A

PROJECT REPORT

ON

STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL

(SUBGRADE SOIL) USING LIME AND FLY ASH

SUBMITTED BY

SOMDATT DAHIYA
09EELCE055

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
OF
GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN
UNDER THE GUIDANCE
OF

Dr. BISWJIT ACHARYA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

2012-2013
 Stabilization of black cotton soil using lime and fly ash 2

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that, the project entitled
STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL
(SUBGRADE SOIL) USING LIME AND FLY ASH
Submitted by
Mr. SOMDATT DAHIYA
Is a record of his own work carried out by him in partial fulfillment
for the award of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Govt. engineering college, Bharatpur,
rajasthan
Under my guidance during the academic year
2012-2013
Date :
Place:BHARATPUR

Dr. Biswajit Acharya Er. Amit Daiya

(ProjectGuide) (H.O.D)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BHARATPUR

2012-2013

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Acknowledgement
When we take a glance over our journey throughout the year, few respectful and
friendly faces and encouragement come across our mind. What we remember the most is
the immense help, guidance and teachings of our project guide Dr. Biswajit Acharya
without whom working in this project would have been walking on an unknown path. He
who has taken sincere efforts to lead us, he who taught us how to plan, work and analyze
and he who made us discover our hidden qualities will be always remembered by us for
the teachings and principles he taught us during the project course. We would like to
thank him for being such an excellent teacher, a perfect guide, a strict disciplinarian, an
indefatigable leader and a true friend.

We are grateful to Er. Priyanka Gupta for their timely and valuable guidance. We
are grateful for the guidance and kind support of our H.O.D, Er. Amit Daiya. We would
like to extend our gratitude towards the supporting staff for being very helpful. We are
very grateful to those who in the form of books had conveyed guidance in this project
work.

At last, we would like to thank our friends and family for their support and
encouragement throughout the year.

Mr. SOMDATT DAHIYA

B.Tech. civil

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Abstract
From the recent past years people are facing the problems on construction of road on
black cotton soil. In construction of roads on BC soils, the behavior of soils with respect
to water poses a big problem.

The soil undergoes high swelling shrinkage and has poor subgrade strength.
Stabilization of sub grade soil helps to achieve required strength of subgrade, eliminate
the associated problems and this reduces the thickness of pavement.

Our project aims to stabilize black cotton soil using fly ash and lime mixture; thus the
project work includes finding optimum proportion of soil, fly ash, lime mixture which is
acceptable, applicable and economical.

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INDEX

CHAPTER PAGE
CHAPTER NAME CONTENTS
NO. NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction of the project 9

2.1 black cotton soil

2.2 problems associated with black cotton

soil

2.3 stabilization of soil

LITERATURE
2.4 lime stabilization
2. REVIEW 11
2.5 fly ash stabilization

2.6 lime + different materials for

stabilization

2.7 lime + fly ash stabilization

2.8 Materials and their types

OBJECTIVES OF
3. 3.1 objectives of the project 28
THE PROJECT

4.1 properties of local soil

METHODOLOGY
4.2 preparation of samples for tests 30

4. 4.3 curing of samples

4.4 testing of samples

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5.1 Preliminary observations and readings

5.1.1 Properties of black cotton soil

5.1.2 Unconfined compressive strength

tests results of different proportions

5.1.3 Effect on strength when fly ash is

varied keeping lime constant

5.1.4 Effect on strength when lime is

varied keeping fly ash constant

5.1.5 Effect of curing time on the strength

of the sub grade

5.1.6 Discussions about the preliminary

reading

5.2 Final Observation and readings

5.2.1 Variation in compressive strength

RESULTS AND
with variation in fly ash (explained using
5. DISCUSSIONS 40
bar chart)

5.2.2 Variation in compressive strength

with variation in lime (explained using bar
chart)

5.2.3 Variation in compressive strength

with variation in fly ash (explained using
line graphs)

5.2.4 Variation in compressive strength

with variation in lime (explained using line
graphs)

5.2.5Discussions about the final readings

obtained:

5.2.6Properties of black cotton soil

with12% lime and 30% fly ash

5.5.7 Comparison between black cotton

soil with no stabilizer and black cotton soil
added with 12% lime and 30% fly ash

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6.1 Explanation of the derivation of

formula
APPLICATION
6. 6.2 Step wise procedure for calculating the 70
FORMULA
percentage of lime and fly ash required for
stabilization of any black cotton

7.1 conclusion
7. CONCLUSIONS 72
7.2 future scope of project

8.1 Books
8. REFERENCES 75
8.2 Technical research papers

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION
Road needs good quality paving material having adequate strength and durability
characteristics. Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road pavement from beneath. The
subgrade soil and its properties are important in the design of pavement structure. The
main function of the subgrade is to give support to the pavement. And for this, the
subgrade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climate and loading condition.
In developing countries like India the biggest handicap to provide a complete network of
road system is its limited financial availability to build road by the conventional methods.

The soils of north india are residual, derived from the underlying basalts. In the
semi-dry plateau, the regular (black-cotton soil) is clayey, rich in iron, but poor in
nitrogen and organic matter; it is moisture-retentive.

Therefore, there is a need to resort to one of the suitable methods of low cost road
construction. Under this circumstance use of locally available material after suitable
treatment is only solution to meet the growth demand of road constructions. The
construction cost can be considerably decreased by selecting local materials including
local soils for the construction of the lower layers of the pavement. If the stability of the
local soil is not adequate for supporting wheel loads, the properties can be improved by
soil stabilization techniques. The principle of soil stabilized road construction involves
the effective utilization of local soil and other suitable stabilizing agent. Therefore the
first and foremost task is to characterize the locally available soil and after proper
assessment, suitable treatment is to be provided, if required.

Soil stabilization is any process which improves the physical properties of a soil,
such as increasing the shear strength, bearing capacity and the resistance to erosion, dust
formation, or frost heaving. The stabilization methods used are divided into mechanical,
chemical, and electrochemical methods. Mechanical methods are those in which the
compaction or bulk density is increased by dynamic or vibro-
compaction. Electrochemical methods of stabilization involve the reduction of water
content by electro-osmosis. Chemical stabilization is one of the effective stabilization
techniques.

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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1 Black cotton soil

Black cotton soils are inorganic clays of medium to high compressibility and form
a major soil group in Maharashtra. They are characterized by high shrinkage and swelling
properties. Because of its high swelling and shrinkage characteristics, the Black cotton
soil has been a challenge to the highway engineers. The Black cotton soil is very hard
when dry, but loses its strength completely when in wet condition. It is observed that on
drying, the black cotton soil develops cracks of varying depth. As a result of wetting and
drying process, vertical movement takes place in the soil mass. All these movements lead
to failure of pavement, in the form of settlement, heavy depression, cracking and
unevenness.

The roads laid on Black cotton soil (BC soil) bases develop undulations at the
road surface due to loss of strength of the sub grade through softening during monsoon.
Around 40 to 60% of the Black cotton soil (BC soil) has a size less than 0.001 mm. At the
liquid limit, the volume change is of the order of 200 to 300% and results in swelling
pressure as high as 8 kg/cm2/ to 10 kg/cm2. As such Black cotton soil (BC soil) has very
low bearing capacity and high swelling and shrinkage characteristics. Due to its peculiar
characteristics, it forms a very poor foundation material for road construction. Soaked
laboratory CBR values of Black Cotton soils are generally found in the range of 2 to 4%.
Due to very low CBR values of Black cotton soil (BC soil), excessive pavement thickness
is required for designing for flexible pavement.

