2023-2024

1
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
JAIPUR REGION

Sh. B. L. MORODIA
Deputy Commissioner
KVS JAIPUR REGION

Sh. D. R. MEENA Sh. G.S. MEHTA Sh. MADHO SINGH

Assistant Commissioner Assistant Commissioner Assistant Commissioner
KVS JAIPUR REGION KVS JAIPUR REGION KVS JAIPUR REGION

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 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGTHAN, JAIPUR REGION
TWO DAYS WORKSHOP OF TGT (SCIENCE) W.E.F.09.09.2023 TO 10.09.2023
DETAILS OF ORGANISERS

SR NO. NAME OF ORGANISERS DESIGNATION NAME OF K.V. AS-

K.V. NO. 1, AFS COURSE
1 MR. ASHOK KUMAR VERMA PRINCIPAL JODHPUR DIRECTOR

2 MR. MANOJ RAMAWAT PRINCIPAL K.V. JAISINDAR COORDINATOR

K.V. NO. 2, ARMY
3 MR. BALMUKUND SHARMA PRINCIPAL JODHPUR COORDINATOR

SR NAME OF SESSION TAKERS DESIGNATION NAME OF K.V.

NO.
1 MR. HIMMAT SINGH PGT CHEMISTRY K.V. NO. 1, AFS JODHPUR
2 MR. SUMIT PGT PHYSICS K.V. NO. 1, AFS JODHPUR
3 MR. RAKESH KUMAR VERMA PGT BIOLOGY K.V. NO. 2, ARMY JODHPUR
4 MR. AAKIB JAVED PGT COMPUTER SCIENCE K.V. BSF, JODHPUR
5 MRS. MAMTA MEENA TGT SCIENCE K.V. NO. 1, AFS JODHPUR
6 MRS. AVANTIKA GOSWAMI TGT SCIENCE K.V. NO. 1, AFS JODHPUR
7 MRS. TEENA CHOUDHARY TGT SCIENCE K.V. NO. 1, AFS JODHPUR
8 MR. MANOJ KUMAR KULHARI TGT SCIENCE K.V. NO. 1, BIKANER
9 MRS. INDU VERMA TGT SCIENCE K.V. NO.2, AFS JODHPUR
10 MRS. NISHA CHAWLA TGT SCIENCE K.V. NO. 1, AFS SURATGARH

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Sr.No. Employee Name DESIGNATION Name of KV

1 AVANTIKA GOSWAMI TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 AFS JODHPUR

2 TEENA CHOUDHARY TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 AFS JODHPUR

3 MAMTA MEENA TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 AFS JODHPUR

4 RAVINDRA SINGH KACHHWAHA TGT SCIENCE KV NO.2 AFS JODHPUR

5 INDU VERMA TGT SCIENCE KV NO.2 AFS JODHPUR

6 RASHMI ROLANIA TGT SCIENCE KV NO.2 ARMY JODHPUR

7 RUKMINI CHAUHAN TGT SCIENCE KV BSF JODHPUR

8 ASHA CHOUDHARY TGT SCIENCE KV BANAR JODHPUR

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9 CHHAGAN LAL GURJAR TGT SCIENCE KV TIVRI

10 KESHAV KUMAR MEENA TGT SCIENCE KV JALORE

11 JAYSHREE MAURYA TGT SCIENCE KV AFS JAISALMER

12 RAMESH BENIWAL TGT SCIENCE KV UTTARLAI

13 TARA CHAND SAINI TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 UDAIPUR

14 DWARIKA PRASAD DHANERA TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 UDAIPUR

15 PAWAN KUMAR SHARMA TGT SCIENCE KV EKLINGGARH UDAIPUR

16 NEHA JAIN TGT SCIENCE KV EKLINGGARH UDAIPUR

17 RAKESH KUMAR MEENA TGT SCIENCE KV MOUNT ABU

18 NISHA CHAWLA TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 AFS SURATGARH

19 MUKESH KUMAR SONI TGT SCIENCE KV SURATGARH CANTT

20 KAILASH CHAND MEENA TGT SCIENCE KV RAISINGHNAGAR

21 RAM NIWAS SARAN TGT SCIENCE KV HANUMANGARH

22 AMRIK SINGH MEHRA TGT SCIENCE KV LALGARH JATTAN

23 MANOJ KUMAR KULHARI TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 BIKANER

24 MEENA JOSHI TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 BIKANER

25 ANITA KANWAR TGT SCIENCE KV NO.1 BIKANER

26 PANNALAL MEGHWAL TGT SCIENCE KV KV NO.3 NAL BIKANER

COURSE STRUCTURE FOR CLASS X – SCIENCE (Annual Examination)

Marks: 80

Unit No. Unit Marks

I Chemical Substances-Nature and Behaviour 25

II World of Living 25

III Natural Phenomena 12

IV Effects of Current 13

V Natural Resources 05

Total 80

Internal assessment 20

Grand Total 100

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 CHAPTER – 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Chemical Reaction: –Whenever a chemical change occurs, we can say that a chemical reaction has
taken place. It involves the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new substances.
e.g. – Food gets digested in our body.
– Rusting of iron.
We can observe or recognize a chemical reaction by observing change in state, colour, by evolution of
gas or by change in temperature.
S. NO. OBSERVATION EXAMPLE
1 Change in state 2H2O (l) __current___> H2 (g) + O2 (g)
2 Change in colour Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
3 Change in temperature CaO + H2O → Ca (OH)2 + Heat
4 Evolution of a gas Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 (g)
5 Formation of a precipitate Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

Chemical Equation: – A mathematical expression of the chemical reaction in terms of symbols and
formulae is known as chemical equation. e.g. Magnesium is burnt into air to form Magnesium Oxide.
This can be represented as:
Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s) + Heat
Balanced Chemical Equation: A balanced chemical equation occurs when the number of the atoms of
each element involved in the reactant side is equal to the number of atoms of each element in the
product side.
Eg. 3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
Hit and trial method- While balancing the equation, change the coefficients (the numbers in front of the
compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same on each side of the
chemical equation.
Chemical equations can be made more informative as:*Physical state of the reactant and products are
mentioned to make chemical reactions more informative. e.g. We use (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (s) for solid
and (aq.) for aqueous.
Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
*Sometimes, the reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure, catalyst etc. for the reaction are
indicated above and / or below the arrow in the equation.
6 CO2 + 12 H2O __ Sunlight __> C6H12O6 + 6 H 2O + 6 O 2
chlorophyll

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

(1) Combination Reaction: –The reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new
single substance.

e.g. – CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca (OH)2 (aq.)

Calcium Oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 (slaked lime) is used for white washing. It reacts with CO2 to form CaCO3 and gives a shiny
finish to the walls.
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 **Exothermic Reactions: –Reaction in which heat is released along with the formation of products. e.g.
- CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
- Respiration is also exothermic reaction.
- Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost
(2) Decomposition Reactions: – The reaction in which a single substance decomposes to give two
or more substances. These are generally endothermic in nature.

Decomposition reactions can be of three types:

(A) Thermal decomposition reaction: Reactions in which compounds decompose into simpler
compounds due to absorption of heat.
Eg. When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
CaCO3 __Heat__________> CaO + CO2
Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

(B) Electrolytic decomposition: Reactions in which compounds decompose into simpler compounds
because of passing of electricity.
Example: When electricity is passed in water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.
2H2O (l) __current___> H2 (g) + O2 (g)
(C) Photolysis or photo decomposition reaction: Reactions in which a compound decomposes because
of sunlight.
Eg: When silver chloride is put in sunlight, it decomposes into silver metal and chlorine gas.
2AgCl __Sunlight_____> 2Ag (g) + Cl2 (g)

Photographic paper has coating of silver chloride, which turns into grey when exposed to sunlight.
It happens because silver chloride is colourless while silver is a grey metal.

Endothermic Reactions – The reactions which require energy and proceed with the
absorption of heat energy are called endothermic reactions.
Eg. 2NH3 (g) + Heat → N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
(3) Displacement Reaction: The chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces
another element from its aqueous solution.

Eg. Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

(Blue) (Green) (Brown)

Here Iron being more reactive than copper, displaces copper from copper sulphate solution to form Ferrous
sulphate. The nail becomes brownish in colour due to deposition of copper over it and the blue colour of
Copper sulphate solution fades.

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 (4) Double Displacement Reaction: Reactions in which ions are exchanged between two reactants
forming new compounds.

Eg. Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

A white insoluble substance or precipitate of BaSO4 is formed in the above reaction.
Precipitation Reaction – A reaction in which an insoluble substance is formed, which settles
down at the base of the solution. Indicated as ↓
Eg. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2 ↓ + 2KNO3(aq)
(Yellow)

(5) Redox Reaction: A reaction in which oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously.

Oxidation: Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen .

In the above reaction, Hydrogen gains oxygen and get oxidized into water.
Reduction: Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen
In the above reaction, Copper oxide loses oxygen and gets reduced to copper.
Oxidizing agent- Compounds/ elements which can give oxygen or remove hydrogen from other
reactants are called oxidizing agent. An oxidizing agent itself gets reduced in the reaction. In the above
reaction, CuO is the oxidizing agent which gets reduced to Cu.

Reducing agent- Compounds or elements which can give hydrogen or remove oxygen from other
reactants are called reducing agents. A reducing agent itself gets oxidized. In the above reaction, H2
is the reducing agent, which gets oxidized to H2O.

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MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-1

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 CHAPTER 2 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Acids: Acids are sour in taste, turn blue litmus red, and dissolve in water to release H + or H3O+ions.
Example: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Acetic Acid (CH3COOH), Nitric Acid (HNO3) etc.
Properties of Acids:
(i) Acids have a sour taste (ii) Acid solution conducts electricity
(iii) Turns blue litmus red (iv) Release H+ ions in aqueous solution
(v) They are colourless with phenolphthalein and red with methyl orange.

Types of Acids: Acids are divided into two types on the basis of their occurrence i.e., Natural acids and
Mineral acids.
(i) Natural Acids: Acids which are obtained from natural sources are called Natural Acids or Organic Acids.
Methanoic acid (HCOOH), Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Oxalic acid (C2H2O4), etc.
(ii) Mineral Acids: Acids that are prepared from minerals are known as Mineral Acids. Inorganic acids,
man-made acids or synthetic acid are also known as Mineral Acids. Examples-
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3), Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) etc.
Chemical Properties of Acid:
(i) Reaction of acids with metal:
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
Examples: Hydrogen gas and zinc chloride are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal.

Test for Hydrogen Gas: The gas evolved after reaction of acid with metal can be tested by bringing a
lighted candle near it. If the gas burns with a pop sound, then it confirms the evolution of hydrogen gas.
Burning with pop sound is the characteristic test for hydrogen gas.
(ii) Reaction of acids with metal carbonate:
Metal Carbonate + Acid Metallic Salt + CO2 + H2O
Examples: Hydrochloric acid gives carbon dioxide gas, sodium chloride along with water when reacts with
sodium carbonate.

(iii) Reaction of acid with hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates):

Metal Hydrogen Carbonate + Acid Metallic Salt + CO2 + H2O
Example: Sulphuric acid gives sodium sulphate, Carbon dioxide gas and water when it reacts with sodium
bicarbonate.

TYPES OF ACIDS:
Strong Acids: An acid which is completely ionized in water and produces (H+) is called Strong Acid.
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3)
Weak Acids: An acid which is partially ionized in water and thus produces a small amount of hydrogen
ions (H+) is called a Weak Acid.
Example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Reaction of Acid with marble and egg shell: - Since, marble and egg shell are made of calcium carbonate,
hence when acid is poured over marble or egg shell, bubbles of carbon dioxide are formed.
Uses of Acids: -
1. Sulphuric acid (King of Chemical) is used in car battery and preparation of many other compounds.
2. Nitric Acid is used in production in Ammonium nitrate which is used as fertilizer in agriculture.
3. Hydrochloric acid is used as cleansing agent in toilet.
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Bases:
Properties of Bases:
(i) Have a bitter taste (ii) Soapy to touch
(iii) Turns red litmus blue (iv) Conducts electricity in aqueous
solution
(v) Release OH- ions in Aqueous (vi) They are pink with phenolphthalein
solution and yellow with methyl orange

Examples: Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) NaOH, Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] Potassium hydroxide
(caustic potash) [KOH]
Types of bases: Bases can be divided in two types: Water soluble and Water-insoluble. The hydroxides
of alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water. These are also known as alkali. For example,
NaOH, Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2

Chemical properties of bases:

(i) Reaction of Base with Metals: When alkali (base) reacts with metal, it produces salt and hydrogen
gas.
Examples: Sodium hydroxide gives hydrogen gas and sodium zincate when reacts with zinc metal.

(ii) Reaction of Base with Oxides of Non-metals: when a base reacts with non-metal oxide, both
neutralize each other resulting respective salt and water. Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.
Examples: Sodium hydroxide gives sodium carbonate and water when it reacts with carbon dioxide.

(iii) Neutralisation Reaction:

Acid + Base Salt + Water
Examples:

(iv) Reaction of Acid with Metal Oxides: Metal oxides are basic in nature. Thus, when an acid reacts with a
metal oxide both neutralize each other and the respective salt and water are formed.
Acid + Metal Oxide Salt + Water
Example: -
Dilution of acid and base:
By mixing of acid to water, the concentration of hydrogen ion per unit volume decreases. Similarly, by
addition of base to water the concentration of hydroxide ion per unit volume decreases. This process of
addition of acid or base to water is called dilution and the acid or base is called diluted.
The dilution of acid or base is exothermic. Thus, acid or base is always added to water and water is never
added to acid or base. If water is added to a concentrated acid or base a lot of heat is generated, which
may cause splashing out of acid or base and may cause severe damage as concentrated acid and base are
highly corrosive.
pH Scale: pH stands for the power of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. pH values decide
whether a solution is acidic or basic or neutral.

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  The strength of acid or base depends upon the hydrogen ion concentration.
 If the concentration of hydrogen ion is greater than hydroxide ion, the solution is called acidic.
 If the concentration of hydrogen ion is smaller than the hydroxide ion, the solution is called basic.
 If the concentration of hydrogen ion is equal to the concentration of hydroxide ion, the solution is
called neutral solution.
 pH is a scale which quantifies the concentration of hydrogen ion in a solution. The range of pH
scale is between 0 to 14.
 The pH value decreases with increase in hydrogen ion concentration.
 If the value of pH is 0,this shows maximum hydrogen ion concentration.
 pH value equal to 14 shows lowest hydrogenion concentration.
 pH value equal to 7 shows the hydrogen ion concentration is equal to hydroxide ion
concentration.
Importance of pH everyday life:
(i) pH in our digestive system: Dilute HCl (Hydrochloric acid) helps in digestion of food
(proteins) in our stomach. Excess acid in stomach causes acidity (indigestion). Antacids like magnesium
hydroxide [Mg (OH)2] also known as milk of magnesia and sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) are
used to neutralize excess acid.
(ii) Tooth decay caused by acids: The bacteria present in our mouth converts the sugar into acids. When
the pH of acid formed in the mouth falls below 5.5, tooth-decaying starts. The excess acid has to be
removed by cleaning the teeth with good quality toothpaste because these kinds of toothpaste are
alkaline in nature.
The ideal pH for blood is 7.4.
pH of normal saliva ranges between 6.5 to 7.5.
(iii) Soil of pH and plant growth: Most of the plants have a healthy growth when the soil has a specific pH
(close to 7) range which should be neither alkaline nor highly acidic.
Indicator: Substances which show the acidic or basic behavior of other substance by change in color are
known as indicator.
Type of Indicators: There are many types of indicators. Some common types of indicators are
Natural indicators-
Indicators obtained from natural sources are called natural indicators. Litmus, turmeric, red cabbage,
China rose, etc. are some common natural indicators used widely to show the acidic
or basic character of substances.

Synthetic indicators:
Indicators that are synthesized in laboratory are known as synthetic indicators. For example;
phenolphthalein, methyl orange, etc.

Indicator Original color Acid Base

Red litmus Red No change Blue
Blue litmus Blue Red No change
Turmeric Yellow No change Reddish brown
Red cabbage juice Purple Reddish Greenish yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Orange Red Yellow
Onion No change No change Smell vanishes
Vanilla No change No change Smell vanishes
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Universal indicator:A universal indicator is a pH indicator made of a solution of several compounds that
exhibit various smooth colour changes over a wide range pH values to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of
solutions.
To get the strength as well as acidic and basic nature of a given solution universal indicator is used.
Universal indicator shows different color over the range of pH value from 1 to 14 for a given solution.
Universal indicator is available both in the form of strips and solution.
The colour matching chart is supplied with universal indicator which shows the different colours for
different values of pH.
Salts:
Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced after the neutralization reaction between acid and
base. Salts are electrically neutral.
Acid + Base Salt + Water

Characteristics of salt:
 Most of the salts are crystalline solid
 Salts may be transparent or opaque
 Most of the salts are soluble in water.
 The salt may be salty, sour, sweet, and bitter
 Solution of the salts conducts electricity in their molten state also.
 Neutral salts are odourless
 Salts can be colourless or coloured.

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Calcium
sulphate (CaSO4), Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)
CLASSIFICATION OF SALTS:
Neutral Salt: Salts produced because of reaction between a strong acid and strong base are neutral
in nature. The pH value of such salts is equal to 7, i.e. neutral. Example- Sodium chloride, Sodium
sulphate. Potassium chloride, etc.
Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4): It is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide (a strong base) and
Sulphuric acid (a strong acid).

(i) Acidic Salts: Salts which are formed after the reaction between a strong acid and weak base are called
Acidic salts. The pH value of acidic salt is lower than 7. For example- Ammonium chloride, Ammonium
sulphate etc.
Ammonium chloride is formed after reaction between hydrochloric acid (a strong acid) and
ammonium hydroxide (a weak base)

(ii) Basic Salts: Salts which are formed after the reaction between a weak acid and strong base are called
Basic Salts. For example- Sodium carbonates, Sodium acetate, etc.
Sodium carbonate is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide (a strong base) and
carbonic acid (a weak acid).

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Some Important Chemical Compounds
1. Common Salt (Sodium Chloride): Sodium chloride (NaCl) is also known as Common or
Table Salt. It is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. It is a neutral
salt. The pH value of sodium chloride is about 7. Sodium chloride is used to enhance the taste of food.
Sodium chloride is used in the manufacturing of many chemicals.

2. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): Sodium hydroxide is a strong base. It is also known as caustic soda. It is
obtained by the electrolytic decomposition of aqueous solution of sodium chloride (brine), brine
decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. In this process, chlorine is obtained at anode and hydrogen gas
is obtained at cathode as by products. This whole process is known as Chlor-Alkali process.

3. Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2): Bleaching powder is also known as chloride of lime. It is a solid and
yellowish white in colour. Bleaching powder can be easily identified by the strong smell of chlorine.
When calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) reacts with chlorine, it gives calcium oxychloride (bleaching
powder) and water is formed.

