurakchinakorn, Nuymak,
& Issarakraisila, 2014). Research has shown that shelf‐life can be
improved by storage at 5°C at relative humidity >85% but pericarp
hardening persists leading to a concomitant, rapid loss in quality
(Diczbalis, 2009). Recent work has shown that exposure of the fruit
to the stress hormone methyl jasmonate prior to storage at 6°C
can delay pericarp hardening but the commercial viability of such
a process has not yet been determined (Mustafa, Alia, Seymour, &
Tucker, 2018). Storage at 13°C can maintain acceptable fruit quality
for 25–30 days if a coating or wax is applied or by packaging under
modified atmosphere containing the ripening inhibitor 1‐methylcy-
clopropene (SCUC, 2006; Vo et al., 2016). Importation is also sub-
ject to strict guidelines in some jurisdictions and heat treatments are
frequently required to control insects such as fruit flies. Japanese
regulations, for example, require a heat treatment for 58 min at 46°C
(Osman & Milan, 2006). Heat treatments are known to have adverse
effects on the color of the pericarp and their influence on eating
quality has not been examined in detail. Under current US rules im-
portations from Thailand are permitted provided the fruit is irradi-
ated (US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7, Part 319.56‐47), but
the effects of the treatment on the quality of mangosteen have not
been examined in detail.
3 | M A N G OS TE E N PRO C E S S I N G
The unique flavor and texture of the mangosteen aril are diffi-
cult to preserve after removal of the rind. Minimal processing and
freezing methods employed in the preservation of other delicate
fruit varieties have been adapted to the manufacture of products
in an effort to retain the desirable sensory characteristics of man-
gosteen. In addition, a range of fully processed or derived foods
made from perishable fruit are also made from mangosteen, in-
cluding canned, juiced, fermented, dried, and candied products.
The following provides a summary of the processes used in their
manufacture.
3.1 | Minimal processing
Minimal or “fresh‐cut” processing can be advantageous for the
marketing of perishable fruit such as mangosteen which must be
separated from a considerable amount of inedible tissue prior to
consumption. Distribution in a fresh‐cut format provides conveni-
ence to consumers and can result in considerable energy savings
during distribution. One form of fresh‐cut mangosteen already
very popular in Thailand is prepared from fruit collected at matu-
rity stage 1 that is peeled under water, immersed in a 1% aluminum
sulfate (alum) + 1% sodium chloride solution for 30 min, coated
with a crystallized sugar and sold on a wooden spike for immediate
consumption (Manurakchinakorn, Chamnan, & Mahakarnchanakul,
2012; SCUC, 2006). The flesh of the slightly unripe mangosteen is
less sweet and has a slightly more acidic taste than ripe fruit but
the texture is firm and crisp. The shelf‐life of this product is lim-
ited to 5–6 hrs, however, and attempts are underway to produce
a fresh‐cut mangosteen for wider distribution using modern pro-
cessing and packaging systems.
Control of discoloration of the aril surface is the most signifi-
cant challenge in mangosteen fresh‐cut processing. Development
of a brown color at the junction of the segments and loss of tex-
ture can occur quickly after peeling under ambient conditions
(Manurakchinakorn, Nuymark, Phoopouk, Poohern, & Chamnan,
2004). The nature of the reaction responsible for browning of man-
gosteen arils has not been examined in detail but is believed to result
from the action of PPO released during removal of the rind on free
polyphenols. Fruit destined for fresh‐cut processing is harvested be-
fore full ripeness, when the rind may still contain significant amounts
PALAKAWONG and DELAQUIS
FIGURE 1 A process for fresh‐cut mangosteen processing
of latex. Consequently, the calyx and stylar end are removed from
the fruit to allow drainage of excess latex and limit the risk of contact
with the aril during removal of the rind. Immersion of the arils in alum
solutions has traditionally been done to control discoloration but the
regulatory status of the compound varies or may be uncertain in
other jurisdictions. In the United States, for example, the compound
benefits from Generally Regarded as Safe status and is permitted as
a buffering and pH control agent (USFDA, 2018). In the European
Union, use of alum is more restrictive and is permitted only in the
manufacture of specified processed egg and confectionary products
(European Commission, 2018). Consequently, alternative strate-
gies used to control browning in fresh‐cut produce have been as-
sessed for fresh‐cut mangosteen. Manurakchinakorn et al. (2012,
2004, 2010, 2012, 2004) found that immersion of the arils in a 1%
alum + 1%NaCl + 1% CaCl2 solution for 30 min prior to packaging
under modified atmospheres (5% O2, 9% CO2, N2 balanced) provided
| 5 of 10
FIGURE 2 Frozen mangosteen processing
the best overall retention of sensory quality including color, as well
as firmness, ascorbic acid content, and antioxidant capacity. Halynn
(2005) showed that immersion in a 0.5% citric acid +0.25% calcium
chloride solution can similarly lessen discoloration due to browning,
particularly if it is applied immediately after removal of the calyx and
stylar ends and of the rind. Microbial spoilage can occur in fresh‐cut
mangosteen if the fruit sections are damaged, if sources of micro-
bial contamination are not controlled during processing and when
storage temperatures are not maintained below 50°C Sophanodora,
Palakawong, Pisuchpen, and Phongpaichit (2010) showed that wash-
ing the whole fruit with an acidified sodium chlorite sanitizing solu-
tion before removal of the aril can lessen the transfer of microbial
contaminants and improve shelf‐life. The processing scheme for
fresh‐cut mangosteen shown in Figure 1 is based on current under-
standing of factors that influence the quality and shelf‐life of the
finished product.
