Appetite 178 (2022) 106005

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Appetite
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/appet

Plate waste increases with the number of foods proposed: An exploratory

experimental study in adolescents’ school canteens
Natalie Rigal a, *, Philippe Courcoux b, Mireille Cardinal c, Marie-Line Huc d, Anne Beraud d
a
Universite Paris-Nanterre, UR Clipsyd, Nanterre, France
b
Oniris, Site de la Géraudière, Nantes, France
c
Altic, Conseil en agroalimentation, Sainte Luce sur Loire, France
d
Club Expert en Nutrition & Alimentation, Brides-les-Bains, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The objective of this exploratory study was to examine whether the number of foods offered has an impact on
Plate waste plate waste and meal satisfaction in adolescents’ school canteens. The plate waste of 247 French students was
Food liking estimated during two school lunches, the only variation being the number of starters offered (3 versus 6). Plate
School canteen
waste was assessed by the weight of food left on the tray. Students had to complete a short questionnaire
Adolescence
Consumer behavior
regarding their general satisfaction with the meal. The results indicated that limiting the number of starters
provided from 6 to 3 choices led to a decrease of Plate waste (− 28.1 g) (p < .0001), and a modest increase in
Meal satisfaction (p = .02). They suggest that limiting the number of food choices in school canteens reduces
plate waste, while not diminishing satisfaction with the meal.

1. Introduction
Controlling food waste is of critical importance given the ethical,
economic, and environmental ramifications. Food waste reduction is a
priority in the challenge to achieve sustainability in the use of natural
resources, such as water and energy (De Menna et al., 2018), and to
avoid the resultant loss of money. Food waste accounts for a third of food
production (FAO, 2020) and is observed at all stages of the food chain
(ADEME, 2016).
The issue of food waste in school canteens has to be addressed as
most children eat a large number of their lunches at school. Mass
catering in France serves 3.8 billion meals each year, 33.7% of which are
served in schools. From kindergarten to high school, an average of two
out of three children, or more than seven million children, eat in a
canteen at least once a week (ANSES, 2016). With regard to secondary
education, 69% of middle and high school students eat lunch in a school
canteen at least once a week, and 64% at least three times a week. In
French schools, the average waste is 115 g per meal per guest (ADEME,
2016). This waste is generated during storage and production (45g on
average) and during service (70g on average). It appears that much of
the waste in canteens is waste on plates (Derqui et al., 2018). Regardless
of setting (e.g., health, business, academic), the cost of food waste in
mass catering averages €0.27 per meal. Thus, it is estimated that, on
average, 14% of the cost of raw materials is lost (ADEME, 2016). School
canteens provide an optimal setting for the identification of food waste
reduction solutions.
Over the past decade, the scientific literature on food waste during
school lunches has increased and three categories of determinants have
been identified. The first set of food waste drivers is at school level. For
example, on the basis of semi-structured interviews with managers and
school staff, Derqui et al. (2018) indicated that pedagogical orientation
(such as education on food waste) and meal management policy (ac­
curacy of the number of diners) may reduce food waste.
A second category of determinants are those related to some pupils’
individual characteristics. Different studies have shown that waste in
school canteens decreased with: (a) food preference (Adams et al., 2005;
Condon et al., 2009; Derqui et al., 2018; Falasconi et al., 2015), which
may explain why vegetables are often the most wasted foods (Derqui
et al., 2018; Dinis et al., 2013; Giboreau et al., 2019; Niaki et al., 2017);
(b) not purchasing competitive food items for lunches (Marlette et al.,
2005); (c) children’s knowledge of food production (Liu et al., 2016) and
of the impact of food waste on the environment and ethical issues
associated with it (Casimir, 2014). Age was included as a variable in
different studies with puzzling results. The results of Dillon and Lane
(1989) and Niaki et al. (2017), both with elementary school children,
indicated that the overall waste decreased with age, whereas Derqui

