RTT recede cele Electronics POMS’Introduction * Controlled flow of electrons are the basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits. Vacuum tube diode valves were fabricated as the first-generation electronic circuit ‘component which dominated till 1950, After 1950 all vacuum tube-based electronic circuits were replaced by semiconductor transistors and they were called second- generation circuits. Then came ‘Integrated Circuits’ (ICs) which made the circuits further smaller, In this lecture we will discuss classification of metals, types of semiconductors and diode.Classification of metals, conductors and semiconductors wi hss ft ne essen Rt +O > ——— | ‘conductors Insulators Semiconductors | Resistivity (107 10°)}.0m ~(10"'— 10"). om Conductivity (10°10) Sm! 10-10") Si" oh an K— +ve | e tomducs a5 -ve Semi Condandns, % Metals have positive temperature coofficiont of resistance while insulator and semiconductor have negative temperature coefficient of resistance Valan c Ban} =>Classification of metals, conductors and semiconductors _Peoy™ ~ Tabac Semi ndechIntrinsic Semiconductor )Intrinsic Semiconductor * Conduction process in semiconductor ‘In intrinsic semiconductor n, = 1, = n; ‘+ where n, — electron concentration 1n, ~ hole concentration 1n,~ intrinsic carrier concentrationIntrinsic Semiconductor * Energy band description of intrinsic semiconductors, An intrinsic semiconductor behaves ike insulator at absolute zero temperature. Gua ¥ Apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, @ simultaneous process of recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the holes. At equilibrium, the rate of generation is ‘equal to the rate of recombination of charge carriers. The recombination takes place whenever an electron collides with a hole.Extrinsic Semiconductor '* Doping: When some desirable impurity is added to intrinsic semiconductors deliberately then this process is called doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants. ‘Such semiconductors are called doped semiconductors. ‘Types of dopants: There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge. (i) Pentavalent (valency ) atoms : e.g., Arsenic (As), Pentavalent (\ ot ¢ Antimony (Sb), Phosphorus (P), ete. (ji) Trivalent (valency 3) atoms : @.g., Indium (In), Boron(B), Aluminium (Al), etc.Extrinsic Semiconductor ‘Esnce SemiconductorExtrinsic Semiconductor Gc Action Loss The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given as neny, =i?) im DU neutral. i i i I i | 1 i ¥ Both pype and ntype semiconductor are electrically || i | i i i i i IQ1. Fora pttype semiconductor, which of the following statements is true? so Electrons are the majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants. (2) Holes are the majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants. (3) Holes are the majority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants. (4) Electrons are the majority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.a For a p-type semiconductor, which of the following statements is true? (0) (@) 8) (4) Electrons are the majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants, Holes are the majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants, Holes are the majority carriers and pentayalent atoms are the dopants, Electrons are the majority carriers and. pentavaient atoms are the dopants.Q2. Cand Si both have same lattice structure, having 4 bonding electrons in each. However, © is insulator whereas Si is intrinsic semiconductor. This is because (1) The four bonding electrons in the case of C lie in the second orbit, whereas in the case of Si they lie in the third ‘The four bonding electrons in the case of C lie in the third orbit, whereas for Si they lie in the fourth orbit. In case of C the valence band is not completely filed at absolute zero temperature, In case of C the conduction band is partly filled even at absolute zero temperatureQ2. Cand Si both have same lattice structure, having 4 bonding electrons in each. However, © is insulator whereas Si is intrinsic semiconductor. This is because ‘The four bonding electrons in the case of C lie in the second orbit, whereas in the case of Si they lle in the third ‘The four bonding electrons in the case of C lie in the third orbit, whereas for Si they lie in the fourth orbit. In case of C the valence band is not completely filed at absolute zero temperature, In case of C the conduction band is partly filled even at absolute zero temperaturePure Si at 500 K has equal number of electron (n,) and hole (n,) concentrations of 1.5 x 10°° m3 Doping by indium increases n, to 4.5 x 102 ms, ‘The doped semiconductor is of (1) ype with electron concentration n, = 2.5 x 102 mr @ 10° mr? (3) mtype with electron concentration n, 102 