3.2 | Freezing
Rapid freezing can maintain the quality of fully ripe mangosteen
fruit but strategies are needed to control browning and minimize
changes in texture. Chemical approaches commonly used for the
control of PPO, coating with sugar or sugar syrup may be used
to avoid browning of fruit ahead of the freezing step (Bennion &
Shoyle, 2000). Production of by individually quick frozen (IQF) man-
gosteen segments was studied by Sophanodora and Sripongpunkul
(1990). The process, shown in Figure 2, requires soaking the fruit
6 of 10 | PALAKAWONG and DELAQUIS

segments in 0.5% (w/v) citric acid and 0.25% (w/v) CaCl2 to control
browning before immersion in a sucrose solution between 30 and
40°Brix for 30 min to partially dehydrate the fruit surface before
freezing, to prevent freezer burn and maintain acceptable organo-
leptic quality. The treatment also reduces aggregation of the seg-
ments during freezing, which is performed in a cryogenic cabinet
freezer using liquid carbon dioxide at −60°C(15–24 min). Other
rapid freezing technologies (flash, blast, fluidized bed) can be con-
sidered, depending on the capacity required and cost of installa-
tion. A two‐step scheme for IQF mangosteen involving initial blast
freezing of fruit treated with an anti‐browning solution, followed
by glazing with syrup or icing sugar and re‐freezing after packaging
was described by Kanchanapom and Kanchanapom (1998). Frozen
mangosteen can be stored for up to six months at −18°C–−27°C
(SCUC, 2006).

3.3 | Canning
Canned mangosteen destined for export markets have been pro-
duced in South East Asian countries for many years. The steps in-
volved in a canning process are shown in Figure 3. Fresh mangosteen
arils are immersed in a solution containing 0.75% (w/v) calcium lac-
tate +0.5% citric acid for 5 min for small arils, or 10 min for large
arils to improve the color of the final product. The treated arils are
then packed in enamel cans and filled with a 30° Brix sucrose syrup
containing 0.2% calcium chloride +0.1% citric acid. Immersion of the
arils in a solution of 0.5% calcium hydroxide (w/v) for 20 min before
filling with a 31° Brix syrup has been suggested as an alternative
means to control discoloration (Kertnat, 1998). Organoleptic evalua-
tion of canned mangosteen showed that the most acceptable prod-
ucts were processed in boiling water for 20 and 23 min for small and
large segments, respectively. The cans are processed to attain F val-
ues (T = 92°C, Z = 9.4°C) of 1.23 min for whole fruit and 1.10 min for
segments.