Aqueous solution of bleaching powder is basic in nature. The term bleach means removal of colour.
Bleaching powder is often used as bleaching agent. It works because of oxidation. Chlorine in the
bleaching powder is responsible for bleaching effect.
Use of Bleaching Powder:
 as disinfectant to clean water, moss remover, weed killers, etc.
 for bleaching of cotton in textile industry, bleaching of wood pulp in paper industry.
 as oxidizing agent in many industries, such as textiles industry, paper industry, etc.
4. Baking Soda (NaHCO3): Baking soda is another important product which can be obtained using by-
products of chlor-alkali process. The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate
(NaHCO3) or sodium bicarbonate.
Preparation Method: Baking soda is obtained by the reaction of brine with carbon dioxide and ammonia.
This is known as Solvay process.

Properties of Sodium Bicarbonate:

 Sodium bicarbonate is white crystalline solid, but it appears as fine powder.
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate is amphoteric in nature.
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate is sparingly soluble in water.
When baking soda is heated, it decomposes into sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and water.

 Sodium carbonate formed after thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate

decomposes into sodium oxide and carbon dioxide on further heating.

Use of Baking Soda:

 Baking soda is used in making of baking powder, which is used in cooking as it produces carbon
dioxide which makes the batter soft and spongy.
 Baking soda is used as an antacid.
 Baking soda is used in toothpaste which makes the teeth white and plaque free.
 Baking soda is used in cleansing of ornaments made of silver.
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  Since sodium hydrogen carbonate gives carbon dioxide and sodium oxide on strong heating, thus,
it is used as a fire extinguisher.
5. Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate)
Preparation Method: Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the thermal decomposition of sodium
hydrogen carbonate obtained by Solvay process.

The sodium carbonate obtained in this process is dry. It is called Soda ash or anhydrous sodium
carbonate. Washing soda is obtained by rehydration of anhydrous sodium carbonate.

Use of sodium carbonate:

It is used in the cleaning of cloths In the making of detergent cake and powder
In removing the permanent hardness of It is used in glass and paper industries
water
6. Plaster of Paris: Calcium sulphate hemihydrate [CaSO4. ½ H2O]

MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-2

14
 CH.3 METALS AND NON-METALS
Differences between Physical properties of metals and non-metals
Characteristics Metals Non-Metals
Tendency to gain or e-
lose and form Cation (except Gain e- and form Anion
lose e- hydrogen)
Physical State Solid at room temperature Solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
(except Mercury) (solid-sulphur, carbon, liquid-bromine)
Hardness Generally hard (except Li,Na & Generally soft (except Diamond)
K)
Malleable Can be beaten into sheets Non-malleable
(except Zn, Sb)
Ductile Can be drawn into wires (except Non-ductile (except Carbon fibre)
Zn ,Sb)
Lustre Shiny appearance Lack luster (iodine crystals -exception)
Melting point/ boiling High (except Ga, Cs) Low (except C, B, Si)
point
Density High (except Na, K, Ca) Low (except Diamond)
Solubility (water) Generally insoluble Generally soluble
Electrical Good conductor (except Hg, Bi) Usually Bad conductor (Except Graphite &
conductivity Gas Carbon)
Sonorous Produce metallic sound when Non-sonorous
struck

*Metalloids: Elements which show properties of both metals and non-metals. Eg. B, Si, Ge, Sb, Te, Po
Differences between chemical properties of metals and non-metals
Chemical properties of Metals:
(1) Reaction with Oxygen:
Metal + O2 ____> Metal oxide + Heat
*Metal oxides and metal hydroxides are basic in nature whereas non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.
*Sodium and Potassium react vigorously with oxygen and catch fire when exposed to air. So, they are
kept immersed in kerosene oil.
K + O2 ____ ____> K2O + Heat
Magnesium, Aluminium, Zinc and Lead burns with oxygen at ordinary temperature to form a protective
layer of oxide on their surface, which prevents their further oxidation.
2 Mg + O2 ____ ____> 2MgO + Heat

Iron does not burn on heating but iron filings burn vigorously when sprinkled
in the flame of the burner.
3Fe + 2O2 (g) __ Heat __> 2Fe3O4
Iron (II,III) oxide
Copper does not burn, but the hot metal is coated with a black coloured layer of copper(II) oxide.
2Cu + O2 (g) __ Heat __> 2CuO
Silver, gold and Platinum do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.

*Amphoteric oxides: Some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, tin oxide etc., show both
acidic as well as basic behaviour. Such metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to
produce salts and water.
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 (i) Al2O3 + 6 HCl __ __> 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
Al2O3 + 2 NaOH __ __> 2NaAlO2 + H2O
(Sodium aluminate)
(ii) ZnO + 2 HCl __ __> ZnCl2 + H2O
ZnO + 2 NaOH __ __ > Na2ZnO2 + H2O
(Sodium Zincate )
Anodising: The process of forming a thick layer of oxide over Aluminium article. This layer does not allow
moist air to come in contact with the metal underneath and thus prevents it from further corrosion. A
clean Aluminium metal / article is taken as anode and dil. H2SO4 is taken as electrolyte. The oxygen gas
evolved at the anode reacts with aluminium to make a thicker protective oxide layer.
(2) Reaction with Water:
Metal + H2O ____> Metal oxide + H2
Metal + H2O ____> Metal hydroxide + H2
(i) Na and K react violently with cold water. The reaction is so exothermic that the evolved hydrogen
immediately catches fire.
2K(s) + 2 H2O (l) ____> 2KOH + H2 (g) + Heat
(aq)
2Na(s) + 2 H2O (l) ____> 2NaOH + H2 (g) + Heat
(aq)
Calcium reacts less violently with cold water. The heat evolved is not sufficient for the hydrogen to catch
fire.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ____> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium starts floating because the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface of the Calcium.
(ii) Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide
and hydrogen. It also starts floating due to the bubbles of hydrogen gas sticking to its surface.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) ____> Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
(Hot Water)
(iii) Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not react either with cold or hot water. But they react with
steam to form the metal oxide and hydrogen.
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) ____> Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) ____> Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)

(iv) Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all.
(3) Reaction with dilute acids:

Metal + Dilute Acid ____> Salt + Hydrogen

(i ) Na and K react violently dilute Hydrochloric acid.
2K/2Na + 2HCl(aq) ____ ____> 2KCl(aq)/2NaCl + H2(g)
(ii) Ca & Mg also reacts vigorously with though less than Na & K.
Ca/Mg + HCl (aq) ____ ____> CaCl2(aq)/MgCl2 + H2(g)
(iii) Aluminium reacts with dilute HCl slowly in the beginning because the surface of Aluminium is already
covered with a protective layer of Al2O3.
2Al + 6HCl (aq) ____ ____> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
(iv) Zinc reacts slowly & Iron reacts very slowly.
Zn + 2HCl (aq ) __ ____> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) + Heat
Fe + 2HCl (aq ) __ ____> FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) + Heat
(v) Metals such as copper, mercury & silver do not react with HCl & H2SO4
*Bring a burning candle near the hydrogen gas (bubbles evolved). The gas will immediately catch fire with
a characteristic “POP” sound.

16
**Note: Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid. It is because HNO3 is a strong
oxidising agent. It oxidises the H2 produced to water and itself gets reduced to any of the nitrogen oxides
(N2O, NO, NO2).
Exceptions: magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn)
Mg /Mn + 2HNO3 (aq) ____ ____> Mg(NO3)2 (aq) / Mn(NO3)2 (aq) + H2(g) .
Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’) is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and
concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1. Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid and dissolve Au
& Pt due to the formation of Nascent (newly born) Chlorine (Cl).
(4) Reaction of metals with Solutions of other Metal Salts: (Displacement Reaction)
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in a vertical column in the order of their decreasing
activities downwards.
*Hydrogen is included in the activity series even though it is a non-metal. The hydrogen ion (H+), like
other metal ions, has a positive charge in most chemical reactions.
Activity series : Relative reactivities of metals
K Potassium _____ ____> Most reactive
Na Sodium
Ca Calcium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc Reactivity decreases as we go down
Fe Iron
Pb Lead
H Hydrogen
Cu Copper
Hg Mercury
Ag Silver
Au Gold-------_____ ____> Least reactive
1) Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) _____ ____> FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (S)
Copper Sulphate (Iron II Sulphate Brown
Blue Green

 Iron has displaced Copper from copper sulphate solution because iron is more reactive than
copper.
2) Zn (s) + CuSO4(aq) _____ ____> ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (S)
Copper Sulphate (Zinc Sulphate Brown
Blue Colourless

**Note: The more easily a metal can lose an electron, the more reactive it is.

Chemical Properties of Non Metals:

Large amount of energy is needed to remove one or more electrons from non-metals, so they do not
form positive ions.
When non-metals accept one or more electron, energy is released and non-metal become negatively
charged.
Cl + e- _ ____> Cl-

O + 2e- _ ____> O2-

N + 3e- _ ____> N3-

17
(1) Reaction with Oxygen:
Non Metal + O2 ____> Non Metal oxide

*Non-metal oxides are either acidic or neutral in nature. They are covalent compounds, formed by
sharing of electrons between the non-metal and the oxygen atom.
Acidic oxides:
(a) C(s) + O2(g) ____ ____> CO2 (g)
(acidic oxide)
CO2 (g) + H2O(l) ____ ____> H2CO3 (aq)
(carbonic acid)
(b) S(s) + O2(g) ____ ____ > SO2 (g)
(acidic oxide)
SO2 (g) + H2O(l) ____ ____> H2SO3 (aq)
(Sulphurous acid)
*All acidic oxides are acid anhydrides because they dissolve in water to form acids.
Neutral oxides:
H2 (g) + O2(g) __ Electric spark __> 2H2O (l)

(2) Reaction with Water:

Non-metals generally do not react with water to produce H2 gas, as they cannot reduce the hydrogen (H+)
ions of water to H2 gas.
2 F2 (g) + 2 H2O(l) ____ ____> 4 HF(aq) + O2(g)
(Hydrogen fluoride) (Oxygen)

3 F2 (g) + 3 H2O(l) ____ ____> 6 HF(aq) + O3(g)

(Hydrogen fluoride) (Ozone)

(3) Reaction with dil. Acids:

Non-metals generally do not react with dil. acids to produce H2 gas, as they cannot displace Hydrogen
(H2) gas from acids.
Question: Why non-metals react with chlorides to form covalent chlorides?
Answer: Non-metals do not give electrons to chlorine to form chloride ions, so they share electrons to
form covalent chlorides.
H2 (g) + Cl2(g) __ Diffused Sunlight __> 2HCl (g)
( Non-metal) ( Non-metal) (A Covalent chloride)

HOW DO METALS AND NON-METALS REACT ?

Ionic Bond: A chemical bond formed between two atoms by transfer of electrons so as to complete their
octet (duplet for hydrogen) so as to acquire the stable nearest noble gas configuration.
The compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known as ionic
compounds or electrovalent compounds.
Example: A sodium atom has one electron in its outermost shell. If it loses the electron from its M shell
then its L shell now becomes the outermost shell and that has a stable octet. The nucleus of this atom still
has 11 protons but the number of electrons has become 10, so there is a net positive charge giving us a
sodium cation Na+.

18
 On the other hand chlorine has seven electrons in its outermost shell and it requires one more electron
to complete its octet. If sodium and chlorine were to react, the electron lost by sodium could be taken up
by chlorine. After gaining an electron, the chlorine atom gets a unit negative charge, because its nucleus
has 17 protons and there are 18 electrons in its K, L and M shells. This gives us a chloride anion C1 –.

So both these elements can have a give-and-take relation between them as follows:
Na → Na+ + e-
2,8,1 2,8
(Sodium cation)
Cl + e- → Cl-
2,8,7 2,8,8
(Chloride anion)

Sodium and chloride ions, being oppositely charged, attract each other and are held by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction to exist as sodium chloride (NaCl). It should be noted that sodium
chloride does not exist as molecules but aggregates of oppositely charged ions.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

(i) Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids and are relatively hard because of the strong force of
attraction between the positive and negative ions. These compounds are generally brittle and break into
pieces on applying force.
(ii) Melting and Boiling points: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling point because a
considerable amount of energy is required to break the strong inter-ionic attraction.
(iii) Solubility: Generally soluble in water (polar solvent) and insoluble in organic solvents such as
kerosene, petrol, etc.
(iv) Conduction of Electricity: Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because
movement of ions in the solid is not possible due to their rigid structure.
A solution of an ionic compound in water contains free ions, which move to the opposite electrodes
when electricity is passed through the solution.
Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state. Because in the molten state the electrostatic
forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions are overcome due to the heat. Thus, the ions
move freely and conduct electricity.
(v) Colour in flame: Most salts impart characteristic colour to the flame.
Eg NaCl impart golden yellow whereas Potassium salts impart violet colour to the flame.

OCCURRENCE OF METALS:

The metal bearing substances, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust, are known as minerals.
The minerals from which a particular metal can be profitably extracted are called ores.
*All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
*Oxygen & Silicon are the most abundant element in the earth’s crust.
* Aluminium is the most abundant metal on the earth’s crust. (8.3%).

EXTRACTION OF METALS:

Getting metal out of ore is called extraction of metal. The branch of science which deals with extraction
of metal from the ore is called Metallurgy.

19
Different techniques are to be used for obtaining the metals falling in each category.
K Potassium ____> Highly reactive metals

Na Sodium Never found in free state

Ca Calcium ( Electrolysis )
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc _ ____> Moderately reactive metals

Fe Iron Found in combined state as oxides, sulphides or carbonates

Ni Nickel ( Reduction using carbon )
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
Cu Copper _ ____> Less reactive metals
Hg Mercury Found in free state as well as combined state
Ag Silver
Pt Platinum ____> Least reactive metals

Au Gold ( Found in native / free state )

Metallurgical Processes:
(i) Concentration or Enrichment or Dressing of Ore:
Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as soil, sand,
rocky and clayey material etc., are called gangue.
The process for removing the gangue from the ore is called concentration or benefaction of ore. It is
based on the differences between the physical or chemical properties of the gangue and the ore.
(ii) Extraction of metal from concentrated ore (Conversion of concentrated ore into oxide of metal):

(A) Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series (Cu, Hg, Ag)
2HgS(s) + 3O2 (g) ______ ____> 2HgO(s) + 2SO2 (g)
cinnabar

2HgO(s) __ _______ Heat____> 2Hg(l) + O2 (g)

20
Similarly, copper which is found as Cu2S in nature can be obtained from its ore by just heating in air.
2Cu2S + 3O2 (g) __ ____> 2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)
copper glance
2Cu2O + Cu2S __ ____> 6Cu(s) + SO2 (g)

(B) Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series (Fe, Zn, Pb)
**It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide, as compared to its sulphides and carbonates.
Therefore, prior to reduction, the metal sulphides and carbonates must be converted into metal
oxides.

The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by heating strongly in limited air. This process is known as
calcination.
Eg. ZnCO3 (s) __ _____Heat___ ____> ZnO(s) + CO2 (g)

The sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the presence of excess air. This process
is known as roasting.
Eg. 2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) __ Heat ____> 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2 (g)

Reduction: The metal oxides are then reduced to the corresponding metals by using suitable reducing
agents such as carbon. For example, when zinc oxide is heated with carbon, it is reduced to metallic zinc.
ZnO(s) + C(s) __ ____> Zn(s) + CO(g)
Displacement Reaction: Besides using carbon (coke), the highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium,
aluminium, etc., are used as reducing agents because they can displace metals of lower reactivity from
their compounds.
For example:
3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s) __ ____> 3Mn(l) + 2Al2O3(s) + Heat
These displacement reactions are highly exothermic. The amount of heat evolved is so large that the
metals are produced in the molten state. In fact, the reaction of iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium is
used to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts. This reaction is known as the thermite reaction.
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) __ ____> 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s) + Heat

(C) Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al)
The metals high up in the reactivity series cannot be obtained from their compounds by heating with
carbon. Carbon cannot reduce the oxides to the respective metals. This is because these metals have
more affinity for oxygen than carbon. These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction.
For example, sodium, magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.
The metals are deposited at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode), whereas, chlorine is liberated
at the anode (the positively charged electrode).
NaCl (s) __Melt ____> Na+ (l) + Cl- (l)
At cathode Na+ (l) + e– __Reduction ____> Na (S)
At anode 2Cl– (l) __Oxidation ____> Cl + 2e–
(g)
Cl(g) + Cl(g) __ ____> Cl2 (g)
(iii) Refining of Metals
The metals produced by various reduction processes described above are not very pure. They contain
impurities. The process of purifying the impure (crude) metal is called refining of the metal. The most
commonly used method for refining the metal is electrolytic refining.

Electrolytic Refining or Electrolysis: Many metals, such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc., are
refined by electrolysis. In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure metal
21
is made the cathode. A solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte. On passing the current through
the electrolyte, the pure metal from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte. An equivalent amount of
pure metal from the electrolyte is deposited on the cathode. The soluble impurities go into the solution,
whereas, the insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the anode and are known as anode mud
or anode sludge.

At cathode Cu2+(aq) + 2e– __ ____> Cu(S)

(From Solution)
At anode Cu (S) __ ____> Cu2+ 2e–
(aq) +
CORROSION: The process of slowly eating up of metals due to their conversion into oxides, carbonates,
sulphides etc. by the action of atmospheric gases and moisture is called corrosion.
(a) Silver articles become black after some time when exposed to air. This is because it reacts with
sulphur in the air to form a coating of silver sulphide.
Ag (s) + H2S -----------------> Ag2S + H2 (s)
Silver Hydrogen sulphide Silver sulphide (Black)

(b) Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and slowly loses its shiny brown surface and
gains a green coat. This green substance is basic copper carbonate.
Cu (s) + H2O + CO2 (g) + O2 (g) ----------> CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Copper From moist air Basic Copper carbonate (Green)

*When a lemon (which contains citric acid) is rubbed with tarnished copper vessel, the basic copper
oxide of the copper carbonate reacts with the acid present in the acid to form salt, which is
washed away with water

(c) Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called
rust.
Fe + O2 + H2O __ ____> Fe O xH O (s)
2 3. 2
Iron Hydrated Ferric oxide (Rust)
Prevention of Corrosion:
The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanizing, electroplating (chrome
plating, tin plating, nickel plating), anodizing or making alloys.

*Galvanization is a method of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them with a thin layer of
zinc.

An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal. It is prepared by
first melting the primary metal, and then, dissolving the other elements in it in definite proportions. It is
then cooled and solidified to room temperature.
eg. Brass, an alloy of copper (80%) and zinc (20%)
Bronze, an alloy of copper (90%) and tin (10%)
Solder, an alloy of lead (50%) and tin (50%) is used in welding due to low melting point.
Steel, an alloy of iron (99.95%) and carbon (0.05%)
Stainless steel, an alloy of iron (74%), nickel (8%) and chromium (18%)

If one of the metals in alloy is mercury, then the alloy is known as an Amalgam. Amalgams of Na & Al are
good reducing agents. Amalgam of Ag, Sn, Cd & Cu have been utilized as dental fillings.

Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It is alloyed with either silver or copper to make it hard.
22
 MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-3

Exceptions
property metal Non metal
hardness Na,Li,K Diamond is hardest
State Hg-liquid Bromine-liquid
conductors Best-Ag,Cu, Poor-Hg,Pb Graphite good conductor
Amphoteric oxides-metal oxides that react with acid as well as base.e.g.Al2O3, ZnO etc.
Reaction with water
Cold water High reactive – Metal hydroxide –basic
Na,K,Ca
Hot water High and Medium Ca ,Mg floats on water as hydrogen gas formed stick on the
reactive metal -mg surface of these metals
steam Medium reactive- Metal oxide is formed
Al,Fe,Zn
Low reactive Pb,Cu,Ag,Au No reaction

Reactivity series- Arrangement of metals in order of their ability to displace other metal from its salt.
Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state because movement of ions in the solid state
is not possible due to their rigid structure. In solution and molten form they conduct electricity due to
movement of ions
23
 Thermite reaction-The reaction of iron oxide, Fe2O3 with aluminium is used to join railway tracks or cracked
machine parts. This is known as the Thermite reaction
Fe2O3 + Al → Fe + Al2O3
Hydrogen gas is not evolved when metals react with nitric acid because nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent, It
oxidizes the hydrogen to produce water.
Aqua regia-It is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) and concentrated nitric acid
(HNO3 ) in the ratio of 3:1 it can dissolve gold . It is a highly corrosive liquid.
Minerals: - The elements and compounds which occur naturally in the earth’s crust are called minerals.
Ores:- Minerals that contain very high percentage of particular metal and the metal can be profitably extracted
from it, such ,minerals are called ores.
Ores are generally associated with large amount of impurities such as soil, sand etc., is called as gangue.

CHAPTER – 4 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

CARBON: INTRODUCTION
Atomic Number: 6 Electronic configuration: 2, 4
Valence electrons: 4 Property: Non-metal

BONDING IN CARBON: COVALENT BOND

Bond formed by sharing of electrons is called covalent bond. Two or more atoms share
electrons to make their configuration stable. In this type of bond, all the atoms have similar
rights over shared electrons. Compounds which are formed because of covalent bond are
called covalent compounds.
Carbon do not form C4+/C4-
Carbon cannot form ionic bond because it requires four electrons for the completion of
octet
(i) Gain four electrons forming C4- anion- But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is four extra electrons.
(ii) lose four electrons forming C4+ cation- But it would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation.

FORMATION OF COVALENT BONDS

1. Covalent bond is the chemical bond formed through the sharing of electrons and
compound formed are called covalent compounds.
2. Examples of covalent compounds or molecules are chlorine, Cl2, carbon dioxide,
CO2, ammonia, NH3, water, H2O, and tetra-chloro methane (carbon tetrachloride),
CCl4.
3. Through this process, each non-metal atom in covalent molecules will achieve
stable electron arrangement.
4. The type of covalent bond formed in a covalent compound depends on the
number of electron pairs shared between non-metal atoms.
Covalent bonds are of three types: Single, double and triple covalent bond.

SINGLE COVALENT BOND

1. A single covalent bond is the covalent bond formed through the sharing of a pair
of electrons between two non-metal atoms. Each non-metal atom contributes one
electron for sharing to achieve a stable electron arrangement.
24
 2. Example of single covalent compound are chlorine gas, Cl2, hydrogen chloride, HCl,
water, H2O, methane, CH4, ammonia, NH3, and tetrachloro methane,CCl4.
3. Single covalent bonds can also be formed between different non-metal atoms.

Formation of hydrogen molecule (H2)

Hydrogen forms a duet, to obtain stable configuration. This configuration is similar to
helium (a noble gas).
Since, hydrogen has one electron in its valence shell, so it requires one more electron to
form a duet. So, in the formation of hydrogen molecule; one electron from each of the
hydrogen atoms is shared.

Formation of hydrogen chloride (HCl):

Formation of Methane (CH4)

DOUBLE COVALENT BOND

During the formation of double bond, each non-metal atom contributes two pairs
of electrons to be shared to achieve a stable electron arrangement.

Formation of oxygen

 In the formation of oxygen molecule, two electrons are shared by each of the two
oxygen atoms to complete their stable configuration.
 In oxygen, the total number of shared electrons is four, two from each of the oxygen
atoms. So a double covalent bond is formed.

Formation of Carbon dioxide (CO2):

TRIPLE COVALENT BOND

The triple covalent bond is the type of covalent bond formed through the sharing of three
pairs of electrons between two non-metal atoms.
Example of molecule which has triple covalent bonds is the nitrogen molecule, N2.
25
Formation of Nitrogen (N2)-

In the formation of nitrogen, three electrons are shared by each of the nitrogen atoms.
Thus, one triple bond is formed because of the sharing of total six electrons.
Properties of Covalent Bond:
 Inter molecular force is smaller.
 Covalent bonds are weaker than ionic bond. As a result, covalent compounds have
low melting and boiling points.
 Covalent compounds are poor conductor of electricity as no charged particles are
formed in covalent bond.

ALLOTROPY
Allotropy is defined as the property by which an element can exist in more than one form
that are physically different but chemically similar.
Allotropes of carbon
Carbon exists in three allotropic forms. They are crystalline form (diamond and graphite),
amorphous form (coke, charcoal) and fullerene.
In diamond each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a rigid
three dimensional structure, accounting for its hardness and rigidity.
General properties of diamond are-
 It is a colourless transparent substance with extra ordinary brilliance due to its
high refractive index.
 It is quite heavy.
 It is extremely hard (hardest natural substance known).
 It does not conduct electricity (because of the absence of free electrons).
 It has high thermal conductivity and high melting point.
 It burns on strong heating to form carbon dioxide.

In graphite each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane
giving hexagonal layers held together by weak Vander Waals forces accounting for
softness.
General properties of graphite are-
 It is a greyish black opaque substance.
 It is lighter than diamond, feels soft and slippery to touch.
 It is a good conductor of electricity (due to the presence of free electrons) but
bad conductor of heat.
 It burns on strong heating to form carbon dioxide.

Fullerenes form another type of carbon allotropes. The first one was identified to contain
60 carbon atoms.
Buck Minster Fuller, it is named as Buck Minster Fullerene.

26
General Properties of fullerenes are:
 These are dark solids at room temperature.
 These are neither too hard nor too soft.
 These are the purest allotrophic forms of carbon because of the absence of free
valencies or surface bonds.
 On burning, these produce only carbon dioxide gas.

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

Initially, compounds of carbon could only be obtained from living sources and there was no
way of synthesizing them. Carbon forms a large number of compounds. So far, formulae of
about 3 million carbon compounds are known.

Cause of formation of such a large number of compounds by carbon:

 Carbon can form bonds with other carbon atoms. This property of carbon is known as
Catenation. Because of catenation, carbon can form a long chain; while making bond
with other carbon atoms. Carbon can make single, double and triple bonds or can form
rings, chains and branches by catenation.
 Due to the valency of four, carbon is capable of bonding or pairing with four other
carbon atoms or with the atoms of some other mono valent elements. It also forms
compounds with oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, hydrogen and many other elements. This
gives rise to compounds with specific properties which depend on the element other
than carbon present in the molecule.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
The compounds of carbon except its oxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonate salts, are known as
organic compounds.
HYDROCARBONS:
(Hydrogen+Carbon=Hydrocarbon) Compounds formed because of the combination of
hydrogen and carbon are known as hydrocarbons. These are regarded as the parent organic
compounds.
Hydrocarbons can be divided into various classes as shown in below:

27
 SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Alkanes
General formula=CnH2n+2 Suffix: ane
These are the organic compounds which contain carbon – carbon single bond. These were
earlier named as paraffin’s (Latin: meaning little affinity) due to their least chemical reactivity.
According to IUPAC system, these are named as alkanes (ane is suffix with root word).
UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
These are hydrocarbons which contain carbon to carbon double bonds or carbon to carbon
triple bonds in their molecules. These are further classified in to two types: alkenes and
alkynes.
Alkenes: General formula: CnH2n Suffix: -ene
The hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon to carbon double bond are called alkenes.
They have the general formula CnH2n. These were previously called olefins (Greek: olefiant – oil
forming) because the lower gaseous members of the family form oily products when treated
with chlorine.
Alkynes: General formula: CnH2n-2 Suffix: -yne
The hydrocarbons containing carbon to carbon triple bond are called alkynes.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series is a group or a class of organic compounds having similar structure and
similar chemical properties in which the successive compounds differ by a -CH2 group.

Characteristics of homologous series

 Each member of the series differs from the preceeding or succeeding member by a
common difference of CH2 and by a molecular mass of 14 amu (amu=atomic mass
unit).
 All members of homologous series contain same elements and the same functional groups.
 All members of homologous series have same general molecular formula.
 The members in homologous series show a regular gradation in their physical
properties with respect to increase in molecular mass.
 The chemical properties of the members of the homologous series are similar.

IMPORTANCE OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

 It helps to predict the properties of the members of the series that are yet to be prepared.
 Knowledge of homologous series gives a systematic study of the members.
 The nature of any member of the family can be ascurtained (learn with
certainty.) if the properties of the first member are known.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP
Functional group may be defined as an atom or group of atoms or reactive part which is
responsible for the characteristic properties of the compounds.
The chemical properties of organic compounds are determined by the functional groups
while their physical properties are determined by the remaining part of the molecule.
28
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BASED ON FUNCTIONAL GROUP
1. ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are carbon compounds containing –OH group attached to alkyl group. The general
formula of alcohol is R-OH where ‘R’ is an alkyl group and –OH is the functional group

2. ALDEHYDES

Aldehydes are carbon compounds containing –CHO group attached to alkyl group or
hydrogen atom. The general formula of aldehydes is R–CHO where ‘R’ is an alkyl group or
hydrogen atom and–CHO is the functional group.

3. KETONES
Ketones are carbon compounds containing carbonyl – CO – group attached to two alkyl
groups. The general formula of ketone is R-CO-R’ where R and R’ are alkyl groups and–CO–is
the functional group.

4. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS:
Carboxylic acids are carbon compounds containing –COOH group attached to a hydrogen atom or alkyl
group. The general formula of acid is R-COOH where ‘R’ is a hydrogen atom or alkyl group and–COOH is
the functional group.

29
ISOMERISM -

Carbon compounds or organic compounds with same molecular formula can show different structures
and hence, different properties. This phenomenon is called isomerism and compounds are called isomers.
For example, following two arrangements are possible for butane, an alkane with four C atoms (C 4H10)
Such pair of isomers is called chain isomers and the isomerism is called chain isomerism.
Thus, chain isomers are the compounds that have same molecular formula but differ in
the arrangement of carbon chains.

NOMENCLATURE OF CARBON COMPOUNDS In general, the names of organic

compounds are based on the name of basic carbon chain modified by a prefix (phrase
before) or suffix (phrase after) showing the name of the functional group.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

COMBUSTION
All the carbon compounds burn in oxygen and yield carbon dioxide and water vapour. Heat
and light are also released during this process. This reaction is called combustion.
(i) C+O2 →CO2+heat and light
(ii) CH4+O2→CO2+H2O+ heat and light
(iii) CH3CH2OH+O2→CO2+ H2O+ heat and light

OXIDATION
Oxidation is a process of intake of oxygen and removal of hydrogen. Those substances which
are capable of providing oxygen to other substances are called oxidising agents. e.g., alk.
KMnO4 and acidified K2Cr2O7 can both behave as oxidising agents.

30
ADDITION REACTION
The reaction in which a reagent adds completely on a substance without the removal of small
molecules are called addition reactions. For example, addition of hydrogen (in the presence of
catalysts like Palladium or Nickel) to unsaturated hydrocarbons, yields saturated hydrocarbons
(Hydrogenation).

Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen) of vegetable oil (which are unsaturated compounds)

in the presence of nickel catalyst gives ghee (saturated compounds). This process is called
hardening of oils.

SUBSTITUTION REACTION
The reactions in which a reagent substitutes (replaces) an atom or a group of atoms from the
reactant (substrate) are called substitution reactions. These are generally shown by saturated
compounds and benzene.
Most of the saturated hydrocarbons are fairly inert and unreactive in the presence of most
reagents. So, presence of sun light is necessary for their substitution reactions.
When chlorine is added to hydrocarbons at a rapid rate, in the presence of sunlight, Cl
replaces H atom one by one.

SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS –ETHANOL AND ETHANOIC ACID

Almost all the compounds are useful to us in a number of ways. Most of the fuels, medicines,
paints, explosives, synthetic polymers, perfumes and detergents are basically organic
compounds. In fact, organic chemistry has made our life colourful and also comfortable.
Two commercially important compounds are ethanol and ethanoic acid

ETHANOL (C2H5OH)
Ethanol or ethyl alcohol or simply alcohol is one of the most important members of the
family of alcohols.

PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL:

PHYSICALPROPERTIES
(i) Ethanol is a clear liquid with burning taste.
(ii) Its boiling point is 351K which is higher than corresponding alkane.
(iii) It is completely miscible with water in all proportions.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
(i) DEHYDRATION
(a) Intra molecular dehydration: Ethanol, when heated with excess conc. H2SO4 at 443
K undergoes intramolecular dehydration (i.e. removal of water with in a molecule of
ethanol).

31
(ii) Reaction with sodium: Ethanol reacts with sodium metal to form sodium ethoxide
and hydrogen gas.

USES OF ETHANOL
 As a solvent for drugs, oils, fats, perfumes, dyes, etc.
 In the preparation of methylated spirit (mixture of 95% of ethanol and 5% of
methanol), rectified spirit (mixture of 95.5% of ethanol and 4.5% of water), power
alcohol (mixture of petrol and ethanol) and denatured sprit (ethanol mixed with
pyridine).
 In cough and digestive syrups.
ETHANOIC ACID (CH3COOH)
Ethanoic acid is most commonly known as acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called
carboxylic acids. Acetic acid is present in many fruits and sour taste of fruits is because of this
acid.
PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES-
(i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid and has a sour taste.
(ii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iii) Boiling point (391K) is higher than corresponding alcohols, aldehydes and ketones.
(iv) On cooling, pure ethanoic acid is frozen to form ice like flakes. They look like glaciers,
so it is called glacial acetic acid.
CHEMICALPROPERTIES
(i) Ethanoic acid is a weak acid but it turns blue litmus to red.
(ii) Reaction with metal

Ethanoic acid reacts with metals like Na, K, Zn, etc. to form metal ethanoate and hydrogen gas.

(iii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates.

Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates and produces brisk effervescence due
to the evolution of carbon dioxide.

(iv) Reaction with base

Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.

(i) Esterification: Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of conc.H2SO4
(catalyst) to form ethyl ethanoate and water. The compound formed by the reaction of an
alcohol with carboxylic acid is known as ester (fruity smelling compound) and
the reaction is called esterification.

32
 USES OF ETHANOIC ACID
 For making vinegar which is used as a preservative in food and fruit juices.
 As a laboratory reagent.
 For coagulating rubber from latex.
 In the preparation of dyes, perfumes
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS--

Most dirt is oily in nature and as you

know, oil does not dissolve in water. The
molecules of soap are sodium or
potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic
acids. The ionic-end of soap dissolves in
water while the carbon chain dissolves in
oil. The soap molecules, thus form
structures called micelles where one end
of the molecules is towards the oil droplet
while the ionic-end faces outside. This
forms an emulsion in water. The soap
micelle thus helps in dissolving the dirt in
water and we can wash our clothes clean.
MICELLES
Soaps are molecules in which the two
ends have differing properties, one is
hydrophilic, that is, it dissolves in water,
while the other end is hydrophobic, that
is, it dissolves in hydrocarbons. When soap
is at the surface of water, the hydrophobic
‘tail’ of soap will not be soluble in water
and the soap will align along the surface of
water with the ionic end in water and the
hydrocarbon ‘tail’ protruding out of water.

33
 MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-4

Catenation: It is the unique ability of elements to form long, straight or branched chains and rings of different
sizes. Carbon shows maximum catenation in the periodic table.
Tetravalency: It is the state of an atom in which there are four electrons available with the atom for covalent
chemical bonding.
Steps for writing the Lewis dot Structures of a covalent compound:
(i) Write the electronic configuration of all the atoms present in the molecule.
(ii) Identify how many electrons are needed by each atom to attain noble gas configuration.
(iii) Share the electrons between atoms in such a way that all the atoms in a molecule have noble gas
configuration.
(iv) Keep in mind that the shared electrons are counted in the valence shell of both the atoms sharing it
Homologous Series: A series of organic compounds in which every succeeding member differs from the previous
one by – CH2 or 14 a.m.u. is called homologous series. The molecular formula of all the members of a
homologous series can be derived from a general formula.
Properties of a homologous series: As the molecular mass increases in a series, physical properties of the
compounds show a variation, but chemical properties which are determined by a functional group remain the
same within a series
Oxidation: CH3CH2OH (Ethanol) is oxidized in Alkaline KMnO4Or Acidic K2 Cr 2O7 form CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)
ADDITION REACTION:In unsaturated hydrocarbon, hydrogen added in the presence of catalyst palladium or Ni
Functional Group:- Functional group may be defined as an atom or group of atoms which largely determines the
properties of a family of organic compounds. For example,
Alcohol : -OH , Aldehydes : -CHO, Ketone : - CO - ,
Carboxylic : - COOH, Halo (Bromo / Chloro : -Br, -Cl
Isomers:- Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different arrangement of the
atoms in space.
e.g. 1-pentene and 2-pentene are isomers
CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2
CH3CH2CH=CHCH3
Esterification:- Esterification reaction: when an organic acid reacts with an alcohol in the presence of acid
catalyst, it produces a sweet smelling substance called ester. this reaction is called esterification reaction, e.g.,
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ---------> CH3COOC2H5 +H2O
Saponification:- Saponification: ester reacts in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the alcohol and the
carboxylic acid. this reaction is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap.
CH3COOC2H5 -----------> CH3COOH + C2H5OH

34
 CHAPTER - 5 LIFE PROCESSES

Life processes-The processes which all together perform the function of maintenance of ‘life’ are called
life processes. Nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion are examples of essential life processes.
In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by the single cell.
In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to carry out these processes.
Nutrition- Nutrition is the process of taking in food (nutrients) and utilising it to get energy for various
biological activities.
Nutrients: These are inorganic as well as organic substances which the organism obtains from their
surroundings in order to make their body constituents and use them as a source of energy.

MODES OF NUTRITION

(1) Autotrophic nutrition: (auto = self, trophs = nutrition) In it, organisms use inorganic material like
water and carbon dioxide to prepare their own food by a process called photosynthesis. Plants,
algae (blue green algae), and cyanobacteria are some examples.