rs o p-type with electron concentration n, 10° m3Q3. Pure Siat 500 K has equal number of electron (n,) and hole (n,) concentrations of 1.5 x 10°° m3 Doping by indium increases n, to 4.5 x 102 ms, ‘The doped semiconductor is of (1) ype with electron concentration n, = 2.5 x 10% nr (2) type having electron concentrations 10° m= (3) mtype with electron concentration n, 102 rs (4) pttype with electron concentration n, 10° nrat. Which of the following statement is False? O The resistance of intrinisic semiconductor decreases with increase of temperature Pure Si doped with trivalent impurities gives a p-type semiconductor Majority carriers in a n-type semiconductors are holes. Minority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are electronsQ1._ Which of the following statement is False? (1) The resistance of intrinisic semiconductor decreases with increase of temperature (2) Pure Si doped with trivalent impurities gives a p-type semiconductor (3) Majority carriers in a n-type semiconductors are holes: (4) Minority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are electronsaia Tet Q2. In the energy band diagram of a material shown below, the open circles and filed circles denote holes and electrons respectively. The material is Aihblpbbhbld g, ‘An mtype semiconductor p-type semiconductor ‘An insulator AmetalQ2. In the energy band diagram of a material shown below, the open circles and filed circles denote holes and electrons respectively. The material is Aihblpbbhbld g, (1) An mtype semiconductor | (2) Ap-type semiconductor i (3) An insulator (4) Ametalaia Tet Q3. Carbon, silicon and germanium atoms have four valence electrons each, Their valence and conduction bands are separated by energy band gaps represented by (E;)o. (E,)s; and (E,)ae respectively. Which one of the following relationships is true in their case? (1) (Egle > (Ex)si (2) (Ege = (Eg)s 8) Ede < Esloe 4) Eo < Eds: Choose the only false statement from the following: (1) Substances with energy gap of the order of 10 eV are insulators ‘The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature In conductors the valence and conduction bands may overlap ‘The resistivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperatureey Q3. Carbon, silicon and germanium atoms have four valence electrons each, Their valence and conduction bands are separated by energy band gaps represented by (E;)o. (E,)s; and (E,)ae respectively. Which one of the following relationships is true in their case? (1) (Egle > (Es)si (2) (Eo = (Ey)s 3) (Exe < (Exbeo 4) (Exe < (Eads: Choose the only false statement from the following: (1) Substances with energy gap of the order of 10 eV are insulators (2) The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature (3) In conductors the valence and conduction bands may overlap (4) The resistivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature-n Junction A p-n junction is formed either when a p-type semiconductor is grown in n-type semiconductor or n-type is grown in a ptype semiconductor. In the n-region of a p-n junction, the concentration of free electrons is higher than that of holes, whereas in the’ p- region, the concentration of holes is much higher than that of free electrons. Therefore when a p-n junction is formed, some electrons from the rregion (where thelr concentration is high) will diffuse into the p-region (where their concentration is low). Since the hole is nothing but the vacancy of an electron, an electron diffusing from the rm to the p-region simply fills this vacancy, ie. it completes the covalent bond. This process is called electron-hole recombination.-n Junction As a result of electron-hole recombination, the electrons in the rregion (in the vicinity of the junction) are neutralized by holes, so that in this small region we are left with only ionized donor atoms (positive charges) as shown in figure, The positive and negative ions in a small region around the junction are bound and are, therefore, immobile. This small region in the vicinity of the junction ‘which has been depleted of free charge carriers (electrons and holes) and has only immobile ions is called the depletion region.Semiconductor diode | Hs lave) erg ok 25)Semiconductor diode * Vi Characteristics of Junction Diode + The VI characteristic of a junction diode is shown in the following figure. With increasing forward bias the current first increases very slowly upto a certain forward-biased voltage called knee voltage or cut-in voltage and beyond which the current varies non- linearly (exponentially). Threshold or knee voltage for Germanium is ~ 0.3 V and for silicon diode. Itis ~ 0.7 V. oaSemiconductor diode In case of reverse bias the reverse current called reverse saturation current is independent of reverse bias