The Cytoplasm

It is the part of the

protoplasm that contains the
organelles, inclusions and
the intra-cellular fluid.
Intra-cellular Fluid or ICF
 ICF ECF
Intra-cellular Fluid or Cytosol Extra-cellular Fluid

More protein Less protein

More Potassium ion (145 mmol/L) Less Potassium ion (4 mmol/L)

Less Sodium ion (110 mmol/L) More Sodium ion (145 mmol/L)

More Phosphate ion More Chloride ion

ICF vs ECF
ICF or Cytosol
It serves as the medium for
intracellular processes

It must contain proteins, enzymes

and ions so that activities in the
cell can take place.

It provides structural support to the cells

and organelles.

It creates space for chemicals

ICF or Cytosol
to move within the cell.
 These are the structures
found within the
membrane of the cell.

These structures can be

categorized into two
groups: INCLUSIONS and
ORGANELLES.

Organelles and Inclusions

These are non-living substances within the cytoplasm of a cell.

They do not carry out specific metabolic activities, and they are not
bound by any membrane.

They include glycogen, lipids, pigments and other secretory

substances.

INCLUSIONS
Glycogen is the most common form of glucose in animals and are
abundant in muscles and liver cells.

This is the most important source of energy of the cell.

INCLUSIONS: GLYCOGEN
Lipids are triglycerides in storage form, and

It is used as energy source on demand or source of Carbon chains for

synthesis of membranes.

They are found in various types of cells including liver cells

(hepatocytes), but are mostly abundant in fat cells (Adipocytes).

INCLUSIONS: LIPIDS
Pigments are substances that produce the characteristic coloration of
a cell. Examples are:

Melanin – found in melanocytes of the skin and hair, and is responsible

for their dark coloration.

Hemoglobin – the pigment that gives the RBC its red color.

INCLUSIONS: PIGMENTS
These substances are produced in the cell to be secreted out of the
cell and into the extra-cellular fluid.

It includes hormones, mucus, digestive enzymes, neurotransmitters,

proteins and hydrochloric acid.

INCLUSIONS: SECRETORY SUBTANCES

The Cell Membrane
The Organelles
The word organelle
literally means “little
organ”.

These little organs have

specific functions in the
cell, and they work
together so that the cell
can operate smoothly.

When the cell cannot operate smoothly, there is an organelle that can cause the cell to self- destruct.
 Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles

The Endomembrane System

Producing, packaging
and transporting
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough ER
- Contains ribosomes
- Protein synthesis

Smooth ER
- Lipid synthesis
- Regulates Calcium ions for
neurotransmission
- Helps metabolize
carbohydrates and breaks
down toxins.
Vesicles
Packaging units that
transport substances
within the cell.
The structure of the membrane of the vesicle is the same as that of a cell membrane’s structure.
The vesicle can fuse
with the cell membrane
after it transports
substances
out of the cell.

The membrane can also

produce vesicles when
substances from the ECF
are taken in by the cell.
 “Post office” of the cell.

Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus has two distinct
sides, each with a different role. One
side of the apparatus receives
products in vesicles.

These products are sorted through

the apparatus, and then they are
released from the opposite side after
being repackaged into new vesicles.
 “Post office” of the cell.

Golgi Apparatus
If the substance is an ENZYME,
the package is no longer called
a vesicle. Rather, it is called a
LYSOSOME.
Lysosomes
• Some of the protein products packaged by the Golgi
include digestive enzymes that are meant to remain
inside the cell for use in breaking down certain materials.

• It is an organelle that contains enzymes that break

down and digest unneeded cellular components, such as
a damaged organelle.
Lysosomes
• In the case of damaged or unhealthy cells, lysosomes
can be triggered to open-up and release their digestive
enzymes into the cytoplasm of the cell, killing the cell.
This “self-destruct” mechanism is called autolysis.

• Autophagy (“self-eating”) is the process of a cell

digesting its own structures.
 Lysosomes

Lysosomes are also

important for breaking
down foreign material. For
example, when certain
immune defense cells
(white blood cells)
phagocytize bacteria, the
bacterial cell is transported
into a lysosome and
digested by the enzymes
inside.
Energy Production
and
Detoxification
Cells too need too need nutrients to
provide itself energy through the
various biochemical reactions.

