CDI 4 Traffic Mngt.

& Accident Investigation w/ Driving

TRANSPORTATION – It is the movement or conveying of persons and

goods from one location to another
· Man’s need to travel dates back as early as the creation of human
beings. In the Bible, when Adam and Eve were sent out by God from the
Garden of Eden after they have eaten the forbidden fruit and hence, were
commanded to toil and ingest the fruit of their labor.
· Since then, the human race multiplied and naturally became
wanderers to enable them to survive for various reasons.
· Soon became nomadic. They became constantly itinerant to look for
pasture lands for their livestock and herds.
· Types of Nomads:
1. First Type – Foraging Populations who wander in search for their
food.
2. Second Type – is the most numerically and historically significant
which comprises the Pastoral Nomads. They wander with their families
along with their helpers including herds. They developed their mastery of
the places and where they could stay for seasons, having the consistency
of maintaining their subsistence alongside with their herds.
3. Third Type – It comprises the gypsies, tinkers and similar itinerants
in urban and complex societies.
Various Ancient Modes of Transportation
A. Manpower – Early men, who had no domesticated animals, carried
his own burdens:
1. Walking (travelling by foot). Man first used the power of his own feet
in travelling while his load is either carried or dragged. Coincidentally, The
English word “pedestrian” was coined from the Latin words “pedester”
which means, which means to travel by foot.
2. Carrying Pole- often seen from China and other parts of the Far
East. The carrying pole which is being balanced on one shoulder is a
popular carrying device. In some places, one carrying pole with two
separate persons, each positioned on its ends.
3. Backload and Tumpline- In many parts of the world, goods are
carried on the back. In Subtemala, pots are carried on a wooden
framework, supported by a Tumpline across the forehead. In the Andes,
the load is held on the back by a strap passing over the chest.
4. Sledge on rollers- The moving of heavy burdens was to place them
on sledge which rested on a series of rollers.
5. Sledge on runners – a simple sledge, probably man-drawn, was in
use at the end of the Old Stone Age in Northern Europe, as evidenced by
fragments of wooden runners that survived.
6. Travois – as the pole arrangement called, serves as a platform on
which the burden are placed. The platform or cross-beam poles are then
dragged by human or animals.
B. Animal Power. The domestication of animals greatly increased the
potential power available for transportation. Pack animals were introduced
as conveyances mainly to save labor. A man can tend several pack
animals moving together, each of which (except dogs) can carry more than
he usually can. Little advantage in speed is gained unless part of the
animal carrying capacity is sacrificed.
Examples of which are:
1. Ox – Cattle, which were first domesticated in Mesopotamia, were
used as draft animals to draw war chariots. Oxen are still used as draft
animals in many regions of the world. In some parts of Africa, they are used
as pack animals and for riding.
2. Reindeer – These were first domesticated in Siberia in the beginning
of the Christian Era. In the Altai Mountains, they were ridden with saddles.
Elsewhere, they draw sledges somewhat like the dogs in the Far North.
3. Dog – They are the first domesticated animals that are used for
transportation but are not capable of drawing heavy loads. The Plain
Indians sometimes packed light loads on dogs’ back, and piled goods on a
travois which the dog dragged. In the Far North, the dogs team drawing
sledges are the chief means of transportation. And in part of Europe, the
dogs are used to draw small carts.
4. Donkey or Ass- First domesticated in the Middle East. Donkey
caravans carry goods between the cities of Southwest Asia and Egypt. The
donkey is still the chief beast of burden amongst the farmers Near East and
the Mediterranean Area including Mexico and was also introduced in Spain.
5. Llama - In pre- Columbian America, the Llama was the only new
world animal other than the dog capable of domestication for purposes of
transport. In the high Andes, the Llama was used as a pack animal by
the Incas and their Spanish conquerors, as it is by Modern Andean
people.
6. Elephant – The Carthaginians used African Elephant in their war
against Rome but in recent centuries, these animals have not been tamed.
In India, elephants were formerly used in war and are still employed to
some extent for ceremonial processions and big game hunting. In Burma
and Thailand, these huge animals are widely used in the lumber industry.
7. Horse – Around 2,000 B.C., horse-drawn chariots speared in
Southwest Asia and 1,000 years later the Persians arrived with cavalry
which gave mobility and power to the German tribes that have invaded
Europe and to the Central Asian conqueror Genghis Khan. In Europe,
horses were used to draw wheeled vehicles or solely for riding until the
mechanized vehicles were introduced.
8. Camel – it is either two-humped Bactrian Camel in Asia or the one-
humped Dromedary of Arabia have long been used for transport. The
Bactrian Camel has plodded along the caravan routes between China and
Iran for at least 2,000 years. It can draw cart too. The Dromedary, which
has less endurance but fleeter and the fast-paced riding camel that are
bred by the Arab nomads.
9. Yak – It is a long-haired type of cattle that lives at high altitudes on
the Tibetan Plateau and in the high neighboring Mountain Regions is ridden
and used as a pack animal at heights where horse and ordinary animals
could not survive.
C. Wind Power – Man realized the energy from the mass of moving air
and learned to realize such power to lift rather than to drag. This paved the
way to the invention of air-lifted transportation vessels.
1. Ancient Chinese Kite - Based on a Korean tradition, the kite was
first used for transport when a Korean General employed one in bridge
building. By means of kite, a cord was conveyed across the river where
heavier ropes were fastened and finally the bridge cable. In the late
10th century, several European Armies experimented with kites in
transporting men.
2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – Da Vinci made a study of flight of the birds
and his notebooks sketched a number of ornithopter (a.k.a. orthopter)
which derives its principal support and propelling from flapping wings like
those of a bird.
3. Montgolfier Balloon – The Montgolfier brothers of France joseph
Michel and Jacques Entienne have successfully released several balloons
when they proposed to use two condemned prisoners for the first ascent
with passengers.
4. Siemens' Rocket Plane - Ernst Werner Von Siemens who later
achieved fame as an electric industrialist, in 1847 designed rocket plane
which was to be propelled by the explosive force of gunpowder. Similarly,
Siemens' rocket plane was never carried beyond the design stage.
5. Lilienthal Glider - Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor who also made
a study of the flight of birds and experimented with ornithopters, going so
far as to build a model ornithopter. His chief work was with gliders.
However, in 1891, he made the first of a number of a glider flights which
were to exert a profound influence on the development of aviation.
6. Santos Dumont's Airship - One of the pioneers of lighter-than-air
craft was Alberto Santos Dumont, a Brazilian who experimented with the
steam-powered balloons in Paris. He made his first balloon ascent in 1897
and in 1898 completed the construction of his first airship. He, then built
several other airships and in 1901, made a 30-minute round trip flight
between St. Louis and the Eiffel Tower.
7. Wright Brothers' Flying Machine -Inspired by Lilienthal's glider
experiments, Orville and Wilbur Wright began studying the problems of
heavier-than-air flight. They built biplane kite then over 200 different wing
types which they tested in a wind tunnel of their own invention, before they
conducted their first man-carrying powered machine. This flew successfully
at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on Dec. 17, 1903. By 1909, airplanes became
sufficiently accepted to justify beginning commercial manufacture of the
machine.
8. Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis - Following the initial flight of the
Wright brothers' airplane, the development of aviation was rapid. The first
airmail was delivered in 1911 and World War I gave an impetus to plane
design and the training of pilots. During the 1920's, many new records were
set.
WHEELED VEHICLES AND ROAD HISTORY
Concept
· As man, from ancient times to the 20th century, sought to make their
transport facilities more efficient, they have always endeavored to move
people and property with the least expenditure of time, effort, and money.
· It was stated in the preceding lesson that man first traveled by foot.
Then, primitive man supplemented their own carrying of goods and
possessions by starting to domesticate animals - training them to bear
small loads and pull crude sleds.
· The following are some of the inventions and innovations and
important events that lead to modern land transportation:
A. WHEEL - was invented probably in Western Asia - such invention was a
milestone and a great step forward in transportation. However, pieces of
evidence were found by archaeologists that wheel could have been
simultaneously invented in Southwest Asia and Mesopotamia. (about.com)
As wheel was perfected, crude carts and wagons began to appear in
TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY about 3500 B.C., and later in CRETE,
EGYPT and CHINA. The wheel was one of man's great inventions. It
enabled him to transport burdens beyond the power of man or animals to
carry or drag, and permitted much greater facility of movements than the
simple sledge on rollers which had to be continually picked up and moved
by hands as the sledge is advanced.
Ljubljana Marshes Wooden Wheel - This is the oldest wheel ever found
in Europe or anywhere in the world. This was discovered by two Slovene
archaeologists in April 2002 in the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia. When
carbon-dated, the remains are estimated to be 5,200 years old.
The following were some of the earliest types of wheeled carts:
1. Solid wheels on fixed axle - this ancient cart represent an early
step in the evolution of wheeled vehicles. Its solid wheels, which were
made of a single piece of wood, rotated on single axle.
2. Sumerian chariot with flank wheels - this chariot, of about 2400
B.C., had solid wheels built up of three pieces, and so was more durable
than the one-piece wheel.
3. Greek quadrica with spoked wheels - drawn by four horses, was a
light and elegant vehicle for gentleman about 250 B.C. It had spoked
wheels and axles of irons or bronze, handles for aid in mounting, and seat
formed by a board placed across the handles.
4. Italian cocchio, 1288 - a traveling wagon in which the passengers
were protected by a covering of leather or cloth fixed over a wooden
framework.
B. ANCIENT ROME - The following are the ancient wheeled vehicles in
Ancient Rome. (bible-history.com)
1. Arcera - it had four wheels, a cover and was generally drawn by two
or more horses. The outside consisted of unhewn boards covered by loose
drapery. This vehicle was especially used to convey the sick and infirm and
was of sufficient size to allow occupants to recline.
2. Arcima - it was a small conveyance that is large enough for only one
person.
3. Basterna - it was commonly used by women when travelling and
was borne by two mules, one before and one behind each hitched to a
separate pair of shafts.
4. Benna - this four wheeled conveyance is made of wicker work and
was of Gallic origin. It can accommodate several persons when travelling.
5. Carpentum - used by early Romans in as early as 500 B.C. and as
late as 5th century of the Christian era. It was a covered carriage with two
wheels, had seats for two or three and was usually drawn by two mules,
horses or even oxen.
6. Carruca - this vehicle had four wheels, with the front ones smaller
than the two behind. This had a cover and was drawn by two to four horses
or mules. It was often ornamented by carvings in bronze and ivory and by
chasings in silver and gold. Members of the imperial families were fond of
travelling using this kind of coach.
7. Carrus - a cart with two wheels and boarded sides, it was drawn by
oxen or bullocks and was mainly used by the Roman armies for the
transportation of their baggage and supplies.
8. Cisium - a light open vehicle of Gallic origin, had two wheels and
room for two persons. It also has a box or case beneath the seat, where
small baggage can be carried in. Two or three horses or mules were used
to draw this and because of the lightness of this carriage this is especially
suitable for rapid travels.
9. Pilentum - used chiefly by women of the upper classes. It was
furnished with cushions, had a covered top, but open sides. This was also
used on state occasions by Roman matrons, priests and vestal virgins. In
this, they carried sacred vessels and rode in processions and public
games.
10. Four-wheeled plaustrum - usually employed for heavy burdens but
were also used for travelling.
11. Raeda - was common among the Romans during the last century of
the republic. A commodious vehicle of Gallic origin and had four wheels,
this was used by a man when he traveled with his family because this has
sufficient room for several persons together with their luggage.
12. Sarracum - used by ancient Roman farmers as a traveling vehicle for
themselves and their families.
13. Tensa - a sacred vehicle elaborately ornamented with ivory and silver;
had either two or four wheels and was drawn by four horses. This carriage
was used during Circensian games, to carry the images of deities.
C. WHEELED VEHICLES AND CARRIAGES could not use the narrow
paths and trails used by pack animals, and early roads were soon built to
accommodate the larger transportation vehicles.
D. THE ROMANS were the major road builders in the ancient world. The
Romans road network reached a total of about 50,000 miles (80,000 kms.),
with FEEDER roads branching out from the main highways. It was costly
because its deep foundation, formed by layer after heavy stones, was
necessary to make roads that would carry heavy traffic for many years.