Prof. katti has studied 13 black cotton soils, most of them from Maharashtra state.
The studies conducted on these soils were consistency, density, swelling pressure,
consolidation, shear, permeability, thixotropic property and effect of inorganic chemicals
etc.

2.2 Problems associated with black cotton soil as subgrade

There are two major problems associated with black cotton soil viz problems arising due
to water saturation and design problems in black cotton soil. They are described below.

A) Problems Arising out of Water Saturation

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It is a well-known fact that water is the worst enemy of road pavement,

particularly in expansive soil areas. Water penetrates into the road pavement from three
sides viz. top surface, side berms and from sub grade due to capillary action.
It has been found during handling of various road investigation project
assignments for assessing causes of road failures that water has got easy access into the
pavement. It saturates the sub grade soil and thus lowers its bearing capacity, ultimately
resulting in heavy depressions and settlement. In the base course layers comprising of
Water Bound Macadam (WBM), water lubricates the binding material and makes the
mechanical interlock unstable. In the top bituminous surfacing, raveling, stripping and
cracking develop due to water stagnation and its seepage into these layers.

B) Design Problems in Black cotton soils

In India, CBR method developed in USA is generally

used for the design of crust thickness. This method
stipulates that while determining the CBR values in the
laboratory and in the field, a surcharge weight of 15 kg
and 5 kg per 62 mm and 25 mm thickness respectively
should be used to counteract the swelling pressure of
Black cotton soils (BC soils). BC soils produce swelling
pressure in the range of 20-80 tons/m2 and swelling in
the range of 10-20%.Therefore, CBR values obtained are
not rational and scientific modification is required for determining CBR values of
expansive soil. Having heavy-duty traffic of 4500 commercial vehicles per day as
generally found on our National Highways and taking CBR value of 2%, total crust
thickness of flexible pavement works out to 830 mm which is practically an impossible
preposition. It is felt that CBR design curves require modification for expansive soils. If
heavy traffic intensity of 4500 commercial vehicles per day is assumed, crust thickness of
rigid pavement works out approximately 300-320 mm, which is about one third of
thickness needed for flexible pavement.

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2.3 Stabilization of subgrade soil

Soil stabilization is any process which improves the physical properties of a soil,
such as increasing the shear strength, bearing capacity and the resistance to erosion, dust
formation, or frost heaving. The stabilization methods used are divided into mechanical,
chemical, and electrochemical methods. Mechanical methods are those in which the
compaction or bulk density is increased by dynamic or vibro-
compaction. Electrochemical methods of stabilization involve the reduction of water
content by electro-osmosis. Chemical stabilization is one of the effective stabilization
techniques.

2.4 Lime stabilization

Several investigations were done to evaluate the soil stabilization process using lime
[either CaO or Ca(OH)2]. Lime stabilization involves the formation of strong bonds
between the clay minerals and other soil particles and is therefore ineffective in granular
soils. Three processes appear to be operative: (1) rapid replacement of exchangeable
cations by calcium with increased interparticle bonding and a more flocculated fabric; (2)
slower attack on the edges of the clay minerals by alkaline solutions in which the
solubility of silicon is increased, with the possible formation of new silicates similar to
those in cement; and (3) crystallization of calcite to form additional interparticle bridges.
Prof katti studied the effect of lime on unconfined compressive strength of 13 black
cotton soils and found that the optimum lime content for various soils fell in the range of
4 to 10 % and appeared to shift to higher percentages with an increase in curing time. A 2
to 4 % addition of lime produced little gain in strength over time.
According to Dr. K. R. Arora, the amount of lime required for stabilization varies
between 2 to 10 % of the soil. He has stated the following amount as a rough guide

(i) 2 to 5 % for clay gravel material having less than 50% of silt clay fraction
(ii) 5 to 10% for soil with more than 50% of silt – clay fraction
(iii)For soil having particle size intermediate between (i) and (ii) above, the quantity
of lime required is between 3 to 7%
(iv) About 10 % for heavy clays used as bases and sub bases.

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2.4.1 Qubain et al. (2000) incorporated the benefits of sub-grade lime stabilization, for the
first time, into the design of a major interstate highway pavement in Pennsylvania. The
project comprised widening and complete reconstruction of 21 Km of the Pennsylvania
turnpike in somerset-county. Field explorations indicated that the sub-grade is fairly
homogeneous and consists primarily of medium to stiff clayey soils. To safeguard against
potential softening due to rain, lime modification has been traditionally utilized as a
construction expedience for highway project with clayey sub-grade. Lime improves the
strength of clay by three mechanisms: hydration, flocculation, and cementation. The first
and second mechanisms occur almost immediately upon introducing the lime, while the
third is a prolonged effect. Qubain et al. investigated the first and second mechanisms.
Laboratory tests were performed to accurately capture the immediate benefits of lime
stabilization for design. Both treated and natural clayey samples were subjected to
resilient modulus and California bearing ratio testing. To prevent cementation, the lime-
treated specimens were not allowed to cure. Nevertheless, they showed significant
increase in strength, which, when incorporated into design, reduced the pavement
thickness and resulted in substantial savings.

2.4.2 Weber (2001) investigated the effect of both curing (storage) and degree of
compaction on the loss loam stabilized using different additives. He obtained the best
results under condition of moisture atmosphere storage. At the water storage condition,
the tempering of the stabilized specimens delayed due to the changing of pH-value in the
pores water. The reactivity of lime stabilized specimens was continuing under this water
storage condition. He noticed that the variation of compaction degree of the stabilized
specimens affected on the behavior of the stabilized specimens and the compaction at the
highest densities lead to brittle failure behavior.

2.4.3 Ismail (2004) studied materials and soils derived from the Feuerletten (Keuper) and
Amaltheenton (Jura) formations along the new Nuernberg-Ingolstadt railway line
(Germany).
His work included petrological, mineralogical studies and scanning electron microscope
analysis. Ismail treated and stabilized these materials related to road construction using
lime (10%), cement (10%), and lime/cement (2.5%/7.5%). He determined consistency

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limits, compaction properties, and shear- and uniaxial-strength. Ismail concluded that by
increasing the optimum moisture content (%) of the treated soils mixtures, the maximum
dry density decreased. The cohesion and the friction angle of the improved materials
increased for all the treated mixtures. In case of the lime-treated materials, the cohesion
decreased by curing time. For Feuerletten materials, uniaxial strength increased strongly
using lime and cement together. For Amaltheenton, uniaxial strength increased strongly
with cement alone. He also noticed that the loss of weight during freezing and thawing
test was low and depended on the material type.

2.4.4 Ampera & Aydogmust (2005) treated Chemnitz clayey soil [according to American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)] using lime
(2, 4, and 6%) and cement (3, 6, and 9%). They conducted compaction, unconfined
compressive strength, and direct shear tests on untreated and treated specimens. They
concluded that the strength of cement treated soil was generally greater than the strength
of lime treated soil. They also reported that lime stabilization is more suitable for the
clayey soils. The relationships determined from direct shear tests were similar to those
determined from unconfined compressive strength tests. Thus, the results of shear
strength tests showed a similar trend to that of the unconfined compressive strength tests.
2.4.5 Venkata Swamy, B studied on Stabilisation of Black Cotton Soil by Lime Piles.
Lime stabilization of clays in field is achieved by shallow mixing of lime and soil or by
deep stabilization technique. Shallow stabilization involves scarifying the soil to the
required depth and lime in powder or slurry form is spread and mixed with the soil using
a rotovator. The use of lime as deep stabilizer has been mainly restricted to improve the
engineering behaviour of soft clays Deep stabilization using lime can be divided in three
main groups: lime columns, lime piles and lime slurry injection.