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rigal@parisnanterre.fr (N. Rigal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2022.106005
Received 11 October 2021; Received in revised form 3 March 2022; Accepted 12 March 2022
Available online 9 May 2022
0195-6663/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
N. Rigal et al.
et al. (2018) found that secondary school students wasted more than
primary school pupils. The picture becomes more complicated when the
notion of food categories is considered in line with age. For example, a
study of children showed that the relationship between waste and age
differed depending on whether the food was a fruit or a starter (Smith &
Cunningham-Sabo, 2014).
The last set of determinants is the one related to the foods or the
menus served. Food portion size (Dinis et al., 2013), food preparation
(Marlette et al., 2005), food serving temperature (Falasconi et al., 2015),
starter/vegetable pairing (Ishdorj et al., 2015), offered versus
self-served food (Dillon & Lane, 1989), meal presentation and menu
composition (Falasconi et al., 2015), and buffet versus served meals
(Liu, 2014) have been associated with plate waste in school canteens.
Few studies have addressed the issue of the number of choices offered,
and the target outcomes are the amount of food consumed or hedonic
evaluations (meal satisfaction or food liking), not the waste. A study
with adults (Parizel et al., 2016) showed that participants ate more
dessert and were more satisfied when they had choices. More specif­
ically with children, the results of (Adams et al., 2005) indicated that
fruit and vegetable consumption was positively related to the number of
fruit and vegetable items offered at salad bars in elementary school
children. A study with young adolescents confirmed the positive effect of
a proposed choice between two types of fish on fish appreciation
(Altintzoglou et al., 2015). No study to date has examined the impact of
the number of choices proposed on plate waste.
The lunchtime school food service has its own specific features in
France. Thus, Giboreau et al. (2019) notes that French pupils typically
eat their main meal at mid-day as a lunch generally including three
courses: a starter, a main and side dish, and a dessert (based on dairy
products, fruit or cakes). Only water is offered as a drink. School lunches
are based on national nutritional recommendations, and always include
vegetables as a either a starter and/or as a side dish. Moreover, in French
canteens, the number of choices provided differs greatly from one school
to another. In 2018, an inventory of food practices in school catering,
carried out on a representative sample of sixteen public high schools
located in three regions of France (Brittany, New Aquitaine and Pays de
la Loire), made it possible to identify the main current patterns of food
offers (Béraud et al., 2019). A great diversity appeared in the composi­
tion of the menus and the number of choices for each course (first
course, main course and dessert). Although the number of choices pro­
posed was generally two for the main dish and the side dish, it could
vary between two and more than six for the starters and desserts. For
starters, usually presented in the form of a salad bar, seven establish­
ments systematically offer more than six choices. A survey of primary
and secondary school students showed that the highest expectations in
school catering were for a better quality of food associated with a wider
choice (for 44.2% of secondary school students), not forgetting the
layout of the catering area (CLCV, 2009).
The question, therefore, arises as to whether the number of food
choices offered, or assortment size, impacts the amount of plate waste.
This question is related to the concept of “choice overload” according to
which providing individuals with more options can be detrimental to
choice. The effect of assortment size on choice overload gives rise to
contradictory results, in particular because of the multiple moderators
involved in the relationship between the two variables (Chernev et al.,
2015). In particular, the main effect of assortment size is vulnerable to a
variety of context effects (Chernev et al., 2010). Thus, it is relevant to
ask the question of the choice overload paradigm in various contexts,
such as school canteens. Moreover, while the outcome variable usually
considered in the food domain is that of purchasing behavior (see for
example Berger et al., 2007, Chernev, 2003; Iyengar & Lepper, 2000 in