E. JOHN L. MACADAM did not abandon the theory of feeder road building
and perfected the macadamized road in England about 1815.
F. AFTER THE FALL OF THE ROMANS in the 5th Century, land haulage
(or colonizing foreign lands by the European kingdoms and countries)
generally declined because highways suffered from inadequate
maintenance. Such improvements however, as the horse collars (10th
Century), the addition of springs to coaches, new methods of road
construction, and the introduction of toll roads (18th century) all continued
to ease and speed land travel.
The invention of larger carriages and vehicles pulled either by human
beings or animals could be considered the basis of modern highway
construction.

TOPIC 2 - EVOLUTION OF MOTOR VEHICLES

Concept
Motorized transportation is one of the greatest inventions that appeared
for the last three hundred years. The inventions in transportation came
along with the numerous inventions during the period of "Industrial
Revolution."
This lesson traces the historical development of motorized
transportation with the view of understanding the present-day problems in
roadway transport system.
A. STEAM ENGINE was perfected in the 1760's by James Watt. The
invention provided power for many industries and factories in England.
(Grolier)
B. By the end of 18th century, French, Scottish, and American inventors
attempted to apply the steam engine in water navigation. (Grolier)
1. Frenchman Jacques Perier built an steamboat in 1775
2. Robert Fulton launched the steamboat Clermont on theHudson River in
1807
3. The steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic in 1819 and by the 19th
century, steam navigation replaced the sailing vessels
C. RAILROADS - Horse-drawn wagons with wooden wheels and rails had
been used in English and European mines during the 17th century.
(Grolier)
1. Richard Trevithick and some other inventors adapted the primitive
steam locomotives to the mine railway between 1797 and 1813.
2. George Stephenson built and equipped the 32-km Stockton and
Darlington railway, the first public railway in the world powered by steam
locomotive which eventually began railroad building in England
3. United States, although railroad began in England, it was in the US
where tremendous growth in rail transport system occurred that by 1840
more than 4,800 kms (3,000 mi) railroads were already operating in the
eastern states
D. SIGNIFICANT IMPROVEMENT OF ROAD VEHICLE began with the
adaptation of COACH SPRING about 1650.
E. IN THE MID-18TH CENTURY, ENGLISH ROADS were so bad that the
coaches could average only about 4 mph (6.4 km/h) and the mail was
usually carried by boys on horses.
F. JOHN PALMER introduced his first fast mail coach in March of 1785
and by 1800, the English coach system was in full swing.
G. THE INVENTION OF BICYCLE in the early 19th century served as a
nursery of automobile builders. One of the modern ancestors of the modern
bicycle was the HOBBY HORSE, or dan horse. The wheels were made of
wood, with tires of iron, and the riders pushed themselves along with their
feet on the ground.
1. The German Baron Karl Von Drais in 1817 introduced a steerable
wheel, creating the "draisienne," or "dandy horse."
2. In 1838, Kirkpatrick Macmillan, a Scottish blacksmith, made the first
machine with pedals, which were attached to and drove the rear wheel by
means of cranks.
H. MOTOR VEHICLE the first mode of transportation to challenge the
railroads. The following are some of the notable events leading to the
invention of motorized vehicles for road traffic. (Grolier)
1. Ferdinand Verbiest, a Jesuit Missionary in China, built the first steam-
powered vehicle around 1672 as a toy for the Chinese Emperor.
(Wikipedia)
2. In 1870-71, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur
("steam dray"), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor.
3. By 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam
carriage in Redruth.
4. In 1801, Richard Trevithick ran a full-sized vehicle on the road in
Camborne.
5. In 1789, Oliver Evans was granted the first automobile patent in the
United States.
6. In 1806, Swiss engineer Francoiz Isaa de Rivaz built and engine
powered by internal combustion of a hydrogen and oxygen mixture.
7. In 1815, Josef Bozek, Professor at Prague Polytechnic, built an oil-fired
steam car 8. In 1826, Englishman Samuel Brown tested his hydrogen-
fuelled internal combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up
Shooter's Hill in south-east London. 9. In 1838, Walter Hancock, built and
operated steam buses in London
10. In 1838, Christian Friedrich Schontein discovered in principle the
hydrogen fuel cell (diesel), one of the technologies hailed as a replacement
for gasoline as an energy source for cars
11. Around 1844, Charles Goodyear invented the vulcanized rubber for
tires.
12. Around 1845-46, the Scottish Robert William Thomson, invented the
first vulcanized rubber tire. His invention worked well but was costly to
produce.
13. In 1858, Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir also known as Jean J. Lenoir, a
Belgian engineer developed the internal combustion engine. It was Lenoir's
invention which is considered to be the first commercially successful of its
kind.
14. In 1859, Gaston Plante invented the lead-acid battery and Anyos
Jedlik invented the electric motor in 1828 - both inventions were
contributory to the invention of electric-powered cars
15. In 1860, Lenoir's Hippomobile with a hydrogen-gas- fuelled one-
cylindered internal combustion engine made a test drive from Paris to
Joinville-le-Pont, covering some nine kilometres in about three hours.
16. In 1867, Canadian Henry Seth Taylor demonstrated his 4-wheeled
"steam buggy" at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec. The basis of
the buggy, which he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage
with bracing to support a two-cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor..
17. In 1870, the Austrian inventor Siegfried Marcus put a liquid-fuelled
internal combustion engine on a simple handcart which made him the first
man to propel a vehicle by means of gasoline - known as "the first Marcus
car".
18. In 1871, Dr. J.W. Carhatrt, invented the first steam powered carriage-
sized automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the United
States.
19. In 1873, French Amedee Bollee produced the first "real" automobile
self-propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.
20. On May 8, 1879, American George B. Selden filed for a patent which
included not only the engine but its use in a 4-wheeled car. He was finally
granted on November 5, 1895.
21. In 1882, Italy's Enrico Bernardi patented a 0.024 horsepower 122 cc
one-cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son's tricycle, making it at least a
candidate for the first automobile, and first motorcycle; in 1892, he enlarged
the tricycle to carry two adults
22. In 1883, Marcus secured a German patent for a low- voltage ignition
system of the magneto type; this was his only automotive patent.
23. In 1884, a Edouard Delamare-Deboutteville vehicle was patented and
trialled.
24. In 1885, Karl Benz built his first automobile in Mannheim and he was
granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886, He began the first
production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved -
with the first long-distance trip in August 1888, from Mannheim to
Pforzheim and back.
25. In 1885, Daimler built the first high speed internal combustion engine.
26. In 1887 (late 19th century), John Boyd developed the first practical
pneumatic tire (inflated with air) for bicycle and was granted patent in 1888.
27. In 1888, marked the first production of automobiles in Germany by Karl
Benz, and in France by Emile Roger.
28. In 1889, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach designed a vehicle
from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted
with an engine. They are also credited for the first motorcycle in 1866.
29. In 1889, Panhard et Lavassor of France was the first company formed
exclusively to build automobiles, which also introduced the first four-
cylinder engine. 30. In 1890's, the first horseless-carriage appeared in the
U.S.
31. In 1893, brothers Charles and Frank Duryea founded the Duryea
Motor Wagon Company, becoming the first American automobile
manufacturing company.
32. In 1893, German inventor Rudolf Diesel developed the diesel engine
also known as a compression-ignition engine is an internal combustion
engine that uses the heat compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel.
33. In 1895, Andrea Michelin was the first person to use pneumatic tires
on automobile tires but not successfully.
34. In 1897, Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau later named
Tatra, produced the first motor car in central Europe and one of the first
factory-made cars in world, the Prasident automobil.
35. In 1908, Henry Ford introduced the MODEL T, which was proved so
popular that by 1914, Ford had adopted mass production methods to meet
the demand.
36. In 1911, Philip Strauss invented the first successful automobile tire
with with an air-filled inner tube (interior).
37. In 1956, Felix Wankel, a German mathematician, developed an
advanced-type of engine, named after him, that operates very differently
from gas and diesel engines.
To date, man continuously manufacture large cargo trucks and buses for
mass transportation. Presently, the introduction of the Light Trail Transit
(LRT), the Metro Rail Transit (MRT), flyovers, pedestrian and vehicle
culverts, rock sheds and other modern traffic ways contributed to the
expeditious movement of traffic users.
TOPIC 3 - FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Concept
Traffic Management is best understood by understanding the following
commonly used words and terminologies.
ARTERIAL HIGHWAYS/ROADS. These are high-capacity urban roads
that direct traffic from collector roads to expressways or freeways. It also
refers to a highway that is used primarily by through traffic.
COLLECTOR HIGHWAY. It is also known as collector road or distributor
road which connects low-to-moderate highways or roads to arterial
highways such as those entering residential properties. It also refers to a
highway that serves primarily to funnel traffic from one local highway to
another or between arterials and local highways.
HIGHWAY. It means the entire width between the boundary lines of every
way dedicated to a public authority when any part of the way is open to the
use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic, whether or not the public
authority is maintaining the way. Or, highway refers to any roads, streets,
boulevards, or avenues used as public thoroughfare.
MANAGEMENT. It refers to the skilful use of means to accomplish a
purpose.
OPERATION. Pertains to a course or series of acts to effect a certain
purpose; manner of action; or a vital or natural process of activity.
ROADWAY. Refers to that part of the traffic way over which motor vehicles
pass. For purposes of construction, repair, and/or maintenance, roads are
classified as:
1. National Roads These are interconnecting provinces and/or cities.
roads/streets
2. Provincial Roads These are roads/streets interconnecting municipalities
and/or cities within a province.
3. City Roads - These are roads/streets interconnecting barangays with a
city.
4. Municipal Roads - These are roads/streets interconnecting barangays
within a municipality.
5. Barangay Roads - These are roads/streets located within a barangay
which connect sitios or places within a barangay.
SHOULDER. It refers to either side of the roadway, especially along
highways.
SIDEWALK. It refers to the paved walkway along the side of a street. It
also means the area determined as follows:
(1) On the side of a highway which has a shoulder, a sidewalk is that
portion of the highway between the outside lateral line of the shoulder and
the adjacent property line capable of being used by a pedestrian.
(2) On the side of a highway which has no shoulder, a sidewalk is that
portion of the highway between the lateral line of the roadway and the
adjacent property line capable of being used by a pedestrian.
THROUGH HIGHWAY. It means every highway or portion thereof on which
vehicular traffic is given the right-of-way, and at the entrances to which
vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is required by law to yield right-
of-way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either an
authorized stop sign or a yield sign, or other official traffic-control device.
THRUWAY OR THROUGHWAY. It is a highway that has limited entrances
and exits such as the expressways, freeways, or motorways. It is known as
autobahn in German-speaking countries and autostrada in Italian-speaking
countries.
TRAFFIC. It refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either
powered by combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another
for the purpose of travel.
TRAFFIC WAY. Refers to the entire width between boundary lines of every
way or place of which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes
of vehicular traffic as a matter of right or custom.
The Intersection
In most American State laws, intersection is defined as the area embraced
within the prolongation or connection of the lateral curb lines, or, if none,
then the lateral boundary lines of the roadways of two highways which join
one another at, or approximately at, right angles, or the area within which
vehicles traveling upon different highways joining at any other angle may
come in conflict. (leg.state.nv.us) It is synonymous to crossroads, junctions,
or crossings.
In a simpler language, intersection refers to the area of a roadway created
when two or more roadways join together at any angle, as described in one
of the following:
(1) If the roadways have curbs, the intersection is the area embraced
within the prolongation or connection of the lateral curb lines.
(2) If the roadways do not have curbs, the intersection is the area
embraced within the prolongation or connection of the lateral boundary
lines of the roadways.
Classifications of Intersections According to Number of Intersecting
roads:
1. 3-way Intersection - It is commonly known as the T or Y crossroad which
links three roads.
2. 4-way Intersection - It is the most common type which involved the
crossings of two roadways. It is either a regular intersection when the two
roads cross perpendicularly and it is called skewed intersection when the
two roads cross at different angles.
3. 5-way Intersection - It involves the crossing of five roads. This type is the
least common.
4. 6-way Intersection It involves the crossing of three streets most often two
perpendicular roads and one diagonal road. This type is very rare.
5. Staggered Intersection It involves two successive crossroads.
Classifications of Intersections According to Traffic Control:
1. Controlled Intersection control devices - It is controlled by any traffic
a. Yield-controlled Intersection - It is usually controlled by a Yield sign or
Give Way sign.
b. Stop-controlled Intersection - A Stop sign is usually installed. Most
common are the two-way stops an most countries use the four-way stops
or the first-to- stop first-to-go rule.
c. Traffic Circle - Traffic flow here is directed by a circle, rotary island, or a
runabout sign.
2. Uncontrolled Intersection - This intersection has no traffic signals or
traffic signs. Crossing is by observing the right- of-way rule.
3. Box Junction - This type generally prohibits entry unless the exit is clear.
4. Cloverleaf- A highway interchange at which two highways, one crossing
over the other, have a series of entrance and exit ramps resembling the
outline of a four-leaf clover and enabling vehicles to proceed in either
direction on either highway.
What is Traffic Management?
Traffic management is the application of the processes and skills in
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, and budgeting to
traffic affairs. (Bragado, 1998) Traffic Management also refers to the
activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency to improve
roadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for both providers and
consumers of transportation services. (Sigua, 2008)
Considering these two definitions, it can be concluded that traffic
management is for the attainment of traffic efficiency.
Types of traffic management. The two distinct types traffic management
are the used or utilization of: of
1) traditional traffic engineering tools or devices, to regulate or control
traffic, such as traffic lights, traffic signs, or pavement markings, traffic
islands, and other devices that could control of direct the flow of traffic
(these will be discussed in latter chapters/modules); and
2) advanced technology like the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS).
Examples of the ITS are the installation of road sensors for emergency
cars, global positioning devices on motor vehicles, and road sensors
attached to traffic signal lights.
Why Traffic Management is necessary?
In every traffic management, three elements are necessary to be
considered. These are the road (trafficway) system, road users, and the
enforcement (and/or control) procedures. Failure to coordinate these
elements in a particular highway and/or intersection may cause traffic-
related problems.
With the advent of science and technology, new and modernized traffic
facilities are introduced. However, despite of these modernizations, traffic
congestions persist to exist. The only way to at least cope up with the
prevailing traffic related problems is a coordinated traffic management.
Traffic management is therefore designed to make the trafficway safer for
travelers, expedite the movement of traffic, and to provide convenience to
the traffic facilities' users. In short, traffic management aims to attain
efficiency in the utilization of the trafficway.
A. Major Causes of Traffic Congestion - Based on studies conducted by
authorities.
1. Physical Inadequacy. This is characterized by lack of roads, narrow
bridges, railroad crossings, lack of traffic facilities, etc.
2. Poor Control Measures. This is characterized by ineffective mechanical
control devices, inefficient traffic officers, and poor implementation of traffic
laws, rules and regulations.
3. Human Errors. Many traffic congestion are caused by slow drivers or
poor driving habits, pedestrian mistakes, officers' errors, poor planning,
poor legislation; and traffic accidents which are mostly attributed to human
errors.
4. Poor Maintenance. Oftentimes motor vehicles are stalled in traffic ways
because of unrepaired diggings, cracks on road pavement or unfinished
road pavement concreting.
B. Specific Traffic Problems - Traffic managers and traffic control officers
commonly encounter the following traffic-related problems:
1. Traffic Build-up - It is characterized by the gradual increasing of traffic
users in a given portion of the highway or trafficway.
2. Traffic Congestions networks that occurs 1 These are conditions on road
as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times,
and increased vehicular queueing.
3. Traffic Jams (snarl-up) - These are situations in highways in which the
movement of traffic users (motor vehicles or pedestrians) is very slow or
stationary.
4. Bottlenecks These are narrow points or areas in - highways where traffic
congestions or traffic jams usually occur or traffic may be held up.
5. Gridlocks - A state or condition of severe road congestion arising when
continuous queues of vehicles block an entire network of intersecting
streets, bringing traffic in all directions to a complete standstill. These traffic
blockages are usually caused interlocking of intersection grids.
6. Accidents - These are events or incidents which may cause unintentional
damage to property, loss of limbs, and/or death.
7. Collisions- These are incidents or instances of one moving traffic unit or
person striking violently against another.
C. Scopes of Traffic Management. In connection with the above stated
causes of congestion, authorities conceived that a systematic and effective
traffic management is needed which includes but not limited to the
following.
1. All public surface facilities traversing and parking and all types of
conveyances for the movement of persons and things. This includes the
provisions on the controlling traffic flow as well as provisions for the
allotments of parking lots or parking places.
2. All agencies having responsibilities for ascertaining traffic flow
requirements, planning, approving, funding, construction and/or maintaining
these public facilities for such movements. This area includes traffic
planning committees, those involved in traffic engineering, and the
legislative bodies in the appropriations of funds.
3. All agencies responsible for licensing, approving, restricting, stopping,
prohibiting or controlling the use of these facilities. The agencies involved in
this area are the Land Transportation Office (LTO) and other traffic
enforcement agencies.
D. Agencies Involved in Traffic Management. For a successful and
effective traffic management, specific roles and responsibilities are vested
on the following.
1. Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC). The
DOTC through the Land Transportation Office (LTO) is responsible for the
implementation of the Land Transportation Code of the Philippines (R.A.
4136) particularly on the issuance of drivers' licenses, registration of motor
vehicles, approval of franchises for public conveyances (through the Land
Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB)), and
conducting traffic safety seminars.
2. City or Municipal Engineers' Office. In the local level, these offices are
responsible for the planning, construction and maintenance of traffic
facilities within their respective locality.
3. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). This is the main
executive department which is responsible for the planning, construction
and maintenance of traffic facilities particularly those categorized as
national highways and other major road arteries.
4. Legislative (Congress/City or Municipal Boards). The legislative
bodies are not only responsible for the passing or amendment of laws
concerning traffic but also they are involved in the planning and approval of
government projects.
5. Philippine National Police (PNP). The PNP through its Highway Patrol
Group (PNP-HPG) (formerly the Traffic Management Group (PNP-TMG)) is
responsible primarily for the direct enforcement of traffic laws, rules and
regulations. They also perform other functions such as conducting of
information dissemination campaign, submitting traffic scheme proposals,
and other functions as the need arises.
6. Traffic Management Bureaus (TMBs). These are offices created
mostly under the offices of city/municipal mayors with the primary task of
assisting the local PNP traffic divisions/units in the enforcement of traffic
ordinances/laws.
7. Academic Institutions. Schools, both public and private, are
responsible for the basic traffic education by integrating in their respective
programs and curriculum subjects or topics on traffic safety.
8. Courts. The courts are responsible for the adjudication of traffic-related
cases filed before them.
9. Public Information Offices. The government through the Philippine
Information Agency (PIA) provides the necessary updated information to
the public by creating traffic safety campaigns and other activities relating
to traffic.
10. Barangay Peacekeeping Action Team (BPAT) Members. In
particular, the barangay tanods or barangay security forces are the usual
traffic control officers in their respective localities particularly during times of
emergencies.
11. Citizen Support Groups. The private institutions or organizations also
help in the prevention of traffic congestion by assisting government offices
in various activities particularly during special occasions and holidays
where traffic problem is likely to happen.
12. Tri-Media (including the internet). Government and privately-owned
publications, and radio and television broadcasting companies provide
necessary and updated traffic-related information to the public through their
respective programs.