voltage but depends only on temperature of the junction. it is found that for every 1°C rise in temperature, the reverse saturation current (Jp) increases by about 7%. So for every 10°C rise the Jy becomes nearly double. if we go on increasing the RB voltage, for a particular value the reverse current, increases abruptly. This voltage is called breakdown voltage or Zener voltage. Diode current I= [p(e#F - 1), fy Is reverse saturation currentSemiconductor diode a This takes place in a very thin junction (the Gpaiston ley layer is parrow) Thi ebncerel zener diodes at V, = 6 V (or es In this, the carrier increase is the result of electric field strength (about 2 * 10” Vim). Vl characteristics with the Zener breakdown is very sharp at V, eee Zener breakdown does not result in the destruction of the diode. Zener and Avalanche breakdown ‘Avalanche breakdown This takes place in a thicker junction (the depletion layers wi 1s less This is ébserved diodes at _vollage greater than V, ~6 V. In this, the carrier increase is the result of collisions, V-I characteristics with the avalanche breakdown is gradual near V,,. Avalanche breakdown destroys the diode.Semiconductor diode ¥ Dynamic resistance (r,) If the ratio of small change in voltage to small change in current av =a * Advantages and disadvantages of semiconductor diode | Cos () The semiconductor diodes do The main disadvantage of | not produce a humming noise semiconductor diodes. is during the operation the possibilty of its (i) The semiconductor diodes are breakdown due to rise in set into operation as soon as "mperature and on the Ss crenk i oniiiedor application of high voltage. (li), They are very compact. (iv) Semiconductor diodes require low voltage for their operation Hence there is low power ‘consumption.as. Ina p-n junction diode, change in temperature due to heating (1) Affects only reverse resistance (2) Affects only forward resistance (3) Affects the overall V - | characteristics of p-n junction (4) Does not affect resistance of p-n junction Which one of the following represents forward bias a)as. ey Ina p-n junction diode, change in temperature due to heating (1) Affects only reverse resistance (2) _ Affects only forward resistance (8) Affects the overall V - | characteristics of p-n junction (4) Does not affect resistance of p-n junction Which one of the following represents forward bias diode? (OY ity =2 8 @ Av 8) (4)a6. ‘The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on: (a) (b) (e) ‘Type of semiconductor material ‘Amount of doping Temperature Which one of the following is correct? a (2) (3) (4) (a) and (b) only (b) only. (b) and (¢) only (a), () and (c)a6. ‘The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on (a) Type of semiconductor material (b) Amount of doping (©) Temperature ‘Which one of the following is correct? (1) (@)and (b) only 2) (b) only (3) (b) and (c) only (4) _(@), (b) and (c)as. aia Tet In forward biasing of the p-n junction O ‘The positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and the depletion region becomes thin ‘The positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and the depletion region becomes thick, ‘The positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-side and the depletion region becomes thin, ‘The positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-side and the depletion region becomes thickQ5. In forward biasing of the p-n junction (1) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and the depletion region becomes thin (2) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and the depletion region becomes thick, (3) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-side and the depletion region becomes thin, (4) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-side and the depletion region becomes thickaia Tet Q6. In the following figure, the diodes which are forward biased are (a) z av ov 0 (b) oo ‘ I by @ * ie fev (b) and (d) (2) (a), (b) and (d) (c) only (4) (c) and (a)Q6. In the following figure, the diodes which are forward biased are (a) z av ov 0 (b) oo ‘ I by @ * ie fev (b) and (d) (2) (a), (b) and (d) (c) only (4) (c) and (a)Summary ‘There are two bands of energy in which electrons in a metal lie, All energy levels in the valance band are filled while ‘energy level in the conduction band may be empty or partially filed In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of free electrons (n,)is equal to the number of holes (n,) In ntype semiconductor, n, >> n, while in p-type semiconductor n, >> n, When p-n junction is made, a depletion layer is formed consisting of immobile ion-cores devoid of their electrons or holes. This is responsible for a junction potential barrier. By changing external applied voltage, junction barriers can be