MTH611 3

Group Theory
MTH MD (Abstract Algebra )

Dr. Daryl Quebrar Granario
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, De La Salle University, PH
/
Summary
Cyclic Groups
▶ Cyclic Groups
▶ Lattice of Subgroups
▶ Quotient Groups
▶ The Alternating Group
▶ The Class Equation
▶ Sylow’s Theorem
/
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Proposition
Let H = ⟨x⟩. Then |H| = |x|. More specifically,
• If |H| = n < ∞, then xn = 1 and 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 are all the distinct elements of
H, and
• if |H| = ∞. then xn ̸= 1 for all n ̸= 0 and xa ̸= xb for all a ̸= b, a, b ∈ Z.
/
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Proposition
Let G be a group, x ∈ G, and m, n ∈ Z. Let d = gcd(m, n). If xm = 1 = xn , then xd = 1
as well. In particular, |x| | m.
/
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Proposition
Let G be a group, x ∈ G, and m, n ∈ Z. Let d = gcd(m, n). If xm = 1 = xn , then xd = 1
as well. In particular, |x| | m.
Proof:
/
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Theorem
Any two cyclic groups of the same order are isomorphic.
• If |G| = ∞, then G = ∼ Z, and
• If |G| = n < ∞, then G ∼
= Z/nZ.
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Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Proposition
Let G be a group, x ∈ G and a ∈ Z \ {0}.
• If |x| = ∞, then |xa | = ∞.
n
• If |x| = n < ∞, then |xa | = .
gcd(n, a)
/
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Proposition
Let H = ⟨x⟩.
• Let |x| = ∞. Then H = ⟨xa ⟩ if and only if a = ±1.
• Let |x| = n < ∞. Then H = ⟨xa ⟩ if and only if gcd(a, n) = 1. Thus, H has φ(n)
generators, where φ is the Euler totient function.
/
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Theorem
Let H = ⟨x⟩ be a cyclic group.
• Every subgroup of H is cyclic.
• If K ≤ H, then either K = {1} or K = ⟨xd ⟩, where d is the smallest positive
integer such that xd ∈ K.
• If |H| = ∞, for distinct a, b ∈ Z+ ∪ {0}, we have ⟨xa ⟩ ̸= ⟨xb ⟩.
• If |H| = n < ∞, for each a ∈ Z+ such that a | n, there is a unique subgroup of
order a, which is the cyclic subgroup ⟨xn/a ⟩. Also, ⟨xm ⟩ = ⟨xgcd(n,m) ⟩.
/
Summary
Lattice of Subgroups
▶ Cyclic Groups
▶ Quotient Groups
/
• Plot all subgroups of G starting with {1} at the bottom and G at the top.
• Larger subgroups are positioned higher than smaller ones.
• Draw a line from subgroups A to B if A ≤ B.
/
• For H, K ≤ G, note that H ∩ K ≤ G.
/
• For H, K ≤ G, note that H ∩ K ≤ G.
• Let H, K ≤ G. The join of H and K is the subgroup ⟨H, K⟩ ≤ G. It is the unique

smallest subgroup containing both H and K.
/
• Isomorphic groups have the same lattices.
/
• Isomorphic groups have the same lattices.

• Nonisomoprhic groups MAY also have identical lattices:
G = ⟨x, y|x2 = y 8 = 1, xy = yx⟩