(2) Heterotrophic nutrition: (hetero = other, trophs = nutrition) The organisms which cannot produce
food on their own and depend on other organisms are called heterotrophs. This mode of nutrition
is known as heterotrophic nutrition. Eg. All animals
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN GREEN PLANTS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: The process during which the plants uses CO2, H2O in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll to synthesize carbohydrates.
6 CO2 + 12 H2O __ Sunlight __> C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
chlorophyll

**Water is responsible for the release of molecular Oxygen (O2) which goes into the atmosphere
2H2O ____________> 4H+ + O2 + 4e-
MAIN EVENTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water molecule.
 Reduction of CO2 to form carbohydrates.
Site of photosynthesis in the leaf is chloroplast. It contains a green pigment called chlorophyll.
Factors affecting photosynthesis:
(1) Light: About 2% of the total solar energy reaching the earth is utilised by the plants during
photosynthesis. Rate of photosynthesis is increased in high intensity of light (not too high).
(2) Temperature: Rate of photosynthesis is increases up to 400C.
(3) CO2 : Increase in concentration of CO2 increases the rate of photosynthesis (not too high).
(4) Water: Only 1% of the water absorbed by the plant is used in photosynthesis. However, the rate
of photosynthesis is lowered if the plants are inadequately supplied with water.
Raw materials for photosynthesis : carbon-dioxide(from air through stomata) and water(from water
present in soil through root hairs).
Stomata: The numerous pores present on the surface of plant leaf responsible for exchange of gases and
transpiration. The opening and closing of the stomata is controlled by the turgidity of guard cells. The
guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. Similarly the pore
closes, if the guard cell shrinks (loose water).

35
 Open and closed stomatal pore Cross section of leaf

TYPES OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION:

(A) Saprophytic nutrition: The organisms derive their nutrients from dead and decaying (rotten)
organic matter. They digest the food externally before the nutrients are absorbed. Eg. Fungi
(yeast, mucor, mushroom) and bacteria.
(B) Parasitic nutrition: The organisms (parasite) derive their nutrients or food from other living
organisms, by living on or in the body of the host. Ex Cuscuta (amarbel), Plasmodium (malarial
parasite), Ascaris (roundworm), Taenia solium (tapeworm), ticks, lice, leech, etc.
(C) Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the organism feed by ingesting solid food which is then
digested and absorbed into their bodies. Most of the animals follow this mode of nutrition. Eg.
Amoeba, humans, animals and insectivorous plants.

NUTRITION IN AMOEBA
The mode of nutrition in Amoeba is Holozoic and the process of obtaining food is called Phagocytosis.
The nutrition involves 5 steps:
(1) Ingestion/Phagocytosis: Amoeba engulfs (take in) food particle by forming pseudopodia (false
feet like projections). The food is encaptured into the cell in the form of a bag called food vacuole.
(2) Digestion: The food is converted into soluble form in the food vacuole with the help of digestive
enzymes present in the cytoplasm.
(3) Absorption: Digested food is absorbed from the food vacuole.
(4) Assimilation: The digested food is soluble and easily diffuse into the cytoplasm. It is then utilised
by the cell.
(5) Egestion: The food which is not digested and assimilated remains in the food vacuole and is
thrown out of the body.

NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Human digestive system consists an alimentary canal and some associated digestive glands.
The alimentary canal in humans extends from mouth to the anal opening (Anus). It comprises of mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
• Associated Glands are - Salivary gland, Gastric Glands, Liver and Pancreas

36
Alimentary Canal-
(1) Mouth: Entry of food in the body. Opens into a chamber or cavity called buccal cavity.
(2) Buccal (Oral) cavity: It is a large space bounded above by palate, below by throat and on the sides
by jaws.
Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that swallowing of food becomes easier.
The dental formula in humans is 2123/2123.
The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste. Tongue helps in proper mixing of
the saliva with the food.
Three (3) pairs of Salivary glands: secretes saliva, which contains water, salts, mucus and an enzyme
ptyalin or salivary amylase. The ptyalin enzyme splits starch and glycogen into maltose.

Starch __ptyalin or salivary amylase___> maltose sugar

The digestion of carbohydrates starts in the Buccal cavity.

(3) Pharynx: 12 cm long tube, serves as a passage for the food from buccal cavity to the oesophagus
(4) Oesophagus: Long tube which carry food from Pharynx to stomach with the help of peristaltic
movement (contraction and expansion movement of walls), so the partially digested food is
pushed forward in the digestive tract.
No digestion occurs in oesophagus.
(5) Stomach: A wide C - shaped or J shaped on the
left side of abdomen. Muscular walls of
stomach churn the food. The inner surface of
stomach secretes Gastric juices which have 3
substances.
(a) Pepsin: digest proteins. Digestion of
Proteins starts in Stomach.

Proteins __pepsin___> Peptones

(b) HCl: HCl makes medium acidic for the
pepsin enzyme (which acts in acidic
medium) which digest proteins. HCl
also kill germs, which comes along with the
food.
(c) Mucus: Protect the inner lining of stomach from the corroding action of HCl and Pepsin
enzyme.
 The exit of food from the stomach to is regulated by the sphincter muscle.
(6) Small Intestine: Longest part (6 metre) of alimentary canal.
Small intestine has three parts (a) Duodenum (b) Jejunum (c) ileum.
Small intestine is relatively longer in herbivores than carnivores for digestion of cellulose.
ACCESSORY GLANDS: Liver and Pancreas secrete their digestive juices into the small intestine
through a common duct.
(i) Liver: Liver secretes bile
Gall bladder: stores bile
The bile duct carries bile. Bile contains bile pigments and bile salts. The bile contains NO enzymes
and so performs no digestion. The bile salts perform emulsification of Fats.
Emulsification of Fats: The process of breaking of fat molecules into fat globules by the action of
bile.
37
 (ii) Pancreas: Present beneath the stomach. Mixed gland-
(a) Endocrine region of Pancreas secretes Insulin and Glucagon.
Insulin controls the blood sugar by converting excess sugar in blood into glycogen.
(b) Exocrine part secretes bicarbonate ions, which makes the medium basic (alkaline) for the
pancreatic enzyme (pancreatic amylase).
Pancreatic amylase causes  breaks down of starch,
Pancreatic lipase  breaks down lipids (fats)
Trypsin  digestion of protein
Intestinal juice is secreted by the small intestine, which contains a mixture of several enzymes.
Carbohydrates ________> Glucose
Lipids ________> Fatty acids + Glycerol
Proteins _________ > Amino acids
* The digestion of food completes in small intestine.

DESIGN OF THE SMALL INTESTINE TO ABSORB DIGESTED FOOD:

The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called. These villi increase the surface area
for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many blood vessels are present that absorb the
digested food and carry it to the blood stream. From the blood stream, the absorbed food is delivered to
each and every cell of the body
(7) Large Intestine: Shorter but wider than small intestine. It has two parts:
(a) Colon  Absorbs water from the undigested food
(b) Rectum  Stores faeces, secretes mucus for lubrication
(8) Anus: Egest faeces by the activity of anal sphincter muscle.

Assimilation of Digested food: The absorbed food goes in the blood and moves along the blood stream.
The food reaches to the cells where it is utilised and is termed as assimilation.
Tooth Decay: Bacteria Streptococcus mutans grow on food particles and produce acids, which act upon
enamel and causes softening or demineralisation and forms dental plaque.

RESPIRATION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Respiration is a complex process which involves:
(a) Breathing or Gaseous exchange: intake of O2 and release of CO2
(b) Cellular Respiration or Breakdown of Glucose: in order to release energy in form of ATP
molecules.
Types of Cellular Respiration:
(i) Aerobic respiration: The oxidative breakdown of the respiratory substrates with the help of
atmospheric O2 is known as aerobic respiration.
Glucose _____Glycolysis __ ____> Pyruvic Acid _____Kreb'''s cycle __ ______> CO + H O + Energy
2 2
In Cytoplasm, oxygen not required (C H4O3) (3 carbon) In mitochondria, oxygen is required
3
(ii) Anaerobic Respiration:
(a) Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast cells (Fermentation):

Glucose _____Glycolysis ____ ____> Pyruvic Acid _in absence of oxygen__> C2H5OH + CO2 + Energy
In Cytoplasm, oxygen not required (3 carbon) Ethanol (2 carbon)

(b) Anaerobic Respiration in Muscle cells of Humans:

Glucose _____Glycolysis ____ ____> Pyruvic Acid _in absence of oxygen__> Lactic acid + CO2 + Energy
In Cytoplasm, oxygen not required (3 carbon) (C H6O3) (3 carbon)
3

38
**Pain in Leg Muscles on Running: During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases.
This is compensated by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process. The deposition of
lactic acid causes the pain in the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for some time.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1 Occurs in presence of oxygen.
2 Glucose is completely oxidised.
3 End products are CO2 , H2O and Energy.
4 Large amount of energy is released. (38 ATP)
5 Takes place in cytoplasm and mitochondria.
1 Occurs in absence of oxygen.
2 Glucose is not completely oxidised.
3 End products are Ethanol,CO2 and Energy.
4 Less amount of energy is released. (02 ATP)
5 Takes place in cytoplasm only.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS

The respiratory system in human beings consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
lungs.
(1) Nasal cavity: The air enters through a pair of nostrils and reaches into a pair of nasal cavities,
which are separated from the oral cavity by a bony palate. The dust particles in air are entrapped
in the mucus and hairs and the air gets warmed in the nasal cavity.
(2) Pharynx: It provides passage for air into trachea through a slit-like aperture, called glottis. The
glottis bears a leaf-like cartilaginous flap, the Epiglottis, at its anterior margin. During swallowing,
the epiglottis closes the glottis to check the entry of food into it. It is common pathway for both
food as well as air.
(3) Larynx or Voice Box: Enlarged upper part of Trachea. In males, it often becomes prominent and
protrudes out and known as “Adam’s Apple”. Inside it, there are 2 vocal cords. Vibrations in vocal
cords result in production of sound.
(4) Trachea or Wind Pipe: Trachea has cartilaginous rings to prevent it from collapsing in between
breaths. It is a thin walled tube, which divides into 2 major Bronchi in the thoracic cavity.
(5) Lungs: The lungs are a pair of spongy and elastic respiratory organs protected by a bony rib cage.
Within lungs, the major bronchi further divides into secondary bronchi and tertiary bronchi and
finally into bronchioles. Each bronchioles divides into alveolar ducts which enter into alveolar sacs
or alveoli.
The alveoli are thin walled, have large surface area and richly supplied by blood capillaries, which
helps in easy diffusion and exchange of gases. Haemoglobin in RBCs helps in transport of oxygen.
The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdomen cavity by a muscular partition called
Diaphragm.
Mechanism of breathing:
Mechanism of inhalation:
To breathe in, the ribs are pulled upwards and outwards and the diaphragm becomes flat which
results in an increase in the volume of lungs.
Mechanism of exhalation:
To breathe out, the ribs come back to their normal position, the diaphragm is relaxed, lungs attain
their normal size and air is expelled out of the body through the nostrils.

(a) External Respiration: The blood vessels coming from the heart towards the lungs have more
concentration of CO2. So the blood vessels take up the oxygen from the alveolar air and releases
CO2 to the alveolar air.
(b) Internal Respiration: The blood vessels coming from the heart towards the body cells or tissues
have more concentration of O2 and the body tissues have more concentration of CO2 produced
due to respiration. So the blood vessels take up the CO2 from the body tissues and releases O2 to
the body tissues.
39
TRANSPORTATION OF GASES : In human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin which has a very
high affinity for oxygen. This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles.
a. It binds with oxygen in the alveoli and converted into oxyhaemoglobin. In the body it again
dissociated into oxygen and
haemoglobin. Dissociated oxygen is
diffused into the cells where it is used in
aerobic respiration. During aerobic
respiration carbon dioxide is released
which is diffused in the blood
b. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in
water than oxygen is and hence is
mostly transported in the dissolved form
in our blood. By the blood carbon
dioxide is carried to the lungs and
released into the lungs and by
exhalation it is removed out from the
body.
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS: Gaseous exchange occurs through stomata in leaves, lenticles in stems, general
surface of the roots and transpiration.
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Transportation is a life process in which the substance synthesized or absorbed in one part of the
organism is carried to the other parts of the body.
In humans, there are 2 circulatory systems:
(1) Blood vascular system
(2) Lymphatic system
(1)Blood vascular system: It comprises of:
(A) Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which transports nutrients, oxygen, CO 2 and wastes in the
body. Blood is red in colour due to presence of respiratory pigment haemoglobin. It comprises of
four components- Plasma, RBCs, WBCs and Platelets.
• Blood Plasma. It is a straw-coloured viscous fluid and constitutes 55% of the blood. Plasma
forms the matrix of the blood in which the cells are suspended.
• Function: Transport food, CO2 and Nitrogenous waste.
• Blood Cells: Types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs), White Blood Cells (WBCs), Platelets
• RBC- These are of red colour because of presence of haemoglobin which is a pigment.
Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen happens
through haemoglobin.
• WBC’S- They play important role in the immunity.
• Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a defence
mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood; in case of an injury.

(B) Blood vessels: They are of 3 types: arteries, veins and capillaries.
S.No. Blood Vessels Function
1. Arteries They carry blood away from the heart to various parts of the body.
2. Veins They collect blood from different organs and bring it back to heart.
3. Capillaries Exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells takes place
across the thin walls of capillaries.

40
Difference between Arteries and Veins:
Arteries Veins
1 Carry blood away from heart to organ 1 Carry blood from organs towards heart
2 Carries Oxygenated blood (except 2 Carries Deoxygenated blood (except
pulmonary artery) pulmonary vein)
3 Thick, elastic, muscular wall 3 Thin, non-elastic wall
4 Narrow lumen 4 Wide lumen
5 Flow of blood is fast and jerky with high 5 Flow of blood is slow and smooth (low
pressure pressure)
Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because they carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs;
where oxygenation of blood takes place.
Pulmonary veins are exceptions because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
(C) Heart: The heart is a pumping organ which pumps the blood. The human heart is a muscular organ,
composed of four chambers, viz. right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle and cardiac
muscles.
**Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
**Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.
Double Circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle. This
type of circulation is called double circulation.
Pulmonary circulation: Blood moves from heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
Systemic circulation: Blood moves from the heart to rest of the body and back to the heart.
Double circulation ensures complete separation / segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
which is necessary for optimum energy production in warm-blooded animals.
One complete heart beat in which all the chambers of the heart contract and relax once is called cardiac
cycle. The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a normal adult. In one cardiac cycle, the heart pumps
out 70 mL blood and thus about 4900 mL blood in a minute.
Circulation of Blood through the heart: Systemic Vein → Sinus Venosus → Right Auricle → Right
Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery →Lungs → Pulmonary Vein → Left Auricle → Left Ventricle → Trunchus
Arteriosus → Systemic Circulation

Need to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds:

Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by cooling
themselves, when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a

41
cooler environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen (O2) for more cellular respiration so that
they can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature.
Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their circulatory
system is more efficient and can maintain their constant body temperature.
Lymph: Lymph is a yellowish fluid which escapes from the blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular
spaces in the tissues. It is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph. This fluid is collected through
lymph vessels and finally returns to the blood capillaries.
Functions of Lymph: 1. It has lymphocytes which help in killing germs.
2. It carries digested and absorbed fats from intestine back into the blood.
EXCRETION: The biological process of removal of harmful nitrogenous waste from the body is called
excretion. The wastes produced during various metabolic activities need to be removed in time because
their accumulation in the body can be harmful and even lethal for an organism.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM: The human excretory system is composed of four parts as follows:
 Kidney: Humans contain a pair of kidney. Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral
column in the abdominal cavity. The kidney is composed of many filtering units; called nephrons.
 Ureter: 2 ducts arising out from each kidney. They drain out urine from kidney into the urinary
bladder.
 Urinary Bladder: It is a muscular structure which temporarily stores urine until it is released from the
body.
 Urethra: A tube which carries urine from urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
Nephron: Nephron is the basic filtration and functional unit of kidney. Glomerulus is a network of
blood capillaries to which renal artery is attached. Glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like portion;
called Bowman’s capsule. The Bowman’s capsule extends into a fine tube which is highly coiled. Tubes
from various nephrons converge into collecting duct, which finally goes to the ureter.
STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON

Functioning of a nephron:
 Ultra filtration: Renal artery carries the blood to the kidney, which branches into many capillaries
associated with glomerulus. Because of difference in diameter of renal arteries that come in and
out of Bowman’s capsule, pressure is created in Glomerulus and filtration of blood takes place. It
results in the formation of ultra-filtrate.
 Selective Reabsorption: In the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), some substances such as amino
acids, glucose, salts and most water are selectively reabsorbed.
 The filtrate then moves down into the Henle’s loop, where more water is absorbed.
 The filtrate then moves upwards into the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and finally to the
collecting duct.
42
 Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.
 The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported
to the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.
The urine formation involves three steps: Glomerulus filtration, Tubular reabsorption and secretion.
Question: How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
Answer: The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved wastes
present in the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone such as Anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances. There are two types of vascular
tissues in plants, viz. xylem and phloem.
(A) Xylem: Xylem is a complex permanent tissue that forms a continuous tube to transport water and
minerals from roots to upper parts of the plant. It consists of tracheids, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma
and xylem fibre. Tracheids, xylem vessels and xylem fibres are the dead conducting elements.
Ascent of Sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant parts is
called ascent of sap. Many factors play important role in ascent of sap like root pressure, capillary action,
adhesion cohesion of water molecules and transpiration pull. Evaporation of water molecules from cells
of leaf creates a suction which pulls water and minerals from the xylem cells of roots called transpiration
pull.
Transportation of water and minerals in plants:
The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected to
form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration
creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the roots. Then
there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts through the
interconnected water-conducting channels. Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up to the
base of the stem mainly during night.
(B) Phloem: Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes,
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in
phloem.
Transport of Food in Plants : The transport of food in phloem is known as Translocation.
Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The transportation
of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure in the
tissue causing water to move inside phloem.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS: Plants produces a large number of wastes products during their life processes.
Plants have no special organs for removal of wastes.
Excretion is carried out in the plants in the following ways:
 Plants get rid of excess water by transpiration.
 The gaseous wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed through stomata of
leaves and lenticels of stems.
 Some waste products are stored in leaves that fall off.
 Some waste products are rendered harmless and then stored in the plant body as solid bodies.
Raphides, tannins, resins, gum, rubber and essential oils are some such wastes.