2.5 Fly ash stabilization

Various studies were carried out in several countries like USA, Japan, India, etc to verify
the soil stabilization process using fly ash either class F or class C and other off
specification= types of fly ash. Some Fly ash by itself has cementatious value but in the
presence of moisture it reacts chemically and forms cementatious compounds and
attributes to the improvement of strength and compressibility characteristics of soils. It

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has a long history of use as an engineering material and has been successfully employed
in geotechnical applications.

2.5.1Edil et al. (2002) conducted a field evaluation of several alternatives for construction
over soft sub-grade soils. The field evaluation was performed along a 1.4 Km segment of
Wisconsin state highway 60 and consisted of several test sections. By products such as fly
ash, bottom ash, foundry slag, and foundry sand were used. A class C fly ash was used for
one test section. Unconfined compression testing showed that 10% fly ash was sufficient
to provide the strength necessary for the construction on the sub-grade. Data were
obtained before and after fly ash placement by testing undisturbed samples in the
laboratory and by using a soil stiffness gauge (SSG) and a dynamic cone penetrometer
(DCP) in the field. Unconfined compressive strength, soil stiffness, and dynamic cone
penetration of the native soil before fly ash placement ranged between 100 - 150 KPa, 4 -
8 MN/m², and 30 -90 mm/blow, respectively. After fly ash addition, the unconfined
compressive strength reached as high as 540 KPa, the stiffness ranged from 10 to 18
MN/m2, and the Dynamic Penetration Index (DPI) was less variable and ranged between
10 and 20 mm/blow. CBR of 32% was reported for the stabilized sub-grade, which is
rated as “good” for sub-base highway construction. CBR of the untreated sub-grade was
3%, which is rated as “very poor”.

2.5.2 Acosta et al. (2002) estimate the self-cementing fly ashes as a sub-grade stabilizer
for Wisconsin soils. A laboratory-testing program was conducted to evaluate the
mechanical properties of fly ash alone, and also to evaluate how different fly ashes can
improve the engineering properties of a range of soft sub-grade soil from different parts
of Wisconsin.
Seven soils and four fly ashes were considered for the study. Soil samples were prepared
with different fly ash contents (i.e., 0, 10, 18, and 30%), and compacted at different soil
water contents (optimum water content, 7% wet of optimum water content “approximate
natural water content of the soil”, and a very wet conditions “9 to 18% wet of optimum
water content”). Three types of tests were performed: California bearing ratio test,
resilient modulus test, and unconfined compressive strength test. The soils selected
represented poor sub-grade conditions with CBR ranging between 0 and 5 in their natural

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condition. A substantial increase in the CBR was achieved when soils were mixed with
fly ash. Specimens prepared with 18% fly ash content and compacted at the optimum
water content show the best improvement, with CBR ranging from 20 to 56. Specimens
prepared with 18% fly ash and compacted at 7% wet of optimum water content showed
significant improvement compared to the untreated soils, with CBR ranging from 15 to 31
(approximately an average CBR gain of 8 times). On the other hand, less improvement
was noticed when the specimens were prepared with 18% fly ash and compacted in very
wet condition (CBR ranging from 8 to 15).
Soil-fly ash mixtures prepared with 18% fly ash content and compacted at 7% wet of
optimum water content had similar or higher modulus than untreated specimens
compacted at optimum water content. Resilient modulus of specimens compacted in
significantly wet conditions, in general, had lower module compared to the specimen
compacted at optimum water content. The resilient modulus increased with increasing the
curing time. The resilient modulus of specimens prepared at 18% fly ash content and
compacted at 7% wet of optimum water content was 10 to 40% higher after 28 days of
curing, relative to that at 14 days of curing. Unconfined compressive strength of the soil-
fly ash mixtures increased with increasing fly ash content. Soil-fly ash specimens
prepared with 10 and 18% fly ash content and compacted 7% wet of optimum water
content had unconfined compressive strength that were 3 and 4 times higher than the
original untreated soil specimen compacted at 7% wet of optimum water content. CBR
and resilient modulus data was used for a flexible pavement design. Data developed from
stabilized soils showed that a reduction of approximately 40% in the base thickness could
be achieved when 18% fly ash is used to stabilize a soft subgrade.

2.5.3 Şenol et al. (2002) studied the use of self-cementing class C fly ash for the
stabilization of soft sub-grade of a city street in cross plains, Wisconsin, USA. Both
strength and modulus based approaches were applied to estimate the optimum mix design
and to determine the thickness of the stabilized layer. Stabilized soil samples were
prepared by mixing fly ash at three different contents (12, 16, and 20%) with varying
water contents. The samples were subjected to unconfined compression test after 7 days
of curing to develop water content strength relationship. The study showed that the
engineering properties, such as unconfined compressive strength, CBR, and resilient

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modulus increase substantially after fly ash stabilization. The stabilization process is
construction sensitive and requires strict control of moisture content. The impact of
compaction delay that commonly occurs in field construction, was evaluated, one set of
the samples was compacted just after mixing with water, while the other set after two
hours. The results showed that the strength loss due to compaction delay is significant
and, therefore, must be considered in design and construction.
CBR and resilient modulus tests were conducted and used to determine the thickness of
the stabilized layer in pavement design.

2.5.4 Thomas & White (2003) used self-cementing fly ashes (from eight different fly ash
sources) to treat and stabilize five different soil types (ranging from ML to CH) in Iowa
for road construction applications. They investigated various geotechnical properties
(under different curing-conditions) such as compaction, qu-value, wet/dry and
freeze/thaw durability, curing time effect, and others. They reported that Iowa self-
cementing fly ashes can be an effective means of stabilizing Iowa soil. Unconfined
compressive strength, strength gain, and CBR-value of stabilized soils increased
especially with curing time. Soil-fly ash mixtures cured under freezing condition and
soaked in water slaked and were unable to be tested for strength. They also noticed that
stabilized paleosol exhibited an increase in the freeze/thaw durability when tested
according to ASTM C593, but stabilized Turin loess failed in the test.

2.5.5 Effect of Fly ash on expansive soil was studied by Erdal Cokca. Fly ash consists of
often hollow spheres of silicon, aluminium and iron oxides and unoxidized carbon. There
are two major classes of fly ash, class C and class F. The former is produced from
burning anthracite or bituminous coal and the latter is produced from burning lignite and
sub bituminous coal. Both the classes of fly ash are puzzolans, which are defined as
siliceous and aluminous materials. Thus Fly ash can provide an array of divalent and
trivalent cations (Ca2+, Al3+, Fe3+etc) under ionized conditions that can promote
flocculation of dispersed clay particles. Thus expansive soils can be potentially stabilized
effectively by cation exchange using fly ash. He carried out investigations using Soma
Fly ash and Tuncbilek fly ash and added it to expansive soil at 0-25%. Specimens with fly
ash were cured for 7days and 28 days after which they were subjected to Oedometer free

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swell tests. And his experimental findings confirmed that the plasticity index, activity and
swelling potential of the samples decreased with increasing percent stabilizer and curing
time and the optimum content of fly ash in decreasing the swell potential was found to be
20%. The changes in the physical properties and swelling potential is a result of
additional silt size particles to some extent and due to chemical reactions that cause
immediate flocculation of clay particles and the time dependent puzzolanic and self
hardening properties of fly ash and he concluded that both high –calcium and low calcium
class C fly ashes can be recommended as effective stabilizing agents for improvement for
improvement of expansive soils.