changed. If forward biased the barrier is decreased while increases in reverse bias. Hence, forward bias current is more (mA) while very small in reverse bias (A). ‘The current under reverse bias is essentially voltage independent upto a critical reverse bias voltage known as breakdown voltage (V,) when V= V,, the diode reverse current increases sharply. ‘The current under forward bias first increases very slowly with voltage, ti certain value called cut-in voltage or threshold voltage. (-0.3 V for Ge and ~0.7 V for Si) the voltage across the diode crosses aIn a semiconductor there are no free electrons at 0 K but the number of free electrons increases with temperature. Electric conduction in a semiconductor takes place due to motion of electrons as well as holes. Both mlype and p-type semiconductors are electrically neutral 1n,f = n? in all cases. Further the material possesses an overall charge neutrality Energy gap for Ge is about 0.7 eV and for Si is about 1.1 eV. Diode current 1Application of junction diode as a rectifier Rectifiex — FH is 2 Aovice which (a. wed | tb Gavert AC Signa i + Half wave rectifier i . =, Wr pulnah De | a d + For positive cycle, Vis positive => D> on => Vp = V; + For negative cycle, V, is negative => D => off => V4 =0 | | | ¥ Frequency of output of HWR is same as that of input || signal iApplication of junction diode as a rectifier * Full wave Rectifier + Centre-tap full wave rectifier © A fullwave rectifier consists of two diodes D, and D, connected to the centre-tapped secondary coil of a transformer and a load resistor R, as shown in ‘igure (a)¥ Frequency of output of full wave rectifier is double of the frequency of input signal.+ Ripple factor (r) "The a.c component present in pulsating de output of rectifier is called ripple factor i.e. ms value ofc component DC outputHin a pen junction, a square input signal of 10 V is applied, as shown then the output across R,_ willQ1. fina p-n junction, a square input signal of 10 Vis applied, as shown then the output across R,_ will beQ2. The given circuit has two ideal diodes connected as shown in the figure below. The current flowing through the resistance R, will be gv tn 2) 10.04 (3) 143A (4) 313AQ2. The given circuit has two ideal diodes connected as shown in the figure below. The current flowing through the resistance R, will be (3) 143A (4) 313Aat. Siem COC In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input frequency is 50 Hz. What is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input frequency? The peak voltage in the output of a half-wave diode rectifier fed with a sinusoidal signal without filter is 10 V. The D.C. component of the output voltage is m &v @ By tov ® Byey Q1. In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input frequency is 50 Hz. What is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input | frequency? [50 Hz for half wave, 100 Hz for full wave] , | Q2. The peak voltage in the output of a half-wave diode rectifier fed with a sinusoidal signal without filter is 10 V. The D.C. component of the output voltage is 1 | 2» 10Vv @ 2vSpecial purpose p-n junction ® diodes * Zener diode The specially designed junction diodes which can operate in the reverse breakdown voltage region continuously without being damaged, are called Zener diodes. = Those are generally highly doped Silicon diodes. "Silicon is preferred over germanium because of its higher thermal stabilties.Special purpose p-n junction diodes + Zener diode can be used as voltage regulator + When applied voltage is less than the zener voltage, then diode will not conduct, Hence output Y= aaa When Vapptas > Vp then Vo = V, Zener diode has a certain value of current limit and ‘corresponding power limit. f the current in the Zener diode exceeds this limit, the diode will burn out. Note that Zener diode is always used in reverse bias. * Optoelectronic junction devices Optoelectronic junction devices ——_—_ Light emitting Photodiode (Special purpose p-n junction diodes * Light emitting diode (LED) + Light-emitting diode is a_heavily doped p-n junction encapsulated witha transparent cover so that emifted- light can come out, When the forward current of the diode is small the intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in the forward current results in decrease of light intensity. LEDs are biased such that the light-emitting efficiency is maximum. The V+ characteristics of an LED is simiar to that of a silicon junction diode but the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different of each colour, The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, approximately around 5 V. So high reverse voltages should not appear across them. Light emitting diode (LED) symbol i GB. GB. Gh rh ied chy Stake!Special purpose