43
 MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-5
Nutrition- Nutrition is the process of taking in food (nutrients) and utilising it to get energy for various
biological activities.
S.No. Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition

1 Food is made from simple inorganic material like CO2 & Taken directly or indirectly from
water. autotrophs (plants).
2 Chlorophyll is necessary No pigment is required
3 Prepared during day time Ingested and digested at all times.
4 Ex- all green plants, blue-green algae, cynobacteria Ex- All animals and fungi
Equation of Photosynthesis-
6 CO + 12 H2O __ Sunlight __>C H O
6 12 6 + 6 H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Main Events of Photosynthesis:
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water molecule.
 Reduction of CO2 to form carbohydrates.
Site of photosynthesis in the leaf is chloroplast.
Factors affecting photosynthesis: Light, Temperature, CO2 and Water.
Stomata- Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.
Functions- 1. Exchange of gases.
2. Loss of water by transpiration

Nutrition in Amoeba: It is Holozoic, Phagocytosis,

with the help of false feet called pseudopodia and
food vacuole, following five steps: Ingestion,
Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation and Egestion.
Nutrition In Human Beings: Human digestive system
consists an alimentary canal and some associated
digestive glands.
The alimentary canal in humans extends from mouth
to the anal opening (Anus). It comprises of mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large
intestine.
Functions of Glands and Digestive Juices:
1. Salivary glands- Starch is converted into glucose by saliva (salvary amylase) in mouth.
2. Gastric glands- Secretes gastric juices, HCL, mucus and pepsin
3. Liver- Secretes bile juice which is stored in gall bladder. Bile juice helps in emulsification of fats
(break large fat molecules into smaller ones).
4. Intestinal glands- Intestinal juices ;converts carbohydrates into glucose, Fats into fatty acids +
glycerol and Proteins into amino acids.
5. Pancreas- Pancreatic juice which contains trypsin, lipase and amylase, insulin hormone and
glucagon.
Respiration in Human Beings:
1.Breathing or Gaseous exchange: intake of O2 and release of CO2
2. Cellular Respiration or Breakdown of Glucose: in order to release energy in form of ATP molecules

44
 Breakdown of Glucose by various Pathways:

Respiration in Plants: Gaseous exchange occurs through: 1. Stomata in Leaves 2. Lenticles in stem
and 3.General surface of the roots.
Transportation in Humans: The circulatory system in humans
consists of a circulatory medium (blood and lymph), blood vessels
(arteries, veins and capillaries) and heart.
Humans have double circulation. The oxygenated blood and the deoxygenated blood passes
simultaneously and separately through the heart in one complete cycle.
Components of Blood: 1. Plasma- Yellow coloured fluid
with 90% water and 10% organic substances.
2. Blood Cells- (i) RBC- It carries oxygen and Carbon
dioxide.
(ii) WBC- It provides body defence against diseases.
(iii) Platelets- It helps in blood clotting.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS:

(I) XYLEM: It transports raw material (water and minerals)

from roots.
(II) PHLOEM: It transports food from leaves to other plant
parts (Translocation).
EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS:
 A pair of bean shaped Kidneys- These removes nitrogenous waste
(urea) from the blood. Each kidney contains many filtration units
called nephrons.
 A pair of Ureters- The ducts which collects urine from the kidneys
 The Urinary bladder – It receives and stores urine
 The Urethra – It passes urine from urinary bladder to the outside of

45
 the body.
Nephron is the basic filtration and functional unit of kidney. Glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries to
which renal artery is attached. Glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like portion; called Bowman’s capsule. The
Bowman’s capsule extends into a fine tube which is highly coiled. Tubes from various nephrons converge into
collecting duct, which finally goes to the ureter.
Functions of Nephron- 1. Excretion of nitrogenous waste 2. To maintain water and ionic balance.
The urine formation involves three steps: Glomerulus filtration, Tubular reabsorption and secretion.
The amount of water reabsorbed depends upon- 1. How much excess of water is there in the body
2. How much nitrogenous wastes need to be excreted out.
Haemodialysis: In case of kidney failure, haemodialysis is the process of
purifying blood by artificial kidney.
Excretion in Plants:
1. Oxygen and carbon dioxide is diffused through stomata.
2. Excess water is removed by Transpiration.
3. Toxic wastes are collected in leaves before they fall off.
4. Plants can also lose some of their old parts like bark of trees.

CHAPTER–7 CONTROL AND COORDINATION

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system of an animal is composed of Specialized cells called neurons or nerve cells which
can detect, receive and transmitdifferent kinds of stimuli. The nerve fibres which are certain bundles of
extended processes of nerve cells.
Nervous System: It composed of Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS): CNS comprise brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral Nervous System (PNS): It consists of cranial nerves arising from the brain and spinal
nerves arising from the spinal cord.
NERVE CELLS
Nerve cells or neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. Billions of
nerve cells make up our brain.
A nerve cell is a microscopic structure consisting of these major parts namely cell body,
dendrites, axon and nerve ending.
Gustatory receptors detect taste while olfactory receptors detect smell. Synapse: The dendrites and the
synaptic knobs of the axons of neighboring neurons are in physical contact with one another without
fusing. This point of contact between the neighboring nerve cells is called synapse.

46
NERVE IMPULSE
The conduction of stimuli by the nerve cells is called nerve impulse. The dendrites will receive the stimuli
from the receptor (sense organ) and conduct the same as electrical impulse to the axon through the
cyton. At the synapse, the synaptic knobs release out chemical substances called neuro transmitters
which convert the electrical impulse into chemical impulse and pass to the neighboring neuron. A similar
synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells, such as muscles cells or
glands.

Fig: Neuromuscular Junction

TYPES OF NEURON:
• Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.
• Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
• Relay neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and motor
neuron.
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMANS:
REFLEX ACTION:
Reflex action is a special case of involuntary movement in voluntary organs. When a voluntary
organ is in the vicinity of a sudden danger, it is immediately pulled away from the danger to
save itself. For example; when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you move away your
hand in a jerk. All of this happens in flash and your hand is saved from the imminent injury. This
is an example of reflex action.

Reflex Arc: The path through which nerve signals involved in a reflex action is called reflex arc.
The following flow chart shows the flow of signal in a reflex arc.
The receptor is the organ which comes in the danger zone. The sensory neurons pick signals
47
 from the receptor and send them to the relay neuron. The relay neuron is present in the spinal
cord. The spinal cord sends signals to the effector via the motor neuron. The effector comes in
action to moves the receptor away from the danger.

The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal cord and the signals involved in reflex action do
not travel up to the brain. This is important because sending signals to the brain would involve
more time. Although every action is ultimately controlled by the brain, the reflex action is
mainly controlled at the level of spinal cord.
Muscular Movements and Nervous Control:
Muscle tissues have special filaments; called actin and myosin. When a muscle receives a nerve
signal; a series of events is triggered in the muscle. Calcium ions enter the muscle cells. It
results in actin and myosin filaments sliding towards each other and that is how a muscle
contract. Contraction in a muscle brings movement in the related organ.

HUMAN BRAIN
Human brain is a highly complex organ; which is mainly composed of the nervous tissue. The
tissues are highly folded to accommodate a larger surface area in less space. The brain is covered
by a three layered system of membranes; called meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid (fluid-filled
balloon) is filled between the meninges. The CSF provides cushion to the brain against
mechanical shocks. Furthermore, the brain is housed inside the skull for optimum protection.
PARTS OF HUMAN BRAIN
• Forebrain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
• Midbrain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
• Hindbrain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata.

Fig: The structure of human brain

48
Fore brain: It consists of the cerebrum and olfactory lobes. It is the thinking part of the brain and controls
voluntary actions. It controls touch, smell, hearing, taste, sight, mental activities like thinking, learning,
memory, emotions etc.
Mid brain: It connects the fore-brain to the hind brain. It controls some involuntary actions and reflex
movements of head, neck, eyes etc.
Hind brain: It consists of cerebellum, pons and medulla.
Cerebellum: It controls body movements, balance and posture while dancing, walking, riding, running etc.
Medulla: It controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, blood pressure, swallowing, coughing, sneezing,
vomiting, digestion, peristaltic movement etc.
Pons: It controls sleep cycle.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS:
Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system. Plants use chemical means for control
and coordination. Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in
plants.
Plants show two different types of movement:
A). One independent of growth (Nastic movement)
B). Other dependent on growth (Tropism movement)
A). Movements which are independent of growth:
This type of movements is called nastic movements or non-directional movements.
Immediate response to stimulus in touch-me-not plant:
When we touch the leaves of sensitive plant (‘touch-me-not’ plant or chhui-mui or Mimosa pudica), they
begin to fold up and droop.
It means a touch has occurred must be communicated. The plants also use electric-chemical. By this way
the information conveys from cell to cell. Plant cells change shape by changing amount of water in them,
resulting in swelling or shrinking. Therefore, the leaves change their shapes.
B). Movement due to Growth or Directional movements:
Directional changes are called tropic movements.
Tropic movements are the one which occurs in the direction of the → stimulus. A tropic movement may
be towards or away from the stimulus.

The movements due to growth are as follows:

a). Phototropism:
When a plant part moves in response to light, it is called phototropism.
Phototropism is two types:
49
i). Positive phototropism: The shoot grows or bends towards light, it is positive phototropism.
ii). Negative phototropism: The root of a plant moves away from the light; this is negative phototropism.
b). Geotropism: When a plant part moves in response to gravity, it is called geotropism.
Ex. Movements of roots.

Fig: Geotropism
c). Chemotropism: When a plant part moves in response to chemical stimulus, it is called chemotropism.
Chemical acts as stimulus.
Ex. The growth of pollen tube towards the ovule during fertilisation in a flower is called positive
chemotropism.
d). Hydrotropism: When a plant part moves in response to water, it is called hydrotropism. Water acts as
stimulus.
Ex. Roots of a plant move towards water. Roots show positive hydrotropism.
(e). Thigmotropism: When a plant part shows directional movement in response to the touch of an
object, it is called thigmotropism.
Ex. Tendrils of a plant (pea) climb towards any support which they touch.
f). Heliotropism: The movement of sunflowers in response to day or night is quite slow. This type
movement is called heliotropism.
If a plant party moves in response to sunlight during daytime or seasonally, is called heliotropism. Ex.
Sunflower.
Phototropism is the general response of a plant towards light while heliotropism is movement in
response of sunlight during daytime or seasonal.
Plant Hormones (phytohormones) and their Function:

1. Auxins: It helps in cell division, cell elongation and growth.

2. Gibberillins: It helps in growth of stem, flower, branches and seed germination.
3. Cytokinins: It helps in cell division, formation of fruits and seeds. It breaks the seed dormancy.
4. Abscisic acid: It inhibits growth, promote dormancy and cause of wilting of leaves, fruits.
HORMONES IN ANIMALS
The hormones in animals are produced by the endocrine glands, and they too play an important
role in control and coordination.
Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands that control and coordinate
activities of living organisms and also their growth.
FEATURES AND FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES:
1. They are secreted by the endocrine glands and are called ‘chemical messengers.
2. They are poured directly into blood stream as endocrine glands are ductless glands.
3. They usually have their effect at sites different from the sites where they are
made.They act on specific areas called target organs.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands.

50
 A ductless gland is called endocrine gland. Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the
bloodstream.
Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands.
Hormone is mainly composed of protein.
Different types of endocrine glands present in our
body. These are the pituitary gland, the pineal gland,
the hypothalamus, the thyroid, the parathyroid, the
thymus, the adrenal gland, the pancreas, the testes
and the ovary.
The pituitary gland:
It is a pea-shaped gland located at the base of the
brain.
It is considered to be master gland as it secretes many
hormones to regulate the organs as well as the other
glands.
The pituitary gland produces growth hormones.
Deficiency of this hormone in childhood causes
dwarfism. Excess secretions of this hormone cause tallness. Fig: Locations of endocrine glands.
The thyroid gland:
• It is located in the neck, ventral to the larynx.
• It is the one of the largest endocrine glands.
• The principal hormone produced by this gland is thyroxine.
• Thyroxine is a hormone that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in the
body.
• Goiter is a disorder caused due to deficiency of iodine in food. Iodine is essential for the
synthesis of thyroxine. So, doctors advise to use the iodised salt.
The adrenal glands:
Adrenal glands secrete the hormones like adrenaline. Adrenaline is also called the stress
hormone/hormone of fight or flight or the emergency hormone. It prepares the body to face an
emergency condition of physical stress, like danger, anger and excitement. The target organ of the
adrenaline hormone is heart.
Working: When we are frightened or angry, the adrenal glands produce more adrenalin hormone which is
sent through the blood to the heart, rib muscles and diaphragm. This increases breathing rate to supply
more oxygen to the muscles to prepare the body to either run away or fight with the enemy.
The pancreas:
It is considered both exocrine and endocrine gland. The pancreas produces the hormone insulin which
controls the blood sugar level. Increase in blood sugar level causes a disease called diabetes. A diabetic
patient has to take insulin injections to control his blood sugar level.
Gonads: Two types of gonads present in human beings are female gonads (ovary) and male gonads (testis).
Ovary: Ovaries are the female sex organs that lie one on either side of the abdominal cavity.Ovaries
produce two hormones-oestrogen and progesterone.
Oestrogen controls the secretion of ova/egg and changes that responsible for secondary
growth during the puberty in girls.
Progesterone controls the uterine changes in the menstrual cycle and helps in the maintenance
of pregnancy.
Testis: Testes produce the hormone testosterone. Testosterone controls the secretion of sperm
and responsible for secondary growth during the puberty in boys.

MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-6:

51
Nerve Cell: It is the structural and functional unit of nervous system.
Nervous System: It composed of Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS): CNS comprises of brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral Nervous System (PNS): It consists of cranial nerves arising from the brain and spinal
nerves arising from the spinal cord.
Reflex Action: Reflex action is a sudden, unconscious and involuntary response of the effectors to a
stimulus. Ex. We suddenly withdraw our hand if we suddenly touch a hot object.
Reflex arc: The pathway of a reflex action is called reflex arc.
Brain: The brain is the main coordinating center in the human body. The brain has three main parts.
They are fore-brain, mid-brain and hind-brain.
Fore-brain: It consists of the cerebrum and olfactory lobes. It is the thinking part of the brain and
controls voluntary actions. It controls touch, smell, hearing, taste, sight, mental activities like
thinking, learning, memory, emotions etc.
Mid-brain: It controls involuntary actions and reflex movements of head, neck, eyes etc.
Hind-brain: It consists of cerebellum, pons and medulla.
Cerebellum: It controls body movements, balance and posture.
Pons: It controls sleep cycle.
Medulla: It controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, blood pressure, swallowing, coughing,
sneezing, vomiting etc.
Coordination in Plants: In plants control and coordination is done by chemical substances called
plant hormones or phytohormones. There are four main types of plant hormones. These are Auxins,
Gibberellins, Cytokinin, Abscisic acid.
Role of hormones in plants growth:
1. Auxins: It helps in cell division, cell elongation and growth.
2. Gibberillins: It helps in growth of stem, flower, branches and seed germination.
3. Cytokinins: It helps in cell division, formation of fruits and seeds. It breaks the seed dormancy.
4. Abscisic acid: It inhibits growth, promote dormancy and causes of wilting of leaves, fruits.
Nastic movement: It is non-directional growth in sensitive plants (chhui-mui).
Tropic movements: These are directional movements towards or away from the stimulus and it
depends on growth. They are of different types like Phototropism, Geotropism, Chemotropism,
Hydrotropism, thigmotropism, heliotropism etc.
Phototropism: It is movement of plants in response to light. If it is towards light, it is called positive
phototropism. Eg: Bending of shoot towards light
Geotropism: It is the movement of plants in response to gravity. If it is towards gravity it is called
positive geotropism. Eg: Downward growth of roots.
Chemotropism: It is movement of plant in response to chemical stimuli. Eg: Growth of pollen tube
towards the ovule.
Hydrotropism: It is the movement of plants in response to water. Eg: Growth of roots towards
water.
Thigmotropism: The movement of tendril due to touch along with support in pea, cucumber.
Control and Coordination in Human by Endocrine System:
The endocrine glands also help in control and coordination. The endocrine glands produce chemical
substances which help to control and coordinate various activities in the body. Pituitary Gland: The
52
 pituitary gland produces growth hormones (GH). Deficiency of GH causes dwarfism and excessive
secretion causes gigantism.
Thyroid Gland: It secrets thyroxin hormone. Thyroxin controls the metabolism activities. If the diet is
deficient in iodine it causes goiter.
Pancreas: The pancreas produces the hormone insulin which controls the blood sugar level. Increase
in blood sugar level causes diabetes.
Adrenal Gland: It secrets the adrenaline hormone which prepare us to fight during the danger or
threat.
Testis: The testes in males produce the hormone testosterone which controls the production of
sperms and changes in boys during puberty.
Ovary: The ovary in females produces the hormone oestrogen which controls the production of eggs
and changes in girls during puberty.

CHAPTER–7 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

REPRODUCTION: The process by which a living being produce sits own like is called reproduction.

IMPORTANCE OF REPRODUCTION:
Reproduction is important for each species, because this is the only way for a living being to continue
its lineage. Reproduction helps in maintaining a proper balance among various biotic constituents of
the ecosystem. Reproduction also facilitates evolution because variations come through
reproduction; over several generations.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION: Two types 1. Asexual and 2. Sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction: When a single parent is involved and no gamete formation takes place; the
method is called asexual reproduction. No meiosis happens during asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction: When two parents are involved and gamete formation takes; the method is
called sexual reproduction. Meiosis happens during gamete formation; which is an important step of
sexual reproduction.
MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
Modes of reproduction involving a single parent, without involving gametes are known as asexual
modes of reproduction.
Organisms can reproduce asexually in many ways. Some of them are given here.
FISSION: When an organism splits into two or more new individuals

53
(a) BINARY FISSION: Most of the unicellular animals prefer this method for reproduction. These
organisms reproduce by binary fission; when conditions are favourable, i.e. adequate amount of
food and moisture is available. The mother cell divides into two daughter cells; and each
daughter cell begins its life like a new individual. Amoeba reproduces by binary fission.

(b) MULTIPLE FISSION: When conditions become unfavourable, i.e. food, moisture, proper
temperature, etc. are not available. The organism develops a thick coating around itself called
cyst. The cyst helps the organism to tide over the bad phase. The nucleus divides into several
nuclei and each daughter nucleus is surrounded by a membrane. When favourable conditions
return, the cyst dissolves or breaks down; releasing the daughter nuclei. The daughter nuclei; in
turn; grow into new individuals. Plasmodium and entamoeba undergo cyst stage, when they are
not in the body of their prime host, i.e. humans.

FRAGMENTATION: In multicellular organisms reproduction by fragmentation is seen in filamentous algae,

e.g. spirogyra. In Spirogyra algae, the plant body breaks up into smaller fragments. Each fragment grows into
a new individual.
REGENERATION: If the individual cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these pieces grow into separate
individuals. For example, Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each piece grows into
a complete organism. This is known as regeneration. Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These
cells proliferate and make large numbers of cells

54
BUDDING: Organisms such as in Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one
specific site (see below figure). These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from
the parent body and become new independent individuals.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION: The ability of plants to reproduce by bringing for the new plants from existing
vegetative structures without sexual reproduction examples -
Tuber of Potato: The potato tuber is a modified stem. Many notches can be seen on the surface of
potato. These are called ‘eyes’ of potato. Each ‘eye’ of a potato can give rise to a new potato plant.

Modified roots of Carrot and Sweet Potato: Carrot and sweet potato are examples of modifications of

roots; for food storage. These roots can give rise to new plants; when kept under the soil.
Rhizomes of Ginger and Turmeric: Rhizomes are examples of modified underground stems for food storage.
These contain nodes, internodes and scaly leaves. When buried under the soil, the rhizomes produce new
plants.

Leaf of Bryophyllum: Leaves of bryophyllum have notches on the margin. If a leaf is put under the
soil, small saplings grow from the notches on the leaf margin.
Artificial Vegetative Propagation: Artificial vegetative propagation has also helped in developing
many new varieties of plants. Stem cutting, layering and grafting are the preferred means of artificial
vegetative propagation.

55
SPORE FORMATION: Rhizopus produces hundreds of microscopic reproductive units called spores. When the
spore case (also called sporangium) bursts, the spores spreads into air. These air-borne spores land on food
or soil, under favourable conditions like damp and warm conditions, they germinate and produce new
individuals.

ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

1. The organism does not have to depend on another organism for carrying out reproduction;
because a single parent is needed.
2. More number of offspring can be produced in shorter time.
3. The offspring are exact clones of their parent.
4. Desirable characteristics can be easily incorporated into plants with artificial vegetative
propagation.
DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
As a single parent is involved, so there is negligible chance of variation.
1. In most of the cases in simple organisms, the parent generation ceases to exist after
asexual reproduction.
2. Asexual reproduction cannot give rise to biodiversity which is important for a healthy
ecosystem.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Sexual reproduction is the process in which (male and female) are
Involved to produce offsprings of their own kind.
Both the sexes, male and female, are needed to produce new offspring.
PARTS OF A TYPICAL FLOWER
A flower is a modified shoot with a limited growth.

56
 The main parts of a flower are,
1. Calyx 2. Corolla 3. Androecium and 4. Gynoecium.
Androecium is the male part of a flower,
Gynoecium is the female part of a flower.

Androecium is a group of stamens. Each Stamen consists of a stalk called the filament and a small
bag like structure called the anther at the tip. The pollen grains are contained in the anther with in
the pollen sacs.
Gynoecium: Gynoecium is the female part of the flower and consists of the carpels or ovary. Gynoecium
has three parts 1) Stigma 2) Style and 3) Ovary. The ovary contains the ovules and each ovule carries
within it an embryo sac, within which lies the egg cell or the female gamete.
The sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves:
1. Pollination 2.Fertilization

POLLINATION: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma is called pollination. Pollen grains
are transferred mainly by wind, water and insects.
Pollination is the first and important event in the development of the fruit and seed. Pollination
is followed by fertilization.
TYPES OF POLLINATION
Pollination is of two types. 1. Self-pollination 2.Cross pollination
SELF POLLINATION
Self-pollination is also known as autogamy. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant is known as self-
pollination.
ADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION
1. Self-pollination is certain in bisexual flowers.
2. Flowers need not depend on agents of pollination.

DISADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION

1. The seeds are less in number.
2. Endosperm is minute. Therefore, the seeds produce weak plants.
3. New varieties of plants cannot be produced resulting in the degradation of the plant.
CROSS POLLINATION (ALLOGAMY): The transfer of pollen grains of a flower to the stigma of
another flower of a different plant of the same species is called cross pollination or allogamy.
ADVANTAGES OF CROSS POLLINATION
1. The seeds produced as a result of cross pollination develop, germinate properly and
grow into better plants, i.e., cross pollination leads to the production of new varieties.
2. More viable seeds are produced.

AGENTS OF CROSS POLLINATION: This takes place through agents like animals, insects, wind and water.
1. Pollination by birds (Ornithophily)
2. Pollination by insects and animals
FERTILIZATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma. Each pollen grain has protective
walls called exine and intine. The outer wall exine is
thick and it has small pores called germination pores.
The inner wall is thin and elastic.
57
GERMINATION OF POLLEN GRAINS
If pollen grain falls on a suitable stigma, it starts germinating. The vegetative cell starts growing and
emerges through the germination pore. It develops through the style as a long tube known as pollen
tube.
PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION
The pollen tube enters into the embryo sac through micropyle. Pollen tube bursts open,
gametes are released from the pollen tube and enter into the embryo sac. One of the gametes
fuses with the egg, and the other fuses with the secondary nucleus. The fusion of a male
gamete with egg is known as fertilization. Zygote which develops into embryo.

.
DOUBL EFERTILIZATION: The other male gamete fuses with the secondary nucleus. The
secondary nucleus is diploid in nature.

The fusion of this nucleus with the second male gamete is known as triple fusion. The triple
fusion nucleus is called endosperm nucleus because it develops into endosperm.
Endosperm is a nutritive tissue meant for the development of the embryo. Fusion of a male
gamete with egg and the other gamete with secondary nucleus is known as double fertilization.
POST FERTILIZATION CHANGES:
1. The ovule develops into seed.
2. The integuments of the ovule develop into seed coats.
3. The ovary enlarges and develops into fruit.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS:
1. Testis: A pair of testes; which lie in a skin pouch; called scrotum. Scrotum is suspended outside the
body; below the abdominal cavity. This helps in maintaining the temperature of testes below the
body temperature. This is necessary for optimum sperm production. Testis primarily serves the
function of sperm production. Sperms are the male gametes. Testis also produces testosterone; it
is responsible for developing certain secondary sexual characters in boys.
2. Vas Deferens: Vas deferens is the tube which carries sperms to the seminal vesicle.
3. Seminal Vesicle: This is the place where sperms are stored. Secretions from the seminal vesicle
and prostate gland add up to make the semen.
4. Penis: It is a muscular organ which serves the genitor-urinary functions. The urethra works
as the common passage for urine as well as for sperms.
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
1. Uterus: Uterus is the place where the embryo gets implanted and develops in to a newborn baby.
The wall of the uterus provides safety and nutrition to the growing foetus.
2. Fallopian Tubes: One fallopian tube comes out from each side at the top of the uterus.
Fertilization happens in the fallopian tube.

3. Ovary: A pair of ovaries; one near each fallopian tube. Ovary produces the eggs or the
female gametes. One egg matures in each ovulation cycle and is released from the ovary
and transferred to the fallopian tube.
4. Vagina: The cervix (mouth of the uterus) opens into the vagina. Vagina is a muscular tube-
like organs; which serves as the passage for the sperms and also as the canal during the
child birth.
PUBERTY: A distinct phase in their life cycle which marks the onset and attainment of sexual maturity.
This period is called puberty. It starts at around 10 – 11 years of age in girls and at around 12 – 13 years of
age in boys. It ends at around 18th year of age in girls and at around 19th year of age in boys. Since the
years during puberty end in ‘teens’; hence this phase is also called teenage.
Changes in Boys during Puberty: Grow in height dramatically, voice becomes deep and the Adam’s apple
becomes prominent. Shoulders become broad and body becomes muscular. Facial hairs begin to grow.
Hairs grow under the armpit and in the pubic region
Changes in Girls during Puberty: The voice becomes thin. Shoulders and hip become rounded. Breasts get
enlarged. Hairs grow under the arm pit and in the pubic region.
Secondary Sexual Characters: Features which highlight sexual dimorphism are called secondary sexual
characters.
Menstruation: During each ovulation cycle, the uterus prepares itself in anticipation of a possible
pregnancy. The uterine wall develops an additional lining.
When the egg is not fertilized, it gets disintegrated and so does the additional lining in the uterine
wall. The fragments of disintegrated tissues are shed; along with blood. This is observed in the
form of bleeding through the vagina which can last from 3 to 5 days. The whole sequence of
events during an ovulation cycle is called menstrual cycle. The bleeding which occurs for few
days is called menstruation. The first menstrual flow is called menarche and the last menstrual
flow (which happens in the late 40s) is called menopause.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is infected. These are
known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s).
59
 STD’s can be caused by bacteria for example; caused by bacteria syphilis, gonorrhea; or caused by a virus
for example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc.
The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by using birth control measures such as wearing a
condom during the sexual activity.

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION:
They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.
(i) Mechanical methods: Use of condoms, Diaphragm, Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop
(ii) Chemical method-- Use of spermicides, Oral contraceptive pills.
(iii) Surgical methods—Vasectomy ( in males), Tubectomy (in females) , Medical termination of
pregnancy
Safe sex v/s HIV AIDS – Safe sex prevent infection with other STDs. If all partners living with HIV, safer
sex reduce the chances of getting another strain of HIV. Taking HIV drugs is also a part of safer sex for
people living with HIV.
Child bearing and women health – According to WHO women’s ability to undergo pregnancy and safe
child birth, maternal and infant survival and well being .The risks of childbirth are higher when there are
other health problems such as high blood pressure, heart diseases, malaria and diabetes.
MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-7
Reproduction – A living being produces its own kind is called reproduction.
Importance of reproduction -1. Essential for continuity of life 2.Essential for survival of species
DNA copying and its importance- It is called DNA replication, it generates variation which leads to
evolution.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
1 Single parent involved Two parents involve
2 No involvement of gametes Gametes are involved
Types of asexual reproduction and examples-
1. Binary fission- Division of the parent body into two new bodies. Amoeba
2. Multiple fission- many daughter cells are produced from the parent cell. Plasmodium and Entamoeba
3. Fragmentation- An organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develops into mature. Eg.
Spirogyra
4. Regeneration- if an organism is cut into several pieces, each of its parts regrows to the original state. eg.
Hydra and Planaria
5. Budding- a new organism develops from a bud of an existing organism. eg. Hydra, yeast
6. Spore formation- spores are dispersed into the air, where they germinate and create a new plant under
favorable conditions. eg. Rhizopus
7. Vegetative propagation and examples –
1. Stem- Potato 2. Root- Sweet potato 3. Leaf- Bryophyllum
Artificial vegetative propagation –
1. Cutting- Rose, Lemon 2. Layering - Jasmine 3. Grafting- Water melon
Advantage of vegetative propagation – Need less attention, seedless plant grow, desirable characters
obtain, cutting or grafting start to bear fruit much 2 earlier
Advantage of asexual reproduction –Organisms does not depend on another organism, takes less time,
offsprings are exact copy of parent
Disadvantage of asexual reproduction- Negligible chance of variation, cannot give rise to biodiversity
Parts of atypical flower- Sepals, Petals, Stamen, Pistil
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Stamen (anther and filament) Pistil (stigma, style, ovary)
Unisexual flowers- Have either stamen or carpel. eg. Watermelon and papaya
Bisexual flower- Have both stamen and carpel. eg. Hibiscus, rose
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves 1. Pollination 2. Fertilization
Pollination- Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma
Means of pollination- Wind, water and insects, Types- Self and Cross pollination
Fertilization- Fusion of male and female gametes. Ovary -fruit & ovules-seeds
Sexual reproduction in humans –
Male reproductive - Testis, vas deferens, urethra, seminal vesicle & prostate gland
Female reproductive- Ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus, vagina
Menstruation- Normal vaginal bleeding, if no pregnancy occurs
Reproductive health/ childbearing women's health- Health of women during pregnancy, women's ability
to undergo pregnancy and safe childbirth, maternal and infant survival and well-being'.
Sexually transmitted diseases- Bacterial -Syphilis, gonorrhea and viral -warts, HIVAIDS
Safe sex v/s HIV AIDS- There is little to no risk of getting HIV through oral sex. You can't get HIV from
sexual activities that don't involve contact with body fluids (semen, vaginal fluid, or blood).
Methods of contraception- Mechanical, chemical and surgical methods.

CHAPTER -9 HEREDITY
Heredity: The passing of traits from the parents to offspring is called heredity.
Gene- Gene is the smallest part of DNA that codes for a protein. In each cell there is a nucleus, in the
nucleus are chromosomes. The genes are present on chromosomes. Every person has two copies of
each gene inherited one from each parent.
Genetics- The study of genes, gene variation and heredity is called genetics.
Trait – A characteristic of an organism is called a trait eg- natural eye colour, hair colour, height.
Offspring- An organism’s next generation eg- a person’s child or children.
Inheritance:- Inheritance refers to the process of transmission of genes from parent to offspring.
Inheritance is the passing on of genetic traits from parents to their offspring, and these offspring get all
the genetic information from their parents.
Alleles: Different physical forms of a trait are called its alleles. For eg. Length of a pea plant has two
alleles i.e. tall and short stem. There may be two or multiple alleles of a trait.
Dominant traits: The traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination
and can be seen are called Dominant traits.
Example:- Tallness in pea plant
Recessive traits: A trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as
recessive. So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant
allele exists.
Genotype: Genetic arrangements of the genes for a trait(s) of an organism. For eg. RrYy or TTRr etc.
Phenotype: Physical appearance of a trait is called its phenotype. For eg. Yellow and green seeds of
pea., tall or dwarf plant, etc.
Variation: The difference in the characteristics of individual in a population is called variation.
Cause of variation
In Asexual reproduction -> Due to the errors in DNA coping ->less variation
In Sexual reproduction ->DNA of two parent combine -> more variation
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Importance of variations: -
1. Variations help a species to survive in a changing environment.
2. They help an organism to adapt to their altered environment.
3. Variation leads evolution.
Mendel’s laws of inheritance –Gregor Johann Mendel is known as father of Genetics. He experimented
self and cross pollination and fertilization on following traits of garden pea.
Scientific name of human being is "Homo sapien". And scientific name for pea plant is "Pisum sativum"
Mendel law of inheritance –Mendel selected garden pea (Pisum sativum) with characters as follows:

PEA PLANT WAS CHOSEN BY MENDEL BECAUSE:-

1. Has short life span ( annual plan)
2. Can be self and cross pollinated
3. Has seven pairs of contrasting character
Mendel concluded his experiments with 3 laws-
1. Law of Dominance –
When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed, then only one character expresses
itself in the F1 generation. This character is the dominant character and the character/factor which
cannot express itself is called the recessive character. In the given monohybrid cross T gene form
represents tallness and t represents shortness.
F2 generation phenotype- 3 tall : 1 short
F2 genotype- 1:2:1

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Homozygous – Having two identical forms (alleles) of a particular gene TT, tt, RRYY, rryy
Heterozygous- Having two different forms of a particular gene like Tt, , RrYy

2. Law of segregation – During the gamete formation, the two traits or characters separate out from
each other and only one enters each gamete. This is called as Law of Segregation.

3. Law of Independent Assortment-When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of
one pair of characters is independent of the other pair of characters or the members of different gene
pair assort randomly and independently. This law is based on dihybrid cross.
Dihybrid cross- A cross involving two traits is called a dihybrid cross. In this example colour, and
shape of seed are taken.
In F1 generation all plants have only dominant traits yellow and round but in F2 generation the new
combinations yellow with wrinkled seed and round with green appear. This shows that different
traits are independently assorted.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SEX DETERMINATION:

1. Genetic Combination
Sex determination in humans: (A mechanism by which sex of new born baby is determined).

Autosomes: These determine the somatic traits. There are 22 pairs of autosomes in humans .

Sex chromosome: Chromosome which determine the sex of a person. (X & Y). There is one pair
of sex chromosome in humans which may be XX or XY
0. In male – One X chromosome and one Y chromosome
1. In female- Two X chromosome (no Y chromosome)

63
 Father XY
SEX DETERMINATION
Sperm X Sperm Y

Egg X XX ( Girl) XY (Boy)

Mother XX
Egg X XX ( Girl) XY (Boy)

2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR – temperature – eg :- crocodiles ( reptiles)

(Snails :- individuals can change sex)

MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-8

Heredity: process of passing over traits from parents to offsprings.

Gene: the smallest unit of DNA that contains information for a trait or character.
Genetics: study of heredity and variations.
Inheritance: process of transmission of traits from parents to offsprings.
Father of genetics: Gregor J. Mendel.
Scientific name of garden pea plant: Pisum sativum.
He chose pea plant for his experiments because it
(I) has short life span
(ii) can be self as well as cross pollinated
(III) has 7 contrasting characters.
Seven contrasting characters of pea plant:
1. Height of plant (tall/dwarf)
2. Colour of flower (pink/white).
3. Position of flower (axial/terminal)
4 Colour of pod (green/yellow)
5 Shape of pod (inflated/constricted)
6 Colour of seed (yellow/green)
7 Shape of seed (round/wrinkled)
Dominant trait: trait that can express itself. E.g. Tallness
Recessive trait: trait that cannot express itself. E.g. Dwarfness
Phenotype: physical appearance of a trait. Tallness or Dwarfness
Genotype: genetic combination of a trait. E.g TT or TT for tallness
Homozygous (pure): similar forms of a gene. E.g. TT for tallness or tt for dwarfness
Heterozygous: different forms of a gene. E.g. Tt for tallness
Variations: differences in characteristics of individuals in a population.
Importance of variations: (i) Helps in survival of a species in changing environment.
(ii) Leads to evolution
Monohybrid Cross: cross pollination for ONE trait only. E.g. height of pea plant
Dihybrid Cross: cross pollination for TWO traits. E.g. shape and colour of seeds
LAW OF DOMINANCE: When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed, then only one of
them expresses itself in F1 generation.
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E.g. Tall pea plant (TT) is crossed with short pea plant (tt). F1 generation has all (100%) tall (Tt) pea plants.
Tall is dominant over short/dwarf.
F2 generation after self-pollination has both tall and short plants with Phenotypic ratio 3:1 and Genotypic
ratio 1:2:1.
LAW OF SEGREGATION: During gamete formation, two forms of a gene go separately in each gamete.
E.g. From Tt parent, T goes to one gamete and t goes to the other gamete during gamete formation.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT: When two pairs of different traits are crossed, the two forms of
one trait assort randomly and independently of the two forms of the other trait.
E.g. A dihybrid cross for shape (round/wrinkled) and colour (yellow/green) of seed. If plant with round
yellow seeds is crossed with plant with wrinkled green seeds, new combinations (round green and
wrinkled yellow seeds) also appear along with original combination (round yellow and wrinkled green
seeds).
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SEX DETERMINATION:
1. Environment. E.g. temperature in reptiles
2. Genetic combination. Eg. In humans: Male (XY), female (XX).
**In other animals like snails, individual can change their sex.
There is 50% (50-50 or 1:1 ratio) chances for a newly born baby to be a boy or a girl.

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 CHAPTER – 10 LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
LIGHT- An object reflects light that falls on it. This reflected light when received by our eyes,enables us to
see things.
Reflection of light
Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same
mediumon striking the surface of any object.
LAWS OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT
(i) The angle of incidence, ∠i is equal to the angle of reflection, ∠ r.
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and
t h e reflected ray, all lie in the same plane. These laws of reflection are
applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical surfaces.

REAL IMAGE
The image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image.

VIRTUAL IMAGE
The image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image.

LATERAL INVERSION
When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, then the right side of object
appears to become the left side of image; and the left side of object appears to
becomethe right side of image. This is called lateral inversion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR
The image of real object is always virtual, erect, same size as object, image formed behind
mirror and laterally inverted.

SPHERICAL MIRROR
A spherical mirror is that mirror whose reflecting surface is the part of a hollow sphere of
glass. The spherical mirrors are of two types: Concave mirror and Convex mirror.

CONCAVE MIRROR: A concave mirror is that spherical mirror in which the reflection of
light takes place at the concave surface (or bent-in surface).
66
CONVEX MIRROR: A convex mirror is that spherical mirror in which the reflection of light
takes place at the convex surface (or bulging –out surface).
TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Centre of Curvature(C): The centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the centreof the
hollow sphere of glass of which the spherical mirror is a part. It is represented by letter
‘C’.
Pole (P): The pole of a spherical mirror is the centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical
mirror. It is represented by letter ‘P’.

Radius of Curvature(R): The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of the
hollow sphere of glass of which the spherical is a part. It is represented by theletter ‘R’.

Principal axis: The principal axis of a spherical mirror is the straight line passing through
the centre of curvature C and pole P of the spherical mirror, produced on both sides.

Aperture: The aperture of a spherical mirror is the diameter of the reflecting surface of
the mirror.

PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR

When incident rays are parallel to the principal axis and after reflection meet at a point F,
this point is known as Principal focus of a concave mirror. A concave mirror has a real
focus. The focus of a concave mirror is in front of the mirror. A concave mirror is also
called converging mirror.

The principal focus of a convex mirror is a point on its principal axis from which a beam of
light rays, initially parallel to the axis, appears to diverge after being reflected f from the
convex mirror. A convex mirror has a virtual focus. The focus of a convex mirror is situated
behind the mirror. Since a convex mirror diverges a parallel beams of light rays, it is also
called diverging mirror.

Focal Length: The focal length of a spherical mirror is the distance between its pole and
principal focus. It is denoted by the letter ‘f’.
Relation between Radius of curvature and focal length of a spherical mirror
The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half of its radius of curvature.
f = R/2
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RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL MIRRORS
The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image of the
point object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for locating the
image.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the
principal focus in case of a concave mirror or appear to diverge from the
principal focus in case of a convex mirror.
2. A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is
directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will
emerge parallel to the principal axis.

3. A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in

the direction of the centre of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is
reflected back along the same path. The light rays come back along the same
path because the incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal to the
reflecting surface.

4. A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the
mirror), on the concave mirror or a convex mirror , is reflected obliquely. The
incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of
incidence (point P), making equal angles with the principal axis.

68
FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE MIRROR
The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of object
infront of the mirror. There are six positions of the object:

DIAGRAM POSITION POSITION SIZE OF THE IMAGE NATURE

OF THE OF THE OF THE
OBJECT IMAGE IMAGE

At infinity At the Highly diminished, Real

focus F point sized and
inverted

Beyond C Between Diminished Real

F and C and
inverted

At C At C Same size as object Real

and
inverted

Between Beyond C enlarged Real

C and F and
inverted

At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real

and
inverted

69
 Between Behind Enlarged/magnified Virtual
P and F the and
mirror erect

USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS

Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles , headlights , as shaving
mirrors, used by dentists, Concave dishes are used in TV dish antennas to receive TV signals from
the distant communications satellite and are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
furnaces.
FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX MIRROR
DIAGRAM POSITION POSITION SIZE OF THE NATURE
OF THE OF THE IMAGE OF THE
OBJECT IMAGE IMAGE
At infinity At the Highly Virtual
focus F diminished/ and erect
behind the point sized
mirror

between Behind the diminished Virtual

infinity and mirror and erect
pole Between P
and F

USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS

Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles. These mirrors are fitted on
the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving.
Convex mirrors are preferred because they always give an erect, though diminished, image. Also, they
have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.
MIRROR FORMULA
There is a relationship between these three quantities u, v and f given by the
mirror formula which is expressed as
1/f = 1/v + 1/ u
MAGNIFICATION
Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the
image of an object is magnified with respect to the object size.
m= height of image / height of object = h2 / h1

Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u, and

theimage-distance v. This relationship is given by

m= h2 / h1 = - v / u
 70
SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS

The following sign convention is used for measuring various distances in the ray diagrams of spherical
mirrors:
1. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
2. The distance of the object (u) from the pole is always taken as negative as it is placed on the
left side of the mirror.
3. Distances measured in the direction of the incident ray are positive and the distances
measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident rays are negative.
4. Distances measured above the principal axis are positive and that measured below
the principal axis are negative.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to another obliquely, is
called refraction of light.
In other words, the bending of light when it goes from one medium to another obliquely is
called refraction of light.

The speed of light is different in different substances. The refraction of light is due to the
change in the speed of light on going from one medium to another.
Thus, when light goes from one medium to another, its speed changes. And this change in
speed of light causes the refraction of light.

MEDIUM
Medium can be divided into two types:
1. Optically rarer medium: A medium in which the speed of light is more is known
as optically rarer medium (or less dense medium)
2. Optically denser medium: A medium in which the speed of light is less is
known as optically denser medium (or more dense medium)
Glass is an optically denser medium than air and water.

71
RULES OF REFRACTION:

Rule-1: When a light ray travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, the
light ray bends towards the normal.

Rule-2: When a light ray travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the light
ray bends away from the normal

LAWS OF REFRACTION

According to the laws of refraction of light:

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a
constant, for the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is
also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,

Sin i

------- = constant

Sin r

72
 REFRACTIVE INDEX
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum
to the speed of light in the medium. It is represented by n.

speed of light in vacuum/air c

Refractive index of medium n =--------------------------------------- = ---

speed of light in medium v

Where c = 3X108 m/s

If refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. air is 1nair and for medium 2 w.r.t. air is 2nair then refractive
index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 = 1nair/2nair

TWO REFRACTIONS THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

On passing through a rectangular glass slab, a ray of light suffers two refractions, one while going
from air to glass and the other while going from glass to air.
Light emerges from rectangular slab in a direction parallel to that in which it entered the glass
slab.
However the final emergent ray is slightly shifted sideways from the direction of original incident
ray by a distance x called lateral shift.
The perpendicular distance between the original path of incident ray and the emergent ray
coming out of the glass slab is called lateral displacement of the emergent ray of light.
Lateral displacement depends mainly on three factors: angle of incidence, thickness of glass slab
and refractive index of glass slab.
Actually lateral displacement is directly proportional to (i) angle of incidence (ii) thickness of glass
slab (iii) refractive index of glass slab.
Higher the values of these factors, greater will be the lateral
displacement.
The angle which the emergent ray makes with the normal is
called the angle of emergence.

73
SPHERICAL LENSES
A lens is any transparent material (e.g. glass) of an appropriate shape that can take parallel rays of
incident light and either converge the rays to a point or diverge the rays from a point.
A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical, forms a
lens.
Some lenses will focus light rays to a single point. These lenses are called converging or concave
lenses.
Other lenses spread out the light rays so that it looks like they all come from the same point. These
lenses are called diverging or convex lenses.

CONVEX LENS
A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a
double convex lens. It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as
compared to the edges. Convex lens converges light rays. Hence it is calledconverging
lens.

CONCAVE LENS
A double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards.
It is thicker at the edges than at the middle.
Such lenses diverge light rays and are called diverging lenses. A double concave lens is
simply called a concave lens.

TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL LENS

Principal Axis: The principal axis is the line which runs horizontally straight through the
optical centre of the lens. It is also sometimes called the optic axis. In other words, an
imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of the curvature of a lens is called
its principal axis.

Optical Centre: The optical centre (O) of a convex lens is usually the centre point of the lens. The
direction of all light rays which pass through the optical centre, remains unchanged.

74
Centre of Curvature: A lens has two spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces forms a part of a
sphere. The centers of these spheres are called centres of curvature of the lens. The centre of
curvature of a lens is usually represented by the letter C. Since there are two centres of curvature, we
may represent them as C1 and C2.

Aperture: The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is calledits aperture.
Lenses whose aperture is much less than its radius of curvature are called thin lenses with small
aperture.

Focus: The focus or focal point of the lens is the position on the principal axis where all light rays that
run parallel to the principal axis through the lens converge (come together) at a point.

Focal Length: The focal length (f) is the distance between the optical centre and the focal point.

RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL LENSES

The intersection of at least two reflected rays, give the position of image of the point object. Any two
of the following rays can be considered for locating the image.

1. A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a convex lens,
passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens, as shown in below figure. In case
of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from the principal focus located on the same side of
the lens, as shown in below figure

2. A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex lens, will emerge
parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in below figure. A ray of light appearing to meet at the
principal focus of a concave lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is
shown in below figure.

75
3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge without any
deviation. This is illustrated in below figure.

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX LENS

The type of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of object in
front of the lens. There are six positions of the object:

DIAGRAM POSITION OF POSITION SIZE OF IMAGE NATURE

OBJECT OF IMAGE OF IMAGE
At infinity At focus F2 Highly Real and
diminished/poi inverted
nt size

Beyond 2F1 Between F2 Diminished/ve Real and

and 2F2 ry small inverted

At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size as Real and

object inverted

Between F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged/mag Real and

and 2F1 nified inverted

76
 At F1 At infinity Highly Real and
enlarged/mag inverted
nified

Between F1 On the Enlarged / Virtual and

and O same side magnified erect
of the lens
as the
object

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE LENS

DIAGRAM POSITION OF POSITION SIZE OF IMAGE NATURE
OBJECT OF IMAGE OF IMAGE
Object is at at focus F1 Highly Virtual and
infinity dimimished erect
/point sized

Object is in Between Diminished/sm Virtual and

between focus F1 and aller than the erect
optical optical object
centre(O) and centre O
infinity

SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL LENSES

While using the lens formula we must make use of proper sign convention while
taking the values of object (u), image distance (v), focal length (f), object height (h)
and image height (h’). The sign conventions are as follows:

77
Consequences of new Cartesian sign convention:
(a) The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
(b) Object distance u is always negative.
(c) The distance of real image is positive and that of virtual image is negative.
(d) The object height h is always positive. Height h' of virtual erect image is
positive and that of real inverted image is negative.
(e) The linear magnification, m = h'/h is positive for a virtual image and negative
fora real image.
(f) LENS FORMULA: Lens formula gives the relationship between object distance
(u), image-distance (v)and the focal length (f ). The lens formula is expressed
as
(g) 1/f = 1/v - 1/u
(h) where ‘u’ is the distance of the object from the optical centre (O), ‘v’ is the
distanceof the image from the optical centre (O) and ‘f’ is the distance of the
principal focusfrom the optical centre (O).
MAGNIFICATION
The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical mirrors, is defined as the
ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object.
It is represented by the letter m. If h is the height of the object and h’ is the height of the
image given by alens, then the magnification produced by the lens is given by,
Height of the Image = h '
m=
Height of the object h
Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u,
and theimage-distance v. This relationship is given by
Magnification (m) = h '/ h = v /u

POWER OF A LENS
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is
represented bythe letter P. The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
(i) P = 1/f
The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D. If f is
expressed in metres, then, power is expressed in dioptres. Thus, 1 dioptre is
the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m–1. The power of a
convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
Many optical instruments consist of a number of lenses. They are combined to
increase the magnification and sharpness of the image. The net power (P) of
the lenses placed in contact is given by the algebraic sum of the individual
powers P1, P2, P3, … as P = P1 + P2 + P3 +…

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 MINIMUM LEVEL LEARNING MATERIAL (MLL) CH-10

Real Image: The image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image.
Virtual Image: The image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image.
Lateral Inversion. When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, then the right side of object
appears to become the left side of image; and the left side of object appears to become the right
side of image.
The characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror: Virtual ,erect ,same size as object behind
the mirror and lateral inversion
Relation between Radius of curvature and focal length of a spherical mirror
The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half of its radius of curvature. f=R/2
Focus of a concave mirror: when incident rays of light parallel to the principal axis meet at a point
is called as focus of a concave mirror
Focus of a convex mirror: when incident rays of light parallel to the principal axis appear to meet
at a point is called as focus of a convex mirror
Uses of concave mirror: as shaving mirror, used by dentists, in solar furnaces, head lights of
vehicles, etc.
Uses of convex mirror:
Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles because they
always give an erect, though diminished, image. Also, they have a wider field of view as
they are curved outwards.
Mirror formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/ u
Magnification: m= height of image / height of object = h2 / h1
Also m= h2 / h1 = - v / u
speed of light in vacuum/air c
Refractive index of medium n =--------------------------------------- = ---
speed of light in medium v

Laws of refraction:
(i)The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii)The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light
of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction.
Sin i
------- = constant
Sin r

Lens formula: 1/f = 1/v - 1/u

Magnification: height of image / height of object = h2 / h1
Also Magnification (m) = h '/ h = v /u
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by
the letter P. The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
P = 1/f
The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D. If f is expressed in metres,
then, power is expressed in dioptres.
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 CHAPTER-11 THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD
HUMAN EYE:
The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs. It enables us to see the wonderful
things around us. The human eye is just a camera. The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with
diameter of about 2.3 cm.
Internal Structure of the human eye:

Fig: Internal structure of the human eye.

The main parts of the human eye include:
1. Cornea: Front curved section of the eye. It helps in refraction of light.
2. Iris: It is an opaque diaphragm behind the cornea that controls the size of the pupil. It is also
colourful part of the eye providing the colour to the eye.
3. Pupil: An opening in the centre of iris that changes its size to control amount of light entering the
eye. In bright light, the iris contracts the pupil to allow light to enter the eye. In dim light, the iris
expands the pupil to allow light to enter the eye.
4. Eye Lens: It is transparent, crystalline, biconvex structure, present behind the pupil. It focuses light
rays onto the retina. It is made of fibrous and jelly-like material. The eye lens forms an inverted
and real image of the object on the retina.
5. Ciliary Muscles: These help to modify the curvature of the lens to some extent.
6. Retina: Retina is a delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive cells. The
surface of retina consists light sensitive receptors known as ‘Rods’ and ‘Cones’. Rods are
responsible for vision at low light and Cones are responsible for vision at bright or higher light.
7. Yellow Spot (Fovea): In this point of retina, the highest sensitive cells are found.
8. Blind Spot: In this region, no sensitive cells are found.
9. Aqueous Humour: A water like fluid, fills the front of the eye between the lens. It keeps proper
eye pressure.
10. Vitreous Humour: The space between the lens and retina filled with the gel like Vitreous humour.
It provides nutrients to the eye and helps eye keeps its shape.
11. Optic Nerve: A bundle of nerve fibres that carries messages from the eyes to the brain. These
nerves enter the eyeball at the blind spot.

WORKING OF HUMAN EYE

The light-sensitive cells of retina get activated upon illumination and generate electrical signals after
entering the light in to eye through pupil and lens. These signals are sent to the brain via the optic
nerves. The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information so that we perceive
objects

80
 POWER OF ACCOMMODATION
The process by which the ciliary muscles change the focal length of an eye lens, so that the image of the
distant object is clearly formed on the retina is called accommodation of the eye. Ciliary muscles help in
accommodation.
Power of accommodation:
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation. The power of
accommodation for a person with normal eye sight is around 4 Dioptre
i). When Ciliary muscles are in relax:
When muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin. Thus, focal length increases. This enables us to see
distant objects clearly.
Far point of the eye:
The farthest distance, at which an object can be seen clearly by the eye, is called the far point of the eye.
The far point of the eye is infinity.
ii). When Ciliary muscles are in contract:
When muscles contract, the focal length decreases. The lens then becomes thicker. This enables us to see
nearby objects clearly.
The focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain limit.
Least distance of distinct vision:
The nearest distance, at which eye can see the objects clearly and distinctly without any strain is called
the least distance of distinct vision. It is also known as near point of the eye.
The near point of the eye is 25 cm.
Cataract: The situation in which the crystalline lens of a person at old age becomes milky and cloudy, is
called cataract. Cataract may cause partial or complete loss of vision. The vision can be corrected through
a cataract surgery.
DEFECTS OF VISION
The defects of vision of eye may arise due to the gradually lose its power of accommodation. Three
defects of them are:
1. Myopia (near-sightedness)
2. Hypermetropia (far-sightedness)
3. Presbyopia

Defect Definition and Symptoms Causes Correction

Myopia -Affected person can see nearby objects -Excessive curvature of Concave lens of
but cannot see distant objects distinctly. cornea suitable power
-Image is formed before retina. -Decrease in focal
-Far point becomes less than infinity. length of lens
-Elongation of eye ball

Hypermetropia -Affected person can see distant objects -Increase in focal Convex lens of
clearly but cannot see nearby objects length of lens suitable power
distinctly. -Eye ball becomes
-Image is formed behind the retina. smaller
-Near point becomes more than 25 cm

81
Presbyopia In old age, affected person is difficult to -Gradual weakness of Bi-focal lens
see the nearby objects and distinct ciliary muscles. (Upper is concave
objects comfortably. -Decreasing the lens and lower is
flexibility of eye lens convex lens)
-Reducing ability of
lens to change the
curvature.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM

Prism is a transparent optical material, which refracts light and must have at least two faces with an angle
between them. A triangular glass prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
These surfaces are inclined to each other.
When a ray of light enters the prism, it bends towards the normal, because light is entering from a
rarer medium to a denser medium. Similarly, when the light emerges from the prism, it follows the
laws of refraction of light.
The rectangular surfaces are known as refracting surfaces (ABC).
The line along which the refracting surfaces meet is called the refracting edge.
The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism (∠A).
The angle between initial direction of incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of deviation (∠△).

Fig: Refraction of light through a prism

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 DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A PRISM
The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent seven colours, when passed through a
prism is called dispersion of white light.
The sequence of these seven colours is VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red).
Red light (wavelength around 700 nm) deviates least.
Violet light (wavelength around 380 nm) deviates maximum.
We obtain a band of seven colours spectrum. The band of the coloured components of a white light
beam is called its spectrum.

RECOMBINATION OF THE

SPECTRUM OF WHITE LIGHT

Observation: Sir Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight. This
observation gave Newton the idea that Sunlight is made up of seven colours.
He tried to split the colours of the spectrum of white light further by using another similar prism but
placed inverted position. This allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass through the second prism. He
found the white light emerging from the other side of the second prism.
Reason: This is because the bending of light produced by the second prism is equal and opposite to the
refraction produced by the first prism.

Fig: Newton’s double prism experiment

RAINBOW FORMATION
A rainbow is a spectrum of Sunlight in nature appearing in the sky after a rain. A rainbow is always
formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.
In this process, the tiny water droplets act like prism. When the sunlight passed through the water
droplets, the sunlight is dispersed and convert into seven colours.

83
Reasons of formation of rainbow:
(i) Refraction of light
(ii) Internal reflection
(iii) Dispersion of light
The sunlight refracts and disperse the sunlight, then reflect it internally and finally refracted it again
when it comes out of the raindrop.

Fig: Formation of rainbow

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
Atmospheric refraction is the shift in apparent direction of a celestial object caused by the refraction
of light rays as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere.
Reason of atmospheric refraction: The physical conditions of the air are not stationary. The hotter air
is lighter air (less dense) than the cooler air (denser) above it. The hotter air has a refractive index
slightly less than the cooler air.
So apparent position of the object becomes fluctuates. The apparent position of the object is just
above the correct position of the object.
Some phenomenon of atmospheric refraction:
(i) Twinkling of stars (ii) Advance sunrise and delayed sunset
(i) TWINKLING OF STARS:
Stars twinkle due to atmospheric refraction. Stars are very far away from the earth. Hence, they are
considered as point sources of light. When the light coming from stars enters the earth’s atmosphere,
it gets refracted at different levels because of the variation in the air density at different levels of the
atmosphere.
When the star light refracted by the atmosphere comes more towards us, it appears brighter than
when it comes less towards us. Therefore, it appears as if the stars are twinkling at night.
But planets are not twinkle. Because they are much closer to the earth and they are considered source
of a large-point sized. The total variation in the light coming on the earth becomes average out to
zero means nullifying the twinkling effect.

Fig: Twinkling of star

84
(ii). ADVANCE SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET:
The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise and about 2 minutes after the actual
sunset due to atmospheric refraction.
The bending of light passing through the horizon, the apparent position of the Sun appears above the
horizon.
The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same phenomenon
(atmospheric refraction).

