PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF (UTS)

SOCRATES
-Understanding a subject through posting a question and answer which eventually leads to a further
question (Socratic method)
-“Know thyself” an ancient greeting of the highly civilized Greek which would mean gaining information
of oneself that are measurable. It is only by knowing one’s character that one can try and improve from a
moral point of view or make the right decision in one’s life.
-“I know that I do not know” A discovery about the self may foster.
-“An unexamined life is not worth living”
-Believes on the dualism of reality.
PLATO
-supported the idea of his teacher but although being influenced by his teacher, Plato did have a difficulty
viewing the “soul” as an immortal entity that is unchanging.
-Tripartite soul: 1) appetitive soul 2) spirited soul 3) mind.
TRIPARTITE SOUL
1. APPETITIVE/PHYSICAL DESIRES (Drives you to eat, have sex, and protect yourself)
2. SPIRITED/EMOTIONAL (How feelings fuel your actions)
3. RATIONAL/LOGICAL (Seeks truth and is swayed by facts and arguments)
ST. AUGUSTINE
-Also adopted both Socrates and Plato’s dualism of reality in the medieval period, the Physical Realm and
Ideal Realm.
-He adapted the metaphysics of Christian belief to explain his philosophy.
-If from Plato, the immortal soul achieves eternal realm through intellectual enlightenment, for St.
Augustine, the immortal soul strives to achieve God through faith and reason and our physical world is a
proving ground for our eternal destinies.
-He posited that development of the self is achieved through self-presentation and self-realization.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
- Man is made up of two parts: matter and form.
- Matter refers to the “common stuff that makes up everything in the universe. Form refers to the "essence
of a substance or thing"
- The concept of the self is that we don't encounter ourselves as isolated minds or selves but rather always
as agents interacting with our environment
- Our self-knowledge is dependent on our experience of the world around us.
RENE DESCARTES
- He based his discussion and knowledge of human existence through rational inquiry and real-world
experimentation
- Claimed that we cannot really rely on our senses because our sense perceptions can often deceive us
- In Descartes's view, the body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind. The human
person has it, but it is not what makes man a man.
- For once in your life, doubt, as far as possible, all things".
- He became famous to his principle, "cogito, ergo sum"
- We need reason to evaluate our thoughts and actions. We need reason to live fully the demands,
challenges and call of our religion. We need reason to exist and to continue to survive the generations to
come by protecting our environment. We need reason to protect ourselves from our being savage to one
another. We need reason to build and live out our peace.
JOHN LOCKE
- He opposes the idea that reason is the only way of looking at the self.
- For him the self is comparable to an empty space and such empty space will be provided with sense data,
through the encountered experiences of an individual. The process of reflection and analysis undergone by
these data will lead to what is known as sense perception.
Tabula rasa- empty space
DAVID HUME
- He posited that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced.
- Our idea regarding the self is based on impressions that are temporary, thus, for him, there is no
persisting self (all we know about ourselves are just bundles of temporary impressions.)
IMMANUEL KANT
- His philosophy regarding the Transcendental Unity of Appreciation discussed that the self is also outside
the body and goes beyond the limit of what are we experiencing.
- “Space and time” as part of the self.
SIGMUND FREUD
- Regarded the self as the "I" that ordinarily constitute both the mental and physical actions
- The "I" is a product of multiple interactions, systems, and schemes as it undergoes the process of
continual change.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Stage Age Range What happens at this stage?
Children derive pleasure from oral activities.
Oral
0-1 yrs. old In cluding, sucking, and tasting. They like to
Stage
put things in their mouth.
Anal Children begin potty training.
2-3 yrs. old
Stage
Boys are more attached to their mother, while
Phallic 3-6 yrs. old
girls are more attached to their father.
Children spend more time and interact mostly
Latency 6 yrs. old to puberty
with same sex peers.
Individuals are attracted to opposite sex
Genital Beyond puberty
peers.

Electra Complex- rivalry between mother and daughter for the father's attention
Oedipus Complex-rivalry between father and son for the mothers attention

