Elementary Particle Physics

From Theory to Experiment

Carlos Wagner
Physics Department, EFI and KICP, Univ. of Chicago
HEP Division, Argonne National Laboratory

Society of Physics Students, Univ. of Chicago, Nov. 10, 2014

Particle Physics studies the smallest pieces of matter,

1 1/10.000 1/100.000 1/100.000.000

and their interactions.

 Forces and Particles in Nature
Gravitational Force Electromagnetic Force
Attractive force between 2 massive objects: Attracts particles of opposite charge

k e1e 2
F =
d2

G= 1
M 2Pl
Forces within atoms and between atoms
Proportional to product of masses + and - charges bind together
Strong Force
Assumes interaction over a distance d and screen each other

==> comes from properties of space and time

Atoms are made from protons,
Electrons interact with protons via quantum
neutrons and electrons.
Strong nuclear forceofbinds together
e.m. energy protons
: the photons
and neutrons to form atoms snuclei
! together
Strong nuclear force binds =1 m =0
! !
protons and neutrons to form nuclei

proton
D. I. S. of uud
electrons formed by three
withModeled
protons quarks,
orbyneutrons
a theory bound
based on together
neutron
Is very weak unless one of theatmasses udd shows
high energies
is huge, by that
the U(1)
gluons
gaugeof the strong interactions
symmetry
like the earth protons and neutrons
SU (3) c
are not fundamental

Friday, ! u u d 2, 2012
p November formedby three quarks, bound together by
n!udd the gluons of the strong interactions
Weak Force Force Mediating particle transformations

ction
Weak Force
ide the protons
2

e carriers:

FW ! e" MW d / d
Similar transformations explain the non-observation of
heavier elementary particles in our everyday experience.
Modeled by SU (2) L gauge symmetry

assigns 2 isospin
Friday, November 2, 2012
u )
 Standard Model Particles

There are 12 fundamental gauge fields: But very different masses!

8 gluons, 3 Wµ ’s and Bµ
m3 /m2 and m2 /m1 a few tens or hundreds
and 3 gauge couplings g1 , g2 , g3 mµ m
me = 0.5 10 3 GeV, me
200, m 20
µ
The matter fields:
3 families of quarks and leptons with same Largest hierarchies
quantum numbers under gauge groups mt 175 GeV mt /me ⇥ 105
neutrino masses smaller than as 10 9

GeV!

Only left handed fermions transform under the weak SM gauge group
Lectures onSU (3) SU (2)L U (1)Y
Supersymmetry Carlos E.M. Wagner, Argonne and EFI

Fermion and gauge boson masses forbidden by symmetry

Friday, November 2, 2012
 Antiparticles

Dirac equation leads to negative energy states

Solution to this problem : States filled (the Dirac sea)

Holes in the Dirac sea : Antiparticles

Positron discovered a few years later
 Particle Physics Property : When two particles collide, they may be
converted into other forms of energy (particles energetically accessible)

Friday, November 2, 2012

 Particle Physics Property : When two particles collide, they may be
converted into other forms of energy (particles energetically accessible)

Colliding Colliding
Shaquille Anti-Shaquille

Rate of production of a given particle depends on its strength of interactions with colliding
particles. Hulk Hogan (and anti-Hogan) produced more frequently than Hawking

Friday, November 2, 2012

 In the Electroweak
Model,Symmetry
Electroweak
Standard Breaking:
explicit masses are forbidden by symmetry
The
The Higgs
Higgs Mechanism
Mechanism and the Origin of Mass
A
A scalar
scalar (Higgs)
(Higgs) field
field is
is introduced. The Higgs field acquires a
nonzero
nonzero value
value to
to minimize
minimize its energy
Spontaneous Breakdown of
the symmetry : SU (2)L U (1)YY ⇥ UU(1)
(1)em
em
Vacuum becomes a source of
energy = a source of mass
⇥
0⇥
" >==v v
<Hφ
AAphysical
physical state
state (Higgs
(Higgs boson)
boson) appear associated to fluctuations in
in the
the
radial
radial direction
direction .. Goldstone
Goldstone modes:
modes: Longitudinal component of massive
massive
Gauge
Gauge fields.
fields.

Masses
Masses of
of fermions
fermions and
and gauge
gauge bosons proportional to their
couplings to
couplings to the
the Higgs
Higgs field:
field:
MWW,Z== ggWW,,ZZ vv
M m top
top = h top v
m 2H = !λ v 22
⇤
⇤ ⇤
⇤ ⇥
=
LL = ii¯¯iL,R
i
L,RDDµµ ii
µµ L,R
L,R
¯ iiLhddijHd j + ¯ i hu (i⇥2 H )uj + h.c.
L ij R L ij R
ii i,j
i,j

Friday, November 2, 2012

 TheThe Discovery
Discovery ofHiggs
of the the Higgs
wouldputs the last
put the lastpiece
pieceof the
of theStandard
StandardModel in place
Model in place
How did we search for the Higgs ?