Topic 4 - THE PILLARS OF TRAFFIC

Concept
A. Pillars of Traffic. These are the main areas of traffic managements
which are also known as the "Es" of Traffic. For a clearer understanding of
the various areas of traffic management, the following pillars are conceived.
1. Traffic Engineering. It is the science of measuring traffic and travel the
study of the basic laws relative to the traffic law and generation; the
application of this knowledge to the professional practice of planning,
deciding, and operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient
transportation of persons and goods.
a. Functions of Traffic Engineering. Agencies involved in traffic
engineering usually perform the following tasks:
(1) fact-finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and
regulations;
(2) supervisions and maintenance to the application of traffic control
devices; and
(3) planning of traffic regulations.
b. Agencies and/or Engineering. Like the other pillars of traffic
management, traffic engineering is done by various government and non-
government agencies.

(1) DPWH. Its scope is national which includes the responsibility for
determining traffic law, pattern, draw origin, and destinations, studies of
persons and things, planning, approving, funding and construction of:
(a) National Roads which interconnect cities and municipalities; network of
national roads through cities and municipalities; and
(b) Yearly maintenance and repair programs which include widening and
re-designing of current road systems.
(2) Provincial Governments. These local government units have similar
responsibilities with the DPWH but limited to traffic facilities in the
municipalities within the province.
(3) Municipal Governments. Their responsibilities are similar to the
provincial government but limited to the network of streets and roads within
the barangays.
(4) Chartered Cities. Their responsibilities are similar to that of the
municipal government but limited to the network of streets and roads within
the cities.
c. Objectives of Traffic Engineering. In summary, agencies and
individuals in traffic engineering and all the conducted programs, projects,
and activities are all geared to:
(1) To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic.
(2) To prevent traffic accident.
(3) To simplify police enforcement actions and
(4) To show that good police actions performance makes engineering plans
effective.
(5) To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the
improvement of traffic problems. And
d. When and where the Objectives of Traffic Engineering are
applied? Traffic engineers normally focused their tasks on these places
where traffic congestions, traffic accidents, traffic build-up, or traffic
obstructions are likely to occur -
(1) Habitually congested commercial areas.
(2) Heavily traveled thoroughfares.
(3) Congested local areas and intersections.
(4) During special occasions and events.
(5) During disasters or emergencies.
(6) At school crossings
e. Methods in Achieving the Objectives of Traffic Engineering. Traffic
engineers' primary consideration is the construction of traffic ways.
However, before a plan or design is framed-up, various factors are given
into account.
(1) Planning and Geometric Design-Factor Employed in Planning.
(a)Composition of traffic streams.
(b) Traffic volumes for capacity.
(c) Origin and destination.
(2) Factors Influencing Design
(a) Composition of traffic.
(b)Volume of traffic.
(c) Speed of vehicles.
(d) The starting, turning and stopping abilities of traffic units.
(3) Regulation and Control-Traffic Regulation
(a) Based and confined within the boundaries of safety, public welfare and
convenience. (b)Limitations imposed on road users and their load.
(c) Basic general rule of road use and conduct.
(d)Prohibition and Restrictions.
2. Traffic Education. It refers to any act or process of imparting or
acquiring general knowledge on traffic or any matters relating to the use of
the trafficway or road ways.
a. Schools (Public and Private). Traffic education can be carried out by
imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety, training and practice in the
actual application of traffic safety, and developing traffic safety morality.
(1) Elementary. In this level, traffic education is focused on safety and
guides stressing traffic classroom discussions of accidents, incidents and
safety rules, organizing safety patrols.
(2) Secondary. Traffic education for high schools students is geared
towards school safety organizations.
(3) Higher Education. Some colleges and universities offer and conduct
courses regarding traffic safety subjects.
b. Public Information Programs. The public should be informed on all
activities affecting the citizens and the community relating to traffic
(dissemination of information). This can be done through the public
information agency, newspapers, radio and television broadcasting
networks, and other forms of media.
c. Citizen Support Groups. These are mostly composed by voluntary non-
government organizations (NGOS), radio communication groups, rotary
organizations, and other voluntary clubs. Provide information regarding
major traffic requirements and needs.
3. Traffic Enforcement. This field deals mostly on the implementation and
enforcement of traffic laws and rules and regulations. The following are the
various agencies/offices that are involved in enforcement of traffic laws:
a. Land Transportation Office (LTO). This office is responsible for the
following:
(1) Vehicle registration
(2) Vehicle inspections
(3) Drivers licensing (examinations, suspensions, and revocations)
(4) Public to police on stolen or wanted vehicles.