3.4 | Juices
The popularity of mangosteen juices in response to its recognition as
a source essential nutrients and health‐promoting phytochemicals
has led to the introduction of many products in markets throughout
the world. Some research suggests that regular consumption of man-
gosteen juice has a positive effect on overall health status (Tang et
al., 2009). The steps involved in the processing of mangosteen juice
from raw fruit are shown in Figure 4. Separation of the aril and peri-
carp remains a manual operation but the seed can be removed with
a pulper or by screening in a hydraulic press. Mashed inner pericarp
tissue or dried pericarp extracts are occasionally added to mango-
steen juice as a means to improve color or to fortify the juice with de-
sirable phytochemicals, notably xanthones (Failla Gutireez‐Olosco,
Chitchumroonchokchai, & Diekmann, 2016; Manurakchinakorn,
Chainarong, & Sawatpadungkit, 2016). However, pericarp tissues
or extracts can induce bitterness which may be overcome blending
with other fruit juices. For example, roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) juice
FIGURE 3 Canned mangosteen processing
is commonly blended with mangosteen juice in Thailand. Heat pro-
cessing is done at temperatures between 90°C and 100°C, although
the temperature and duration of processing required to ensure shelf‐
stability varies according to composition, pH, and packaging system.
Mangosteen juice was traditionally canned but many products are
now packed in glass or plastic bottles or Tetrapak™ containers.
Concentrates are now commercially available for the manu-
facture of reconstituted juices or drinks containing mangosteen,
particularly in markets distant from producing regions. Variable ap-
proaches with distinct economic and technical advantages or disad-
vantages are used to concentrate fruit juices, including evaporation,
freezing, and membrane technologies such as reverse osmosis or
nanofiltration (Vatai, 2013). The retention of desirable color and
phenolic content is a critical objective during the preparation of
PALAKAWONG and DELAQUIS
FIGURE 4 Mangosteen juice processing
mangosteen juice concentrate. Chaovanalikit et al. (2012) showed
that mangosteen juice concentration by rotary vacuum evapo-
ration at 40°C prevented the degradation of anthocyanins better
than evaporation at 60°C under atmospheric pressure. Moreover,
vacuum evaporation and prior enzymatic clarification of the juice
increased total phenolic content of the concentrate. Hence, effects
on the functional characteristics of mangosteen concentrate should
be considered in the selection of a processing scheme. Fully dehy-
drated mangosteen juice “powders” is also presently available in the
marketplace. Complete water removal can be achieved using several
approaches including freeze, spray, or vacuum drying, processes
that can variably affect the characteristics of the final product. For
example, the total phenolic and anthocyanin content of a mango-
steen, roselle, and grape juice powder were differentially affected
by dehydration under vacuum or by spray drying (Chaovanalikit
et al., 2012).
| 7 of 10
3.5 | Wine
The alcoholic fermentation of juice extracted from grapes and other
temperate fruit for the production of wines and spirits has a long his-
tory. In contrast, the production of wines from tropical fruit is compar-
atively recent and limited but is gaining interest as a means to enhance
the economic value of tropical fruit crops. Wines can be produced
from a wide range of tropical fruit, although modifications to the win-
emaking process may be required to achieve desirable alcohol content
and to optimize extraction of phytochemicals from fruit pulp to ensure
consistent quality (Baidya, Chakraborty, & Saha, 2016; Jagtap & Pabat,
2015; Reddy & Reddy, 2009). A conversion factor of 0.55 is generally
applied to estimate the potential alcohol produced by fermentation
of fruit juice from the total soluble solids content measured on the
Brix scale (Zoecklein & Gump, 2010). Because the total soluble solids
content of mangosteen juice is generally reported to be below 20°
Brix (de Castro, Anjos, Rezende, Benato, & Valentini, 2012; Palapol
et al., 2009), the optimal extraction of native sugar or supplementa-
tion prior to fermentation are necessary to obtain sufficient alcohol
to ensure desirable organoleptic properties and microbiological stabil-
ity of the wine. Minh (2014) examined the influence of several win-
emaking factors on mangosteen wine fermentation performance and
quality. Treatment of fruit pulp with pectinase prior to juice extraction
increased the recovery of sugars (to 149 g/L) but wines made from
juice supplemented with 10% sugar received higher sensory scores.
The alcohol content of the wine at this level of supplementation was
11.23%. Retention of fruit character and the development of unique
sensory profile are important objectives in tropical fruit winemaking
(Baydia et al., 2016). Holm, Chen, Seow, Ong, and Liu. (2016) exam-
ined the volatile compounds in mangosteen juice (16.07 °Brix) before
and after fermentation. Volatile compounds detected by headspace
solid‐phase micro‐extraction coupled with gas chromatography‐mass
spectrometry ((Z)‐3‐hexen‐1‐ol, hexan‐1‐ol, hexanal and (E)‐2‐hex-
enal) were considerably reduced by fermentation resulting in dimin-
ished mangosteen character, while new volatile compounds (ethyl
decanoate and ethyl octanoate) typically associated with floral and
fruity flavors increased. The study by Holm et al. (2016) did not pro-
vide a detailed assessment of sensory characteristics. Clearly, much
remains to be learned about the effects of vinification treatments on
the sensory quality and chemistry of mangosteen wines.