Fig: Atmospheric refraction effects at sunrise and sunset

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
The phenomenon in which the path of a beam of light passing through a colloid, it path becomes
visible is called scattering of light.
Basically, it involves absorption of light by the molecules followed by re-radiation in different
directions.
The small particles (molecules, tiny water droplets and dust particles) scatter the blue light, whose
wavelength is shorter. While the larger size particles scatter the light of longer wavelength (red light).
Therefore, in the scattered light, the short wavelengths predominate, the sky appears blue.
Some phenomenon of scattering of light:
(i). TYNDALL EFFECT:
The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These particles include
smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air. When a beam of light
strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam becomes visible. The light reaches us, after being
reflected diffusely by these particles.
(ii). BLUE COLOUR OF SKY:
The blue colour of the sky is due to scattering of Sunlight by the molecules of the atmosphere. In this
event, the size of the gas molecules is less than the larger wavelength of visible light. So, these
particles are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than light of
longer wavelengths at the red end. So, blue light is scattered more predominantly by the fine
particles in air than red light. The scattered blue light enters our eyes.

If the earth had no atmosphere:

There would not have been any scattering. Then, the sky would have looked dark. The sky appears
dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, as scattering is not prominent at such heights.

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MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-10:

86
 CHAPTER 12 ELECTRICITY
1. Charge: It is an inherent property of the body due to which the body feels attractive and repulsive
forces. There are two types of electric charges:
(I)Positive and (ii) Negative
(ii)Like charges repel each other.
(iii)Unlike charges attract each other.

2. Conductors and insulators: Those substances through which electricity can flow are called conductors.
All the metals like silver, copper, aluminium etc. are conductors.
Those substances through which electricity cannot flow are called insulators. Glass, ebonite, rubber, most
plastics, paper, dry wood, etc., are insulators.

3. Electrostatic potential: The electrostatic potential at any point is defined as the work done in bringing a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point. Potential is denoted by the symbol V and its unit is volt. A
potential of one volt at a point means that 1 joule of work is done in bringing 1 unit positive charge
from infinity to that point.

4. Potential Difference: The amount of work done in moving unit positive charge from one point to
another in an electric field is known as potential difference. Potential difference = Work done/Quantity of
charge moved
If a W joule of work has to be done to move Q coulombs of charge from one point to another point, then
the potential difference V between the two points is given by the formula:
Potential difference, V = W/Q
The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V).
1 volt: One volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to another. Therefore, 1 volt
= 1joule/ 1 coulomb
5. Voltmeter: The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called voltmeter. The
voltmeter is connected in parallel across the points where the potential difference is measured. A
voltmeter has high resistance.
6. Electric Current: The electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges (called electrons) in a
conductor.
If a charge of Q coulombs flows through a conductor in time t seconds, then the magnitude I of the
electric current flowing through it is given by
Current, I = Q/t The SI unit of electric current is ampere and it is denoted by the letter A. Electric current is
a scalar quantity.
7. Ammeter: Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter. The ammeter is connected in series
with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An ammeter should have very low internal
resistance.
8. Voltaic Cell: It is one of the earliest devices which are capable of providing a continuous flow of electric
current. It is used for converting chemical energy into electrical energy.

87
8. Ohm’s Law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends. If 1 is the current flowing through a conductor and V is the
potential difference across its ends.
Then according to Ohm’s law
I∝V
This can also-be written as:
V∝ I V = IR
Where R is a constant called 'resistance' of the conductor. The value of this constant depends on the
nature, length, area of cross-section and temperature of the conductor.

Resistance -The property of a conductor due to which it opposes the flow of current through it is called
resistance. The resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to ratio of potential difference across its
ends to the current flowing through it. i.e.
Resistance =Potential difference/Current R = V/I
The SI unit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by symbol Ω. 1 ohm: If V = 1 volt, I = I ampere, then
R = 1 volt/1 ampere= 1 ohm
Thus, the resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if 1 ampere current flows through the conductor
when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it.

11. Factors affecting the Resistance of a Conductor: The resistance of the conductor depends:
(i) On its length ( R ∝ l)
(ii) On its area of cross-section( R ∝ 1/A )
(iii) On the nature of its material.
(iv)Temperature of the conductor
88
12. Resistivity: It has been found by the experiments that:
(I) The resistance of a given conductor is directly proportional to its length. R ∝ l ………(i)
(ii)The resistance of a given conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
R ∝ l /A ……. (ii)
By combining the equations (i) and (ii), R ∝l/A
R = 𝜌 (l/A)
Where 𝜌is called specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor. When l = 1m, A = 1m2, we have 𝜌 = R
Thus, the resistivity of a conductor is the resistance of unit length and unit area of cross-section of the
conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre (Ωm).

13. Combination of Resistance: The resistance can be combined in two ways:

(i)In series (ii) in parallel
(i)Resistance in series:

In series, the total potential difference, V = V1 + V2 + V3 …….(i)

Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit V = IR ……(ii)
Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have V1 = I R1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3 ….(iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
R = R1 + R 2 + R3
(ii)Resistance in parallel:

In parallel, the total current: I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)

Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit I = V/R …… (ii)
Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have I1 = V/R1; I2 = V/R2; I3 = V/R3 …. (iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
14. Electric Power: The rate at which work is done by an electric current is known as electric power.
Power = Work done/Time P = W/t = (V x Q)/t …..(i)
The work done by current I when it flows for time t under a potential difference V is given by:
W = V x I x t joules [Because W = VQ and Q = It] Putting the value of W in equation (i), we have
89
 P = (V x I x t)/t = VI
P = I2R [Because V = IR]
P = V2/R [Because I = V/R] the unit of electric power is watt.
Power = V x I
1 watt = 1volt x 1 ampere
Thus, if a potential difference of 1 volt causes a current of 1 ampere to flow through a wire, the electrical
power consumed is one watt.

15. Electrical Energy:

Electrical energy = Power x Time E = P x t
The electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance depends upon
(i)Power rating of the appliance
(ii)Time for which it (appliance) is used. The SI unit of electrical energy is joule.
1 joule is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an appliance of 1 watt is used for 1 second.

16. Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy: Kilowatt hour is the commercial unit of electrical energy. One
kilowatt hour is the electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance having 1kW power rating is
used for 1 hour.
Energy used = Power x Time 1 kWh = 1 kW x l h
= 1000 w x 60 x 60s
= 1000 JS-l X 3600 s
= 3600000 J= 3.6 x 106 J

17. Heating Effect of Current: When an electric current is passed through a high resistance wire, it
becomes very hot and produces heat. This effect is called the heating effect of current.
When an electric charge Q moves against a potential difference V, the amount of work done is given by,
W=Q x V ……(i)
But, current, I = Q/t Q=Ixt
From Ohm's law: V = I x R
Now, putting all these values in equation (i), we have Work done, W = I2 x R x t
This work done is converted into heat energy for maintaining the flow of current I through the conductor
for t second.
Heat produced, H = I2 x R x t joules.

18. Applications of Heating Effect of Current:

(i) In electrical heating appliances: All electrical heating appliances are based on heating effect of current.
For example, appliances, such as electric iron, water heaters and geysers, room heaters, toaster, hot
plates are fitted with heating coils made of high resistance wire such as nichrome wire.

(ii) Electric filament bulb: The use of electric filament bulbs (ordinary electric bulbs) is also based on the
heating effect of current. Inside the glass shell of electric bulb there is a filament. This filament is made
from a very thin high resistance tungsten wire. When current flows through this filament, it gets heated
up. Soon, it becomes white hot and starts emitting light.

90
MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-11

91
 CHAPTER – 13 MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Magnetic field - The space or region around a magnet within which its force can be felt or detected (by
another magnet or iron etc.) is called a magnetic field.
Magnetic field has both direction and magnitude.

Magnetic field lines-These are the imaginary curved lines which emerge from the north pole of the
magnet and merge at the South Pole of the magnet. These show the direction of the magnetic force. The
magnetic field lines are from the north pole to south pole outside the magnet while these are from south
pole to north pole inside the magnet so the magnetic field line is a closed and continuous curve.
1. The magnetic field lines are closer near the poles of a magnet where the magnetic field is strong and
farther apart where the magnetic field is weak.
2. The magnetic field lines never intersect each other because in that case there will be more than one
direction of magnetic field at the point of intersection which is not possible.
3. A uniform magnetic field is represented by parallel and equidistant field lines.
Magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor
When current is passed through a straight current-carrying conductor, a magnetic field is produced
around it. The field lines are in the form of concentric circles at every point of the current-carrying
conductor. We can find the direction of the magnetic field, around a straight current carrying conductor
by using the Right-Hand Thumb Rule.

Maxwell Right-Hand Thumb Rule (Maxwell corkscrew rule)

Imagine that you are holding a current carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the thumb
points towards the direction of current, then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction
of the field lines of the magnetic field. This is known as the Right- Hand Thumb Rule.
Magnetic field due to a current carrying coil or solenoid
Solenoid- A coil of many circular turns of insulated conducting wire wrapped closely in the shape of
cylinder is called a solenoid.

92
One end of the solenoid behaves like a magnetic north pole while the other end behaves like the South
Pole. The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. It means the magnetic
field inside a solenoid is uniform i.e. same at all points. The pattern of magnetic field around a solenoid is
similar to that of the magnetic field around a bar magnet. The magnetic field inside the solenoid is very
strong that can be used to magnetise a piece of soft Iron (magnetic material) when placed inside the
solenoid or coil. The magnet formed in this way is called electromagnet.
Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
A current carrying conductor, aluminium rod etc. placed
in a magnetic field experiences a force in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. The
direction of this force can be depicted by Fleming’s left-
hand rule, due to this force; the current carrying
conductor is displaced from its rest position.
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule-Stretch The thumb, forefinger
and middle finger of your left hand such that they are
mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger
points in the direction of magnetic field and the middle
finger points in the direction of current, then the thumb
will point in the direction of motion or the force acting on the conductor. This rule is known as the
Fleming's left-hand rule.
The force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field depends upon-
1. Force is directly proportional to the strength of magnetic field
2. Force is directly proportional to the value of electric
current.
3. Force is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor.

Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC)

Alternate Current: Current in which direction is changed periodically is called Alternate Current. In India,
most of the power stations generate alternate current. The direction of current changes after every 1/100
second in India, i.e. the frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz.
Direct Current: Current that flows in one direction only is called Direct current. Electrochemical cells
produce direct current.

93
Advantages of A.C over D.C:
 Cost of generation of A.C is much less than that of D.C.
 A.C can be easily converted to D.C.
 AC can be transmitted over long distances without much loss of energy.

Disadvantages of AC
 AC cannot be used for the electrolysis process or showing electromagnetism as it reverses its
polarity.
 AC is more dangerous than DC.

Domestic Electric circuits:

We receive electric supply through mains
supported through the poles or cables. In
our houses, we receive AC electric power
of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.
The 3 wires are as follows
 Live wire – (Red insulated, Positive)
 Neutral wire – (Black insulated,
Negative)
 Earth wire – (Green insulated) for
safety measure to ensure that any
leakage of current to a metallic body does not give any serious shock to a user.

SHORT CIRCUIT: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wire and neutral wire and sudden a
large current flow. It happens due to
1. Damage insulation in power lines.
2. A fault in an electrical appliance.
Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of an electrical wire in any circuit, due to the flow of a
large current through it is called overloading of the electrical circuit.
A sudden large amount of current flows through the wire, which causes overheating of wire and may
cause fire also.

ELECTRIC FUSE: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-circuiting and
overloading. It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting point and high resistance.
 Fuse is always connected to live wire.
 Fuse is always connected in series to the electric circuit.
 Fuse is always connected to the beginning of an electric circuit.
 Fuse works on the heating effect.

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 MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-12

Magnetic field lines-These are the imaginary curved lines which emerge from the north pole of the
magnet and merge at the South Pole of the magnet. These show the direction of the magnetic force. The
magnetic field lines are from the north pole to south pole outside the magnet while these are from south
pole to north pole inside the magnet so the magnetic field line is a closed and continuous curve.
1. The magnetic field lines are closer near the poles of a magnet where the magnetic field is strong and
farther apart where the magnetic field is weak.
2. The magnetic field lines never intersect each other because in that case there will be more than one
direction of magnetic field at the point of intersection which is not possible.
3. A uniform magnetic field is represented by parallel and equidistant field lines.

Right-Hand Thumb Rule-Imagine that you are holding a current carrying straight conductor in your right
hand such that the thumb points towards the direction of current, then your fingers will wrap around the
conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field. This is known as the Maxwell Right-
Hand Thumb Rule.

Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

A current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field. The direction of this force can be depicted by Fleming’s left-hand rule,
due to this force, the current carrying conductor is displaced from its rest position.

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule Stretch The thumb, forefinger and middle finger of your left hand such that
they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field
and the middle finger points in the direction of current, then the thumb will point in the direction of
motion or the force acting on the conductor. This rule is known as the Fleming's left-hand rule.

The force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field depends upon-
1. Force is directly proportional to the magnetic field
2. Force is directly proportional to the electric current.
3. force is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

Short Circuit: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wire and neutral wire and sudden a large
current flow. It happens due to
1. Damage insulation in power lines. 2. A fault in an electrical appliance.

Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any circuit due to the flow of a
large current through it is called overloading of the electrical circuit.
A sudden large amount of current flows through the wire, which causes overheating of wire and may
cause fire also.

Electric Fuse: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-circuiting and overloading.
It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting point and high resistance.

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 CHAPTER – 15 OUR ENVRONMENT
ECOSYSTEM: An ecosystem is a system consisting of biotic and abiotic components that function
together as a unit.
•Biotic components- all the living things
•Abiotic components - non-living things like water, light, wind, soil etc. Ecosystem maintains a balance in
the nature.
•Natural ecosystem – forest, pond, lake
•Man-made (artificial ecosystem)- crop fields, garden
Producer: autotrophic, perform photosynthesis e.g. green plants, blue green algae
Consumer: consume the food produced either directly from producer or indirectly by feeding on the
other consumers type of consumers: -
Herbivores – deer
Carnivores – lion
Omnivores – cat
Decomposers: feed on dead and decomposed products. E.g. fungi, bacteria
Importance of Decomposers –
•Break down of dead remains and waste products of organisms.
•Break down the complex organic substance into simple inorganic substances.
•Release minerals into the soil. Thus, helps in maintaining the fertility of soil.
•Clean the environment
•Help in recycling the materials in the biosphere.
FOOD CHAIN
The sequence of living organisms in a ecosystem in which one organism consumes another organism to
transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
For example
Grass → Goat → Tiger
Grass → insect → frog → snake → eagle
Planktons → insects → fish → crane
TROPHIC LEVELS:
The various steps in the food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy) takes place is called trophic
levels. The different trophic levels are – Producers (T1), Primary consumers (herbivores-T2), Secondary
consumers (primary carnivores -T3), Tertiary consumers(Sec carnivores -T4), Decomposers
Significance of Food Chains
•The food chain transfer energy from one trophic level to another.
Autotrophs → heterotrophs → decomposers

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10 % LAW - Only 10 % of energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. Rest of energy is lost as
heat, into doing work, in digestion, growth, reproduction. It is called 10 % law.
•Help in study of food relationships and interactions among the various organisms in an ecosystem.

FOOD WEB
It is inter-connected food chains in an ecosystem.
It forms a network of relationship between various species.
In a food web, one organism may occupy a position in more than
one food chain. More stable food chain / food web means more
stable ecosystem.
FOOD PYRAMID
It is graphic representation of food chain.
It may be formed as, depicted as a pyramid having a broad base
formed by producers and tapering to a point formed by end
consumers.
BIOMAGNIFICATION
Accumulation of toxic pollutants at successive higher trophic level is called as bio magnification.
OZONE LAYER
•Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.
•Ozone shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.
•UV radiation is highly damaging to organisms. It may cause even skin cancer in human beings.
•Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting on oxygen (O2)
molecule
•The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O) atoms.
These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form ozone as shown—
•The ozone layer depletion takes place at higher rate. The major cause is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.

BIODEGRADABLE AND NON BIODEGRADABLE WATSES

I-Biodegradable Wastes: These can be broken down by the biological processes.
E.g. Food waste, plant parts, animal wastes, agricultural residue, paper etc. Decomposers can decompose
these without harming ecosystem. Food waste, trees leaves, urine and fecal matter, sewage agricultural
residue, paper, wood, cloth, cow- dung etc.
II-Non-biodegradable waste- these can‘t be broken down by biological processes.
E.g. - Chemical pesticides, DDT, mercury, lead, plastics, polythene bags etc. These wastes are major
pollutants of the environment.

MAINTAININMG THE GARBAGE WE PRODUCE

•Change in attitudes toward using only biodegradable items.
•Proper disposal of wastes
•Follow Sewage treatment norms
•3 R‘s principle- reduce, recycle, reuse

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 MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING (MLL) CH-13
ECOSYSTEM contains two components:-
•Biotic components- all the living things •Abiotic components - non-living things like water, light, wind,
soil etc.
•Natural ecosystem – forest, pond, lake •Man-made (artificial ecosystem)- crop fields, garden
Producer: autotrophic, perform photosynthesis e.g. green plants, blue green algae
Consumer: consume the food produced either directly from producer or indirectly by feeding on other
consumers types of consumers:-
i-Herbivores – deer ii-Carnivores – lion iii- Omnivores – cat
Decomposers: feed on dead and decomposed products. E.g. fungi, bacteria
FOOD CHAIN
The sequence of living organisms in which one organism consumes another organism to transfer food
energy, is called a food chain. For example
i-Grass  Goat  Tiger
ii-Grass  insect  frog  snake  eagle
iii-Planktons insects  fish  crane
TROPHIC LEVELS:
The various steps in the food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy) takes place is called trophic
levels.
10 % LAW- Only 10 % of energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. Rest of energy is lost as
heat, into doing work, in digestion, growth, reproduction. It is called 10 % law.
FOOD WEB-It is inter-connected food chains in an ecosystem.
It forms a network of relationship between various species.
In a food web, one organism may occupy a position in more than one food chain. More stable food chain
/ food web means more stable ecosystem.
FOOD PYRAMID- It is graphic representation of food chain.It may be formed as, depicted as a pyramid
having a broad base formed by producers and tapering to a point formed by end consumers.
BIOMAGNIFICATION-Accumulation of toxic pollutants at successive higher trophic level is called as bio
magnification.
OZONE LAYER
•Ozone shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.
• It may cause even skin cancer in human beings.
•The ozone layer depletion takes place at higher rate. The major cause is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.
BIODEGRADABLE WASTES: These can be broken down by the biological processes.
E.g. Food waste, plant parts, animal wastes, agricultural residue, paper etc. Decomposers can decompose
these without harming ecosystem.
NON-BIODEGRADABLE WASTE- These can‘t be broken down by biological processes.
E.g. - Chemical pesticides, DDT, mercury, lead, plastics, polythene bags etc.
MAINTAININMG THE GARBAGE WE PRODUCE
•Change in attitudes toward using only biodegradable items.
•Proper disposal of wastes
•Follow Sewage treatment norms
•3 R‘s principle- reduce, recycle, reuse.

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