2.5.6 Pandian et.al. (2002) studied the effect of two types of fly ashes Raichur fly ash
(Class F) and Neyveli fly ash (Class C) on the CBR characteristics of the black cotton
soil. The fly ash content was increased from 0 to 100%. Generally the CBR/strength is
contributed by its cohesion and friction. The CBR of BC soil, which consists of
predominantly of finer particles, is contributed by cohesion. The CBR of fly ash, which
consists predominantly of coarser particles, is contributed by its frictional component.
The low CBR of BC soil is attributed to the inherent low strength, which is due to the
dominance of clay fraction. The addition of fly ash to BC soil increases the CBR of the
mix up to the first optimum level due to the frictional resistance from fly ash in addition
to the cohesion from BC soil. Further addition of fly ash beyond the optimum level causes
a decrease up to 60% and then up to the second optimum level there is an increase. Thus
the variation of CBR of fly ash-BC soil mixes can be attributed to the relative
contribution of frictional or cohesive resistance from fly ash or BC soil respectively. In
Neyveli fly ash also there is an increase of strength with the increase in the fly ash
content, here there will be additional puzzolonic reaction forming cementitious
compounds resulting in good binding between BC soil and fly ash particles.

2.5.7 A similar study was carried out by Phanikumar and Sharma and the effect of fly ash
on engineering properties of expansive soil through an experimental programme. The
effect on parameters like free swell index (FSI), swell potential, swelling pressure,
plasticity, compaction, strength and hydraulic conductivity of expansive soil was studied.
The ash blended expansive soil with fly ash contents of 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% on a dry

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weight basis and they inferred that increase in fly ash content reduces plasticity
characteristics and the FSI was reduced by about 50% by the addition of 20% fly ash. The
hydraulic conductivity of expansive soils mixed with fly ash decreases with an increase in
fly ash content, due to the increase in maximum dry unit weight with an increase in fly
ash content. When the fly ash content increases there is a decrease in the optimum
moisture content and the maximum dry unit weight increases. The effect of fly ash is akin
to the increased compactive effort. Hence the expansive soil is rendered more stable. The
undrained shear strength of the expansive soil blended with fly ash increases with the
increase in the ash content.

2.6 Lime + different materials for stabilization

2.6.1 Rice husk ash is apotentially useful waste, which can be used with lime to improve
physical, engineering and strength properties of black cotton soil. The cementitious
compounds formed during pozzolanic reactions acts as a bonding material for the soil
particles. The plasticity characteristics of black cotton soil are improved upon addition of
RHA and lime. The PI of soil decreses to 7.93 percent from 35.79 percent on addition of
10% RHA and 6% lime. With addition of RHA and lime to BC soil, the MDD decreases
and OMC increases. Also, the optimum CBR was found for BC soil-10% RHA-6%lime
mixes.

2.6.2 Eggshell Powder (ESP) has not been used as a stabilizing material; however, it
could be a supplement for industrial lime. The effect of eggshell powder on the stabilizing
potential of lime on an expansive clay soil has been studied by O.O. Amu. Tests were
carried out to determine the optimal quantity of lime and the optimal percentage of lime-
ESP combination; the optimal quantity of lime was gradually replaced with suitable
amount of eggshell powder. The lime stabilized and lime-ESP stabilized mixtures were
subjected to engineering tests.
The optimal percentage of lime-ESP combination was attained at a 4% ESP + 3% lime,
which served as a control.

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2.7 lime + fly ash stabilization

Several works were done to treat and stabilize various types of the problematic soils using
lime and fly ash together

2.7.1 Nalbantoglu & Gucbilmez (2002) studied the utilization of an industrial waste in
calcareous expansive clay stabilization, where the calcareous expansive soil in Cyprus
had caused serious damage to structures. High-quality Soma fly ash admixture has been
shown to have a tremendous potential as an economical method for the stabilization of the
soil. Fly ash and lime-fly ash admixtures reduce the water absorption capacity and the
compressibility of the treated soils. Unlike some of the previously published research, an
increase in hydraulic conductivity of the treated soils was obtained with an increase in
percent fly ash and curing time. X-ray diffractograms indicate that pozzolanic reactions
cause an alteration in the mineralogy of the treated soils, and new mineral formations
with more stable silt-sand-like structures are produced. The study showed that, by using
cation exchange capacity (CEC) values, with increasing percentage of fly ash and curing
time, soils become more granular in nature and show higher hydraulic conductivity
values.

2.7.2 Zhang & Cao (2002) conducted an experimental program to study the individual
and admixed effects of lime and fly ash on the geotechnical characteristics of expansive
soil. Lime and fly ash were added to the expansive soil at 4 - 6% and 40 - 50% by dry
weight of soil, respectively. Testing specimens were determined and examined in
chemical composition, grain size distribution, consistency limits, compaction, CBR, free
swell and swell capacity. The effect of lime and fly ash addition on a reduction of the
swelling potential of an expansive soil texture was reported. It was revealed that a change
of expansive soil texture takes place when lime and fly ash are mixed with expansive soil.
Plastic limit increases by mixing lime and liquid limit decreases by mixing fly ash, and
this decreased plasticity index. As the amount of lime and fly ash is increased, there is an
apparent reduction of maximum dry density, free swell, and of swelling capacity under 50
KPa pressure and a corresponding increase in the percentage of coarse particles, optimum
moisture content, and in the CBR value. They concluded that the expansive soil can be
successfully stabilized by lime and fly ash.
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2.7.3 Beeghly (2003) evaluated the use of lime together with fly ash in stabilization of
soil subgrade (silty and clayey soils) and granular aggregate base course beneath the
flexible asphalt layer or rigid concrete layer. He reported that lime alone works well to
stabilize clay soils but a combination of lime and fly ash is beneficial for lower plasticity
(higher silt content) soils. He noticed that both unconfined compressive strength and CBR
values of treated stabilized soils (moderate plasticity “PI < 20” and high silt content “i.e.
> 50%”) with lime and fly ash together are higher than the values with lime alone.
Beeghly (2003) also concluded that the capillary soak of the stabilized specimens led to a
loss of unconfined compressive strength (15 - 25%). Finally, lime/fly ash admixtures
resulted in cost savings by increment material cost by up to 50% as compared to Portland
cement stabilization.

2.7.4 Parson & Milburn (2003) conducted a series of tests to evaluate the stabilization
process of seven different soils (CH, CH, CH, CL, CL, ML, and SM) using lime, cement,
class C fly ash, and an enzymatic stabilizer. They determined Atterberg limits and
unconfined compressive strengths of the stabilized soils before and after carrying out of
durability tests (freeze/thaw, wet/dry, and leach testing). They reported that lime and
cement stabilized soils showed better improvement compared to fly ash treated soils. In
addition, the enzymatic stabilizer did not strongly improve the soils compared to the other
stabilizing agents (cement, lime, and fly ash).
2.7.5 Faqir Chand has found that hydrated lime in the range of 5 to 8 % and fly ash
between 10 to 15% brings remarkable improvement in the engineering characteristics of
BC soils. However, excess of lime more than 8% reduces the strength and weakens the
soil iniatial properties due to liberation of excess heat during hydration. Therefore, 6%
lime is taken as optimum level of cement content with fly ash 15%.