3.6 | Drying
Dehydrated whole mangosteen arils or segments thereof are primarily
distributed as a snack food items in retail size packaging. The charac-
teristic white color of the aril is highly desirable in dried mangosteen.
Consequently, the control of discoloration during processing, particu-
larly browning due to PPO activity after removal of the rind, is key to
the manufacture of a high‐quality product. Prevention of browning can
be achieved by immersion in chemical solutions to inhibit PPO activity
prior to dehydration. In the process described in Figure 5, a citric acid
(0.5% w/v) and calcium chloride (0.25% w/v) solution is used for this
purpose. The process also includes treatment with a 63–68 °Brix sugar
8 of 10 | PALAKAWONG and DELAQUIS
FIGURE 5 Dried mangosteen processing
solution to remove some of the water in arils and improve the reten-
tion of flavor and texture in the rehydrated product. Final dehydration
of the treated aril can be done in conventional static or convective air
dryers, although temperature should be held below 65˚C to avoid fur-
ther discoloration due to caramelization and to retain texture. Other
dehydration technologies could be used to achieve final water removal
(e.g., vacuum or microwave assisted drying) although the increasing
diversity of freeze‐dried products in the market indicates that lyophili-
zation technology is a practical choice for processors.
Dehydrated arils or pericarp preparations are also used di-
rectly in the formulation of food products as a means to exploit the
unique health‐promoting properties of mangosteen. Chaisawadi,
Suwanyuen, and Keawboonreang (2014) described a cost‐effective
framework for the utilization of all fruit tissues to eliminate waste
during mangosteen fruit processing. Under the proposed processing
scheme aril and inner pericarp tissues are dehydrated by lyophiliza-
tion and powdered for use as an ingredient in products such as recon-
stituted juices (see above), while the outer pericarp is dehydrated in
a tray drier before grinding. Temperature is a critical consideration in
the drying of pericarp destined for use as a food ingredient with the
required functional and nutritional characteristics. Some research
suggests that the sensory quality (color, flavor, overall acceptability)
and xanthone content of mangosteen pericarp are best retained at
drying temperatures ≤60°C (Sothornvit, 2012).
3.7 | Other products
Mangosteen is traditionally used to make a range of foods for home
use or for local markets in South East Asian countries, although few
have been subjected to scientific scrutiny. Some formulations for the
production of preserves or jams appear in Osman and Milan (2006).
Both are currently produced on a commercial scale alongside other
products including confectionary items such as gummy or rock candy,
toffy and chocolates, bakery goods (cookies, wafers), and teas.
4 | CO N C LU S I O N S A N D FU T U R E
PROS PEC T S
Demand for foods deemed beneficial to human health has promoted
the development and manufacture of an increasing variety of tropical
fruit products with desirable nutritional and/or nutraceutical char-
acteristics. Mangosteen products are already popular with consum-
ers mindful of the health‐promoting properties of this unique fruit.
However, the distinctive flavor of mangosteen also contributes sig-
nificantly to their appeal. While the fate of key bioactive compounds
during processing has been examined in some detail, comparatively
little is known about the biochemical basis of flavor or the effects
of processing on the organoleptic properties of mangosteen prod-
ucts. Greater understanding of these effects will be essential for the
development of products that retain both nutritional/neutraceutical
content and desirable organoleptic traits. Several emerging and novel
thermal and non‐thermal processing technologies are under consid-
eration to achieve this objective with other fruit products, including
microwave or ohmic heating, high hydrostatic pressures, ultrasonic
processing, hydrothermodynamic cavitation, pulsed electric fields,
or cold plasma, among others. The merit of these technologies for
the processing of minimally or fully processed mangosteen products
should be explored with a view to enhance the quality and variety
of products offered to consumers, to sustain market interest, and to
maintain economic opportunities for mangosteen growers and pro-
cessors alike.
ORCID
Pascal Delaquis http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9551-3209
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How to cite this article: Palakawong C, Delaquis P.
Mangosteen processing: A review. J Food Process Preserv.
2018;42:e13744. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13744