Colliding particles at the Tevatron and the LHC

Tevatron Energy = 2,000 proton masses 8
LHC Energy = 14,000 proton masses
Chicago Mountains
Swiss Alps

Geneva

ATLAS

LHC

CMS
Friday, November 2, 2012
 The complete set of Standard
Model particles

Progress in developing the SM has been

the result of collaboration of theory and experiment
Reasons for Proposal and Later
Solutions to 4 Puzzles (1932)
! 1) Klein Paradox --apparent violation of unitarity
(solution:positron existence- pair production
possible)
! 2) Wrong Statistics in Nuclei--N-14 nucleus
appeared to be bosonic--(solution: neutron not a
proton-electron bound state)
! 3) Beta Ray Emission-apparent Energy non
conservation (solution:neutrino)
! 4) Energy Generation in Stars (solution: nuclear
forces, pep chain, carbon cycle etc.----pion)

from G. Segre’10
 Higgs Discovery
Historical Perspective
In order to reflect on the future, it is useful to look at the
lessons of the past.

I will give a few interesting examples, and then speculate

on the future.

Higgs mechanism was proposed back in 1964, by

several authors, including Higgs, and implemented in the
SM by Weinberg, in 1967.

What were the prospects of finding the Higgs Boson ten

years after its proposal ?
A Phenomenological Profile of the Higgs Boson

1976

Eilam Gross, WIS, Freiburg Jan 2012 11

A Phenomenological Profile of the Higgs Boson

1976

Eilam Gross, WIS, Freiburg Jan 2012 12

 But the Higgs is not weakly coupled to all
fundamental particles !

It is relatively strongly coupled to those particles which had not been

discovered at that time
Indeed, the W mass, the Z mass and the top quark masses are all of the
order of 100 times the proton mass
Some of the authors soon realized that these could be used to produce
Higgs bosons
It is in processes mediated by these particles that we have searched
for, and eventually found the Higgs boson !
 Search
Thefor the for
search Standard ModelModel
the Standard Higgs at Proton
Higgs Colliders
at the LHC
• Low mass range mHSM < 200 GeV
H ! "" , ## ,bb,WW , ZZ

• High mass range mHSM > 200 GeV

H ! WW , ZZ

14 TeV
1 bf-1
in 2009

Friday, November 2, 2012

 SM Higgs LHC Cross Sections and Decay Branching Ratios
24
1 barn : 10 cm2
12
1 pb = 10 barn
15
1 fb = 10 barn
L⇥ = Number of events

Higgs tends to decay into heavier SM particle kinematically available

Friday, November 2, 2012

 Expected: 34± 3

Both Experiments look for a Higgs decaying into

two Z’s through four lepton channels
2011+2012 data

Both see an excess of ZZ events in the 125 GeV mass range.

The production rate is consistent with the one expected for
a 125 GeV mass Higgs.
Friday, November 2, 2012
 Properties of the new state
Mass and signal strength Observed width consistent with
• From a 2-D fit to ZZ* and γγ channels experimental resolution of ~ 2 GeV
• expected width of SM Higgs ~ 4 MeV
Mass = 126.0 ± 0.4 ± 0.4 GeV Mass = 125.3 ± 0.4 ± 0.5 GeV
σ/σSM = 1.4 ± 0.3 σ/σSM = 0.87 ± 0.23

CMS

SM
SM

Strengths in good agreement with prediction

for SM Higgs at current precision.
 Combining all channels the LHC experiments found a best fit to the Higgs production
rate consistent with that one of a SM Higgs of mass close to 125 GeV Compatibility wit

J. Incandela for the CMS COLLABORATION

July 4th 2012 The Status of the Higgs Search

! Overall best-fit signal strengt

Friday, November 2, 2012
!/!SM = 0.80±0.22
! Signal strength in 7 and 8 TeV
Now What?
 Assume Resonance behaves like a SM Higgs:
What are the implications for the future of High Energy Physics?

Many questions remain unanswered. Just to list some important ones :

Why is gravity so weak or, equivalently, why is the Planck scale so high compared
to the weak scale ? (hierarchy problem)

What is the origin of the matter-antimatter asymmetry

What is the origin of Dark Matter ?

Are neutrinos their own antiparticle ?

Why are there three generations of fermions ?

What is the origin of the hierarchy of fermion masses ?

Do forces unify ? Is the proton (ordinary matter) stable ?

What about Dark Energy ?