the case of foodstuffs), our study proposes to integrate a new variable, i.
e. the quantities of food wasted. It is plausible that the more choices
there are, the more guests will have the opportunity to choose well-liked
foods, which would tend to reduce waste (Adams et al., 2005; Condon
et al., 2009; Falasconi et al., 2015). But, it is also plausible that, in the
2
Appetite 178 (2022) 106005
context of buffets -where children can serve themselves at will-, a wide
choice of palatable foods could lead to an increase in the amount that
students put on their plate, and thus to an increase in the amount of food
wasted (Dinis et al., 2013).
Since in France the majority of the starters are based on vegetables,
which are unpopular foods among adolescents, it can be assumed that
the introduction of a greater number of foods offered could promote
their intake. This is why, in this study, the variation of number of choices
provided was only applied to the first course of the meal or “starter”
(“entrée” in French). In an attempt to increase the consumption of
starters, a majority of French school canteens offer a wide choice for the
first course. This decision is not taken on the basis of scientifically
supported arguments and thus may be unfounded. The starter is also the
component that is most often provided on a self-service basis in French
school canteens. The guests can thus compose their plate (in quality and
in quantity) according to their preferences and appetite, which makes
them responsible in particular with regard to possible waste.
Drawing on the literature review, we examined three research
questions in an exploratory study conducted in French school canteens:
(a) does increasing the number of starters change plate waste in ado­
lescents? (b) does plate waste vary with the students’ grade level? (c) Is
plate waste correlated with food liking and meal satisfaction?
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
An information letter presenting the study was sent to schools in part
of the western region of France. Inclusion criteria were: schools
accepting students aged 15 to 19, on-site cooking with menus offering 3
or 6 starters in a self-service format in which the students can serve
themselves freely (number of items chosen and quantity). Six senior high
schools agreed to participate in the study. Of these schools, three usually
offer a menu with three starters, and three with six starters.
Concerning the students, the inclusion criterion was to have eaten
lunch in the school canteen at least at one of the two study times: Time 1
(T1) and Time 2 (T2) which differed only by the number of starters
provided during the meal. The plate waste of all these students was
assessed: 3165 at T1 and 1579 at T2. Excluded from the initial sample
were all students who did not eat both study meals and did not choose a
starter at these two meals (39% of the participants didn’t take a starter in
the situation of three choices, and 48% in the situation of six choices).
The final cohort, i.e. the pupils who took a starter in the two sessions of
the study, consisted of 247 French adolescents aged 15–19 years old
(10th grade students, n = 46; 11th grade students, n = 60; 12th grade
students, n = 81; undergraduate students, n = 60).
2.2. Study design
Using a paired protocol, each student participated in two lunches,
once with 3 starters, once with 6 starters. As a result, the " Number of
offerings” variable had two modalities: 3 versus 6 options.
The Order of presentation of the menus was counterbalanced so that
the number of starters proposed at T1 corresponded to the students’
usual menu format. Therefore, at T1, students from 3 high schools
participated in the meal with 3 starters, and students from the other
three schools in the meal with 6 starters. More precisely, the students
who were in school that usually offer 3 starters had 3 starters at T1 and 6
at T2, and inversely for those in school that usually provide 6 starters.
At T1 and T2 (T1+ 21 days), two identical meals were offered, except
for the number of starters (3 versus 6). The dishes were chosen because
of their familiarity, ease of preparation, high reproducibility, and with
little potential waste due to of inedible elements. These are classic
menus in French high schools, in line with nutritional recommendations
(Table 1). Participants were identified on the basis of an index (grade
and date of birth) that was recorded on their tray and on the
N. Rigal et al. Appetite 178 (2022) 106005