Structural Model of the Mind

1. Id- pleasure principles (desires)

TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL

Conscious

Preconscious

Unconscious

2. Ego- reality principle ( external world)

3. Superego- morality
GILBERT RYLE
- He postulated that one can never find the thinking I since it is just a ghost in the machine" and the mind is
never separated from the body
- For us to understand the self, overt behaviour should be manifested. Thus, the statement “1 act
therefore I am" and "you are what you do" are based on the manifested one's physical activities and
behaviour which means that the kind of mind an individual possessed depends on how it is expressed
through words and actions
- We will only be able to understand the self-based from the external manifestation behaviours,
expressions, language, desires, etc. the mind, therefore, disposition of the self. nothing but disposition of
the self.
PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND
- Proposed that to understand the self, one must consider studying the neurological aspect of the self,
"Eliminative Materialism", where activities happening with an individual is explained through
understanding the existing condition of the brain and how it work.
- Stresses that all a person has is the brain, and so if the brain is gone, there is no self. The physical brain
and not the imaginary mind, gives people the sense of self.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
The self as product of modern society among others
With the modern society people is facing at present, life becomes urbanized. And with such situation,
people tend to be more impersonal and leads to destruction of the traditional way of life. From the
limitations imposed by the society before. people nowadays are already free to seek their own identity.
Thus, they get "delocalize." such instances that Clifford Geertz believes that struggle for individuality can
already be possible and having a delocalized self as a product poses certain problems such as:
1. The authenticity of self is threatened because of the newfound freedom
2. According to Marx, human beings are being haunted and gets alienated to their own self as an
effect to the images they created.
3. The objectification of the body removes human qualities in man
4. Dehumanization of self
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
- The Phenomenology of Perception has raised the idea that the body and mind are intertwined and cannot
be separated from each other as all experiences are embodied.
- An Individual's body will serve as the individual's opening towards, that person's existence to the world.
- The philosophy of Merleau-Ponty is based on Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka's gestalt psychology and
neurobiology as well.
- He notes that everything people are aware of is contained within the consciousness. Consciousness is a
dynamic form responsible for actively structuring conscious ideas and physical behaviour. He is convinced
that consciousness, the world and the human body are intricately intertwined in perceiving the world.
Clifford Geertz - believed that struggle for individuality can be possible and having a delocalized self as a
product poses certain problems.
II. MEAD'S THEORY OF THE SELF
George Herbert Mead is known for his theory of the social self which stands on the point that the self is
not initially there at birth. Instead, it arises out of one's social communication, activities such as observing
and interacting with others, responding to others" opinions, and internalizing external opinions and internal
feelings about oneself.
I - Represents the self as subject and the individual's impulse
ME - Considered to be the socialized component of the individual that represents the learned behaviours,
expectations and attitude of others organized into a social self
III. THE LOOKING GLASS SELF ( Charles Cooley)
-Social interaction plays an important role to individual's understanding of self; thus, behaviour and a
person's self-esteem may be dictated by how they will predict how others perceived them.
- Looking glass self pertains to an individual's development of self-concept based on their observation of
how other people sees them. The social interaction people have been used as "mirror" to measure their own
worth, values, and behaviour.
Mead's Stages of Development (The self develops in three stages:)
1. Preparatory stage: The child imitates the behaviour of others.
2. Play stage: The child begins to formulate role expectations: playing house, cops and robbers, etc.
3. Game stage: The child learns there are rules that specify the proper and correct relationship among the
players.
(0-2yrs old) Children imitate the language used by people around them. (symbols, gestures, words, and
sounds for children are mere words and sound that does not have meaning) language conveyed on them are
screened as eventually this language could already be understood as a child grows older.
(3-6yrs old) Play develops oneself. consciousness through role playing. Allowing children to take on
different roles, pretend, and express expectations of others. During role-play, a child can. Internalize the
view of others and develop an understanding of how other people feel about themselves and others in
different situations.
(7yrs onwards) Self is developed when a child understands that rules of the game are existing and that
these rules should be followed to possibly win the game. The game stage results to what Mead identifies as
one side of the self, the "me" or generalized other.
Not all feedback made by others carries the same weight, how one perceived the self will depend on the
context of the interaction and the nature of the people involved.
• Labelling Bias: Occurs when we are labelled, and others' views and expectations of us are affected by
that labelling.
•Self-labelling: Occurs when one take into their self-concept those labels, and evaluation made by others
for them
• At times, labels appear to be exaggerated that it goes beyond the usual, and INTERNALIZED
PREJUDICE happens when people instil such label unto themselves which may lead to poor self-concept.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
- Anthropology is the study of all aspects of the human condition. This includes human history; the
present human condition and even future possibilities Anthropology is also considered as the science of
humanity. which Stores human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of
Homo sapiens to the features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal
species.
- Anthropology considers human experience as an interplay of "mature referring to the genetic inheritance
which sets the individuals potentials, and nurture referring to the sociocultural environment (Haviland,
Prins. Walrath &McBride. 2013). Therefore, it could be Understood that both biological and cultural
factors have significant influence on the development of sell-awareness among individuals.
- The most important contribution of anthropology is providing insights into the nature of self-based on
continuous understanding of the basic elements of culture.
THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND IDENTITY
- Culture is derived from the Latin word "cultura" or "cultus” meaning care or cultivation. Culture is
analogous to caring for an infant. Because an infant has a prolonged dependency, he or she must be taken
care of by the people around him or her. The infant must learn from them so he or she can better adjust
while growing up in his or her immediate cultural environment.
-Identity refers to "who the person is," or the qualities and traits of an individual that make him/her
different from others. There are many ways to distinguish people. An example is identifying them in a
geographical context or based on where they come from. People from the West are different from the
people of the East because they are in opposite sides of the world. Identity also refers to how a person sees
and expresses oneself.
- Cultural Identity is self-identification, a sense of belonging to a group that reaffirms itself. It consists of
values, meanings, customs and beliefs used to relate to the world. It reflects the common historical
experiences and shared cultural codes which give us as one entity a stable, unchanging, continuing frame
of reference and meaning. Cultural identity is dynamic and constantly evolving. It covers the entire life
span of a human being and changes every moment based on social context.
PROPERTIES OF CULTURAL IDENTITY
Jane Collier and Milt Thomas combined the ethnography of communication and social construction to
frame the properties of cultural identity. These properties refer to the way members of a group
communicates their identity.
1. Avowal and Ascription. These two concepts deal with what constructs or produces the cultural identity
and the ways in which these identities are communicated. Avowal is how one articulates or expresses
his/her views about group identity. It is how one presents oneself to another (those that we claim for
ourselves). Ascription is how others perceive an individual. It is how one refers to others (those that are
placed on us by others). This may include stereotypes. E.g. How Asians are viewed by Europeans.
2. Modes of Expression. The use of core symbols (expressions of a group's cultural beliefs and theories
about the world around them), names, labels and norms (expected standard of behaviour) that a cultural
community share and follow to show that they belong to a particular group, demonstrates shared identity.
Collier found out that there were some similarities in cultural norms for members of each ethnic group and
there are within group differences regarding gender and nature of relationship.
3. Individual, Relational and Communal Identity. There are three components to cultural identity.
Individual refers to how an individual interprets his cultural identity based on his experiences. Relational
refers to how individuals interact with one and another (what is the appropriate behaviour) and communal
identity is the use of communication in the creation, affirmation and negotiation of shared identity.
There are 2 ways in which the concept of collie sowed in the different societies
1. Egocentric View
 The self is seen as an autonomous and distant individual.
 Each person is defined as replica of all humanity but capable of acting independently from others.
2. Sociocentric view
 The self is contingent on a situation or social setting.
 This view of the self that is context-dependent which emphasises that there is no intrinsic self that
can possess enduring qualities. (a person gets his identity from the group).
One's identity is not inborn; it is something people continuously develop in life. For instance, rites of
passage usually involve ritual activities to prepare individuals for new roles from one stage of life to
another such as birth, puberty, marriage having children, and death.
Arnold van Gennep believes that changes in one's status and identity are marked by three-phased rite of
passage: separation, liminality and incorporation.
* Separation phase. People detach from their former identity to another. Examples is in a wedding where
the bride walking down the aisle to be "given away" by the parents to the groom implies the separation
from one's family to become part of a new one
* Liminality phase. A person transitions from one identity to another. Example, the wedding ceremony
itself is the process of transition of the bride and groom from singlehood to married life.
* Incorporation phase. The change in one's status is officially incorporated. Example, the wedding
reception and parties that celebrate the wedding serve as the marker that officially recognize the bride and
groom's change towards being husband and wife.
4. Enduring and Changing Aspects of Identity. The cultural identity changes due to several factors which
are social, political, economic and contextual.
5. Affective, Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Identity. This refers to emotions fully attached to
cultural identity in particular situations.
6. Content and Relationship Levels. This refers to the interaction between two or more individuals. The
message exchange carries information/content. The participants of the conversation interpret the choice
and meanings of the words based on their experiences. The interactions also. show the relational level
based on how a person delivers the message. This level of a message implies a cultural interpretation of
who is in control, their levels of closeness, what they feel about each other, level of trust, etc.
7. Salience or Prominence. This is the degree to which an identity is demonstrated in a situation and refers
to how much a person's cultural identity stands out and attracts attention. This is influenced by the extent
of similarity or difference between two individuals. The intensity differs depending on context, situation
topic and relationship. Prominence shows a strong investment/involvement in an identity.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
The Self As A Cognitive Construction
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the development of
human intelligence. This theory deals with the nature of knowledge itself; and how humans gradually
come to acquire, construct, and use it. According to Piaget, cognitive development is a progressive
reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience.
Three basic components to Piaget’s cognitive theory:
Schemas/schemes. These are mental organizations that individuals use to understand their environments
and designate action. The knowledge children acquire is organized into schemas (scheme) or groupings of
similar actions or thoughts. It is the basic building blocks of knowledge.
Adaptation. It involves the child’s learning process to meet situational demand- assimilation which is the
application of previous concepts to new concepts; and accommodation which happens when people
encounter completely new information or when existing ideas are challenged.
Stages of Cognitive Development. They reflect the increasing sophistication of the child’s thought
process.

