UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF
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THE 13 C

States
 State is different from early social organization by having of the following features;
 an autonomous political units
 large number of population
 definite territory
 Sovereignty and government to decree and enforce laws.
 State is the result of the beginning of sedentary agriculture and regular cultural process

through the time .

 State formation may vary from one place to another and from time to time. Some states
gradually evolved to a powerful kingdoms and empires.
 There were several views and theories related to the emergence state.
1. Religion (divine theory)
 Religious leaders dominated over the early states.
 They involved in maintaining the social and religious affairs
 Such Priest’s domination became Theocratic
 Religious elites were gradually replaced by chiefs, who began the collection
of tributes.
2. War leadership
 A theory said that war leaders resulted for the emergences of king who ruled
the states
3. Trade
 By collection of taxation on the way of trade state becoming a powerful.
4. Oriental Despotism (Irrigation)
 Organization of labor to engage in agriculture marked for the birth of state.

 The domination over the trade routes and occupation of the strategic rich interior helped
states to be a power.

Ancient States in North and Northeast

A. Punt
 The earliest state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
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 It existed in the 3 millennium BC

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  It is difficult to tell its exact location
 Punt served as a sources of gold, silver, Bronze, Iron
 The evidence on Punt taken from Egyptian hieroglyphic writing,
which tells about the series naval expeditions of Egyptian to Punt.
 Punt state was well known by trade. The major import items of trade of Punt include
(axe, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets
(cheap jewelry). As well as export items of Punt (Iron, bronze, foxes, cattle, animal’s fur
and medicinal plants).
 Some Egyptian kings (Pharaohs) made smooth relation with Punt. Example
o Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.)
o Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.)

 The exact location of Punt became debating. Some views stated its location to northern or
northeastern Somalia and other scholars inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia.
B. Da’amat
 Da’amat was another state in the horn of Africa which emerged before Aksum.
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 It emerged to the south of Aksum at 5 c BC
 Characterized by worshipping of gods and goddesses.
 Da’amat developed a relation with South Arabia
 It used the religious and political title, Mukarib.
 Mukarib became responsible to religious (Priest), political (Judge) and it
owned of the title of army commander.

 Yeha, Hawulti Melazo, Addi-Seglemeni etc were pre Aksumite states.

C. The Aksumite State
 Popular b/n 200-100 B.C
 relatively limited to small area and gradually expanded
 There are some sources which describes about the involvement of Aksumite in trade.
Example
1. Periplus of Erithrean Sea
 Aksum used Adulis (port city) on the Red Sea outlet.
2. Christian Topography
 Describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas
 Aksum engaged the internal trade with a distant region called Sasu, most
probably in Beni Shangul.

 Export Items of Aksum: Ivory, spices (like ginger), cinnamon, gold, rhinoceros horns
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 Import Items of Aksum: glassware and jewelry, metallic sheets, tools
Achievements of Aksum
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 Minting of coin between 3 to 7 c
 Territorial expansion
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (Roman Empire, Persia,
China and Aksum) of the time.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum
 Known by indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants
 Paintings; diversified ceramic tools
 Sophisticated building traditions (palaces, obelisk, churches).
 Advanced in literature & crafts.
 Known by administrative and governance system
 Developing system of agriculture including irrigation.

The Decline of Aksumite

 The factors that contributed to the downfall of Aksum related to both internal and external.
These factors were;
 Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity
 Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit)
 Destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702 A.D (External factor)
 Finally, it was collapsed in 1150 A.D.
D. Zagwe Dynasty (1150-1270)

 Emerged after the decline of Aksum.

 Agaw people played a role for its foundation
 Agaw has served to be the Aksumite soldiers.
 Zagwe made its center in Bugna District in Lasta, later shifted to Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
 Founded by Merra Teklehaimanot in 1150 A.D.

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 Achievements of Agaw/Zagwe dynasty

 Territorial Expansion
- The former Aksumite areas (northern Shewa, Lake Tana region and part of Gojjam)
dominated by Zagwe.
 Trade contact
- Had trade with eastern Mediterranean region.
 Export items of Zagwe (slaves, ivory, spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper
 Import items of Zagwe (cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels).
 Construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches
- Well experienced by the construction of remarkable churches.
Example
- Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and
- Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the cross.
- Zagwe rulers were known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn and
monolithic churches
The Collapse of Zagwe
 The important responsible factors for the decline of Zagwe were;
 Internal power succession among its kings.
 The oppositions from groups claiming descent from Aksum. considered Zagwe
kings “illegitimate rulers”
 Finally, Yekuno-Amlak (r.1270-1285), defeated the last king of Zagwe king, Yetbarek and
he founded Solomonic dynasty in 1270.
 Therefore, Yekuno-Amlak was commonly called as founder and restorer of Solomonic
dynasty.

East, Central, Southern, and Western States

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1. Bizamo (establishment-in 8 c)
 It was located in Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.
2. Damot - located in south of Abay
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 founded by king Motalami in the 13 c

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 3. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia
4. Gafat
 Its territory lies south of Abay (Blue Nile)

The Muslim Sultanates (Principalities)

 Various Muslim communities formed in Ethiopia and the horn one after another after the
introduction of Islam to the horn. Example;
a) Shawa
 founded in in 896 A. D
 Founder were descendents of Makhzumite Sultanate.
b) Fatagar:
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 Was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11 century.
c) Dawaro
 Located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and WabiShebelle.
 Used a currency called hakuna for transaction
d) Bali
 Was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
e) Ifat
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 was established by Umar Walasma in 1285 (13 c)
 also called Walasma dynasty
 Others Muslim states were Adal, Hadya, Arbabini and etc

External Relation
 Ethiopia and the Horn has a long external relation with:
1. Egypt - since at least 3,000 B. C

 It was the earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman
World.

2. South Arabian

 The relation started sometimes before 1,000 B.C

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3. East Roman or Byzantine Empire
 The relation further consolidated following the introduction of Christianity to
Aksum.
4. India and Persia
 Associated to the commercial relation was established with Indians
Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure system
Land tenure?
 Refers to landholding system, share and use.
Agriculture - Backbone of Ethiopia economy
- was basic economic activity in highland parts
 Rist, Gult were the methods applied particularly in Ethiopia to govern land system and
dominate over vast territories.
 Rist system
 is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the families and clans.
 Rist owners were known as bale-rist
 But they paid tributes to the state
 Gult system
 is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
 The tribute collected by bale-gults
 Practiced by Christian kingdom for dominance
B. Handcraft
 Indigenous technology had existed since the ancient period
 Commonly known as local (domestic) industries
 Includes metal work, pottery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry etc…
 Artisans were mostly despised and marginalized (disrespected).
C. Trade
 activity which interacted ancient states internally and internationally
 major socio-economic and political centers for earliest states

Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture

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 rd
 designing of stele began in the 3 C AD
 steles in and around Aksum can be grouped into well-made and decorated
Example

 The longest one of these stele measured to 33 meters

 Monolithic Rock hewn - Architectural values and artistic
achievements of Zagwe.
B. Writing System
 Written in Sabean and Ge’ez languages.
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 Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9 c BC.

C. Calendar
 Helps to know and remember the times when certain occurrences takes place
 Need to determine the time (periodization)
 Muslim (Islamic) calendar (from Hejira)
 The Oromo used it based on (calendar based on star known among the Oromo as
Urjii) and Sidama (celebrating new year-Fiche Chambalala).
D. Numerals
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 It appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of 4 century AD.
E.g. In Geʽez language there has been the use of numeral system.

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