b. Legislative Bodies. Included are the Senate, Congress, Provincial

Boards, and City and Municipal, Councils. They are responsible for the
passing and/or amending of laws and/or ordinances.
c. Police Traffic Enforcement. This pillar is not limited to the PNP-HPG
(formerly TMG) but it includes all government personnel who are duly
authorized for the direct enforcement of traffic laws such as:
(1) The Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) for the
National Capital Region (NCR).
(2) Police/Traffic Auxiliaries
(3) LTO Law Enforcement Services/Flying Squad
4. Traffic Ecology or Traffic Environment. This pillar is very recent which
includes the study of potentially disastrous population explosion, changes
in urban environment due to the scale and density of new urban
concentration and new activities carried out, air pollution, water pollution
and crowding, especially transport congestion which result therein.
a. What are the environmental effects of the urbanization of
transportation? Any decision in modernizing the transportation system
shall consider the following environmental effects:
(1) Noise. The ill effect of noise is one of the major considerations in the
evaluation of the consequences of traffic urbanization to the environment.
(2) Vibration. Effect can be severe, particularly when there are heavy trucks
and when the building is old. While there are subjective costs from
experiencing vibration, a minimum cost of damage or prevention can be
established from experience and experiment.
(3) Air Pollution. It is one of the more difficult problems because of the
complexity of the issues involved. The effects of pollution are also strongly
affected by meteorological and even by micro-climate.
(4) Dirt. These are foul and filthy substances related to motor vehicle use
such as empty can of oils, grease materials, etc.
(5) Visual Intrusion. This can have positive as well as negative effects. If a
motor way blots out an unsightly prison or railway yard, it may have positive
benefits.
(6) Loss of Privacy. Loss of privacy from drivers and others being able to
look at one's house and garden frequently disliked environment effect.
Walls and earthworks would prevent this, while at the same time reducing
noise.
(7) Changes in Amount of Light. It is easier up to a point because part of
the disadvantages can be valued in term of the additional lighting costs of
those affected.
(8) Neighborhood Severance, both physical and sociological. This can
partly be quantified in terms of changed travel time and costs, and accident
experience to pedestrians and traffic.
(9) Relocation. There must be programs that are designed to cover
compensation for those who relocate as a consequence of transport
investment, whether property owner or tenants.
(10) Distraction during planning and construction. In some cases, benefits
offset the distraction cost, which are experienced by people during
construction of new facilities, loss of business, excess noise, dirt, vibration
during constructing and excess journey costs through diversions because
of building.
(11) Accident Experiences. These are evaluated by well established
procedures of which perhaps the only major controversial aspect is the
valuation given to human life. A certain amount is known about differences
in accident experience on different roads and in different circumstances.
(12) Pedestrian Journey. The opportunity to make the roads safe and
enjoyable for pedestrians and efficient for vehicles; and set of roads
provided access to dwelling and is designed primarily for the safety of
pedestrians.
(13) Congestion and Other Benefits to Vehicles. It is for a liveable and safe
residential environment by reducing "through" vehicle travel. Travel must
be made convenient. Highway diversion curves indicate that 80 percent of
the traffic will take a route that is 20 percent faster

b. External Factors that influence the existing and future behavior of

population. The behaviors and attitudes of the people are also attributed
to the easing or reduction of traffic problems. Below are the incidents that
may affect the behavior of trafficway users or road users-
(1) Rapidly increasing population growth.
(2) Rapidly increasing urbanization.
(3) Rapidly increasing motorization.
(4) Industrialization and technical modernization.
(5) Improvement of the transportation network that is the street network and
the public transportation facilities.
c. Alternatives. A more pleasant environment can be achieved without
negative implication for economy and trade, so that any reasonable step in
this direction by decision-makers deserves support.
(1) Towns are better with less traffic, so long as adequate provision is
made for the mobility of workers and residents and the distribution of
goods.
(2) Where and when traffic congestion and its cost are serve and frequent,
assures to reduce the use of private cars and goods, vehicles and to
improve alternative forms of transport should be introduce.
(3) To limit traffic and to improve the efficiency and quality of service of
buses and transport.
(4) Pedestrian scheme should be introduced whenever possible to improve
the environment and safety for pedestrians.
(5) The use of non-carbon emitting vehicles should been courage like
bicycle whenever practical.
(6) Motor Vehicle reduction scheme should also be introduced.
d. Laws and Statutes Concerning Traffic Ecology
(1) P.D. 1181. Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of Air
Pollution from motor vehicles and for other purposes.
"Sec.1- The purpose is to prevent, control, and abate the emission of air
pollutants from motor vehicles in order to protect the health and welfare of
the people and to prevent or minimize damage to property and hazards to
land transportation".
(2) Letter of Instruction No. 551. Directing the law enforcement agencies to
implement the pollution control program.
(3) R.A. 8749 otherwise known as the Clean Air Act An act providing for the
regulation of motor vehicles emitting toxic gases like the use of the diesel
and leaded gasoline.

5. Traffic Economy. This is the most recent of the pillars of traffic which
deals with the benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy.
Primarily, traffic operation is designed to expedite the movement of traffic.
However, with the prevailing traffic congestion during rush hours in any
given locality, traffic adversely affects the economic status of the
commuting public.

Topic 5 - TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION

Concept
As mentioned in the preceding lesson, traffic safety education is one of the
primary areas of traffic education particularly in the reduction and
prevention of road accidents.
What is Traffic Safety Education? It is the process of training roads users in
the avoidance and prevention of traffic-related accidents.
It is already identified that one if not the major causes of traffic accidents is
human factors which includes but not limited to ignorance, lack of skills,
and/or erratic attitude and behaviors of drivers, pedestrians, and
passengers. This can be corrected by traffic safety education.
Road Safety. It refers to reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads,
achieved through multidisciplinary approaches involving road engineering
and traffic management, education and training of road users, and vehicle
design.
A. Factors Contributing to Accidents. Research studies in the United
Kingdom have shown that human factors contribute to 95 percent of
accidents, road factors to about one quarter of a percent, and vehicle
factors to fewer than five percent.
1. Human errors include:
a. going too fast or excessive speed;
b. failing to give at junctions;
c. following too closely;
d. overtaking improperly;
e. misperceiving or misjudging the road situation ahead;
f. intoxication of alcohol or drug;
g. lack of skill.
2. Road deficiencies that are main contributory factors are:
a. poor design of layout and control at junctions;
b. inadequate signing, road marking, and lighting;
c. slippery roads; and
d. obstructions on the road such as parked vehicle, on going road
construction, etc.
3. Main vehicle factors are:
a. defects in tires, brakes, and lights
b. absence or non-using of seat belts; and
c. poorly maintained motor vehicles.
B. The three (3) principles that have been emphasized as effective in the
prevention of traffic accidents are known as the three (3) "E"s or pillars of
traffic. Recently, however, traffic environment and traffic economy were
added to complete the five (5) pillars of traffic.
1. Engineering (traffic engineering). Effective construction and
maintenance of traffic facilities which does not only expedite the movement
of traffic but also prevents the occurrence of traffic accidents. Successful
treatments have included:
a. changes in layout at junctions to define priorities more clearly (use of
roundabouts, or traffic circles);
b. more wide use of road markings to delineate traffic lanes and waiting
areas for turning vehicles;
c. improvements in skidding resistance of wet roads;
d. more uniform street lighting; and
e. more highly visible and legible direction, information, and warning
signs.
2. Education (in traffic safety). When road users are informed of the
traffic laws, rules and regulations, accidents are likely prevented. Further,
there are strong suggestions of benefits from pre-school schemes involving
parents, and from road safety education in schools where it is an integral
part of the school curriculum. Included are:
a. new approach to training and educating young drivers;
b. training in hazard perception;
c. changing of attitudes.
3. Enforcement (of traffic rules). One of the causes of accidents is the
blatant non-compliance of motorists and pedestrians to traffic laws, rules
and regulations. To minimize the occurrence of accidents due to non-
compliance of road users, enforcement must be conducted. The following
are highly recommended in areas of traffic enforcement:
a. strengthening and simplifying the application of the law;
b. new technology to aid enforcement;
c. enhanced publicity;
d. education of teenagers in schools; and
e. the development of rehabilitation course like seminars for apprehended
traffic violators.
4. Ecology/Environment. People should be educated regarding the
adverse effect of traffic to our environment that directly or indirectly affects
the population's health.
5. Economy. People should learn also to develop schemes and/or devices
and programs that do not only lessen expenses but also accident-free.
C. Levels of Traffic Safety Education:
1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety;
2. Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge;
and
3. Developing traffic safety morality.
D. Traffic Safety for Children. This is highly unsystematic and is usually
carried out in the home through parental education and in kindergarten and
nurseries. This is now necessary to make it systematic to lessen the
number of children fatalities and injuries.
1. Elementary. Pupils are usually educated by stressing on traffic
safety and guides, and classroom discussions of accidents, incidents and
other traffic safety rules.
2. Secondary. This level initiates driver education program because
students have reached the age to drive, hence, proper driving habits should
be stressed. It also includes the establishment of school safety
organizations.
3. Higher Education. Some universities and colleges offer and conduct
courses to private and public agencies regarding traffic safety subjects.
E. Traffic Safety Education for Adults. Safety education for elder
pedestrians and drivers is relatively easier compared to the education
designed for younger children since the former group is in a better position
to understand what is being taught to them.
F. Driver's Education. In general, driver instruction aims primarily to teach
the rudiments of driving. Secondary aims are as follows:
1. to instil awareness of responsibilities in traffic, and one's legal and
moral
2. to teach the abilities required for one to be eligible for a driver's license.
G. Four (4) Basic Types of Instruction Methods Used in Driver
Education Programs:
1. Comprehensive. This method places the student into real life of
driving situations from the beginning.
2. Traditional Instruction. This type of instruction depends on
instructor-student communication.
3. Commentary Driving Method. As the student-driver drives, the
instructor has to give a commentary on his driving - what he sees, what he
does, why he does, what he proposes to do, what others are likely to do,
etc.
4. Simulated Conditions on and Off the Road Training. The premise
of simulated conditions training is that the behavior of the driver - subject
placed in condition will be relatively analogous to normal behavior.
H. Essential Component of Driving Tasks. Driver’s education
includes:
1. Collection of information which includes:
a. Perceptual scanning
b. Identification
2. Processing of information which includes:
a. Predicting
b. Decision making
3. Action which is focused on:
a. Motor skills and control of vehicles
b. Knowledge and subjective interpretation.
I. Biorhythm. It is the theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant
variation of life energy and mood states. Man’s theorized cycles and
interpretations rhythm is peculiar characteristics of most natural
phenomena like:
1. The diurnal exchange of light and darkness.
2. The four seasons.
3. Our wet and dry season.
4. The waxing and waning of the moon.
The most controversial Theory of Biorithm;
1. 23 days cycle a.k.a. our cycle of strength, endurance and courage
(the male component of a person).
2. 28 days emotional cycle equivalent to a female's 28 days menstrual
cycle) is a.k.a. our cycle of sensitivity, love and intuition (the female
component of a person).
3. 33 days intellectual cycle.