and
M = ⟨u, v|u2 = v 8 = 1, vu = uv 5 ⟩
have identical lattices. G is abelian while M is nonabelian, so they are
nonisomorphic.
/
Summary
Quotient Groups
▶ Cyclic Groups
▶ Quotient Groups
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let G and H be groups and φ : G → H be a homomorphism. The kernel of φ is the set
Ker φ = {g ∈ G : φ(g) = 1H }.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let G and H be groups and φ : G → H be a homomorphism.
• φ(1G ) = 1H
• φ(g −1 ) = φ(g)−1 for all g ∈ G
• φ(g n ) = φ(g)n for all n ∈ Z
• Ker φ ≤ G
• φ(G) ≤ H
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism. Let K = Ker φ. The quotient group or factor group
G/K is the group whose elements are the fibers of φ. The group operation ∗ is defined as
follows: if X = φ−1 (a) and Y = φ−1 (b), then
X ∗ Y = φ−1 (ab).
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism. Let K = Ker φ and X = φ−1 (a). Then for any
u ∈ X, X = {us : s ∈ K} = {tu : t ∈ K}.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let G be a group. For any N ≤ G and g ∈ G, let
gN = {gn : n ∈ N } and N g = {ng : n ∈ N }.
These sets are called the left cosets and right cosets of N in G respectively. Any element
of a coset is called a representative for the coset.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let G be a group. For any N ≤ G and g ∈ G, let
gN = {gn : n ∈ N } and N g = {ng : n ∈ N }.
These sets are called the left cosets and right cosets of N in G respectively. Any element
of a coset is called a representative for the coset.
Additive notation: g + N and N + g.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Theorem
Let G be a group and K be a kernel of some homomorphism to another group. Then the
set whose elements are the left cosets of K in G with operation defined by
uK ∗ vK = (uv)K
forms a group, G/K.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
• Let Zn = ⟨x⟩ be the cyclic group of order n (in multiplicative notation). Define
φ : Z → Zn by φ(a) = xa for all a ∈ Z.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
φ : Z → Zn by φ(a) = xa for all a ∈ Z. Then φ is a homomorphism and
Ker φ = nZ.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
Ker φ = nZ.
• Let G be a group and define φ : G → {1} by φ(g) = 1 for all g ∈ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
Ker φ = nZ.
• Let G be a group and define φ : G → {1} by φ(g) = 1 for all g ∈ G. Then

Ker φ = G and G/G ∼ = {1}.
• Let G = R2 = R × R.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
Ker φ = nZ.
• Let G be a group and define φ : G → {1} by φ(g) = 1 for all g ∈ G. Then

Ker φ = G and G/G ∼ = {1}.
• Let G = R2 = R × R. Define φ : R2 → R by φ(x, y) = x. Then

Ker φ = {(x, 0) : x ∈ R}, the y-axis.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let G be a group and N ≤ G.
• The set {gN : g ∈ G} forms a partition of G.
• For all u, v ∈ G, uN = vN if and only if v −1 u ∈ N . That is, if and only if u and v are
representatives of the same coset.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Proposition
• The operation uN ∗ vN = (uv)N defined on the set of left cosets is well defined if
and only if gng −1 ∈ N for all g ∈ G and n ∈ N .
• If ∗ is well-defined, then the set of all left cosets form a group under ∗, the identity is
1N and the inverse of gN is g −1 N .
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Definition
• gng −1 is called the conjugate of n ∈ N by g.
• gN g −1 = {gng −1 : n ∈ N } is called the conjugate of N by g.
• g ∈ G is said to normalize N if gN g −1 = N .
• N is said to be normal if every element of G normalizes N , i.e.
gN g −1 = N.
In this case, we write N ⊴ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Theorem
Let G be a group and N ≤ G. The following are equivalent:
• N ⊴G
• NG (N ) = G
• gN = N g for all g ∈ G
• The operation in Proposition makes the set of left cosets into a group.
• gN g −1 ⊆ N for all g ∈ G
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let G be a group and N ≤ G. Then
N ⊴ G if and only if N is the kernel of some homomorphism.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
• Let G be a group with identity 1.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
• Let G be a group with identity 1. Then {1} ⊴ G and G ⊴ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
• Let G be a group with identity 1. Then {1} ⊴ G and G ⊴ G. Also, G/{1} ∼
= G and
G/G ∼= {1}.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
= G and
G/G ∼= {1}.
• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
= G and
G/G ∼= {1}.
• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G. Then H ⊴ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
= G and
G/G ∼= {1}.
• Let G be a cyclic group and N ⊴ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
= G and
G/G ∼= {1}.
• Let G be a cyclic group and N ⊴ G. Then G/N is cyclic.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
= G and
G/G ∼= {1}.

a. If G = Z and N = nZ, then Z/nZ = ⟨1 + nZ⟩, isomorphic to the integers modulo n.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Examples
= G and
G/G ∼= {1}.

