Calculus II

Parametric equations

Nguyen Van Hoi

University of Information Technology

July 25, 2022

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 1 / 12

 ▶ C is not a graph of a function.
▶ But, the x− and y −coordinates
of the particle are:

x = f (t) and y = g (t), (1)

which is called ”parametric

equations”.
▶ As t varies, the point
(x, y ) = (f (t), g (t)) varies and
Figure 1: A strategy of a moving particle. traces out a curve C - a so-called
parametric curve.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 2 / 12

If we restrict t to lie in a finite interval [a, b], the curve has an initial point (f (a), g (a))
and terminal point (f (b), g (b)).

Figure 2: x = cos t, y = sin t with Figure 3: x = sin 2t, y = cos 2t with

0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 3 / 12

Families of parametric curves
Let’s consider a ”family” parametric curve defined by

x = a + cos t, y = a tan t + sin t.

These curves have a common factor a. Their shapes are related to a.

Figure 4: Members of the family parametric curve.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 4 / 12

Tangents

Suppose f , g are differential, the slope of the

tangent line at a point on the curve where
y is a differentiable function of x is
dy
dy dx
= dt if ̸= 0. (2)
dx dx dt
dt

▶ the curve has a horizontal tangent

when dy dx
dt = 0 and dt ̸= 0.
▶ it has a vertical tangent when dx Figure 5: The parametric equations are
dt = 0 x = t 2 , y = t 3 − 3t.
dy
and dt ̸= 0.
Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 5 / 12
Areas
Remind that the area under a curve y = F (x) from a to b is
Z b
A= F (x)dx
a

where F (x) ≥ 0.
If the curve is traced out once by the parametric equations x = f (t) and y = g (t),
α ≤ t ≤ β, then we can calculate an area formula by using the Substitution Rule for
Definite Integrals as follows:
Z b Z β
A= ydx = g (t)f ′ (t)dt, (3)
a α

when x = a, t is either α or β. When x = b, t is the remaining value.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 6 / 12

Find the area under one arch of the cycloid

x = r (θ − sin θ) y = r (1 − cos θ).

One arch of the cycloid is given by 0 ≤

θ ≤ 2π. Then, we have
Z 2πr Z 2π
Figure 6: The area under one arch of the A= ydx = r (1 − cos θ)r (1 − cos θ)dθ
0 0
cycloid.
=exercise!

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 7 / 12

Arc length

If a curve C is described by the parametric equation x = f (t), y = g (t), α ≤ t ≤ β,

where f ′ , g ′ are continuous on [α, β] and C is traversed exactly once as t increase from
α to β, then the length of C is
Z β r 
dx 2  dy 2
L= + dt. (4)
α dt dt

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 8 / 12

Find the length of the unit circle
x = cos t, y = sin t 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
dx dy
Since = − sin t and = cos t, so
dt dt
Z 2π r  Z 2π p Z 2π
dx 2  dy 2 2 2
L= + = sin t + cos tdt = 1dt = 2π.
0 dt dt 0 0
Exercise: Find the length of one arch of the cycloid
x = r (θ − sin θ) y = r (1 − cos θ).

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 9 / 12

Surface areas of revolution
If the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g (t), α ≤ t ≤ β is rotated about the x−axis, and
suppose f ′ , g ′ are continuous and g (t) ≥ 0, then the area of the resulting surface is
Z β r 
dy 2  dx 2
S= 2πy + dt (5)
α dt dt

Example: Show that the surface area of a sphere of radius r is 4πr 2 .

Solution:
The sphere is obtained by rotating the semicircle

x = r cos t y = r sin t, 0≤t≤π

about the x−axis, then one gets

Z π q
S= 2πr sin t (−r sin t)2 + (r cos t)2 dt = Exercise!
0

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 10 / 12

Polar coordinates

▶ Polar coordinate systems consist

of the pole (origin) O and polar
axis Ox.
▶ Any point P in it is represented
by (r , θ) where
1. r is a distance from P to O,
Figure 8: The polar coordinate system. 2. and θ is an angle between Ox
and OP.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 11 / 12

 The connection between polar and
Cartesian coordinates

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ (6)
2 2 2 y
r =x +y tan θ = . (7)
x

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 12 / 12