All these cycles are present at the time we are born. When the curve is
above the center line, the biorhythm value is said to be "HIGH" or a person
has more energy to spare, i.e.:
1. Physical high we tend to be energetic, strong, full of vitality.
2. Emotional high - we tend to be creative, artistic, cheerful
3. Intellectual high - we are able to think quickly and logically.
When the curve is below the center line, the biorhythm is said to be "LOW"
or in a recharged period, i.e.:
1. Physical low - we tend to tire quickly and to succumb to illness easily.
2. Emotionally low - we feel moody, irritable, or depressed.
3. Intellectual low - This is called a critical day wherein our systems seem
to be in a state of transition.
J. Importance of biorhythm in the field of study. It should be borne in
mind that biorhythm does not predict what actually will happen. All it does is
to give us a hint on how we will tend to feel in a certain day.
1. The theory asserts that people are accident prone if their biorhythm
crosses the center line on a certain day or is totally below the line.
2. Theoretically, if we know our biorhythm for a certain we can
psychologically cope up with any situation. If we usually overcome any ill
effect by awareness and will power.
K. Safety Campaign. This is a mass publicity aimed to make road users
behave more safely. These basically focus on public information attitudes,
and particular or specific behaviors, or combinations of these.
Safety campaign is also known as road propaganda which may be
intended simply to inform or it may be felt that the public is already aware of
the recommended behavior by need to be persuaded into adopting it.
1. Safety Campaign Classifications:
a. According to purpose - may be categorized as informational, attitudinal
and behavioral; and
b. According to kind of appeal - used to reason by simply feeding the public
with authenticated factual data.

2. Safety Campaign Design:

a. Initial campaign planning
b. Final campaign design
c. Campaign evaluation

3. Private and Government entities responsible for Safety Campaign:

a. Newspapers
b. Radio Broadcasting Networks
c. Television Broadcasting Networks d. Public Information Agencies
Topic 6 - TRAFFIC LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS
Concept
The standards of regulating movements on roads, streets and highways
are found in traffic laws, rules and regulations.
In the Philippines, the mass of traffic laws, regulations have their source in
laws, Presidential rules and Decrees (P.D.s), Executive Orders (E.O.s),
Letters of Instructions (L.O.Is), Administrative Orders and Implementing
Memoranda and other Special Laws relative to traffic operation and traffic
law enforcement. As a traffic law enforcer, it is essential that you should be
familiar with these rules and regulations.
In addition, traffic signs, pavement markings, and other control devices are
traffic law themselves. Violations of such constitute misdemeanor or
infraction of law.
A. Sources. The following are the basis for the traffic regulations and
prohibitions in the country:
1. Republic Acts (R.A.s)
a. R.A. 4136 dated June 20, 1964. This is the basic law regulating land
transportation in the Philippines. It has repealed Act No. 3992 (The Revised
Motor Vehicle Law). Further, as amended by R.A. Nos. 5715, 6374, PD
Nos. 382, 843, 896, 1057, 1934, 1950, 1958, BP Blg. 43, 74 and 398.
b. R.A. 6539. The Act which is known as the "Anti- Carnapping Act of
1972", the act preventing and penalizing carnapping.
c. R.A. 5448. Act imposing a tax on privately owned passenger
automobiles, motorcydes and scooters, and a science stamp tax, to
constitute a special science fund defining the programs, projects and
activities of science agencies to be financed therefrom and for other
purposes.
d. R.A. 8749. Also known as the "Clean Air Act" which regulates emission
of toxic gases of both gasoline and diesel engines and bans the use of
leaded gas for gasoline engines.
e. R.A. 8750. It provides for the attachment of seat belts for all types of
motor vehicles and imposes penalty for the non-compliance thereof.
f. R.A. 7924. The Act creating the Metropolitan Manila Development
Authority, defining its powers and functions, providing funds therefor and
for other purposes.
g. R.A. 8794. The Act imposing penalties on overloaded motor vehicles.
h. R.A. 10586- An Act penalizing persons driving under the influence of
alcohol, dangerous drugs, and similar substances, and for other purposes.
It also repealed the mandatory drug testing of driver's license applicants.
2. Presidential Decrees (P.D.s)
a. P.D. No. 96. Regulating the use of sirens, bells, horns, etc.,, by
prohibiting the attachment of any siren, horn bell, etc. on motor vehicles
which produce unusual or startling sounds as well as blinkers and other
similar devices unless the vehicle belongs to the AFP, NBI, LTO, PNP,
BJMP, Hospitals and Fire Departments and are specifically intended for
use in emergencies.
b. P.D. No. 101. Expediting the methods of prescribing, redefining or
modifying the lines and modes of operations of public utility motor vehicles
in the Philippines.
c. P.D. No. 207. Declaring as part of the laws of the Philippines the Vienna
Convention on Road Traffic, Signs and Signals.
d. P.D. No. 612. Requiring compulsory insurance for all types of motor
vehicles against third party liability as an additional pre-requisite for
registration by the LTO.
e. P.D. 1686. Imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped with air
conditioner
f. P.D. 1181. Providing for the abatement of air pollution from motor
vehicles and for other purposes. Granting the Metropolitan Commission
certain powers related to traffic management.
g. P.D. 1605. and control in Metropolitan Manila providing penalties, and for
other purposes.
h. P.D. 98. Regulating the issuance of license plates of Manila all motor
vehicles.
i. P.D. 109. Modifying P.D. 98.
j. P.D. 1729. Authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to dispose of
impounded motor vehicles unclaimed by owners for a certain period of
time.
k. P.D. 1730. Declaring the syndicated printing, manufacture, distribution,
possession or use of fake official Bureau of Land Transportation forms,
documents, plates and stickers as offenses involving economic sabotage.
3. Letters of Instruction (L.O.I.s)
a. L.O.I. No. 43. Providing for the removal of all impediments on roads,
streets and highways such as constructions, stalled or parked vehicles and
other movable property that obstruct free passage. This LOI abrogated city
or municipal ordinances governing the disposition of traffic on city and
municipal streets throughout the country.
b. L.O.I. No. 112. Prohibiting freight and cargo trucks from using roads,
highways and bridges whose load capacities are in excess of specific
allowable limits.
c. L.O.I. No. 229. Requiring all motor vehicle owners, users, or drivers to
have in their possession at all times while driving at least one (1) pair of
early warning device (EWD) for use when the vehicle is disabled on roads,
streets and highways or other emergencies compelling the vehicle to be on
stop position.
d. L.O.I. 716. Every motor vehicle to equip at least a pair of early warning
device.
e. L.O.I. 551. Directing the law enforcement agencies to implement the
Pollution Control Program.
f. L.O.I. 853. Calling for the National Tripartite Conference to consider the
establishment of viable labor- management relations based upon the
"boundary" system in land transportation.
g. L.O.I. 1009. All owners of private motor vehicles who desire to stop
operating or using their number plates and registration certificates to
surrender to BLT.
h. L.O.I. 1071. Owners and/or operators of motor vehicles are authorized to
pay the annual premiums for the insurance of their motor annual premiums
for the insurance of their motor vehicles on quarterly basis.
4. Department Orders (D.O.s)
a. DOTC D.O. 88-305. Rules of pleadings, practice and procedure for
appeals on franchising, fare rates charges and other related matters
pertinent to Land Transportation Public Utilities.
b. D.O. 93-693. Revised Schedule of Administrative Fees and charges of
the Land Transportation Office.
5. Administrative and Special Orders
a. Administrative Order No. VIII, S-1968, LTC. Requiring the towing and
impounding of stalled motor vehicles on public highways and the imposition
of corresponding fees thereof.
b. Administrative Order No. 1, S-1973, LTC. Prescribing guidelines and
procedures in the implementation of PD No. 96.
c. Administrative Order No. 1, S-1975, LTC. Laying down specific rules of
action in the imposition of uniform fines and penalties for violation of the
provisions of RA 4136.
d. Special Order No. 101-IRM, LTC. Enumerating and identifying various
city streets where parking is prohibited.
6. Memorandum Circulars
a. LTC Memorandum to All Patrol Officers, Deputies and Agents dtd 09
august 1975. Directing that motor vehicles whose loads are rice, cereals,
fertilizers and other prime commodities are not to be apprehended and
stopped on roads and highways except only in cases of serious violation.
b. LTC Memorandum Circular No. 33, dated 12 September 1972. Providing
guidelines in the apprehension of illegally parked motor vehicles.
c. LTC Circular No. 15, dated 19 January 1972. Regulating and laying
instructions in the use of Special Commemorative Motor Vehicle Plates.
d. M.C. 94-199. Aide-memoir regarding retention and authority by LTO to
register motorized tricycles under R.A 4136, and guidelines to implement
devolution of LTFRB's Franchising Authority over TC's per R.A. 7160
issued by DOTC.
e. M.C. 94-188. Issuance of driver's license to disabled
f. M.C. 92-146. Re-implementation of LOI 229, as amended by LOI 479
directing the installation of early warning devices of motor vehicles.
g. M.C. 94-192. Diesel smoke emission test for motor
h. M.C. 90-020. Directing all public land transportation service operators
and drivers to display in any conspicuous place of their vehicles the
authorized fare matrix for the specific route granted them to avoid conflict.
i. M.C. 93-011. Enjoining all public utility operators touse garage instead of
public places or side streets in parking their vehicles.
j. M.C. 94-002. Sanctions on operators arising from the violations of their
drivers.
k. M.C. 94-209. Clarificatory registration/operation of new private vehicles
particularly in the use of conduction sticker. guidelines for the
7. Executive Orders (E.O.s)
a. E.O. 125. Reorganizing the DOTC, defining its powers and functions and
for other purposes.
b. E.O. 266. Providing for two service units in the Office of the Asst. Sec.
for Land Transportation in the DOTC (Law Enforcement Service-LES and
Traffic Adjudication Service TAS), defining the powers and functions
thereof and for other purposes.
c. E.O. 202. Creating a land transportation Franchising and Regulatory
Board (LTFRB).
d. E.O. 248. Empowering the Land Transportation Commission to control
and supervise the operations of motor vehicle driving schools.
8. Other Special Laws, Statutes, etc.
a. Batas Pambansa Blg. 344 (B.P. 344). Act to enhance the mobility of
disabled persons by requiring certain buildings, institutions, establishments
and public utilities to install facilities and other devices.
b. Memorandum Unnumbered Dated July 13, 1992. Early Warning Device
(EWD) not a requirement for registration. C. SC Bars Lawmen from
Removing Car Plates (187 SCRA 432).