a. If G = Z and N = nZ, then Z/nZ = ⟨1 + nZ⟩, isomorphic to the integers modulo n.
|G|
b. If G is finite, then |G/N | = .
|N |
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let N ⊴ G. The natural projection of G onto G/N is the homomorphism
π : G → G/N
defined by
π(g) = gN.
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let N ⊴ G. The natural projection of G onto G/N is the homomorphism
π : G → G/N
defined by
π(g) = gN.
If H ≤ G/N, the complete preimage of H in G is the preimage of H under π.
/
The Structure of Groups
Quotient Groups
An Alternative Proof to Lagrange’s Theorem:
/
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let G be a group, possibly infinite and H ≤ G. The index [G : H] of H in G is the
number of left cosets of H in G.
/
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let G be a group, possibly infinite and H ≤ G. The index [G : H] of H in G is the
number of left cosets of H in G.
|G|
If G is finite, by Lagrange’s Theorem, [G : H] = .
|H|
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Quotient Groups
Corollary
Let G be a finite group and x ∈ G.Then |x| | |G|.
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Quotient Groups
Corollary
Let G be a group of prime order p. Then G is cyclic.
/
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let G be a group and H ≤ G such that [G : H] = 2. Then H ⊴ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Example. We have
⟨s⟩ ⊴ ⟨s, r2 ⟩ ⊴ D8
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Quotient Groups
Example. We have
⟨s⟩ ⊴ ⟨s, r2 ⟩ ⊴ D8
but ⟨s⟩ ̸⊴ D8 since rs−1 = sr2 ∈
/ ⟨s⟩.
/
Quotient Groups
Example. Show that Q has no proper subgroups of finite index.
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (Cauchy)
Let G be a finite group and p ∈ Z be prime. If p | |G|, then G has an element of order p.
/
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let H, K be finite subgroups of a group G. Then
|H||K|
|HK| = ,
|H ∩ K|
where
HK = {hk : h ∈ H, k ∈ K}.
/
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let H, K be subgroups of a group G. Then HK ≤ G if and only if HK = KH.
/
Quotient Groups
Corollary
Let H, K ≤ G and H ≤ NG (K). Then HK ≤ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Corollary
Let H, K ≤ G and H ≤ NG (K). Then HK ≤ G. If K ⊴ G, then HK ≤ G for any
H ≤ G.
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (The First Isomorphism Theorem)

Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism of groups. Then G/Ker φ ∼
= φ(G).
/
Quotient Groups
Quotient Groups
Example Let G = {z ∈ C : z n = 1 for some n ∈ Z+ }. Then Q/Z ∼

= G.
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (The Second Isomorphism Theorem)

Ket G be a group and let A, B ≤ G such that A ≤ NG (B). Then AB ≤ G,
B ⊴ AB, A ∩ B ⊴ A and AB/B ∼ = A/(A ∩ B).
/
Quotient Groups
Example. Let a, b ∈ Z+ . Show that ab = gcd(a, b)lcm(a, b).
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (The Third Isomorphism Theorem)

Let H, K ⊴ G with H ≤ K. Then
a. K/H ⊴ G/H
b. (G/H)/(K/H) ∼
= G/K
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (The Fourth Isomorphism Theorem)

Let N ⊴ G. Then there is a bijection from the set of subgroups A ≤ G such that N ⊆ A
onto the set of subgroups A/N ≤ G/N .
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (The Fourth Isomorphism Theorem)