The material self according to James, is the component of “Me” that a person tends to be most affected
with, as he/she invests with things such as clothes, family, and home (those that we label mine)
Man’s social self is assembled based on man’s interaction with the society and the reactions of others that
are analyzed in order to contribute to our idea of a social self. Thus, actions manifested by people will
depend on the social situation they are interacting with. With the diverse social situations that an individual
may encounter and participate in, it is then assumed that one may manifest a number of selves depending
on the situation.
The spiritual self is said by James to be the most intimate self. It is who we are at our core and something
that is permanent: personality, core values, conscience, etc. James considered the spiritual self to be the
most intimate version because the satisfaction experienced when one thinks of his/her “ability to argue and
discriminate, one’s moral sensibility and conscience, and of one’s indomitable will” (James 1890, 164)
which is more pure than other sentiments of satisfaction.
Real and Ideal Self Concept
Karen Horney believed that people experience anxiety, and it is through such experience that they
develop strategies to be able to reduce and cope with the anxiety.
• idealized self - an imaginary picture of self having an unlimited power or qualities.
• Real self, which is revealed only when a person starts to find ways to deal and resolve anxiety and
conflicts. When gaps between the real and ideal self exist, an unhealthy personality arises.
True Self and False Self
Donald W. Winnicott explained his theory about the True Self and the False Self in the paper he wrote in
1960. As he expounded, false self may develop to protect the inner, and more vulnerable true self. When a
child is reared in an environment with supportive caretakers and whose needs are satisfied then true self
may develop. However, there are instances that the environment does not have enough resources to gratify
the needs of the child for certain reasons. In this situation, a child may feel that his/her truest needs is
unacceptable, becoming unconsciously compliant and adjust his / her behavior.
Healthy False Self - that is becoming compliant but without the feeling that the true self is betrayed.
Unhealthy False Self - that which promotes the feeling of being forced to comply with the demands of a
situation.
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL / EASTERN THOUGHTS
Western Concept of Self
The individuality was the focus of Renaissance thought, with Rene Descartes’ famous “I think, therefore I
am” as the epitome of the Western idea of self.
Frank Johnson (1985), outlined four categories on how the term “self” is used in contemporary western
discussion:
Analytical. The tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts. The self is an observer separate and
distinct from external objects (me versus other).
Monotheistic. The tendency toward unitary explanations of phenomena and a closed-system view of self,
as modeled after a unitary, omnipotent power (Man as created by God, in His image).
Individualistic. Individualism is a quality of western thinking where self-expression and self-actualization
are important ways of establishing who one is, as well as in finding satisfaction in the world.
Rationalistic. Western thinking tends to discredit explanations that do not use analytic-deductive modes of
thinking.