2.7.6 Niroj Mishra has studied the engineering properties of only soil, soil + fly ash@
(20,30 and 40%), soil + lime@(2,3,4%) and soil + fly ash@(20,30%)+lime@(2,3,4%) .
He observed that maximum CBR value has been obtained for 70:30:3 mix of soil, fly ash
and lime

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Through our literature review, it was found that lime and fly ash alone, lime in
combination with other materials and lime + fly ash can be used for subgrade
stabilization. However, the study in the area of lime + fly ash stabilization is unreliable,
unauthentic. Hence, there borne a need to make a extensive study on lime+fly ash
stabilization.

2.8 Materials and Types

2.8.1 Lime

Lime can be used either to modify some of the physical properties and thereby improve
the quality of soil or to transform the soil into a stabilized mass, which increases its
strength and durability. The amount of lime additive will depend upon either the soil to be
modified or stabilized. Generally, lime is suitable for clay soils with PI ≥ 20% and > 35%
passing the
No.200 sieve (0.074 mm). Lime stabilization is applied in road construction to improve
subbase and sub-grades, for railroads and airports construction, for embankments, for soil
exchange in unstable slopes, for backfill, for bridge abutments and retaining walls, for
canal linings, for improvement of soil beneath foundation slabs, and for lime piles. Lime
stabilization includes the use of burned lime products, quicklime and hydrated lime i.e
oxides and hydroxides, respectively, or lime by-products .The improvement of the
geotechnical properties of the soil and the chemical stabilization process using lime take
place through two basic chemical reactions as follow:
I) Short-term reactions including cation exchange and flocculation, where lime is a strong
alkaline base which reacts chemically with clays causing a base exchange. Calcium ions
(divalent) displace sodium, potassium, and hydrogen (monovalent) cations and change the
electrical charge density around the clay particles. This results in an increase in the
interparticle attraction causing flocculation and aggregation with a subsequent decrease in
the plasticity of the soils.
II) Long-term reaction including pozzolanic reaction, where calcium from the lime reacts
with the soluble alumina and silica from the clay in the presence of water to produce
stable calcium silicate hydrates (CSH), calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH), and calcium

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aluminosilicate hydrates (CASH) which generate long-term strength gain and improve the
geotechnical properties of the soil. The use of lime for soil stabilization is either in the
form of quicklime (CaO) or hydrated lime Ca(OH)2. Agricultural lime or other forms of
calcium carbonate, or carbonated lime, will not provide the necessary reactions to
improve sub-grade soils mixed with lime.
In the present study, hydrated lime was used. Hydrated lime is calcium hydroxide,
Ca (OH)2. It is produced by reacting quicklime (CaO) with sufficient water to form a
white powder. This process is referred to as slaking.
High calcium quicklime + water Hydrated lime + Heat

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Heat

Hydrated lime is used in most of the lime stabilization applications. Quicklime represents
approximately 10% of the lime used in lime stabilization process. Other forms of lime
sometimes used in lime stabilization applications are dehydrated dolomitic lime,
monohydrated dolomitic lime, and dolomitic quicklime. Calcium oxide may be more
effective in some cases, however the quick lime will corrosively attack equipment. The
Addition of the hydrated lime Ca(OH)2, in situ or in laboratory, is either as slurry formed
by the slaking of quicklime, or as dry form. In the present study, the addition of the
hydrated lime is in a dry form. In general, all lime treated fine-grained soils exhibit
decreased plasticity, improved workability and reduced volume change characteristics.
However, not all soils exhibit improved strength characteristics. It should be emphasized
that the properties of soil-lime mixtures are dependent on many factors such as soil type,
lime type, lime percentage, and curing conditions like time, temperature, and moisture.

2.8.2 Fly ash

Fly ash is a by-product of burning coal at electric power plants. It is a fine residue
composed of unburned particles that solidifies while suspended in exhaust gases. Fly ash
is carried off in stack gases from a boiler unit, and is collected by mechanical methods or
electrostatic precipitators. Fly ash is composed of fine spherical silt size particles in the
range of 0.074 to 0.005 mm. Fly ash collected using electrostatic precipitators usually has
finer particles than fly ash collected using mechanical precipitators. Fly ash is one of the
most useful and versatile industrial by-products. When geotechnical Engineers are faced

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with clayey or expansive soils, the engineering properties of those soils may need to be
improved to make them suitable for construction. Waste materials such as fly ash or
pozzolanic materials are a source of silica and alumina with high surface area has been
used for soil improvement. Fly ash is generated in huge quantities as a by-product of
burning coal at electric power plants . The potential for using fly ash in soil stabilization
has increased significantly in many countries since it is environmentally safe.

Fly ash is classified into two classes: F and C. Class F fly ash which is not self-cementing
fly ash is produced from burning anthracite and bituminous coals and contains small
amount of lime (CaO) to produce cementitious products. An activator such as Portland
cement or lime must be added. This fly ash has siliceous and aluminous material, which
itself possesses little or no cementitious value but it reacts chemically with lime at
ordinary temperature to form cementitious compounds.
Class C fly ash which is self-cementing fly ash is produced from lignite and sub-
bituminous coals and usually contains significant amount of lime .This type (class C) is
self-cementing because it contains a high percent of calcium oxide (CaO) ranging from
20 to 30%.
Formation of cementitious material by the reaction of lime with the pozzolans (Al2O3,
SiO2, and Fe2O3) in the presence of water is known as hydration of fly ash. The hydrated
calcium silicate or calcium aluminate as cementitious material, can join inert materials
together. The pozzolanic reactions for soil stabilization are as follow :
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Heat

Ca (OH)2 Ca ++ + 2 (OH)

Ca ++ + 2 (OH) + SiO2 CSH “Calcium silicate hydrate“

(silica) (gel)
Ca ++ + 2 (OH) + Al2O3 CAH “Calcium aluminate hydrate”
(alumina) (fibrous)

In case of the class C fly ash, the lime present in the fly ash reacts with the siliceous and
aluminous materials in the fly ash. A similar reaction can occur in class F fly ash, but
lime must be added because of the low lime content of the fly ash class F.

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2.8.3 Black cotton soil

Black cotton soils are inorganic clays of medium to high compressibility and form
a major soil group in Maharashtra. They are characterized by high shrinkage and swelling
properties. Because of its high swelling and shrinkage characteristics, the Black cotton
soil has been a challenge to the highway engineers. The Black cotton soil is very hard
when dry, but loses its strength completely when in wet condition. It is observed that on
drying, the black cotton soil develops cracks of varying depth.The roads laid on Black
cotton soil (BC soil) bases develop undulations at the road surface due to loss of strength
of the sub grade through softening during monsoon. Around 40 to 60% of the Black
cotton soil (BC soil) has a size less than 0.001 mm. At the liquid limit, the volume change
is of the order of 200 to 300% and results in swelling pressure as high as 8 kg/cm2/ to 10
kg/cm2. Average Plasticity Index of black cotton soil was found as 60 %
As such Black cotton soil (BC soil) has very low bearing capacity and high
swelling and shrinkage characteristics. Due to its peculiar characteristics, it forms a very
poor foundation material for road construction. Soaked laboratory CBR values of Black
Cotton soils are generally found in the range of 2 to 4%. Due to very low CBR values of
Black cotton soil (BC soil), excessive pavement thickness is required for designing for
flexible pavement.

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Chapter 3
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

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OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

As stated above, road construction in black cotton soil area is difficult and hence
there is need of increasing the strength of black cotton soil as a subgrade for road. Thus,
the soil properties can be improved by soil stabilization techniques. Thus, the problem
statement of the project is to stabilize the subgrade soil(black cotton soil) using a suitable
stabilizer.

Chemical stabilizers like cement, lime are added to soil to improve soil strength,
stress-strain behavior, and durability etc.