Let N ⊴ G. Then there is a bijection from the set of subgroups A ≤ G such that N ⊆ A
onto the set of subgroups A/N ≤ G/N . Moreover,the bijection has the property that for
all A, B ≤ G such that N ≤ A, B. we have
a. A ≤ B if and only if A/N ≤ B/N
b. If A ≤ B, then [B : A] = [B/N : A/N ]
c. ⟨A, B⟩ = ⟨A, B⟩
d. A ∩ B = A ∩ B
e. A ⊴ G if and only if A/N ⊴ G/N
/
Quotient Groups
Example. Consider the group G = Q8 and N = ⟨−1⟩ ⊴ Q8 .
/
Quotient Groups
Proposition
Let G be a finite abelian group and let p ∈ Z be a prime number such that p | |G|. Then G
contains an element of order p.
/
Quotient Groups
Definition
A group G is said to be simple if |G| > 1 and its only normal subgroups are its trivial
subgroups {1} and G.
/
Quotient Groups
Example. Every abelian simple group is isomorphic to Z/pZ for some prime p.
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (Feit-Thompson)
If G is simple and |G| is odd, then G ∼
= Z/pZ for some prime p.
Solvability of groups of odd order, Pacific Journal of Mathematics ( ), - .
/
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let G be a group and consider the sequence of subgroups
{1} = N0 ≤ N1 ≤ N2 ≤ · · · ≤ Nk = G.
/
Quotient Groups
Definition
Let G be a group and consider the sequence of subgroups
{1} = N0 ≤ N1 ≤ N2 ≤ · · · ≤ Nk = G.
We call the sequence a composition series if
Ni ⊴ Ni+1 and Ni+1 /Ni is simple, for 0 ≤ i ≤ k − 1.

Each quotient group Ni+1 /Ni is called a composition factor of G.
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (Jordan-Hölder)
Let G be a finite group with G ̸= {1}. Then
. G has a composition series.
. The composition factors in a composition series are unique in a sense that
/
Quotient Groups
Theorem (Jordan-Hölder)
Let G be a finite group with G ̸= {1}. Then
. G has a composition series.
. The composition factors in a composition series are unique in a sense that if
1 = N0 ≤ N1 ≤ · · · ≤ Nr = G
1 = M 0 ≤ M 1 ≤ · · · ≤ Ms = G
are two composition series for G, then r = s and there exsits a permutation π ∈ Sr
such that
Mπ(i) /Mπ(i)−1 ∼= Ni /Ni−1
for 1 ≤ i ≤ r.
/
Quotient Groups
The Hölder Program

. Classify all finite simple groups.
. Find all ways of “putting simple groups together” to form other groups.
/
Quotient Groups
The Classification Theorem for Finite Simple Groups

Every finite simple group is isomorphic to one of the following groups:
• a member of one of three infinite classes of such, namely:
— the cyclic groups of prime order
— the alternating groups of degree at least
— the groups of Lie type
• one of groups called the sporadic groups
• the Tits group (which is sometimes considered a th sporadic group)
/
Quotient Groups
The Classification Theorem

• The “proof” consists of thousands of pages, written by hundreds of authors.
• Gorenstein announced in that the proof is complete but small cases and minor
errors remained unresolved until .
• In , Gorenstein, Lyons, and Solomon begin publication of the revised
classification.
/
Summary
The Alternating Group
▶ Cyclic Groups
▶ Quotient Groups
/
Definition
A 2-cycle in Sn is called a transposition.
/
Definition
A 2-cycle in Sn is called a transposition. Every element of Sn may be written as a product
of transpositions:
( ) ( )( ) ( )
a1 a2 · · · am = a1 am a1 am−1 · · · a1 a2
/
Let x1 , . . . , xn be independent variables and define the polynomial