Eastern Concept of Self

A. The Self According to Buddhism
Buddhism philosophy believes that the religion is a way of life and to live a moral life, to be mindful and
aware of thoughts and actions, and to develop wisdom and understanding is its main teaching.
The Four Noble Truth and Eight Fold Paths as taught by the religion reminds people that life should not
focused on pleasure, instead should be lived in contemplation. In addition, the nature and purpose of man
is described through the major teaching:
♦ The Four Noble Truth
Life is suffering. Life does not solely offer the kind of living a person sees it to be. Attached with the
pleasures is the reality that sufferings are included in life and cannot be avoided.
Suffering is caused by craving and aversion. Lack of contentment results to suffering. Human needs are
never ending, and getting what one wants does not guarantee happiness. Thus, to attain happiness, wants
should be modified.
Suffering can be overcome and happiness can be attained. When one learns to live each day at a time and
is able to give up unnecessary cravings, then man can possibly attain happiness and freedom.
Eight Fold Path is the path which leads to the end of suffering. Being moral, being fully aware of thoughts
and action, developing wisdom by understanding the 4 Noble Truth, and developing compassion for other
will lead to the end of suffering.
B. The Self According to Confucianism
Confucius philosophy of life stand with the idea that life is a living reality, a blessing, a natural priceless
right and opportunity to be with others to work together for common good to attain happiness. Thus, the
threat for social order is selfishness. In the Confucian philosophy, the principle of ren characterized the
self-possessing compassion for others. The self for Confucius is the person within the society who exhibit
refinement and compassion (Junzi). Such principle connotes that this new self or Junzi is formed through
education under the virtuous teacher as the role model.
C. The Self According to Taoism
Taoism rejects a hierarchical view of the self, society, or cosmos. It does not regard the self as an
extension of social relationships, rather, the self is but one of the countless manifestations of the Tao. It is
an extension of the cosmos (or the universe seen as a well ordered whole). According to Chuang-tzu, “The
perfect man has no self; the spiritual man has no achievement; the true sage has no name”, thus, the ideal
self is selflessness. In sum, his conception of selfhood entails conscious self-transformation leading to the
attributes of a balanced life in harmony with both nature and society.
D. The Self in Islamic Tradition
The Arabic word for self is Nafs in the Holy Qur’an. It pertains to the psyche (the totality of the conscious
and unconscious human mind) or the soul. The nafs/self is to be nurtured and self-regulated so it can
progress into becoming “good” (or “evil”) through its thoughts and actions. The self in Islamic tradition is
used both in the individualistic and collective sense.
The self in the oriental thought is collective, while on the other hand, the self for the western people is
individualistic.
UNPACKING THE SELF
PHYSICAL SELF
- Refers to the body, this marvellous container and complex, finely tuned, machine with which we
interface with our environment and fellow beings.
- The concrete dimension, the tangible aspect of the person that can be directly observed and examined.
- The physical self is defined by the physical characteristics that are visible.
The impact of culture on body image and beauty
The cultural implications of beauty are prominent in every culture and have a strong influence on the way
men and women are perceived. Across the world, different cultural perceptions uphold an ideal of beauty
that is linked to sexual appeal and social status.
The purpose of beauty is the feeling and consequences from being beautiful. In ancient cultures, according
to Julian Robinson, "the enhancement and beautifying of the human form by various means appeared to be
an inborn human trait-an essential part of our genetic makeup and an expression of our psyche."
The concept of beauty in different cultures
"Beauty is not one's own, but a reflection of one's culture."
Across the globe, few people have difficulty recognizing someone who is considered beautiful. Standards
of beauty are usually social markers determining cultural status, social acceptance and suitability as a mate.
Although the specifics of what makes someone beautiful can differ across countries, cultures and
communities, the concept of beauty has existed for as long as there have been people.
In the Philippines, we see our standard of beauty everywhere, in magazines, televisions and billboard ads.
Just as we have a unique cultural perception of beauty, so do other cultures and peoples.
No. 1 Face tattoos
- Tattooing the chin and lips of Māori women of New Zealand is considered beautiful.
- This tradition has been around for centuries and consists of patterns called Ta-Mako
- In black or dark blue ink on the woman’s face. Ta-Mako tattoos are also a public declaration of one’s
membership in the Māori tribe.
No. 2 Decorated skin
- Instead of accessorizing with extravagant jewellery, women in India turn to nose rings, bindi and henna
to make themselves more attractive for festivals and celebrations, like weddings. Brides will often wear a
dot of red powder on the face known as kumkuma to look more beautiful.
No. 3 Long earlobes
- To the Masai tribe of Kenya, long, stretched earlobes are the ideal for both men and women. They are
known to shave their heads and use everything from elephant tusks to twigs to pierce and stretch their
lobes to become more attractive.
No. 4 Long necks
- Long, giraffe-like necks are the ultimate sign of beauty and female elegance to the Kayan tribe. At 5
years old, Kayan women start priming their necks with heavy brass rings. Each year, more coils are added,
pushing down their shoulders and creating the effect of a longer neck. The rings in this centuries-old ritual
can weigh up the 22 pounds.
No. 5 Pale skin
-Women in many Asian countries avoid the sun at all costs simply because pale skin is the ultimate sign of
beauty and desirability. Contrary to Western culture, where ladies are keen to get a tan during the summer,
tan is the least popular color – especially in Korea. This is why a lot of women can be spotted wearing hats
with abnormally large visors that can protect their entire faces from the sun. Apart from covering their
faces, Korean women cover their bodies from head to toe, too – even in the hottest months, in order to
keep their skin from tanning. Skin-whitening creams are also a major hit in this country, and women tend
to spend a great deal of money on such skin products that can result in an even paler complexion.
No. 6 Full figure
- In Mauritania, females with full figures are considered incredibly beautiful, and think women are
considered physically desirable. Mauritanian parents will even send their girls to “Fat camps,” where the
girls would eat up to 16,000 calories a day to prepare for marriage. On top of that, stretch marks are
considered a bonus, and even more beautiful.
No. 7 Body scars
- Scarification of the body is a practice, specifically among populations with dark skin too dark to show
tattoos. The Karo tribe of Ethiopia scar men and women’s torsos and chests to assert social status. Men’s
scars mark the number of enemies killed in battles, while women’s scars represent sensuality and appeal.
Although less practiced today, some indigenous groups with little contact with the modern world continue
these kinds of beauty rituals.
No. 8 Lip plates
- Suri people of Ethiopia find beauty represented in women’s lip plates. When a girl reaches puberty, her
bottom teeth are removed to make way for a piercing in the lower lip. Once the piercing is in place, the lip
is stretched around a clay plate. When it is time to find a husband, this lip plate guides the dowry process.
Plates are seen as both a sign of beauty and a measure of a woman’s value in cattle. Larger plates signal a
more valuable and desired woman.
No. 9 Foot binding
- Despite being ban in the 1940’s, foot binding was a huge part of Chinese culture. The process of foot
binding included breaking all of the toes and bending them backwards against of the sole of the foot, and
then binding them in place with a tight fabric wrapping. The result was small and petite feet which is
considered highly attractive in China.
No. 10 Monobrows
- Despite being ban in the 1940’s, foot binding was a huge part of Chinese culture. The process of foot
binding included breaking all the toes and bending them backwards against of the sole of the foot, and then
binding them in place with a tight fabric wrapping. The result was small and petite feet which is considered
highly attractive in China.
The influence of media on the adolescent’s understanding of beauty
The mass media play a critical role in people’s self ‐image by informing and reflecting what people
consider to be beautiful or attractive. One of the ways in which they do so is through the common use of
very thin and attractive models in print and other media, often termed the ‘thin ideal’, which communicate
the way that people believe they should look to be attractive and desirable to others. There are different
aspects of appearance around which the media can convey beauty ideals, including hair, skin, and facial
features.
The media has increasingly become a platform that reinforces cultural beliefs and projects strong views on
how we should look, that we as individuals often unknowingly or knowingly validate and perpetuate.
Body image is a multidimensional construct that refers to one’s perception of and attitudes about the size
and shape of one’s body. It has both a perceptual component that refers to how we see our body size,
shape, weight, physical characteristics, performance, and movement, and an evaluative component, which
refers to how we feel about these attributes and how those feelings influence our behaviours.
Body dissatisfaction is experienced when one perceives that their body falls short of the societal ideal in
terms of size and/or shape, regardless of a person’s objective size or shape. In other words, body
dissatisfaction is influenced not only by how we interpret societal ideals, but by how we perceive
ourselves. Therefore, body dissatisfaction and perceptions of beauty are inextricably linked. Body
dissatisfaction is the number one risk factor for several unhealthy behaviours, including eating disorders
and chronic dieting.
SELF-ESTEEM and BODY IMAGE
- Self-esteem is all about how much you feel your worth — and how much you feel other people value
you. It is how you value and respect yourself as a person. Self-esteem affects how you take care of
yourself, emotionally, physically and spiritually.
- Body image is how you view your physical self — including whether you feel you are attractive and
whether others like your looks.
- Body image and self-esteem directly influence one another. When you have healthy body image, you feel
comfortable about your body and know how to care for it.
- How people view themselves, or their body image, can vastly affect their self-esteem, or overall feeling
of worth. According to Jung and Lee (2006), the lower or more negative one’s body image, the lower his
or her self-esteem. In addition, the more optimistically one feels about his or her appearance, the more
optimistically he or she will feel about him or herself overall.
Here are a few other things that you can try to increase your self-esteem:
Make a list of the stuff you’re good at. It can be anything from drawing or singing to playing a sport or
telling a good joke. If you’re having trouble with your list, ask your mom or dad to help you with it. Then
add a few things to the list that you’d like to be good at. Your mom or dad can help you plan a way to
work on those skills or talents.
Give yourself three compliments every day. Don’t just say, “I’m so great.” Be specific about something
good about yourself, like, “I was a good friend to Jill today” or “I did better on that test than I thought I
would.” While you’re at it, before you go to bed every night, list three things in your day that really made
you happy or that you feel thankful for.
Remember that your body is your own, no matter what shape, size, or colour it is. If you are worried
about your weight or size, you can check with your doctor to make sure you’re healthy. Remind yourself
of things about your body that are cool, like, “My legs are strong, and I can skate really well.”
Remember that there are things about yourself you can’t change. You should accept and love these
things — such as skin colour and shoe size — because they are part of you.
When you hear negative comments in your head, tell yourself to stop. Remind yourself of things
you’re good at and if you can’t think of anything, ask someone else! You can also learn a new skill (for
example, calligraphy, dance, a musical instrument) so you can feel good about that!
By focusing on the good things, you do and all your great qualities, you learn to love and accept yourself
— the main ingredients for strong self-esteem! Even if you’ve got room for improvement (and who
doesn’t?), knowing what you’re good at and that you’re valuable and special to the people that care about
you can really help you deal with growing up.
THE SEXUAL SELF
Talking about sex should not be considered as a taboo, but instead be deemed normal for there is a need for