p-n junction diodes = Vlcharacteristics -oneazon arnt {UEDsarevsodinremote conte + Low afrabona ogo ac ss power consumer + Bageraim ne 1 aber nam one Simao som ck. Naan nengori + SiBrentenng ns epeitySpecial purpose p-n junction diodes * Photo-diode + In semiconductors, current carriers are produced when ‘energy is supplied to release electrons from valence band. In photo-diodes this energy is supplied in the form of light energy. A junction diode made from photosensitive semiconductor is called a photo-tiode. In photo-diode one region is made so thin that incident light may reach the depletion region Photo-diode is generally operated in reverse bias. In forward bias it works as a normal diode. Photo-diode can be used to detect the optical signals.Special purpose p-n junction diodes = V-I characteristics > b> h>h) * Solar cell + Ajunction diode, in which one of the p or n-regions is made very thin (so that the light energy falling on the diode is not greatly absorbed before reaching the junction), can be used to convert light energy into ‘electrical energy.Special purpose p-n junction diodes In a solar cell, one region is made very thin so that most of the light incident on it reaches the depletion region. In this diode (selenium is used as semiconductor) when photons of visible light incident to depletion region, electrons jump from valence band to conduction band producing electron-hole pairs. These free electrons under the influence of barrier electric field moves to n region and holes move to p region, so the potential of p region increases and that of 1 region decreases. A net potential difference develops across the junction. Hence, when a load resistance is connected to p-n junction, electrons flow in the resistor from B to A resulting into a net current from A to Bas shown in figure. ight I] EF ——Special purpose p-n junction diodes + Vi characteristics T Vee (Open circuit voltage) Vv boc (Short circuit current) ¥ Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal ‘material for solar cell fabrication.a3. ‘An LED is constructed from a p-n junction diode Using GaAsP. The energy gap is 1.9 eV. The wavelength of the light emitted will be equal to (1) 654% 10-1 m (2) 10.4 10 my (3) 654nm (4) 654A A zener diode, having breakdown voltage equal to 15 V is used in a voltage regulator circuit shown in figure. The current through the diode is 2500 nov Bio (1) 20ma (2) Sma (3) 10mA (4) 15mAa3. ey ‘An LED is constructed from a p-n junction diode Using GaAsP. The energy gap is 1.9 eV. The wavelength of the light emitted will be equal to (1) 654% 10-1 m (2) 10.4 10 my (3) 654m (4) 654A ‘A zener diode, having breakdown voltage equal to 15 V is used in a voltage regulator circuit shown in figure. The current through the diode is 2500 av Psy fie ma (3) 10 mA (4) 15mAQ5. A pn photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with a band gap of 2.5 eV. It can detect a signal of wavelength: a (2) (3) (4)as. ‘A pn photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with a band gap of 2.5 eV. It can detect a signal of wavelength: (1) 4000 nm (2) 6000 nm (3) 4000 A (4) 6000 ASiem COC 3. A pi photodiode is made of a material with a band gap of 2 eV. The minimum frequency of the radiation that can be absorbed by the material is nearly (1) 20% 10% Hz 10 10" Hz 5x10" Hz, 110" Hz,3. A pi photodiode is made of a material with a band gap of 2 eV. The minimum frequency of the radiation that can be absorbed by the material is nearly (1) 20% 10% Hz (2) 10% 10 Hz (3) 8x 10 Hz (4) 110% Hzaia Tet 4. The given graph represent V-l characteristic for a semiconductor device. Which of the following statement is correct? t 1 Itis V- J characteristic for solar cell where, point A represents open circuit voltage and point B short circuit current Itis for a solar cell and points A and 8 represent ‘open circuit voltage and current, respectively It is for a photodiode and points A and B represent open circuit voltage and current, respectively It is for a LED and points A and 8 represent ‘open circuit voltage and short circuit current, respectively.4. The given graph represent V-l characteristic for a semiconductor device. Which of the following statement is correct? t 1 (itis V= T chara A represents open circuit voltage and point & short circuit current. (2) tis for a solar cell and points A and B represent ‘open circuit voltage and current, respectively. (3) It is for @ photodiode and points A and B represent open circuit voltage and current, respectively. (4) It is for a LED and points A and B represent open circuit voltage and short circuit current, respectively.Siem COC QS. What is the value of output voltage Vp in the circuit shown in the figure? 2ko.QS. What is the value of output voltage Vp in the circuit shown in the figure? 