∏
∆= (xi − xj ).
1≤i<j≤n
/

∏
∆= (xi − xj ).
1≤i<j≤n
For any σ ∈ Sn , we define

∏
σ(∆) = (xσ(i) − xσ(j) ).
1≤i<j≤n
/

∏
∆= (xi − xj ).
1≤i<j≤n
For any σ ∈ Sn , we define

∏
σ(∆) = (xσ(i) − xσ(j) ).
1≤i<j≤n
It follows that
σ(∆) = ±∆ for all σ ∈ Sn .
/
Let {
+1 if σ(∆) = ∆
ε(σ) =
−1 if σ(∆) = −∆
/
Let {
+1 if σ(∆) = ∆
ε(σ) =
−1 if σ(∆) = −∆
Definition
Let σ ∈ Sn . We call ε(σ) the sign of σ.
/
Let {
+1 if σ(∆) = ∆
ε(σ) =
−1 if σ(∆) = −∆
Definition
Let σ ∈ Sn . We call ε(σ) the sign of σ. We say that σ is an even permutation if ε(σ) = 1
and an odd permutation if ε(σ) = −1.
/
Proposition
Let n ∈ Z+ .
• The map ε : Sn → {±1} is a group homomorphism.
• If σ is a transposition, then σ is an odd permutation.
• ε is surjective.
/
Definition
The alternating group of degree n, denoted by An , is the set of all even permutations in
Sn .
/
Definition
Sn .
Since An = Ker ε, then An ⊴ Sn .
/
Definition
Sn .
Since An = Ker ε, then An ⊴ Sn . By FIT,
Sn /An ∼
= ε(Sn ) = {±1} ∼
= Z/2Z.
/
Definition
Sn .
Since An = Ker ε, then An ⊴ Sn . By FIT,
Sn /An ∼
= ε(Sn ) = {±1} ∼
= Z/2Z.
1 n!
Thus, |An | = |Sn | = .
2 2
/
Proposition
Let σ ∈ Sn . Then σ is odd if and only if the number of cycles of even length in its cycle
decomposition is odd.
/
Theorem
An is nonabelian and simple for all n ≥ 5.
/
Theorem
An is nonabelian and simple for all n ≥ 5.
( )( ) ( )( )
A4 is not simple since ⟨ 1 2 3 4 , 1 3 2 4 ⟩ ⊴ A4 .
/
A4 is the smallest example of a group showing that the converse to Lagrange’s Theorem
is NOT true: A4 is a group of order without a subgroup of order .
/
Summary
The Class Equation
▶ Cyclic Groups
▶ Quotient Groups
/
The Class Equation
The Class Equation
Proposition
Let G be a group with group action · on a set A. Then the group action induces an
equivalence relation ∼ on A defined by
a ∼ b if and only if a = g · b for some g ∈ G.
Let s ∈ A. The number of elements in the equivalence class [s] is given by [G : Gs ].
/
The Class Equation
The Class Equation
Proposition
Let G be a group and S ⊆ G. The number of conjugates of S in G is given by [G : NG (S)].
/
The Class Equation
The Class Equation
Proposition
Let G be a group and S ⊆ G. The number of conjugates of S in G is given by [G : NG (S)].
In particular, the number of conjugates of s ∈ G is [G : CG (s)].
/
The Class Equation
The Class Equation
Theorem (The Class Equation)

Let G be a finite group and let g1 , g2 , . . . , gr be the representatives of the distincy
conjugacy classes of G not contained in Z(G). Then
∑
r
|G| = |Z(G)| + [G : CG (gi )].
i=1
/
The Class Equation
The Class Equation
Proposition
Let p ∈Z+ be a prime number and G be a group such that |G| = pk for some k ∈ Z+ .
Then Z(P ) ̸= {1}.
/
The Class Equation
The Class Equation
Corollary
Let G be a group. If |G| = for some prime p, then G is abelian. More precisely, G is
p2
isomorphic to either Z/p2 Z or Z/pZ × Z/pZ.
/
Summary
Sylow’s Theorem
▶ Cyclic Groups
▶ Quotient Groups
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Definition
Let G be a group and p be prime.
. If every element of G has order a power of p (i.e. for all x ∈ G, we have |x| = pk for
some k ∈ Z), we call G a p-group.
. Let H ≤ G. If H is a p-group, we call H a p-subgroup of G.
. A subgroup P ≤ G is called a Sylow p-subgroup if P is a maximal p-subgroup of G.
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Proposition
A finite group G is a p-group if and only if |G| = pk for some k ∈ Z.
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Proposition
Let G be a finite group and P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. If Q is any p-subgroup of G,
then Q ∩ NG (P ) = Q ∩ P .
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Theorem (The First Sylow Theorem)

Let G be a finite group such that |G| = pn m, where p is a prime, n ≥ 1, and
gcd(p, m) = 1.
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Theorem (The First Sylow Theorem)

Let G be a finite group such that |G| = pn m, where p is a prime, n ≥ 1, and
gcd(p, m) = 1.
Then G contains a subgroup of order pj for each 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Theorem (The Second Sylow Theorem)

Let G be a finite group and p be prime. If H ≤ G is a p-subgroup of G and P ≤ G be a
Sylow p-subgroup of G.
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Theorem (The Second Sylow Theorem)