people to learn more about their sexuality. Sexuality is an essential component of healthy development for
young people. U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher echoed these sentiments, stating that, ‘‘sexuality is an
integral part of human life,’’ and ‘‘sexual health is inextricably bound to both physical and mental health.’’
The development of sex characteristics
Primary sexual characteristics refers to the reproductive organs themselves. Secondary sexual
characteristics refer to other characteristic indicators of adult male and female.
The development of primary sexual characteristics indicates youth have become capable of adult
reproductive functioning (i.e., the ability to make babies). The development of both primary and secondary
sexual characteristics begins during late childhood and continues throughout early adolescence.
–For females, the most significant primary sexual characteristic is the first menarche, or first menstrual
period. The first menarche indicates girls have begun to ovulate; i.e., to release mature eggs that can
become fertilized by male sperm through sexual intercourse. The average age for the first menstrual period
is 12 years, but girls can reach menarche at any age from 10 to 15 years old and still be considered
"normal."
–For males, the primary sexual characteristics include an enlargement of the penis and testes, and the first
spermarche; i.e., the first ejaculation of mature sperm capable of fertilizing female eggs through sexual
intercourse. The average age of first spermarche is 13 years, but it can occur anytime between the ages of
12 and 16 years. On average, the testes will begin to enlarge at about 11 years of age, but this growth can
occur anytime between 9 and 13 years. On average, the penis begins to enlarge around age 12, but this
growth can begin at any age between 10 and 14 years. The penis reaches its adult size at about age 14, but
this can occur anytime between the ages 12 and 16.
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Secondary characteristics are the result of hormonal changes in the body during puberty. These changes are
faster in girls than in boys. Some changes are common in both boys and girls while others are specific to
each gender. This is due to the different hormones released by them. Growth of pubic hair, facial hair and
under the armpit, increase in height, sweating, etc. are some of the secondary sexual characteristics.
–Change in height: Most prominent change that occurs in adolescents is the change in their heights.
Growth hormone secretion and bone growth are much higher during this time.
–Sweat and Sebaceous glands: The pimples and acne in adolescents are mostly due to the increased
activities of sweat and sebaceous glands.
–Hair growth: Another observable change is rapid hair growth under the armpit and pubic area.
In females, breasts are a manifestation of higher levels of estrogen; estrogen also widens the pelvis and
increases the amount of body fat in hips, thighs, buttocks, and breasts. Estrogen also induces growth of the
uterus, proliferation of the endometrium, and menstruation. Female secondary sex characteristics include:
 Enlargement of breasts and erection of nipples.
 Growth of body hair, most prominently underarm and pubic hair
 Widening of hips; lower waist to hip ratio than adult males.
 Elbows that hyperextend 5–8° more than male adults.
 Upper arms approximately 2 cm longer, on average, for a given height.
 Labia minora, the inner lips of the vulva, may grow more prominent and undergo changes in
colour with the increased stimulation related to higher levels of estrogen.
In males, the increased secretion of testosterone from the testes during puberty causes the male secondary
sexual characteristics to be manifested. In males, testosterone directly in sexual characteristics to be
manifested. In males, testosterone directly increases size and mass of muscles, vocal cords, and bones,
deepening the voice, and changing the shape of the face and skeleton. Converted into dihydrotestosterone
in the skin, it accelerates growth of androgen-responsive facial and body hair but may slow and eventually
stop the growth of head hair. Taller stature is largely a result of later puberty. Male secondary sex
characteristics include:
 Growth of body hair, including underarm, abdominal, chest hair and pubic hair.
 Growth of facial hair.
 Enlargement of larynx (Adam's apple) and deepening of voice.
 Increased stature; adult males are taller than adult females, on average.
 Heavier skull and bone structure. Increased muscle mass and strength.
 Broadening of shoulders and chest; shoulders wider than hips.
 Increased secretions of oil and sweat glands.
The human reproductive system
The Male Reproductive System
The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to perform the following functions:
- To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid (semen)
- To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
-To produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the male reproductive system
Parts:
Scrotum– A small muscular sac-like organ which is located below and behind the penis. It consists of the
testes and is mainly involved in maintaining the temperature required for the of sperm production.
Testes– It is also called as testicles. They are a pair of oval-shaped organs which are mainly responsible
for the sperm production and synthesis of testosterone- male hormones.
Penis– It is the primary sexual organ which serves as both reproductive organ as well as excretory organ
and used for the purpose of sexual intercourse. It is a cylindrical tube-like organ with a small opening at
the top and is extremely sensitive as it becomes vertical when a person is sexually aroused. Semen,
containing sperm, is ejaculated from the opening at the top when the person reaches sexual climax.
Urethra– A narrow tube-like structure that conducts urine and semen from the urinary bladder to the
penis.
Vas Deferens– It is a muscular tube that carries mature sperm produced in the testes to the urethra.
The Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive organs are located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity. It is designed to
carry out several functions.
 It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes.
 The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization.
 Conception
 Menstruation
 Production of female hormones
Parts:
Ovaries– They is a pair of organs which are mainly responsible for the production and storage of ovum, or
egg, which are the sex gametes in a female.
Uterus– It is commonly known as the womb. It is a pear-shaped muscular bag-like organ with a strong
muscular lining that holds the baby after fertilization. The uterus is referred as the site for the embryo
development as it protects the fertilized ovum and holds it till the baby is mature enough for birth.
Cervix– A cylinder ring-shaped tissue which is composed mainly of fibromuscular tissue. It is located at
the lowermost portion of the uterus and is involved in connecting the uterus and the vagina.
Vagina– The primary sexual organ which serves as both excretory organ as well as reproductive organ. It
is a muscular and tubular part of the female genital tract that opens outside the body and the opening of the
vagina is called the vulva, which also includes the clitoris, labia, and urethra. The vagina connects cervix
to the external female body parts, and it is the path for penis during coitus as well as a fetus during
delivery.
Human Reproduction
♥ The average menstrual cycle lasts 28 days, with the cycle’s first day considered to be the first day of
menstruation. During the first 14 days of the cycle, an egg matures in a woman’s ovaries. This maturation
process is stimulated by a hormone called follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). The ‘coat’ around the
maturing egg produces another hormone, estrogen, which makes the lining of the uterus prepare for
pregnancy. The uterus grows a nutrient-rich and secure bedding for the egg to settle into after fertilization.
♥ Around day 14 of the cycle, the egg is ready for release and emerges from the ovary. This release is
triggered by an increase in another hormone called luteinizing hormone (LH). After release, the egg has
about a 12–24-hour window where it can be fertilized by a sperm. Sperm may survive in a woman’s
genital tract and be capable of fertilizing an egg for up to three days after intercourse. Fertilization happens
high up in the fallopian tube.
♥ If a sperm penetrates the egg, an embryo will begin to form. This happens through cell division: one cell
becomes two, which become four, which become eight, and so forth. After about seven days, the embryo
reaches the uterus and embeds itself in the lining of the uterus. Cells surrounding the embryo make the
hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which signals the woman’s body that pregnancy has
occurred, and the menstrual cycle stops until after delivery. If conception does not occur the uterine lining
will be shed, and the cycle will begin again.
The sexual response cycle
Masters and Johnson studied many different sexual behaviours during their investigations, one of the most
important products that came from their research was the development of the sexual response cycle. The
sexual response cycle is a series of four physiological phases that both men and women go through during
intercourse. To accurately observe these physiological changes, the research carefully measured blood
pressure, respiration rate, and indicators of sexual arousal such as level of vaginal lubrication in women
and the level of swelling and blood flow to the penis in men. In conclusion, Masters and Johnson
determined that the human body undergoes four distinct phases during sex:
Excitement Phase
General characteristics of the excitement phase, which can last from a few minutes to several hours,
include the following:
Muscle tension increases.
✓ Heart rate quickens and breathing is accelerated.
✓ Skin may become flushed (blotches of redness appear on the chest and back).
✓ Nipples become hardened or erect.
✓ Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of the woman's clitoris and labia minora
(inner lips), and erection of the man's penis.
✓ Vaginal lubrication begins.
✓ The woman's breasts become fuller, and the vaginal walls begin to swell.
✓ The man's testicles swell, his scrotum tightens, and he begins secreting a lubricating liquid.
Plateau Phase
General characteristics of the plateau phase, which extends to the brink of orgasm, include the ff.
 The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.
 The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and the vaginal walls turn a dark purple.
 The woman's clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be painful to touch) and retracts under
the clitoral hood to avoid direct stimulation from the penis.
 The man's testicles are withdrawn up into the scrotum.
 Breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure continue to increase.
 Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face, and hands.
 Muscle tension increases.
Orgasm Phase
The orgasm is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the shortest of the phases and generally lasts
only a few seconds. General characteristics of this phase include the following:
 Involuntary muscle contractions begin.
 Blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are at their highest rates, with a rapid intake of oxygen.
 Muscles in the feet spasm.
 There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
 In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The uterus also undergoes rhythmic contractions.
 In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis result in the ejaculation of
semen.
 A rash, or "sex flush" may appear over the entire body.
Resolution Phase
 During resolution, the body slowly returns to its normal level of functioning, and swelled and
erect body parts return to their previous size and colour. This phase is marked by a general sense
of well-being, enhanced intimacy and, often, fatigue. Some women are capable of a rapid return to
the orgasm phase with further sexual stimulation and may experience multiple orgasms. Men need
recovery time after orgasm, called a refractory period, during which they cannot reach orgasm
again. The duration of the refractory period varies among men and usually lengthens with
advancing age.
THE CHEMISTRY OF LUST, LOVE AND ATTACHMENT
According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers, romantic love can be broken down
into three categories. Each category is characterized by its own set of hormones stemming from the
brain.
1. Lust is driven by the desire for sexual gratification. The evolutionary basis for this stems from our need
to reproduce, a need shared among all living things. Through reproduction, organisms pass on their
genes, and thus contribute to the perpetuation of their species.
The hypothalamus of the brain plays a big role in this, stimulating the production of the sex
hormones testosterone and estrogen from the testes and ovaries. While these chemicals are often
stereotyped as being “male” and “female,” respectively, both play a role in men and women. As it turns
out, testosterone increases libido in just about everyone. The effects are less pronounced with estrogen,
but some women report being more sexually motivated around the time they ovulate, when estrogen
levels are highest.
2. Attraction seems to be a distinct, though closely related, phenomenon. While we can certainly lust for