IMPORTANT PROVISIONS OF R.A. 4136

Concept
In the Philippines, Traffic Law Enforcement is governed by R.A. 4136. All
other traffic ordinances by local government units are based on this law or
act and/or these ordinances should not contradict any provisions of said
law/act. For comprehensive reading and understanding, please see the
appended R.A. 4136.
A. Words and Phrases Used in R.A. 4136. As used in this Act, the
following words and phrases are defined for better and common
understanding:
1. Motor Vehicle. Shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other
than muscular power using the public highways, but excepting road rollers,
trolley cars, street-sweepers, sprinkles, lawn mowers, bulldozers, graders,
fork-lifts, amphibian trucks, and cranes if not used in public highways,
vehicles which run only on rails or tracks, and tractors, trailers and traction
engines of all kinds used exclusively for agricultural purposes.
2. Passenger Automobiles. Shall mean all pneumatic tire vehicles of
types similar to those usually known under the following terms: touring car,
command car, speedster, sports car, roadster, jeep, cycle car (except
motor wheel and similar small outfits which are classified with motorcycles),
coupe, landaulet, closed car, limousine, cabriolet, and sedan.
3. Articulated Vehicle. Shall mean any motor vehicle with a trailer having
no front axle and so attached that part of the trailer rests upon the motor
vehicle and a substantial part of the weight of the trailer and of its load is
borne by the motor vehicle. Such trailer shall be called as "semi-trailer."
4. Driver. Shall mean every and any licensed operator of a motor vehicle.
5. Professional Driver. Every and any driver hired for driving or operating
a motor vehicle, whether for private use or for hire to the public. Any driver
driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver.
6. Owner. The actual legal owner of a motor vehicle, in whose name such
vehicle is duly registered with the LTO. The owner of a government-owned
motor vehicle is the head of the office or the chief of the Bureau to which
the said motor vehicle belongs.
7. Dealer. Every person, association, partnership, of corporation making,
manufacturing, constructing, assembling, remodeling, or setting up motor
vehicles; and every such entity acting as agent for the sale of one or more
makes, styles, or kinds of motor vehicles, dealing in motor vehicles,
keeping the same in stock or selling same or handling with a view to trading
same.
8. Garage. Any building in which two or more motor vehicles, either with or
without drivers, are kept ready for hire to the public, but shall not include
street stands, public service stations, or other public places designated by
proper authority as parking spaces for motor vehicles for hire while awaiting
or soliciting business.
9. Gross Weight. The measured weight of a motor vehicle plus the
maximum allowable carrying capacity in merchandise, freight and/or
passengers, as determined by the Commissioner of the LTO.
10. Highways. Every public thoroughfare, public boulevard, driveway,
avenue, park, alley and callejon, but shall not include roadway upon
grounds owned by private persons, colleges, universities, or other similar
institutions.
11. Parking or Parked. Shall mean that a motor vehicle is parked or
parking if it has been brought to a stop on the shoulder or proper edge of a
highway, and remains inactive in that place or close thereto for an
appreciable period of time.
12. Tourist. A foreigner who travels from place to place for pleasure or
culture.

B. Selected Provisions of R.A. 4136. The following provisions of R.A.

4136 are the most common rules and regulations violated by road users.
For further readings and clarifications, please read the appended RA 4136.
1. Exceeding Registered Capacity (Overloading). Passengers, freight or
cargo load of a motor vehicle should not be more than its registered
carrying capacity. Conductors of public utility trucks or buses are held liable
for the overloading of vehicles under their charge.
2. Cargo Carrying Devices. The construction of devices for carrying cargo
at the rear or sides of trucks may be allowed, subject to the approval of the
Commissioner, but the total net weight of the device, including cargo, must
not exceed 100 Kilos
3. Riding on Running Board. It is strictly prohibited except for conductors
collecting passenger fare
4. Riding on Top of the Motor Vehicle. Passengers shall not be allowed
to ride on top of motor vehicles, but baggage or freight may be carried on
top of the truck, provided that the weight thereof is not more than 20 kilos
per square meter distributed in such a way as not to endanger passengers
or the vehicle's
5. Required Motor Vehicle Accessories. vehicles when operated on a
traffic way should have the every motor following specified accessories
a) Tires of MVs
b) Brakes
c) Headlights
d) Taillights
e) Stop Lights
f) Use of Red Flag
g) Mufflers
h) Motorcycle and Other vehicle lights
i) Lights When Parked or Disabled
j) Windshield Wiper
6. Hitching on to a Vehicle. The following practices are prohibited:
a. Hanging on to or riding on the outside or rear end of any vehicle.
b. Holding on to any moving vehicle whether on foot or otherwise.
c. Driver allowing any person to hang on to or rideoutside of or at the
rear end of the vehicle
7. Driving While under the Influence of Liquor or Other Prohibited Drugs
8. Obstruction of Traffic. Obstruction of traffic by operating a motor
vehicle in such a manner as to obstruct, block, or impede the passage of
another vehicle is prohibited
9. Duties of Driver in Case of Accident. In the event that any accident
should occur as a result of the operation of a motor vehicle upon a
highway, the driver shall observe the following:
a. Stop immediately.
b. Show his driver's license to inspecting traffic law enforcer.
c. Give his true name and address, including that of the owner of the
vehicle.
d. Assist injured persons.
e. Take measures to protect belongings of passengers.
f. Report the accident
10. When could a driver leave the area of accident without being held
liable for HIT-AND-RUN?
a. His life is in imminent danger of being harmed by other person/s by
reason of the accident;
b. He surrenders to proper authority; and
c. He summons the assistance of a physician or nurse to aid the victim

Topic 7 - REGISTRATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES

Concept
R.A. 4136, mandates that all motor vehicles shall be registered by its owner
before the designated District Offices of the Land Transportation Office.
Law enforcement officers should keep themselves abreast with the proper
procedures of registering motor vehicles for them to easily identify
unregistered motor vehicles or motor vehicles having expired registrations.
On the other hand, motor vehicle owners as well as drivers should be
aware of the provisions on motor vehicle registration to avoid unnecessary
delays and penalties whenever registration- related apprehensions occur.
Again, for complete information, see the appended R.A. 4136.
A. Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles
1. Private (not for hire) - These are motor vehicles used for the personal
use of their owners.
2. Public Utility Vehicles (PUV a.k.a. for hire) - These are registered
primarily for the conveyance of passengers and other commercial goods,
i.e., passenger jeepneys, taxi cabs, etc.
3. Government These are motor vehicles owned by government offices and
are used for official purposes only.
4. Diplomat - These are issued to foreign diplomats and consuls assigned
in the Philippines.
B. Plate Numbers - Upon registration, motor vehicles are assigned with
plate numbers. The letter and numeral prefixes as well as the assigned
colors are based on the date and place of registrations and purpose.
1. Private or not for hire MVS - Green with white background. on newer
vehicles, the first letter usually indicates the where the vehicle is registered.
For example, beginning with "N", the vehicle is registered in the National
Capital Region (NCR). region
2. Public Utility Vehicles or for-hire MVS - Black with yellow background
usually begin with either the letter "N" or "p" "T" or "U" in NCR. Since 1995,
they always have either "V" "W", "X", or "y" in the middle of the letter block.
Older license plates starting with "N" and "P" may have other letters in the
middle of the block, although the "V" "W" "X" "Y" letters are also present
(from late 70s NVA-101 to early 1995 NYZ-999).
3. Government MVS - Red (maroon) with white background- usually starts
with letter "S."
4. Diplomatic or other exempted MVS - Blue characters on a white
background plates reserved for diplomats, embassy and consulate officials,
country ambassadors and some expatriates such as scientists and
researchers at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), in the form
of five or six digits.
a. Ambassadors' plates are always "1000" and have the country they
represent at the bottom of the plate. These plates have a small decal on
the bottom left part with a "CM".
b. 10019999: a small decal on the bottom left part displayed as "DC" for
"diplomatic corps" 1000025999: embassy vehicles - a small decal on the
bottom left part displayed as "OEV" for "other exempted vehicle"
5. Trailers-These have Yellow or green plates that mostly have either "U"
(Private) or "Z" (For Hire) in the middle of the letter block.
6. Electric vehicles - orange plates are used (white symbols on orange
background).
7. Motorcycles Private motorcycles have green characters on a white
background with the letters "MC" stamped on the upper left-hand corner
next to the registration sticker. Usually in the format AA 1111, but with the
rise in the number of motorcycles on the road, the 1111 AA format has also
come into use.
8. Tricycles Private has Green characters on a white background with the
letters "MC" stamped on the upper left- hand corner next to the registration
sticker. This is very rare since tricycles are usually bought for for-hire. For
the public utility, it has black characters on a yellow background with the
letters "TC" stamped on the upper right-hand corner next to the registration
sticker.
9. Department of Tourism (DOT) accredited vehicles - These are usually
tour buses and airport taxis which are issued with plates that look similar to
those of private vehicles, but have yellow highlights mixed with the green
color and share the same first letter of current PUVS plates. A must special
sticker indicating that they are DOT-accredited is placed on the rear
windows.
10.Optional Motor Vehicle Special Plates (OMVSP) - A project of the
LTO since 2004, in the form of 3-letter 2-number. e.g. DGD 24
11. Personalized (Vanity) plates - Anyone desiring to have his own
personalized must consider the following:
a. Uniqueness the plate does not have a registered duplicate anywhere
else in the Philippines.
b. It should not have the same format as government vehicles.
c. Price - (1) Premium Edition (Ex. 111 ABC) - Php 15,000.00 (2) Select
Edition (Ex. DARLIT) - PhP 10.000.00

12.Commemorative plate - These special plate numbers are issued for

specific purposes such as fund-raising for government projects and
programs.
C. Dimensions and medium.
1. Tagalog: plaka which measures 390 x 140 mm
2. Characters are stamped on an aluminum plate which is then applied with
reflectorised paint.
3. Previously, numerous watermarks of the Land Transportation Office
(LTO) logo as well as a small logo of the plate manufacturer were stamped
on the plate which was replaced in 2003 with a reflectorised, printed color
sticker of the statue to Jose Rizal.
4. In 2008, all plates are produced by a sole, privately funded manufacturer
in Manila.
5. Slogan on the bottom plate usually reflects the goals campaign of the
incumbent President which was began under President Fidel V. Ramos.
a. Fidel V. Ramos-"Philippines 2000"
b. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo "Matatag na Republika"
6. Until 2004, plates also bore the word "Pilipinas" at the bottom
7. Common Inscription
a. PILIPINAS (the most common inscription; 1981-1995, 2001, 2002-2003,
2004-present) PHILIPPINES
b.2000 (1995-2000)
c. ANGAT PINOY 2004 ("Raise Pinoy 2004"; 2000-2001)
d. PERLAS NG SILANGAN ("Pearl of the Orient";2001-2002)
e. MATATAG NA REPUBLIKA (2003-present)
8. Typeface. Numerous typefaces are used but the current typeface was
first implemented in 1981 which is loosely based on the Australian license
plate system with some slight variations on the font design since then.
D. Geographical Designations of Plate Numbers. Geographical
designations of registered motor vehicles can be determined by the
beginning letter.
“ A” prime - Region I (Ilocos Region) and COR (Cordillera Region)
"B" - Region II (Cagayan Valley Region)
"C"-Region III (Central Luzon Region), Superseded by " R' in 2003
"D"-Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), Superseded by
"V" in 2000
"E" - Region V (Bicol Region)
"F" - Region VI (Western Visayas Region
"G"- Region VII (Central Visayas Region), Superseded by " Y " in 2004
"H"- Region VIII (Eastern Visayas Region)
"J" - Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) and ARMM
"K" - Regions X and XIII (Northern Mindanao and CARAGA)
" L "- Region XI (Davao Region)
"M"- Region XII (SOCCSKSARGEN)
"N" - N CR , 1981-1982, 2009-2010 (with increments of "I",
"O", and "Q")
"P" - National Capital Region, 1982-1991, 2010-2011 (with increments of
"I", "O", and "Q")
"R" - Region III (Central Luzon Region), overflow Series for Private since
2003
"S"-Government-owned (Red Plate) Vehicles
"T" - National Capital Region, 1991-1995, 2011-2012 (with increments of
"I", "O", and "Q")
"U"- National Capital Region, 1995-1997, 2012-present (with increments of
"I", "O", and "Q")
"V"- Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), overflow
Series for Private since 2000
"W"- National Capital Region, 1997 - 2001
" X " - National Capital Region, 2001 - 2005
"Y" - Region VII (Central Visayas Region), overflow series for Private since
2004
"Z" - National Capital Region, 2005-2009
E. Schedule of Registration - Registration of motor vehicles should be
done annually which follows the numerical suffixes of their plate numbers.