Friday, November 2, 2012

 Dark Matter and Electroweak Symmetry
Breaking

Friday, November 2, 2012

 Astrophysical Evidence of the
Existence of Dark Matter

More mass in Galaxies Collisionless form

than inferred from of Matter in Galaxies,
Stars and Dust carrying most of the
Galaxies mass
 Results from WMAP
i : Fraction of critical density
Universe density !0 = 1.02 ± 0.02
Dark energy density !" = 0.73 ± 0.04
Total matter density !M = 0.27 ± 0.05 Dark matter is non-baryonic
Baryon matter density !b = 0.044 ± 0.004

Our Universe:

us
If Dark Matter is a neutral
particle proceeding from the
thermal bath, its density
fraction is inversely
proportional to its
annihilation rate.

Friday, November 2, 2012

 (SM)
Standard Model Particles
Standard Model Particles
There are 12 fundamental gauge fields: But very different masses!
Three
8 gluons, 3 Wµfamilies
’s and Bµof quarks and leptons. Second and third family
and 3 heavy and unstable. m3 /m2 and m2 /m1 a few tens or hundreds
gauge couplings g1 , g2 , g3 mµ m
me = 0.5 10 3 GeV, me
200, m 20
µ
The matter fields:
Force
3 families carriers
of quarks Wleptons
and and Zwith
are same
unstable and have
Largest mass of order 100 GeV
hierarchies
quantum numbers under gauge groups mt 175
“Scalar GeV particle
Higgs” mt /m ⇥ 105
is enecessary to9
neutrino masses smaller than
explain mass generation. Collideras 10
GeV!
experiments searching for it.

None of these particles is a good DM candidate !

Lectures on Supersymmetry Carlos E.M. Wagner, Argonne and EFI
 In the early Universe, particles are created and annihilated in collisions.
Average particle energy is given by the Universe temperature.

When the temperature drops below a particle mass, it can no longer be

created, and it decays or annihilates.

Stable particles annihilate until the expansion of the Universe makes their
encounter extremely rare

Observed DM Density : DM are WIMPS (weakly interacting massive particles )

Sunday, December 26, 2010

Dark Matter : Missing Energy at Colliders

In general, if the dark matter particle is neutral and weakly

interacting, it will not be detected at current colliders.
Just like when the neutrino was discovered, evidence of the
production of such a particle will come from an apparent lack
of conservation of the energy and momentum in the process.
Missing Energy and (transverse) momentum signatures, beyond
the ones expected in the Standard Model, should be sizable
and will be the characteristic signatures of theories with a
thermal WIMP as a Dark Matter Candidate.
 What lies ahead ?

• Is Dark Matter isolated or is part of a new set of particles, soon

to be discovered ?

• In the second case, are these particles related in some way to

the Higgs ?

• Do they lead to an explanation of other puzzles ?

• Supersymmetry is an example of an extension of the SM that

may solve several of these puzzles.

• It also leads to the unification of fermions (matter fields) and

bosons (force fields)
 Supersymmetry
fermions bosons
electron selectron
quark squark
photino photon
gravitino graviton
Photino, Zino and Neutral Higgsino: Neutralinos

Charged Wino, charged Higgsino: Charginos

Particles and Sparticles share the same couplings to the Higgs. Two superpartners
of the two quarks (one for each chirality) couple strongly to the Higgs with a
Yukawa coupling of order one (same as the top-quark Yukawa coupling)

Two Higgs doublets necessary tan = v2

v1

Friday, November 2, 2012

 Quantum corrections induce quad

Why Supersymmetry ?
n i g i2 2
! Helps to stabilize the weak scale—Planck scale hierarchy : $ m 2H " (-1)2 S i
2
!
16 #
! Supersymmetry algebra contains the generator of
space-time translations.
Possible ingredient of theory of quantum gravity.
Necessary

! Minimal supersymmetric extension of the SM :

Leads to Unification of gauge couplings.
Cancelled if particles of different spin wit
are present. This happens within the m
! Starting from positive masses at high energies, electroweak symmetry breaking
is induced radiatively. extension of the Standard Model

3B+L+2S
! If discrete symmetry, P = (-1) is imposed, lightest SUSY
particle neutral and stable: Excellent candidate for cold Dark Matter.
 Example :
Supersymmetry at colliders
Gluino production and decay: Missing Energy Signature

Supersymmetric ˜~ 00
Particles tend to ÷χ1
be heavier if they d
carry color charges.

Charge-less particles
tend to be the ˜00
lightest ones. ~÷χ
1

Lightest Supersymmetric Particle: Excellent cold dark matter candidate

Friday, November 2, 2012

• Is Supersymmetry really there ?

• There are many alternatives, but none as compelling as SUSY.

• There may be extra dimensions of space time, that cannot be

seen with the present resolution.

• There may be new gauge forces, or new, heavy fermions with

masses not proceeding from the Higgs.

• The future will tell. But it will still be a joint effort between
theory and experiment.