someone we are attracted to, and vice versa, one can happen without the other. Attraction involves the
brain pathways that control “reward” behavior which partly explains why the first few weeks or months
of a relationship can be so exhilarating and even all-consuming.
Increased dopamine is associated with motivation, reward, and goal-directed behavior—hence the drive
to pursue your loved one or create them in fantasy if you can’t be with them. Dopamine also creates a
sense of novelty. Your loved one seems exciting, special and unique to you; you want to tell the world
about his special qualities.
Norepinephrine is responsible for the extra surge of energy and "racing heart" that you feel, as well as
the loss of, in some cases, both your appetite and your desire for sleep. It puts your body into a more
alert state in which you are ready for action.
Scientists think serotonin probably decreases at this stage, but more studies need to be done. Low levels
of serotonin are found in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and are thought to cause obsessive
thinking. In one Italian study of 60 students, those who were recently in love and those with OCD both
had less serotonin transporter protein in their blood than regular (not recently in love) students.
3. Attachment involves wanting to make a more lasting commitment to your loved one. This is the point
at which you may move in together, get married, and/or have children. After about four years in a
relationship, dopamine decreases and attraction goes down. If things are going well, it gets replaced by
the hormones oxytocin (cuddle hormone) and vasopressin, which create the desire to bond, affiliate with,
and nurture your partner. You want to cuddle and be close and share your deepest secrets with him or
her. You plan and dream together.
DIVERSITY OF HUMAN SEXUALITY
Diversity is all the ways we’re different from each other. It includes things like race, religion, culture,
physical ability, mental ability, family make-up, socio-economic status and sexual and gender diversity.
Sexuality refers to the sexual feelings and attractions we have towards other people. There are many
different types of sexuality and it can take a while for people to figure out what is right for them. All are
perfectly normal and part of the broad range of human relationships and experiences. A person’s
sexuality is a central part of who they are, and can influence their thoughts, feelings and actions.
When we talk about sexual and gender diversity, it’s important to understand these terms:
Sex: Categories (male, female) to which people are typically assigned at birth based on physical
characteristics (e.g. genitals). Some people may be assigned intersex, when their reproductive, sexual or
genetic biology doesn’t fit the traditional definitions of male or female.
Sexual Orientation: A person’s emotional and sexual attraction to others. It can change and may or may
not be the same as a person’s sexual behavior.
Gender/Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of identity as female, male, both or neither,
regardless of their sex.
Gender Expression: How a person expresses their gender. This can include how they look, the name they
choose, the pronoun they use (e.g., he, she) and their social behavior.
Each person’s sexual orientation, gender identity and gender expression are a part of who they are.
When talking about these topics, it is common to see the acronym SOGIE, which stands for Sexual
Orientation, Gender Identity and (Gender) Expression.
Terms relating to LGBTQIA*
Ally | A person who is not LGBTQ but shows support for LGBTQ people and promotes equality in a variety
of ways.
Androgynous | Identifying and/or presenting as neither distinguishably masculine nor feminine.
Asexual | The lack of a sexual attraction or desire for other people.
Biphobia | Prejudice, fear or hatred directed toward bisexual people.
Bisexual | A person emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to more than one sex, gender or
gender identity though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or to the same degree.
Cisgender | A term used to describe a person whose gender identity aligns with those typically associated
with the sex assigned to them at birth.
Closeted | Describes an LGBTQ person who has not disclosed their sexual orientation or gender identity.
Coming out | The process in which a person first acknowledges, accepts and appreciates their sexual
orientation or gender identity and begins to share that with others.
Gay | A person who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to members of the same gender.
Gender dysphoria | Clinically significant distress caused when a person's assigned birth gender is not the
same as the one with which they identify. According to the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the term - which replaces Gender Identity Disorder -
"is intended to better characterize the experiences of affected children, adolescents, and adults."
Gender-fluid | According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a person who does not identify with a single
fixed gender; of or relating to a person having or expressing a fluid or unfixed gender identity.
Gender non-conforming | A broad term referring to people who do not behave in a way that conforms to
the traditional expectations of their gender, or whose gender expression does not fit neatly into a
category.
Genderqueer | Genderqueer people typically reject notions of static categories of gender and embrace a
fluidity of gender identity and often, though not always, sexual orientation. People who identify as
"genderqueer" may see themselves as being both male and female, neither male nor female or as falling
completely outside these categories
Gender transition | The process by which some people strive to more closely align their internal
knowledge of gender with its outward appearance. Some people socially transition, whereby they might
begin dressing, using names and pronouns and/or be socially recognized as another gender. Others
undergo physical transitions in which they modify their bodies through medical interventions.
Homophobia | The fear and hatred of or discomfort with people who are attracted to members of the
same sex.
Intersex | An umbrella term used to describe a wide range of natural bodily variations. In some cases,
these traits are visible at birth, and in others, they are not apparent until puberty. Some chromosomal
variations of this type may not be physically apparent at all.
Lesbian | A woman who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to other women.
Living openly | A state in which LGBTQ people are comfortably out about their sexual orientation or
gender identity – where and when it feels appropriate to them.
Non-binary | An adjective describing a person who does not identify exclusively as a man or a woman.
Non-binary people may identify as being both a man and a woman, somewhere in between, or as falling
completely outside these categories. While many also identify as transgender, not all non-binary people
do.
Outing | Exposing someone’s lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender identity to others without their
permission. Outing someone can have serious repercussions on employment, economic stability,
personal safety or religious or family situations.
Pansexual | Describes someone who has the potential for emotional, romantic or sexual attraction to
people of any gender though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or to the same degree.
Queer | A term people often use to express fluid identities and orientations. Often used interchangeably
with "LGBTQ."
Questioning | A term used to describe people who are in the process of exploring their sexual orientation
or gender identity.
Sex assigned at birth | The sex (male or female) given to a child at birth, most often based on the child's
external anatomy. This is also referred to as "assigned sex at birth."
Transgender | An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or expression is different from
cultural expectations based on the sex they were assigned at birth. Being transgender does not imply any
specific sexual orientation. Therefore, transgender people may identify as straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual,
etc.
Transphobia | The fear and hatred of, or discomfort with, transgender people.
Sexually Transmitted Disease
The term sexually transmitted disease (STD) is used to refer to a condition passed from one person to
another through sexual contact. You can contract an STD by having unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex
with someone who has the STD.
An STD may also be called a sexually transmitted infection (STI) or venereal disease (VD).
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can have a range of signs
and symptoms, including no symptoms. That's why they may go unnoticed until complications occur or a
partner is diagnosed. Signs and symptoms may appear a few days after exposure, or it may take years
before you have any noticeable problems, depending on the organism.
Gonorrhea is a common sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by a bacteria called Neisseria
gonorrhoeae (N. gonorrhoeae). It’s also sometimes called “the clap” or “drip.” Gonorrhea is spread
through sexual fluids, including vaginal fluid and semen. You can get gonorrhea from intercourse, anal
sex, oral sex, or sharing sex toys with an infected person.
FAMILY PLANNING AND RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD
Family Planning (FP) is having the desired number of children and when you want to have them by using
safe and effective modern methods. Proper birth spacing is having children 3 to 5 years apart, which is
best for the health of the mother, her child, and the family.
FAMILY PLANNING METHODS
Natural Family Planning (NFP) refers to a variety of methods used to prevent or plan pregnancy, based
on identifying a woman’s fertile days. For all natural methods, abstinence or avoiding unprotected
intercourse during the fertile days is what prevents pregnancy. The effectiveness and advantages of NFP
address the needs of diverse populations with varied religious and ethical beliefs. They also provide an
alternative to women who wish to use natural methods for medical or personal reasons.
NATURAL CONTRACEPTIVE OPTIONS
Abstinence
Refraining from penetrative sex provides 100% protection from pregnancy, and offers effective
prevention of transmission of sexually transmitted infections as well
Withdrawal or Coitus interruptus
The withdrawal method of family planning is unlike other natural methods in that it is male-controlled.
Withdrawal has been used for centuries, following the discovery that ejaculation into the vagina leads to
pregnancy; this method prevents pregnancy by preventing contact between the sperm and the egg
Calendar methods - based on calculations of cycle length
In calendar rhythm method, a woman makes an estimate of the days she is fertile based on past
menstrual cycle length. She does this with the expectation that the length of her current cycle, and thus
the time of her fertile phase, will not vary greatly from previous menstrual cycles.
Basal Body Temperature (BBT) Method
Due to the actions of progesterone on the hypothalamus, a woman’s body temperature rises slightly after
she ovulates (0.2 to 0.5 degrees C) and remains elevated until the end of the cycle, until menstruation.
Women who use this method must chart their temperature every day, immediately after waking up and
before getting out of bed or drinking any liquids. Couples relying on this method must abstain from
unprotected intercourse between the first day of menstruation until after the third consecutive day of
elevated body temperature, so unprotected sex is limited to the postovulatory infertile time.
Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM)
Research has confirmed that a form of breastfeeding to achieve contraception, called the lactational
amenorrhea method, or LAM, is more than 98% effective during the first 6 months following delivery.
During breastfeeding, ovulation is inhibited by a series of physiological responses to nipple stimulation.
More frequent or intense suckling sends nerve impulses to the mother’s hypothalamus that disrupt
normal signals to the pituitary controlling hormone secretion; the resulting abnormal pattern of LH
secretion is inhibitory to ovarian activity. When breastfeeding diminishes with less frequent breastfeeding
and/or more frequent supplemental feeding, the chance of ovulation and subsequent pregnancy rises.
2. Artificial Birth Control employs artificial control methods to help prevent unintended pregnancy
through the use of contemporary measures such as contraceptive or birth control pills. Diaphragm, male
and female condoms, spermicide, cervical cap, birth control patch, birth control shot, implants, IUD, tubal
ligation, vasectomy and emergency contraception pill.
Oral Contraceptives
This is a series of pills that a woman takes once each day for a month. At the end of the month, she starts
a new package of pills. The pills have hormones much like those a woman's body makes to control her
menstrual cycle. They work by keeping the ovaries from releasing eggs or by changing the lining of the
uterus or the mucus of the cervix.
Depo-Provera:
A method of birth control given in the form of a shot. The shot gives protection for up to 12 weeks. It
does not contain estrogen so there are no side effects from that hormone. It works by keeping the
ovaries from releasing eggs or by changing the lining of the uterus or the mucus of the cervix.