Table 1 and French legislation, no ethical approval was necessary for this
Menu description. research as long as the protocol did not include sensitive health data.
Time of meal Dishes

Mandatory starters • Grated carrot salad 2.5. Statistical analysis

• Potato salad
Beet salad
•
Each of the participants involved in this study took part in the two
Additional starters • Delicatessen
• Quiche types of menus (at T1 and T2). Therefore, the experimental design was a
• Pasta salad cross-over trial with repeated measures design. Three mixed ANOVAs
Rest of the menu • Dishes: Sautéed poultry in sauce, fish in Provencal sauce were performed with Number of offerings (2; Within-subject variable),
• Filling: rice, broccoli Grade (4; Between-subjects variable) and Order (2; Between-subjects
Dairy products: Cheese, yoghourt
variable) as fixed effects and Subject as random effect nested within
•

the Grade factor. Each of the three ANOVAs involved a different

dependent variable: Plate waste, Starter liking and Meal satisfaction.
Normality of the distribution of residuals was checked using Normal Q-Q
questionnaire sheet.
plots. Correlations between Plate waste and the other variables were
assessed with Bravais-Pearson tests.
2.3. Measures Statistical analyses and data management were carried out using the
R language version 4.0.3 (R Core Team, 2020) and the lme4 R package
The key measure in this study is avoidable plate waste that corre­ (Bates et al., 2014). The level of significance was set at p < .05.
sponds, according to the definition of WRAP (2011), to food and drink
thrown away that was, at some point prior to disposal, edible. It is 3. Results
different from unavoidable plate waste that relates to waste arising from
food and drink preparation that is not, and has not been, edible under Statistical analyses revealed a simple effect of Number of offerings on
normal circumstances, e.g. meat bones, egg shells, pineapple skin, tea Plate waste, F(1; 243) = 21.16, p < .0001: Doubling the number of
bags. Although the distinction can be considered subjective (Papargyr­ starters was equivalent to increasing waste by 28.10 g (47.58 ± 7.35 in
opoulou et al., 2014), in our study, only the edible part remaining on the the 3 choice situation versus 75.68 ± 9.52 in the 6 choice situation)
plate was weighed: three investigators accustomed to performing this (Fig. 2). No simple effect of Grade or Order was observed.
task removed the inedible part of the plate (the poultry bones, the fish When Starter liking was the dependent variable, and Number of of­
bones and the yoghurt pot) and placed the remaining food on the scale. ferings, Grade and Order were the independent variables, no simple
Thus, the variable “plate waste”, in our study, corresponds to the weight effect was observed.
of the edible food remaining uneaten. This is finally the “avoidable plate The only effect noticed for Meal satisfaction was the Number of
waste” according to the WRAP definition or “customers’ edible plate
waste” according to Silvennoinen’s meaning (2015). Starter waste was
not measured separately from the overall meal waste. Since the children
received only water as a drink, which is the norm in French canteens,
drinks were not considered. Weighing was performed out of sight of the
participants, after returning the trays to the kitchens, on electronic
scales to the nearest gram.
Starter liking and Meal satisfaction were assessed by a short sheet
questionnaire placed on students’ trays at T1 and T2. Students were
asked to answer questions about their liking for the starter offered
(Starter liking): “Did you take a starter?“. “If yes, how much did you like
it?”, their answer being reported on a 10-point scale from “not at all” (1)
to “a lot” (10). They were also invited to evaluate their general satis­
faction with the meal (Meal satisfaction). The adolescents were asked to
answer the question “How much did you enjoy your meal today?”, using
the same scale as for food liking (10-point scale).
The steps of the procedure and measures are given in Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Plate waste according to the Number of offerings
Error bars represent the limits of the 95% confidence intervals of the means.
ANOVA analysis was used to determine differences in plate waste (g) according
2.4. Institutional review board approval
to the number of starters served (3 versus 6 choices). Results are significant
with p < .0001 (N = 247).
According to the Comité d’éthique de l’université de Paris Nanterre

Fig. 1. Stages of the procedure and measures.

3
N. Rigal et al. Appetite 178 (2022) 106005

offerings effect, F(1; 243) = 5.08, p = .025: Doubling the number of

choices was equivalent to decreasing overall satisfaction by 0.21 on a 10
pt scale (7.63 ± 1.62 in the 3 choice situation versus 7.42 ± 1.50 in the 6
choice situation) (Fig. 3).
Correlational analysis indicated no association between Plate waste
and Starter liking (r = − 0.025, p = .57), whereas the association was
negative with Meal satisfaction (r = − 0.233, p < .0001): Plate waste
decreased, modestly but significantly, when Meal satisfaction increased.