These chemical reactions produce

the substances that can be broken
down to release energy.
Mitochondria
Cross- section of a
Mitochondria
The cristae (folds) aren’t really folds.

Rather, they are hollow tubes.

The food we eat is our source of energy.

This means that when the food is digested

and converted into its simplest form, that
simple structure is used to produce
another substance called Adenosine
triphosphate or ATP.
Mitochondrion
This is a bean-shaped organelle, sometimes referred
to as the “powerhouse” or the “energy transformer”
or “ATP factory” of a cell.

The organelles has two membranes (outer and inner

membranes), separated from each other by a space
called intermembrane space.
Mitochondrion
The fluid within the intermembrane space is the same
as the cytosol.

The fluid in the inner membrane (called the matrix)

has a different concentration.
Mitochondrion
The “folds” of the inner membrane,

called the CRISTA (cristae for plural) is the place

where various biochemical process take place.

These “folds” increase the surface area of

the inner membrane.

ATP – ADP Synthesis
• When the cells need energy,
• one phosphate group is removed from the ATP,
• making it an ADP + energy.

ADP stands for Adenosine diphosphate

Hydrogen peroxide is a substance
produced during the various
chemical process that make the ATP.

H2O0 is the source of radicals such

as the OH and O2O2 (superoxide),
which can hurt the cells.

These toxic substances must be

converted into H2O and O2.
Peroxisome
Reactive Oxygen species (ROS) such as –OH and O2O2
are free radicals.

They lack electron in the outer valence,

and they “steal” electrons from other substances,

and this disrupts in the normal chemical reactions in the

cell.

The peroxisomes bind these free radicals to Hydrogen

atoms to stabilize them.
Peroxisomes is an organelle that contains the enzyme
CATALASE.

H2O2 catalase H2O + O2

Reactive Oxygen molecules such as –OH and O2O2 are

free radicals. They lack electron in the outer valence,

and they “steal” electrons from other substances,

and this disrupts in the normal chemical reactions in

the cell.
Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton
Provides the cell with strength,
structure and movement.

3 types:
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate Filaments
The cytoskeleton is a complex network of protein filaments and tubules that extend
throughout the cytoplasm of a cell.

Electron microscopy
Flrourency microscopy
Intermediate Filaments
Connects one cell to another through the desmosomes the cells.
Found only in vertebrates and some soft-bodied animals.
Found in cells that need a lot of strength – such as the skin. Its proteins are called Keratin.
Resists tension.
Anchors organelles in place.

2 monomers twist to form a dimer, locked up with another dimer to form a tetramer. 8 tetramers form 1 strand of an intermediate filament.
Structure of a
Intermediate
Filament
Micro Filaments (Actin Filaments)
Thinnest of the three tubules, mad up of Actin proteins.
Muscles cells have abundant amount of actin filaments, together with Myosin protein, they cause
muscle contraction by shrinking the cells.
The actin filaments shorten to shrink the cell size – causing contraction of the muscles.
It also helps in cell division by forming the cleavage of the mother cell during cytokinesis.
Structure of a
Microfilament
Mircotubules
The largest of the tubules in the cytoskeleton.
Prevent the cells from collapsing.
Transportation for vesicles and organeles..
Forms the cilia and flagella of a cell.
Structure of a
Microtubule
Cell Membrane
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
Two layers of phospholipids
Hydrophilic head phosphate group
Hydrophobic lipid tail
Structure of Phospholipid:
Hydrophilic head phosphate group (polar)

Hydrophobic lipid tail (non-polar)

Allows water
to pass
through
Channel Protein
Allows larger molecules to pass through:

Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats
Carrier Protein
Mainly involved in active
transport of molecules.
Active Transport – molecules move from low concentration to high concentration gradient and needs
energy to do so. ATP is used to provide energy for the transport of the molecules.
Example: Na-K pump