Contraceptive Patch:
A method of birth control that is a small, thin and smooth patch and is put on a woman's skin. The
woman can choose where she wears the patch: the buttocks, the shoulder, the upper arm, front or back,
but not on the breasts. It releases hormones every day for three weeks so the woman's ovaries don't
produce eggs. It can stay on the body for one week. You change it once a week and on the fourth week,
you don't wear a patch but you will still be protected. You can swim, bathe, shower and wear it in warm
humid weather.
Contraceptive Ring
A method of birth control in the form of a soft ring that fits deep inside the vagina. It releases low-dose
hormones everyday for three weeks so the woman's ovaries don't produce eggs. It can stay in the vagina
for up to three weeks and provides protection for one month
Intrauterine Device (IUD)
A small device made of plastic. Some contain copper, or a hormone. A clinician chooses the right type for
a woman, and inserts it into her uterus. Some can stay there for 4 years; copper IUDs may be left in place
up to 8 years. IUDs prevent a woman's egg from being fertilized by the man's sperm, and change the
lining of her uterus.
Implanon is a small, thin, implantable hormonal contraceptive that provides effective protection for up to
three years. Implanon must be removed by the end of the third year and can be replaced by a new
Implanon if contraceptive protection is still needed. This contraceptive method must be inserted and
removed by a trained healthcare provider.
Diaphragm/Cervical Cap
A soft rubber barrier in a woman's vagina, used with a contraceptive cream or jelly. The diaphragm or
cervical cap is put into a woman's vagina before intercourse. It covers the entrance to her uterus, and the
cream or jelly stops the man's sperm from moving. The diaphragm can be put in the vagina 6 hours ahead
of intercourse, and left in or 24 hours. The cervical cap can be left in her vagina for up to 48 hours.
Male Condom
It is a sheath of latex that a man can wear over his penis during intercourse. The condom catches the
semen that comes out of a man's penis before, during and after he ejaculates. This keeps his sperm from
getting into the woman's vagina. Latex condoms also help protect against some infections, including HIV,
the virus that causes AIDS.
Female Condom
It is a loose-fitting sheath that fits inside the woman's vagina. It catches the semen that comes out of a
man's penis when he ejaculates. It covers the cervix, the opening to the uterus, so sperm can't get
through. It also protects against some infections including HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.