Thus, objectives of the project are as follows

1. To study the properties of black cotton soil available locally.

2. To check the suitability of fly ash-lime combined mixture as a stabilizer for the
black cotton soil in Maharashtra
3. To obtain the correct proportion of soil, fly ash and lime to be mixed for
stabilization.

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Chapter 4
METHODOLOGY

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METHODOLOGY

4.1 Properties of black cotton soil

Locally available fine grained black cotton soil from nearby site was acquired and fly ash
from Nashik thermal power station was procured. The necessary experiments to be
carried out on BC soil are sieve analysis, Standard proctor test, Atterberg‟s limits test,
Differential swell test and unconfined compressive test.

The procedures for tests were according to IS codes, which are described below.

4.1.1 Sieve analysis:

The portion of the soil sample retained on 4.75-mm IS Sieve, selected for test, was
weighed and the mass recorded As the mass of the sample uncorrected for hygroscopic
moisture. The quantity of the soil sample taken shall depend on the maximum particle
size contained in the soil. The sample was separated into various fractions by sieving
through the Indian Standard Sieves, 100mm, 75mm,19mm & 4.75mm. While sieving
through each sieve, the sieve was agitated so that the sample rolls in irregular motion over
the Sieve. Any particles may be tested to see if they will fall through but they shall not be
pushed through. The material from the sieve may be rubbed, if necessary, with the rubber
pestle in the mortar taking care to see that individual soil particles are not broken and re-
sieved to take sure that only individual particles are retained. The quantity taken each
time for sieving on each sieve was such that the maximum weight of material retained on
each sieve at the completion of sieving should be noted.

4.1.2 Hydrometer analysis:

We took the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker, and add
125 mL of the dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stirred
the mixture until the soil is thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.
While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control cylinder and it
was filled with distilled water to the mark. Take threading at the top of the meniscus
formed by the hydrometer stem and the control solution. A reading less than zero is
recorded as a negative

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(-) correction and a reading between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive (+)
correction. This reading is called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the
difference between the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control jar
(Usually about +1).
Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed thoroughly. Insert
the hydrometer and thermometer into the control cylinder and note the zero correction
and temperature respectively.
Transferred the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if necessary, until
mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a period of two minutes.
Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder. Add distilled
water up to the mark. Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with
the palm of your hand. Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a period
of one minute. (The cylinder should be inverted approximately 30 times during the
minute.) Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the
cylinder. After an elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly and
carefully insert the hydrometer for the first reading.(Note: It should take about ten
seconds to insert or remove the hydrometer to minimize any disturbance, and the release
of the hydrometer should be made as close to the reading depth as possible to avoid
excessive bobbing). The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by
the suspension and the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed
back into the control cylinder. Very gently spin it in control cylinder to remove any
particles that may have adhered. Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5,
8, 15, 30, 60 Minutes and 24 hours.

4.1.3 Standard proctor test:

A 3-kg sample of air dried soil passing the 20 mm IS test sieve shall be taken. The sample
shall be mixed thoroughly with a suitable amount of water depending on the soil type.
The mould, with base plate attached, shall be weighed to the nearest 1 g (ml). The mould
shall be placed on a solid base, such as a concrete floor or plinth and the moist soil shall
be compacted into the mould, with the extension attached, in three layers of
approximately equal mass, each layer being given 25 blows from the 2*6-kg rammer
dropped from a height of 310 mm above the soil. The blows shall be distributed
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uniformly over the surface of each layer. The operator shall ensure that the tube of the
rammer is kept clear of soil so that the rammer always falls freely. The amount of soil
used shall be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than about 6 mm to be struck
off when the extension is removed. The extension shall be removed and the compacted
soil shall be leveled off carefully to the top of the mould by means of the straightedge.
The mould and soil shall then be weighed. The compacted soil specimen shall be
removed from the mould and placed on the mixing tray. The water content of a
representative 3mm of the specimen shall be determined as in IS: 2720 (Part 11 ). The
remainder of the soil specimen shall be broken up, rubbed through the 20-mm IS test
sieve, and then mixed with the remainder of the original sample. Suitable increments of
water shall be added successively and mixed into the sample, and the above procedure
shall be repeated for each increment of water added. The total number of determinations
made shall he at least five, and the range of moisture contents should be such that the
optimum moisture content, at which the maximum dry density occurs, is within that
range.

4.1.4 Liquid limit test:

About 120 g of the soil sample passing 425-micron IS Sieve shall be mixed thoroughly
with distilled water in the evaporating dish or on the flat glass plate to form a uniform
paste. The paste shall have a consistency that will require 30 to 35 drops of the cup to
cause the required closure of the standard groove. In the case of clayey soils, the soil
paste shall be left to stand for a sufficient time (24 hours) so as to ensure uniform
distribution of moisture throughout the soil mass. The soil should then be re-mixed
thoroughly before the test. A portion of the paste shall be placed in the cup above the spot
where the cup rests on the base, squeezed down and spread into position, with as few
strokes of the spatula as possible and at the same time trimmed to a depth of one
centimeter at the point of maximum thickness, returning the excess soil to the dish. The
soil in the cup shall be decided by firm strokes of the grooving tool along the diameter
through the centre line of the cam follower so that a clean, sharp groove of the proper
dimensions is formed.
The cup shall be fitted and dropped by turning the crank at the rate of two revolutions per
second until the two halves of the soil cake come in contact with bottom of the groove
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along a distance of about 12 mm. This length shall be measured with the end of the
grooving tool or a ruler. The number of drops required to cause the groove close for the
length of 12 mm shall be recorded. A little extra of the soil mixture shall be added to the
cup and mixed with the soil in the cup. The pat shall be made in the cup and the test
repeated. In no case shall dried soil be added to the thoroughly mixed soil that is being
tested. The procedure shall be repeated until two consecutive runs give the same under of
drops for closure of the groove. A representative slice of soil approximately the width of
the spatula, extending from about edge to edge of the soil cake at right angle to the groove
and including that portion of the groove in which the soil flowed together, shall be taken
in a suitable container and its moisture content expressed as a percentage of the oven dry
weight otherwise determined as described in IS : 2720 ( Part 2 )-1973*. The remaining
soil in the cup shall be transferred to the evaporating dish and the cup and the grooving
tool cleaned thoroughly. The operations shall be repeated for at least three more
additional trails (minimum of four in all), which the soil collected in the evaporating dish
or flat glass plate, to with sufficient water has been added to bring the soil to a more fluid
condition. In each case the number of blows shall be recorded and the moisture content
determined as before. The specimens shall be of such consistency that the number of
drops required to ~close the groove shall be not less than 15 or more than 35 and the
points on the flow curve are evenly distributed in this range. The test should proceed from
the drier (more drops) to the wetter ( less drops ) condition of the soil. The test may also
be conducted from the wetter to the drier condition provided drying is achieved by
kneading the wet soil and not by adding dry soil. „A flow curve‟ shall be plotted on a
semi-logarithmic graph representing water content on the arithmetical scale and the
number of drops on the logarithmic scale. The flow curve is a straight line drawn as
nearly as possible through the four or more plotted points. The moisture content
corresponding to 25 drops as read from the curve shall be rounded off to the nearest
whole number and reported as the liquid limit of the soil.