4. Discussion

This exploratory study aimed to explore the relationship between the

number of foods offered and avoidable plate waste. Our main result
indicated that avoidable plate waste increased with the number of
starters. Since neither the number of foods provided nor waste was
associated with the liking of starters, it seems that waste was different
according to the number of choices per se. This result is consistent with a Fig. 3. Meal satisfaction according to the Number of offerings
Error bars represent the limits of the 95% confidence intervals of the means.
very recent systematic review (Vizotto et al., 2021) which concluded
ANOVA analysis was used to determine differences in meal satifaction ac­
that portion size is a factor that is largely involved in plate waste in food
cording to the number of starters served (3 versus 6 choices). Results are sig­
service outlets. From this result, the authors argue that buffets should be nificant with p < .05 (N = 247).
avoided as long as they allow consumers to choose the size of their
dishes, the only constraint being the size of the plate. In our study, it
because of the implementation of the experiment, the weighing was
seems that when children can serve themselves ad libitum, a large choice
performed out of sight of the participants, after returning the trays to the
of foods could lead to an increase in the amount that students put on
kitchens. Moreover, in this study, only the choice of starter was studied.
their plate, and thus to an increase in the amount of food wasted (Dinis
It cannot be assumed that the results obtained would be generalized to
et al., 2013). In terms of the psychological underlying processes, this
other categories of food.
result does not support the common assumption that ‘the more choices,
As a conclusion, the results of this exploratory study suggested that
the better’ which has been supported by previous work in psychology
limiting the number of food items decreases plate waste and modestly
and economics. This hypothesis is largely supported by the idea that the
increases meal satisfaction in school canteens. This result could be
greater number of options, the higher is the likelihood that consumers
relevant for informing policy actions on school lunch programs but
will find a close match to their preference, reinforcing intrinsic moti­
should be confirmed by studies in which the measure of plate waste
vation and perceived control. Our main result, on the contrary, re­
would be only for foods that varied in the number of choices and would
inforces the hypothesis that a larger assortment, compared to smaller a
be expressed as a percentage of the mass served.
assortment, is more likely to produce choice overload. The process often
mentioned here is that of the cognitive cost of the choice task. Finally,
Author contributions
our study does not answer the question of the process by which
increasing the number of choices increases food waste: is the issue
All the authors contributed to the design of the study; AB and MLH
portion size or cognitive load?
collected the data; NR, PC and MLC interpreted the data; PC analyzed
Our results also showed that satisfaction with the meal decreased,
the data; All the authors drafted and approved the article.
albeit very modestly, with the number of choices. Even though the
reduction was very modest, this result is in contradiction with previous
Funding sources
studies carried out on adults (Parizel et al., 2016). It is all the more
surprising as our study involved adolescents, who are known to be
DRAAF Bretagne, as part of the PNA 2017 call for projects (N◦ 2016–4
highly and intrinsically motivated by the experience of freedom and
under the programme 206 – BOP n◦ 20609M); ADEME, as part of the
autonomy (Daddis, 2011). If the underlying process is that of choice
PNA 2017 call for projects (N◦ 17BRC0103); Olga Triballat Foundation.
overload in connection with a cognitive overload, this is perhaps rein­
Funding sources were not involved in the study design, the collection,
forced in adolescents whose brains are still developing and have not yet
analysis and interpretation of the data or in the writing of the report.
reached maturity.
Finally, whereas previous studies indicated puzzling results with
children, it appeared that the age of our participants had no effect on Declarations of interest
plate waste. Our participants were aged between 15 and 19 years of age.
As late adolescence is a relatively homogeneous period in terms of None.
physiological needs (Das et al., 2017), cognitive abilities (Piaget, 1963)
and food liking (Nu et al., 1996), this could explain why plate waste did Ethical statement
not vary with age in our study, contrary to previous studies.
This study has various limitations. Firstly, the main outcome was According to the Comité d’éthique de l’université de Paris Nanterre,
total plate waste and not specifically starter plate waste. One might no ethical approval was necessary for this research as long as the pro­
suppose that the size of the waste comes from the other courses of the tocol did not include sensitive health data.
meal, with the possibility that those who had six choices ate more of the
first course and therefore less of the main course or dessert. Secondly, in Declaration of competing interest
some studies carried out on food waste, the outcome is expressed as a
percentage of the overall mass of food served, as well as an average per None.
tray, and is then translated into monetary values (ADEME, 2016). Such
calculations are more meaningful than percentages, and are used as a Acknowledgments
basis for waste reduction projects. This measure was not relevant to the
present study. Indeed, in order to prevent students’ behavior varying The authors thank school administrators and the adolescents who

4
N. Rigal et al.
participated in the study.
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