Last Digit of Plate Middle Digit of Plate Weekly Deadline

Number (working days of the
month only)

Jan - 1 1234567
Feb - 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Mar - 3 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Apr - 4 123 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
May-5 456 29 30 31
Jun - 6 78
Jul - 7 90
Aug - 8
Sep - 9
Oct - 10
Nov-11
Dec - 12

Note: Vehicles may be registered one month in advance of weekly

deadline. For motorcycles, use the 3rd digit.
Example: Plate Number - TNG 984
The above motor vehicle shall be registered in April every year because the
last digit is "4" and the day of registration falls in April 15-21 since the
middle digit is " 8 "
F. Letter Prefixes on Plate Numbers. The letter prefixes
1. Place of initial registration of the motor vehicle;
2. Year of initial registration and the possible year model of the registered
motor vehicle could be determined from the order of the letter prefixes, i.e.,
the higher the letters the later the year of registration and year model of the
motor vehicle.
Example: Vehicle 1 - PLT 255 Vehicle 2-TNU 636
Between the above motor vehicles, Vehicle 1 was registered earlier than
Vehicle 2 and possibly, Vehicles 2's model is later than Vehicle 1.
H. Protocol Plate Numbers. These are special plate numbers for high-
ranking government officials as manifestation of courtesy towards them or
their respective positions or offices. These plates are blue D or DD plates
reserved for the top government officials of the Republic of the Philippines.
1 - President
2-Vice President
3-Senate President
4-Speaker of the House of Representatives
5-Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
6-Cabinet Secretaries
7-Senators
8- Representatives (Congressmen)
9-Associate Justices of the Supreme Court
10-Presiding Justice and other Justices of the Court of Appeals, Solicitor-
General (OSG formerly 13.)
11-Chairman of the Commission on Elections
12- Cabinet Undersecretary
13-None currently
14- Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines Chief of the
Philippine National Police
16-Regional Trial Court Judges
17- First Level Courts (Metropolitan Trial Court, Municipal Trial Court,
Municipal Trial Court in Cities and Shari'ah Circuit courts), added by
Memorandum Order No. 297 signed by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
on March 2, 2009
Topic 8 - PROVISIONS ON DRIVER'S LICENSES
Concept
Driving a motor vehicle in the Philippines as in other countries is NOT a
right but a privilege granted by the Philippine Government through the LTO
based on Republic Act 4136 and Batas Pambansa Blg. 398. Further, it
is a privilege which may be suspended or revoked.
Driver's License. A document issued to a qualified driver who possesses
the statutory qualification as provided therefore. It is also a public document
which has the legal presumption of genuineness (CCC Insurance Corp. vs.
Court of Appeals, 31 SCRA 264). For the complete provisions, read the
appended R.A. 4136.
A. Duty to Procure License. Sec. 19 of R.A. 4136 states that no person
shall operate any motor vehicle without first procuring a license to drive for
the current year. To be effective in the hands of its holder, it must not be
delinquent, invalid, suspended or revoked and should be carried at all times
and shall be shown or surrendered for cause when demanded by a person
authorized by RA 4136 to inspect the same.
B. Confiscation of Driver's License. Sec. 29 of R.A. 4136 mandates that
a driver's license may be confiscated for violations of RA
4136, mother rules and regulations issued by the Commissioner and of
local traffic rules and regulations.
C. Types of Licenses, Procedures and Requirements. A driver is
licensed by the LTO as proof of his proficiency in driving his knowledge of
road rules and regulations while operating a motor vehicle. Upon proving
his proficiency and knowledge, he will be issued a document in the form of
the following licenses:
1. International Driver's License. Bonafide tourists and transients who
are duly licensed to operate motor vehicles in their respective countries
may be allowed to operate motor vehicles during their stay but not beyond
90 days of their sojourn in the Philippines (Sec. 21, R.A. 4136). For the
current requirements and fees, see the appended LTO memorandums.
2. Military Driver's License. Enlisted personnel of the AFP operating
motor vehicles owned by the government shall be licensed in accordance
with RA 4136 but no license or delinquency fees shall be collected thereof.
All licenses so issued shall bear the words "FOR GOVERNMENT
VEHICLES ONLY" plainly marked or stamped in red inks across the face
thereof. A Military Driver's License does not authorize the holder to operate
a privately-owned motor vehicle
3. Professional Driver's License. This license is issued to a driver hired
or paid for driving or operating a motor vehicle whether private use or for
hire to the public. Any person driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a
professional driver. To easily distinguish, the word "professional" on the
license is red-highlighted. For the current requirements and fees, see the
appended LTO memorandums.

4. Non-Professional Driver's License. license is issued to owners of

privately-owned motor vehicles This kind of or those not for hire or paid for
driving. To easily distinguish this license from professional license, the
word "Non-professional" is green-highlighted.
5. Student Driver's Permit. This kind of document is issued to persons
who desire to learn how to drive. A student driver cannot operate a vehicle
unless accompanied by an instructor who may either be a licensed
professional or non- professional driver.
D. Validity or Expiration of license
1. Student driver's permit - 12 months or one year
2. Non-Professional and Professional Drivers' Licenses and,
Conductors' License: - 3 years
3. International Driver's License for Tourists - 90 days
E. Conductors' License - Conductors of public utility vehicles are also
mandated to procure their licenses from the LTO. For the requirements and
fees, see the appended LTO memorandums.
F. Drivers' Examination. All drivers' license applicants must obtain the
passing score as follows:
1. The Written Examination. Written examinations will contain questions
concerning proper driving procedures, road rules and regulations,
emergency procedures, etc.. Number of questions will be as follows:
a. Non-Professional License - 40 questions
b. Professional License - 60 questions
2. The Road Test. The actual road test will be undertakenunder the
auspices of a "DRIVING SKILL RATER". This actual road test will have to
be scheduled in advance and the applicant will have to provide the vehicle
in which the road test will be conducted. The applicant should make sure
that the vehicle to be used is in proper working condition and is currently
registered.
During the road test, the applicant will be rated according to his proficiency
on the following aspects:
a. That the applicant is aware of and capable of performing a check on the
primary components of the vehicle such as the engine, the tires, the
battery, lights, windshield wipers, brakes, transmission and clutch.
b. Proper use and correct positioning of the hands on the steering wheel.
c. Proper engine control and use of the gear shift lever and the foot pedals.
d. Proper speed control and observance and practice of road discipline.
e. Proper knowledge and interpretation of road signs and markings.
f. Proper turning procedures.
g. Proper backing procedures.
h. Proper parking procedures.
G. Mandatory Drug Test. It is mandatory to all drivers' licenseapplicants
except for student driver's permit to pass a drug test conducted by duly
LTO accredited drug testing centers. (Repealed by RA 10586)
F. Drivers' Restriction Code. When the driver is issued a license, the
driver's restriction code is indicated as follows:
1. Motorcycles/Motorized Tricycles
2. Vehicle up to 4500 kgs Gross Vehicle Weight(GVW)
3. Vehicle above 4500 kgs GVW
4. Automatic clutch up to 4500 kgs GVW
5. Automatic clutch above 4500 kgs GVW
6. Articulated vehicle 1600 kgs GVW & below
7. Articulated vehicle 1601 up to 4500 kgs GVW
8. Articulated vehicle 4501 kgs & above GVW
9. Disabled (Old) no longer existing because disabled individuals are now
called differently-abled persons. -
H. Drivers' Condition. The conditions for driver's license holder while
operating a motor vehicle are indicated as follows:
1. A-wear eye glasses
2. B-drive only with special equipment for upper limbs
3. C-drive only with special equipment for lower limbs only
4. D-daylight driving
5. E-accompanied by a person with normal hearing.

GENERAL RULES OF ROAD USE AND CONDUCT

Concept
The traffic rules in the Philippines are based entirely on the general rules of
road use and conduct which also include the general prohibitions and
restrictions. Chapter IV, Articles I to V of the R.A. 4136 comprehensively
discuss the traffic rules observed in the Philippines.
A. Speed Limit and Other Rules on Speed. Any person driving a motor
vehicle on a highway shall drive the same at a careful and prudent speed,
not greater nor less than is reasonable and proper, having due regard for
the traffic, the width of the highway, and of any other condition then and
there existing; and no person shall drive any motor vehicle upon a highway
at such speed as to endanger the life, limb and property of any person, nor
at a speed greater than will permit him to bring the vehicle to a stop within
the assured clear distance ahead.
1. Maximum Allowable Speeds. The maximum allowable speed shall be
in accordance with the preceding paragraph and for the specific speed
limits on specifics sections of highways, see Chapter IV, Sec. 35, para b of
RA 4136.
2. Exception to the speed limit. The rates of speed hereinabove
prescribed shall not apply to the following:
a. A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls.
b. The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of
accident or other emergency. c. Any driver bringing a wounded or sick
person for emergency treatment to a hospital, clinic, or any other similar
place.
d. The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use
for official purposes in times of riot, insurrection or invasion.
e. The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a
criminal.
f. A law-enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic
laws.
g. The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department,
provided that exemption shall not be construed to allow useless or
unnecessary fast driving of drivers aforementioned.
3. Uniform Speed Limits throughout the Philippines. No provincial, city
or municipal authority shall enact or enforce any ordinance or resolution
specifying maximum allowable speeds other than those provided by R.A.
4136.
B. Lateral Placement. Lateral placement means the proper positioning of
the motor vehicle while traversing on a traffic way or while on parked.
C. Overtaking and Passing. In overtaking another vehicle, a driver should
pass at a safe distance to the left of the vehicle being overtaken and shall
resume driving on the right side of the
1. Exception. On the highways with two or more lanes where traffic goes in
one direction, another vehicle may be overtaken on the right

2. Driver to Give Way to Overtaking Vehicle. The driver of a motor

vehicle about to be overtaken must give way to the overtaking vehicle and
shall not increase his speed until the overtaking vehicle has fully passed

3. Restrictions on Overtaking and Passing. To avoid accident or any

unusual incidents, overtaking and passing on the following places are
restricted:
a. To the left side of the center line of a highway in overtaking another
vehicle proceeding in the same direction, unless such left side is clearly
visible, and is free of oncoming traffic for a sufficient distance ahead to
permit safety overtaking.
b. When approaching the crest of a grade, nor upon a curve in the highway,
where the driver's view along the highway is obstructed within a distance of
five hundred feet ahead, except on a highway having two or more lanes for
movement of vehicles in one direction.
c. At any railway grade crossing, nor at any intersection of highways,
unless such intersection or crossing is controlled by traffic signal, or a traffic
officer.
d. Between any points indicated by the placing of official temporary or
caution signs indicating that men are working on the highways. e. In any
"no passing or overtaking zone.