4.1.5 Plastic limit test:

The soil sample shall be mixed thoroughly with distilled water in an evaporating dish or
on the flat glass plate till the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be easily molded with
fingers. In the case of clayey soils the plastic soil mass shall be left to stand for a

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sufficient time (24 hours) to ensure uniform distribution of moisture throughout the soil.
A ball shall be formed with about 8 g of this plastic soil mass and rolled between the
fingers and the glass plate with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of
uniform diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be between 80 and 90
strokes/min counting a stroke as one complete motion of the hand forward and back to the
starting position again. The rolling shall be done till the threads are of 3 mm diameter.
The soil shall then be kneaded together to a uniform mass and rolled again. This process
of alternate rolling and kneading shall be continued until the thread crumbles under the
pressure required for rolling and the soil can no longer be rolled into a thread. The
crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter greater than 3 mm. This shall be
considered a satisfactory end point, provided the soil has been rolled into a thread 3 mm
in diameter immediately before. At no time shall an attempt be made to produce failure at
exactly 3 mm diameter by allowing the thread to reach 3 mm, then reducing the rate of
rolling or pressure or both, and continuing the rolling without further deformation until
the thread falls apart. The pieces of crumbled soil thread shall be collected in an air-tight
container and the moisture content determined as described in IS: 2720 (Part 2)-1973;

4.1.6 Shrinkage limit test:

Keep the specimen in suitable small dill and air-dry it. Then dry the specimen in the dish
to constant weight in an oven at 105 to 110°C. Remove the specimen from the oven and
smoothen the edges by sand papering. Brush off the soil dust from the specimen by a soft
paint brush. Place the specimen again in the cleaned dish and dry it in an oven to constant
weight. Cool the oven-dry specimen in a desiccators and weigh it with the dish.
Determine the oven-dry weight of the specimen.

4.1.7 Differential swell index:

Two 10 gm soil specimens of oven dry soil passing through 425-micron IS Sieve was
taken. Each soil specimen was poured in each of the two glass graduated cylinders of 100
ml capacity. One cylinder was then be filled with kerosene oil and the other with distilled
writer up to the 100 ml mark. After removal of entrapped air (by gentle shaking or stirring
with a: tglass rod), the soils in both the cylinders was allowed to settle. Sufficient time
was allowed for the soil sample to attain equilibrium state of volume without any further

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change in the volume of the soils. The final volume of soils in each of the cylinders was
read out.
The level of the soil in the kerosene graduated cylinder was read as the original volume
of the soil samples, kerosene being a non-polar liquid does not cause swelling of the soil.
The level of the soil in the distilled water cylinder was read as the free swell level. The
differential swell index of the soil is calculated as follows:

Differential swell in, percent

Where,
V d= the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing distilled
water,
Vk = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing kerosene

4.2 Preparation of samples

Samples were prepared using a mould of circular cross-section of 36 mm diameter and

height 75 mm. The samples were casted at with their respective optimum moisture
content calculated by standard proctor test for every proportion. After the specimen was
formed, the ends were trimmed perpendicular to the long axis and removed from the
mould. Representative sample cuttings were obtained for the determination of unconfined
compressive strength test. The 9 proportions were casted as given in table below. 2
samples for each proportion were made.

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Lime in % Fly ash in % Soil in %

4 10 100

4 20 100

4 30 100

4 40 100

4 50 100

4 60 100

6 10 100

6 20 100

6 30 100

6 40 100

6 50 100

6 60 100

8 10 100

8 20 100

8 30 100

8 40 100

8 50 100

8 60 100

10 10 100

10 20 100

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10 30 100

10 40 100

10 50 100

10 60 100

12 10 100

12 20 100

12 30 100

12 40 100

12 50 100

12 60 100

14 10 100

14 20 100

14 30 100

14 40 100

14 50 100

14 60 100

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4.3 Curing of samples

Samples were cured for 7, 14 and 21 days. Samples were kept in plastic bags and covered
by wet gunny bags to retain the original moisture content.

4.4 Unconfined compressive strength test:

Unconfined compressive strength test on samples was done. The procedure for test is as
below:
The initial length, diameter and weight of the specimen shall be measured and the
specimen placed on the bottom plate of the loading device. The upper plate shall be
adjusted to make contact with the specimen. The deformation dial gauge shall be adjusted
to a suitable reading, preferably in multiples of 100. Force shall be applied so as to
produce axial strain at a rate of 0.5 to 2 percent per minute causing failure with 5 to 10.
The force reading shall be taken at suitable intervals of the deformation dial reading.
Compressive stress, shall be determined from the relationship: P/A
NOTE - Up to 6% axial strain force, readings may be taken at an interval of 0.5 mm of
the deformation dial reading. After 6% axial strain, the interval may be increased to 1.0
mm and, beyond 12% axial strain it may be increased even further. The specimen shall be
compressed until failure surfaces have definitely developed, or stress-strain curve is well
past its peak, or until axial strain of 20 percent is reached. The failure pattern shall be
sketched carefully and shown on the data sheet or on the sheet presenting the stress-strain
plot.

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Chapter 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

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5.1 Preliminary observations and readings

5.1.1 Properties of black cotton soil

The engineering properties of soil are investigated as follows:

Liquid limit: 60.33%

Plastic limit: 21.5%

Plasticity index: 38.83%

Shrinkage limit: 13.66%

Differential swell: 70%

Optimum moisture content:26.4%

Maximum dry density: 1.33 gm/cc

Unconfined compressive strength: 30KN

5.1.2 Unconfined compressive strength tests results of different proportions

sr.no. proportion 7 day strength 14 day strength 21 day strength

1 4:10:100 63.26674 80.75306 79.10641

2 4:20:100 72.43254 45.99188 56.36429

3 4:30:100 67.97688 51.76302 104.6748

4 6:10:100 64.94172 127.2587 134.8742

5 6:20:100 91.38305 104.0796 104.0796

6 6:30:100 74.17492 81.52757 142.4454

7 8:10:100 99.61802 24.2101 123.7935

8 8:20:100 154.3113 123.8668 115.0261

9 8:30:100 88.99083 75.49722 191.4123

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5.1.3 Effect on strength when fly ash is varied keeping lime constant

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5.1.4 Effect on strength when lime is varied keeping fly ash constant

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5.1.5 Effect of curing time on the strength of the sub grade

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5.1.6 Discussions about the preliminary reading

 The graphs of different combinations with different curing times have been drawn
and analyzed keeping two parameters constant.
 The 5.1.3 graphs show variation in strength with variation with fly ash keeping
lime constant. From the graph, we come to know that the graphs are increasing
with the increase in fly ash. Thus, 30 % fly ash gives us the maximum strength.
However, we cannot understand whether the 30% is optimum proportion or not.
Hence we need to take tests with increasing the percentage of fly ash.
 The 5.1.3 graphs show variation in strength with variation with lime keeping fly
ash constant. From the graph, we come to know that the graphs are increasing
with the increase in lime. Thus, 8 % lime gives us the maximum strength.
However, we cannot understand whether the 8% is optimum proportion or not.
Hence we need to take tests with increasing the percentage of lime.
 The 5.1.3 graphs show variation in strength with variation with curing time. From
the graph, we observe that the better and reliable readings can be observed at the
curing time of 21 days. Hence, the final readings are taken for the curing time of
21 days.