READINGS IN THE PHILIPPINE HISTORY

 Historiography is the history of history.
 History is the study of chronological records of the past which covers people, place and events.
 A historian commented the following on a particular article, “The article I read was
comprehensive, I like what the author presented it was very timely”. What particular source
analysis did Mrs. Cruz apply? Content Analysis
 Primary source and Secondary source are a historical source which studies a certain historical
subject.
 What can be considered a primary source if a history writer wants to study about martial law in the
Philippines in the 1970s? Ferdinand Marco’s Today’s Revolution: Democracy
 Internal criticism - examining the physical characteristic of the document, and examination of the
truthfulness of the evidence
 Originality of the documents, Genealogy of the document, Genesis of the document is identified
factors in evaluating sources internally by Howell and Prevenier (2001).
 External criticism - verifies the authenticity by examining physical characteristics
 March 16, 1521 - Magellan and his expedition arrival in the Philippines
 Antonio Pigafetta - wrote the book “The First Voyage Around the World by Ferdinand Magellan”
 Voyage Around the World - primary sources that contains a dictionary translating the Cebuano
language to Spanish
 A historian commented the following on a particular article, “The article I read was profound, I
like the author’s background, style, objectivity and conviction”. What particular source analysis
did Mr. Reyes apply? Contextual Analysis
 Interpreting by way of the surrounding conditions and Analyzing the events and circumstances as
an integral component are best describe contextual analysis of a written historical source
 The significance of the book First Voyage Around the World by Magellan - It serves as one of the
most important primary sources in the study of precolonial Philippines
 Customs of the Tagalogs serves as a valuable source of pre-hispanic history, shows the rich
culture and tradition of the pre-hispanic Filipinos in the Tagalog region and supports the idea that
the Philippines has an existing history prior to the Spanish colonization.
 Jose Rizal - He established the La Liga Filipina.
 Baybayin – system of writings, alphabets consisted of 3 vowels and 14 consonants
 Kartilya ng Katipunan - the original title of the most important Katipunan document
 Reasons of Spanish colonization in the Philippines – (1) To spread Christianity among the pagan
areas of the Philippines (2) To become one of the imperialistic powers (3) To accumulate wealth.
 What are the reasons why political caricatures being significant in the narrative of Philippine
history? (1) Realization that freedom of expression via political caricatures was a key factor in
exposing the ills of American occupation, (2) it contributed to the stopping of censorship during
the American regime.
 Treaty of Paris - an agreement between the Americans and the Spaniards which resulted to the
Spaniards selling the Philippines to the Americans for $20,000,000.
 Cartoons - can be considered an effective tool of publicizing opinions through heavy use of
symbolism which is different from a wordy written editorial and opinion pieces.
 The Philippines Free Press, The Bag-Ong Kusog, and The Independent are the following
newspapers published political cartoons in their editorial section during the American
administration
 Magdalo - war name associated with Emilio Aguinaldo •
 The First National Artist in Painting – a particular recognition that awarded to Fernando Amorsolo
after his death
 Consider the authors’ potential bias –Most appropriate way on how to evaluate two writers’ point
of view in case of conflicting accounts on a significant historical event.
 How should we study history or kaaysayan? by the story of the past that has meaning
 No document, no history - mantra stems that historians were required to show written primary
documents to write a particular historical narrative
 Aliping Saguiguilid - These are the slaves who served their master and could be sold by their
masters.
 Ferdinand Magellan - He was a Portuguese explorer who organized the Spanish expedition to the
East Indies from 1519 to 1522, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the earth.
 El Pacto de Sangre - painting of Luna depicts the agreement between Legazpi and Sikatuna
 Fray Juan de Plasencia - He was born and raised in Extremadura, Spain in the 16th century during
the country’s Golden Age (Siglo de Oro).
 Emilio Jacinto - He wrote the “Manga Aral ng Katipunan ng mga A.N.B. and died at the age of 24
because of malaria disease.
 June 12, 1898 - The date of proclamation of Philippine Independence
 Why was the speech of President Corazon Aquino in the joint US Congress significant?
 It gained Aquino’s Administration world recognition
 It further t further warranted Cory’s presidency
 Assured financial support from the US
 Katipunan’s Code of Conduct
 To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate
 Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor
 A good deed that springs from a desire for personal profit and not from a desire to do
good is not kindness
 September 18, 1986 - historic speech of President Corazon C Aquino in the joint US Congress
delivered
 Fernando Amorsolo is popularly known as the Painter of Philippine Daylight
 The three tribes that connived and organized a group of hundreds of ships to raid Fort Pilar
Balangingi-Samal, Ilanuns, and Sultanate of Sulu
 The following are the factor that influence the forming of the Katipunan and Kartilya -
French Revolution, Masonry, & Propaganda Movement
 Relevant contribution of Cory Aquino’s speech in Philippine History
 it describes what happened during and after Martial period
 It shows the shortcomings of the Aquino Administration
 It shows the strong and continuing alliance between the Philippines and the United States
of America
 The Kartilya ng Katipunan is the codified document of the KKK which talks about: The guiding
principle of the Katipuneros and the Filipinos.