2ko. @ 14Vv (3) 20V (4) 26vSummary Diodes can be used for rectifying AC voltage with the help of a capacitor or a suitable fier, a DC voltage can be obtained. Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doped p and n type semiconductor. Due to this, depletion region formed is very thin (< 10 m) and electric field of the junction is extremely high (~5 x 10° Vim). Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltage so that they are constant, Photodiode is operated under reverse bias because it is easier to observe the change in the current with change in the light intensity if the reverse bias is applied. Photocurrent is proportional to incident light intensity. ‘The semiconductors used for fabrication of visible LEDs must at least have a band gap of 1.8 eV. ‘Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal materials for solar cell fabrication. Material used for making solar cell should have high optical absorption (~10* em!)oooog Rectifier convert ac signal into de singal Vacllave) 2m Ios fn v2 Form factor F So ora az Peak factor 2 14 Ripple factor 4.21 0.48 Zener diode is used as voltage regulator LED generally operates in forward bias, photo-diodes operates in reversed bias and solar in unbiased condition V-I characteristics of LED lies in | quadrant VI characteristics of photo-diode lies in Ill quadrant V-I characteristics of solar cell lies in IV quadrantDigital electronics and Logic Gates —— UI —“. Analog Dial ‘nine vale stl (era vate signa + Signa apie + Sana ample * Logic Gates Logic gates are electronic circuits using diodes, transistors etc., which process the digital signals in a specific manner. Logic gates are used in calculators, digital watches, computers, robots, industrial control systems and in telecommunications. * Boolean logic Ava=1 AAz0Digital electronics and Logic Gates * Basic gates and universal gates ¥ NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates or digital building block, because by repetitive use of NAND or NOR gate all the basic gates can be realized.Q1. Inthe combination of the following gates the output Y can be written in terms of inp's A and B DyIn the combination of the following gates the output Y can be written in terms of inputs A and B Dy () 2B () A¥BQ2. The circuit diagram shown here corresponds to the logic gate 0 1 =O) LED(Y) v R (1) NAND. (2) NOR (3) AND (4) ORQ2. The circuit diagram shown here corresponds to the logic gate 0 1 =O) LED(Y) v R (3) AND (4) ORQ3. To get output 4 for the following circuit, the correct [= choice for the input isa3. To get output 4 for the following circuit, the correct choice for the input is (3) A=1,B=0,C=0 (4) A=1,4. The figure shows a logic circuit with two inputs A and B and the output C. The voltage wave forms across A, B and C are given. The logic circuit gate hebete (1) AND gate (2) NAND gate (@) OR gate (4) NOR gate The device that can act as a complete electronic circuit is: (1) Zener diode (2) Junction diode (3) Integrated circuit (4) Junction transistorey The figure shows a logic circuit with two inputs A and B and the output C. The voltage wave forms across A, B and C are aiven. The logic circuit gate hh bith (1) AND gate (2) NAND gate 1) NOR aa Q5. The device that can act as a complete electronic circuit is: (1) Zener diode (2) Junetion diode (3) Integrated circuit (4) Junction transistorQ1. The correct Boolean operation represented by the circuit diagram drawn isQ1. The correct Boolean operation represented by the circuit diagram drawn is (1) AND (2) OR (4) NORaia Tet Q2. The given electrical network is equivalent to ‘AND gate OR gate NOR gate NOT gateQ2. The given electrical network is equivalent to (1) AND gate (2) OR gate (4) NOT gateQ3._ The following figure shows a logic gate circuit with two inputs A and B and the output Y. The voltage waveforms of A, Band Y are as given The logic gate is Af e-—] A 8 eaten eet (1) NOR gate (2) OR gate (3) AND gate (4) NAND gateQ3._ The following figure shows a logic gate circuit with two inputs A and B and the output Y. The voltage waveforms of A, Band Y are as given The logic gate is Af e-—] A 8 eaten eet (1) NOR gate (2) OR gate: : 2 i 8 s : £ 2 3 : & 2 g é Z as.: : 2 i 8 s : £ 2 3 : & 2 g é Z as.a There are some special circuits which handle the digital data consisting of 0 and 1 levels. This forms the subject of Digital Electronics. The important digital circuits performing special logic operations are called logic gates. These are! OR, AND, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates. In moder day circuit, many logical gates or circuits are integrated in one single ‘Chip’. These are known as Integrated circuits (IC), Logic gate] Symbol | Characteristic equation mor | aDey | yea 4 Ae or | Arp y| years wo | 4a | veane a NOR