Let G be a finite group and p be prime. If H ≤ G is a p-subgroup of G and P ≤ G be a
Sylow p-subgroup of G.
Then H ≤ xP x−1 for some x ∈ G. In particular, any two Sylow p-subgroups of G are
conjugate.
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Theorem (The Third Sylow Theorem)

Let G be a finite group and p be prime.
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Theorem (The Third Sylow Theorem)

Let G be a finite group and p be prime.
The number of Sylow p-subgroups of G divides |G| and is of the form kp + 1 for some
k ∈ Z+ .
/
Sylow’s Theorem
Sylow’s Theorem
Example. Let G be a finite group such that |G| = pq, where p, q are primes such that
p < q. Show that Q ⊴ G. If p ̸ |(q − 1), show that P ⊴ G and G ∼ = Zpq .
/
Thank you!

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Group Theory

MTH MD (Abstract Algebra )

▶ The Alternating Group

▶ The Class Equation

▶ The Alternating Group

▶ The Class Equation

• Larger subgroups are positioned higher than smaller ones.

• Draw a line from subgroups A to B if A ≤ B.

• For H, K ≤ G, note that H ∩ K ≤ G.

• For H, K ≤ G, note that H ∩ K ≤ G.

• Let H, K ≤ G. The join of H and K is the subgroup ⟨H, K⟩ ≤ G. It is the unique

• Isomorphic groups have the same lattices.

• Isomorphic groups have the same lattices.

G = ⟨x, y|x2 = y 8 = 1, xy = yx⟩

▶ The Alternating Group

▶ The Class Equation

gN = {gn : n ∈ N } and N g = {ng : n ∈ N }.

gN = {gn : n ∈ N } and N g = {ng : n ∈ N }.

Additive notation: g + N and N + g.

forms a group, G/K.

• Let G be a group and define φ : G → {1} by φ(g) = 1 for all g ∈ G.

• Let G be a group and define φ : G → {1} by φ(g) = 1 for all g ∈ G. Then

• Let G be a group and define φ : G → {1} by φ(g) = 1 for all g ∈ G. Then

• Let G = R2 = R × R. Define φ : R2 → R by φ(x, y) = x. Then

In this case, we write N ⊴ G.

N ⊴ G if and only if N is the kernel of some homomorphism.

• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G.

• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G. Then H ⊴ G.

• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G. Then H ⊴ G.

• Let G be a cyclic group and N ⊴ G.

• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G. Then H ⊴ G.

• Let G be a cyclic group and N ⊴ G. Then G/N is cyclic.

• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G. Then H ⊴ G.

• Let G be a cyclic group and N ⊴ G. Then G/N is cyclic.

• Let G be abelian and H ≤ G. Then H ⊴ G.

• Let G be a cyclic group and N ⊴ G. Then G/N is cyclic.

An Alternative Proof to Lagrange’s Theorem:

Example. Show that Q has no proper subgroups of finite index.

Theorem (The First Isomorphism Theorem)

Example Let G = {z ∈ C : z n = 1 for some n ∈ Z+ }. Then Q/Z ∼

Theorem (The Second Isomorphism Theorem)

Example. Let a, b ∈ Z+ . Show that ab = gcd(a, b)lcm(a, b).

Theorem (The Third Isomorphism Theorem)

Theorem (The Fourth Isomorphism Theorem)

Theorem (The Fourth Isomorphism Theorem)

Example. Consider the group G = Q8 and N = ⟨−1⟩ ⊴ Q8 .

Solvability of groups of odd order, Pacific Journal of Mathematics ( ), - .

We call the sequence a composition series if

Ni ⊴ Ni+1 and Ni+1 /Ni is simple, for 0 ≤ i ≤ k − 1.

The Hölder Program

The Classification Theorem for Finite Simple Groups

The Classification Theorem

▶ The Alternating Group

▶ The Class Equation

Let x1 , . . . , xn be independent variables and define the polynomial

Let x1 , . . . , xn be independent variables and define the polynomial

For any σ ∈ Sn , we define

Let x1 , . . . , xn be independent variables and define the polynomial

For any σ ∈ Sn , we define

Since An = Ker ε, then An ⊴ Sn .

Since An = Ker ε, then An ⊴ Sn . By FIT,

Since An = Ker ε, then An ⊴ Sn . By FIT,