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5.2 Final Observation and readings

Table 1 : unconfined compressive strength of black cotton soil taken after 21 day curing
Sr .no. lime fly ash 21 day compressive strength
1 4 10 79.10
2 4 20 56.36
3 4 30 104.67
4 4 40 43.4
5 4 50 22.28
6 4 60 21.06
7 6 10 134.87
8 6 20 104.07
9 6 30 142.44
10 6 40 38.3
11 6 50 15.24
12 6 60 21.08
13 8 10 123.79
14 8 20 115.02
15 8 30 191.41
16 8 40 62.90
17 8 50 38.75
18 8 60 64.19
19 10 10 100
20 10 20 105
21 10 30 112.51
22 10 40 111.06
23 10 50 100
24 10 60 50.34
25 12 10 140.4
26 12 20 160.3
27 12 30 195.66
28 12 40 190.2
29 12 50 117.4
30 12 60 100.56
31 14 10 120.7
32 14 20 140.64
33 14 30 180.24
34 14 40 179.19
35 14 50 115.57
36 14 60 70.8

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5.2.1 Variation in compressive strength with variation in fly ash

(explained using bar chart)

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5.2.2 Variation in compressive strength with variation in lime (explained

using bar chart)

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5.2.3 Variation in compressive strength with variation in fly ash

(explained using line graphs)

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5.2.4 Variation in compressive strength with variation in lime (explained

using line graphs)

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Discussions about the final readings obtained:

 The final observation and readings have been analysed using bar charts and line
graphs.
 From the graphs, we come to know that the strength of BC soil increases with
increase in lime content and then decreases with increase in lime. Thus, the
strength V/S lime percentage increases first and then drops down showing us the
optimum proportion of lime as 8%.
 From the graphs, we come to know that the strength of BC soil increases with
increase in fly ash content and then decreases with increase in fly ash. Thus, the
strength V/S lime percentage increases first and then drops down showing us the
optimum proportion of lime as 8%.
 Thus, we come to know that the optimum proportion for black cotton soil of
sangli is 12% lime and 30% fly ash.

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Properties of black cotton soil with12% lime and 30% fly ash
Liquid limit: 42%

Plastic limit: 27.14%

Plasticity index: 14.86%

Shrinkage limit: 19.01%

Clay: 9 %

Differential swell: 25%

Optimum moisture content: 30%

Maximum dry density: 1.3 gm/cc

Unconfined compressive strength: 195 KN

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Comparison between black cotton soil with no stabilizer and black cotton soil added
with 12% lime and 30% fly ash

Black cotton soil Black cotton soil with

Index properties remarks
with no stabilizer 12 %

Liquid limit has

Liquid limit 60.33 % 42.00
decreased

Plastic limit has

Plastic limit 21.50 27.14
increased

Plasticity index has

Plasticity index 38.83 14.86
reduced

Shrinkage limit has

Shrinkage limit 13.66 19.01
increased

Swelling has
Differential swell 70% 25% decresed
considerably

Optimum moisture
26.4% 30% OMC has increased
content

MDD has
Maximum dry density 1.33 gm/cc 1.3 gm/cc
decreased little.

Strength has
Unconfined
30 KN 195 KN increased
compressive strength
considerably

 Desired properties of soil have been achieved. Hence, stabilization method

and proportion of lime, fly ash and soil is correct.

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Chapter 6
Application formula

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6.1 Explanation of the derivation of formula

Lime is used for increasing the strength of sub grade soil whereas fly ash is used to bring
economy in the process.

From our research, we come to know that the strength achieved per percentage of lime is
25 KN and the strength achieved per percentage of fly ash is 3 KN.

Thus, the one percent of lime is equivalent to 8.33 percent of fly ash.

Thus, the use of lime can be reduced by replacing the lime with equivalent percentage of
fly ash thereby maintaining the same strength.

However, Through our research, we come to know that the optimum percentage of fly ash
is 30 percent and maximum fly ash that can be used is 35 %.

Thus, we limit the value of QF in equation below to 35 %.

6.2 Step wise procedure for calculating the percentage of lime and fly
ash required for stabilization of any black cotton
Step 1 – find out the Ph of the black cotton soil

Step 2 – Use ASTM D 6276 to calculate the minimum lime required for stabilization of
BC soil

Step 3 – Use the following formula to calculate the percentage of lime to be added and
percentage of fly ash to be added

QL = Q0 - (C – M )
(C/Q0 )

QF = (Q – Q0 ) * 8.33

Where, QL = percentage of lime that will be used

Q0 = percentage of lime required as per ASTM D 6276
QF = percentage of fly ash required to replace lime
C = cost of using Q0 percentage of lime
M = available money or budget of stabilization

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Chapter 7
CONCLUSION & SCOPE

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7.1 Conclusion
 Lime and fly ash are effective and efficient stabilizer. The strength of black cotton
soil can be increased by using fly ash and lime combination.
 Through our research, we have come to know the optimum proportion of lime and
fly ash for the locally available BC soil in Sangli. The optimum proportion is 12%
lime and 30% fly ash.
 Through the differential swell reading, we come to know that for the optimum
proportion the swelling is considerably reduced. Thus, fly ash and lime can
effective in both increasing strength as well as reducing swelling of BC soil.

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7.2 Future scope of the project

 In the project, we have calculated the optimum proportion of lime and fly ash for
black cotton soil available in sangli district. However, there is need to generalize
the use of lime + fly ash combination on black cotton soils. The use of fly ash and
lime can be generalized for all black cotton soils if the clay percentage for
different lime + fly ash combinations can be found out. By knowing the effect of
different combinations on clay percentage of soil, we can find out the optimum
proportion for any black cotton soil with particular clay percentage.

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Chapter 8
REFERENCES

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8.1 books
 Behaviour of saturated expansive soil and control methods vol 1. - Prof. Katti
 Soil Mechanics and Foundation engineering – Dr. K.S.Arora

8.2 Technical research papers

 Baban ram and Sunil kumar chaudhary, “ Cost effective and eco friendly
construction of rural roads- need of hour”, Indian highways, Nov 2010
 S. Bhuvaneshwari , S. G. Robinson , S. R. Gandhi . “Stabilization of expansive
soils using fly ash”, fly ash utilization program, TIFAC, DST, new Delhi
 Erdal Cocka (2001) “ Use of class c fly ashes for the stabilization of an expansive
soil”, Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering, vol. 127, July,
pp. 568-573
 Pandian, n.s.,krishna, k.c. leelavathamma b., (2002), effect of fly ash on the cbr
behavior of Soils , Indian geotechnical conference , Allahabad , vol.1,pp.183-186.
 Phanikumar b.r., & radhey s.sharma(2004) “effect of fly ash on engg properties of
expansive Soil” journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering vol.
130, no 7,july, pp. 764-767.
 O.o. amu, a.b. fajobi and b.o. oke. “effect of eggshell powder on the stabilizing
potential of lime on an expansive clay soil”. Research journal of agriculture and
biological sciences 1(1): 80-84, 2005 © 2005, insinet publication
 Niroj MIshra, Sudhira Rath, Siddharth Sankar biswat, Girija Sankar Pujhari,” Use
of fly ash and other stabilizing agents for construction of cost effective roads in
sambhalpur district in Orissa, Indian Highways, July 2010.
 A. Shrirama rao and G. Shridevi , “ Improving the performance of expansive soil
subgrades with lime – stabilized fly ash cushion, Indian highways , oct 2010
 A.N. Ramakrishna and A.V. Pradeepkumar, “Effect of moisture content on
strength behavior of BC soil- Rice husk ash- lime mixes, Indian Highways, jan
2008.
 N. K. Ameta, d.g. m. Purohit, a. S. Wayal .”Characteristics, problems and
remedies of expansive soils of rajasthan”, india.

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 Udayashankar d. Hakari s. C. Puranik “evaluation of swell potential and

identification of expansive and problematic soils in civil engineering works by
newly developed matrices Based on index and grain size properties”
 Hesham ahmed hussin ismaiel “treatment and improvement of the geotechnical
properties of different soft fine-grained soils using chemical stabilization”

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