D. Right of Way. This principle refers to the legal or customary precedence

(priority in place or time) which allows one vehicle to cross or pass in front
of another.
1. Rules on Right of Way. Sections 42-44, of R.A. 4136 provides for the
rules on giving the right of way.
a. In case of two vehicles approaching or entering an intersection at the
same time, the driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way;
however, the driver of any vehicle traveling at an unlawful speed forfeit this
right
2. Exceptions to the Right of Way Rule. Right-of-way rules do not apply
in the case:
a. Of a vehicle entering from a private road or drive. The right of way is
in favor of all vehicles utilizing the highway
E. Starting, Stopping or Turning Rules. The driver of any motor vehicle
on a highway, before starting, stopping or turning from a direct line, shall
first see that such movement can be made safely; and if any pedestrian is
affected by such movement, he shall give a clearly audible signal by
sounding the vehicle's horn.
1. When Other Motorists are affected. Whenever the operation of any other
approaching or following may be affected by such movement, the driver
making the movement shall give a signal to the other driver/s of his
intention to make such movement
2. Hand Signal. The required signal shall be given by means of extending
the hand or arm beyond the left side of the vehicle or by an approved
mechanical or electrical signal device.
Topic 9 - FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
Concept
Traffic Control. Generally, it refers to procedures, devices, and
communication systems that help vehicles and vessels safely share the
same roads, rails, waterways, or air space. Traffic control establishes a set
of rules and instructions that drivers, pilots, train engineers, and ship
captains rely on to avoid collisions and other hazards. Safe travel for
pedestrians is an additional goal in highway traffic control.
A. Traffic Control as Applied to Land Transportation. A system of traffic
engineering, employing prescribed traffic rules and regulations and devices
such as signals, and markings, to relieve vehicular congestion and air
pollution, and to promote safety and pedestrian mobility, usually in heavily
populated urban areas. In smaller towns, with lighter traffic, similar but
simpler control devices and engineering techniques are used.
B. Control Techniques. The primary emphasis of traffic control is on the
safe and efficient flow of cars, buses, vans, and lorries over urban streets
and highways. The means of promoting this can vary from simple
improvement of local streets by installing traffic signs and road markings to
constructing comprehensive motorway control systems. These systems
are:
1. access-road meters to monitor and control motorway;
2. closed-circuit television surveillance to detect quickly any deterioration in
traffic flow; and
3. emergency services in case of accident and injury.
C. Other traffic-control techniques include:
1. the use of one-way streets,
2. enforcement of traffic flow regulations,
3. channelization (building traffic islands, turning lanes and so on) and
4. the use of traffic signals.
D. Highway Traffic control. Motorists depend on traffic control devices to
avoid collisions and travel safely to their destinations. Traffic control
devices for highway travel include signs, signal lights, pavement markings,
and a variety of devices placed on, over, near, or even under, the roadway.
1. Traffic Signs. Traffic signs are the most extensively used form of traffic
control in the United States. More than 55 million traffic signs line the
nation's roadside. They provide information about speed limits and road
conditions. They direct traffic along certain routes and to specific
destinations. By using signs, traffic control planners tell drivers what to do,
what to watch for, and where to drive.
2. Pavement Markings. Pavement markings separate opposing streams of
traffic and direct vehicles into proper positions on the roadway. For
example, pavement markings delineate turn lanes at intersections and
establish no-passing zones. White and yellow paint is customarily used for
pavement markings. Reflective devices are more visible at night and are
used in some locations to mark lanes and other significant places on the
road.
3. Traffic-Signal. Traffic signals are installed to permit safe movement of
vehicles and pedestrians at busy intersections. The signal light is probably
the most easily recognized traffic control device. At a busy intersection in a
large city, a traffic signal may control the movements of more than 100,000
vehicles per day. More than 60 percent of all miles driven each year are on
roadways controlled by traffic signals.
4. Priority Control. In one of the oldest methods of traffic control, one form
of transportation is given priority by restricting or banning other forms of
transportation. In the 1st century BC, Roman Emperor Julius Caesar
banned wheel traffic from Rome during daytime, which allowed pedestrians
and horse riders to move freely around the city. Some modern cities ban or
restrict truck travel through certain neighbourhoods.
5. Restraints. As an alternative to banning traffic, traffic control planners
use devices to discourage heavy use of a route. Island built in the centers
of intersections force drivers to proceed slowly. Speed bumps discourage
high-speed commuting through residential neighbourhoods. Concrete
median strips prevent vehicles from making turns except at intersections.
TRAFFIC SIGNS
Concept:
Traffic signs, like traffic signal lights and road markings are used to convey
quickly and accurately the wide range of information needed by road users,
particularly vehicle drivers, and to promote a safe and efficient use of the
road system.
Traffic Signs refer to any device mounted on portable support whereby a
message is conveyed by means of words or symbols officially installed for
the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding traffic. Traffic signs are
installed to serve the following functions:
1) to control traffic,
2) to safeguard the flow of traffic,
3) to expedite traffic, and
4) to guide traffic and motorists.
Standardization of traffic signs shall conform to the standards set forth in
the erection and display of standard road signs and markers as prescribed
by the DPWH as to shape, color, dimension, shape, size, height, letterings
or symbols.
Traffic signs shall be installed only under public authority or by the official
having jurisdiction for that purpose, and it shall not bear any commercial
advertisement.
A thorough knowledge of traffic signs, signals and road and pavement
markings is necessary to all drivers. Every motorist must be able to
recognize and obey them without hesitation even with the absence of traffic
police officer.
A. Historical Background. In Britain, early signposts were erected by
private individuals at their own expense. In 1648, parishes were required by
law to place guideposts at crossroads. In 1773, these and mileposts were
required to be erected and maintained by Turnpike Trusts.
B. International Traffic Signs. As explained in the Vienna convention,
the system of signs and signals which it has prescribed is based on the use
of shapes and colors, characteristics of each class of sign, and whenever
possible on the use of graphic symbols rather than inscriptions with few
exceptions one of which is the STOP sign of the United States.
C. Classification of International Traffic Signs. International traffic
signs are classified into three. These are:
1) danger warning signs,
2) regulatory signs, and
3) informative signs
1. Danger Warning Signs. These signs are also known as "caution signs."
These signs have an equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal
and having red borders. Numbers 1 to 31 under Figures 26 are danger
warning signs.These are signs intended to:
a. warn motorist of approaching hazardous road conditions,
b. seek caution for the approaching road hazards, and
c. call the reduction of speed.
2. Regulatory Signs. These are signs which impose legal restrictions
applicable at particular location usually enforceable in the absence of such
signs. These are intended to:
a. inform road users of certain laws and regulations, and
b. special obligations, instructions, or prohibitions which they must comply
with and violations of which constitute misdemeanor.
3. Informative Signs. These signs are also known as "guide signs", or
"direction signs." " The rectangular shape white-colored on blue
background is used for informative signs. Green background is usually
used for route markers and destination signs.
a. guide motorists along established routes,
b. inform the motorists of the proper roads, and
c. help motorists along the way in the most simple and direct method.
D. Legend to International Traffic Signs.
I. Danger Warning Signs
II. Regulatory Signs
A. Prohibitive and Restrictive Signs
B. Mandatory Signs
C. Priority Sign
III. Informative Signs
Topic 10- TRAFFIC SIGNAL LIGHTS
Concept
Traffic Lights. These refers to any power operated traffic control device by
which traffic is warned or directed to take some specific actions. Traffic light
signals are used to control traffic at junctions and also to stop traffic to
provide safe crossing points for pedestrians and cyclists.
The color of traffic lights are chronologically arranged to give motorists
better view of signal lights. From the top, the series of color is Red, Yellow,
and Green. If there is a left or right arrow, the color alternates from green,
yellow to red and is usually installed at the left side of the green, yellow and
red lights.
A. Historical Background.
Traffic lights were first introduced on railways - the American railroads.
Their application on the road came only later. The choice of their colors,
internationally adopted, was not arbitrary. It was the result of traditions,
careful considerations and experience.
1. The Colors. Today, traffic lights are taken for granted. Few realize the
amount of deliberation and the various factors that lead to their selection.
To begin with, fundamental conditions had to be met:
a. The colors had to be recognized easily, quickly and unmistakably.
b. This had to be possible from the considerable distance and while in
motion.
c. The quality, intensity and contrast of the colors had to be such that they
served their purpose in all weather, day and night.
2. Red for "Stop". Red was an obvious choice for "stop." It had always
represented danger. Fire was red; man had learned early on to keep a safe
distance from it lest he be burned. Blood was red; to shed it, brought death.
It is no wonder that, therefore, red became associated with emergency and
with danger.
3. White for "Go". Though "to give the green light has become the
proverbial permissive signal in many a green was not the original choice for
"go." indicated that the railroad was safe and that the train could proceed
without danger.
4. Caution. Two "lights" were to control the running of trains - white for "go"
and red for "stop." It was then realized that safety would be served better
still by introducing a cautionary light to warn the driver of an imminent
change. Its color once again was to be determined by considerations of
contrast, distinctiveness and visibility.
5. Green for "Go." It did not take long for "white" to prove the wrong color
for "go." Bitter experience taught that it was far from ideal. In fact, it could
prove fatal and for a very pertinent reason. At that early stage, kerosene
lamps served as the source of light. Any color other than white was
produced by fixing a color glass plate in front of the lamp.
B. From Rail to Road Traffic. The increase of road traffic in cities
necessitated its regulation. Policemen on point duty did a good job, but
soon were outnumbered by intersections demanding attention. It became
clear that only mechanical aids could solve the problem. The traffic
authorities did not have to go far in their search. They simply adopted and
adopted - though very gradually and even before their final standardization
- the ready-made and well-tried system of railroad signals.
C. Rationale. Regulating traffic flow at intersections and road crossings is
just a matter of alternating the GO and STOP signal so that every driver
gets his "fair share". As a result of this, traffic lights were invented to relieve
the traffic policeman of the mechanical duties of alternating traffic to make
everybody happy. During instances wherein traffic officers are directing
traffic at a crossing or intersection equipped with traffic lights, the
INSTRUCTIONS OF THE POLICE OFFICER TAKE PRECEDENCE over
the traffic lights.
D. Problems Concerning Traffic Lights. There are several problems
arising from intersections controlled by traffic lights. These are:
1. Failure to respect traffic laws and regulations particularly in the absence
of traffic law enforcers. In the Philippine setting, respect to laws (not
necessary traffic laws) needs improvement.
2. When a traffic light suddenly becomes inoperative, very seldom do order
and a sense of discipline prevail. It always ends up as a massive free for
all.
3. Even pedestrians are guilty of disobeying traffic lights by crossing on
DON'T WALK signs. This usually halts traffic.
4. Many times, presence of traffic law enforcers does not deter pedestrians
from disobeying traffic laws, rules and regulations.
E. Classifications of Traffic Signal Lights. Traffic signal lights are further
classified into three:
1. Traffic Control Signals. These are signal lights designed primarily to
control and regulate traffic flows.
2. Special Pedestrian SignalsThese signal lights provides regulation for
pedestrians like the "WALK" and "DO NOT WALK" signal lights.
3. Train Approach and Gates Signals. These are usually installed on road-
rail intersections designed to inform motorists of any approaching train on
the intersection.
4. Other Special Traffic Signals. These are installed on traffic ways where
special regulations are emphasized like "YIELD TO VEHICLES COMING
FROM THE LEFT", and other similar regulations.
F. Traffic Signal Systems. Traffic Signal Lights use different signaling
systems which vary according to the needs of the traffic way.
1. The Fixed-time System. A traffic control signal by which traffic is
alternately commanded to stop and permitted to proceed in accordance
with predetermined time schedule. This is the most widely used system of
traffic signaling. The duration of the green light remains constant and is set
to favor traffic on the main roadway. Main-road traffic is halted periodically
to permit the side-road traffic to cross the intersection for a short fixed time
before the signal again favors traffic on the main road.
2. Progressive System. These are used on major arteries of a number of
cities. Signals at successive intersections along the artery are timed to
change from red to green a at staggered intervals, permitting a vehicle that
maintains a constant speed to proceed without interruption under normal
circumstances.
3. Computerized Control of Signal Networks. Signal changes are
ordered by the demands of traffic and are directed by computers that
operate on the basis of traffic information relayed from vehicle sensors on
the streets. In this system, traffic detectors are placed at several locations-
generally in the pavement. A computer continuously scans the traffic
information from each detector. The computer then selects the best timing
for each signal to reduce traffic congestion and minimize delays.
G. Specific Meaning of Traffic Lights. To attain more effective and
efficient controlling of traffic, each color of the traffic light has specific
meaning and traffic regulation.
1. Steady Red.
a. STOP at the designated line.
b. Vehicles will be crossing from the "other side".
c. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrian lane.
d. Unless specified, you can TURN RIGHT after a FULL STOP to clear
traffic coming from the left.
2. Steady Green.
a. “Go”
b. It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side to STOP.
c. Pedestrians are not allowed to cross the pedestrian lane in front of you.
d. Unless specified, you can move up to the middle section of the
intersection and make a left turn when clear.
e. Vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of way.
f. DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN LIGHT.
3. Steady Green Arrow.
a. GO
b. Vehicles turning left can do so.
c. On coming straight traffic is still RED to give way for the vehicles turning
left. d. DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN ARROW.
4. Steady Yellow.
a. PREPARE TO STOP
b. It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side and will be given the GO
signal shortly.
c. DO NOT BEAT A YELLOW LIGHT.
5. Flashing Red.
a. This is the same as a STOP SIGN.
b. STOP at the designated line.
c. Vehicles will be crossing from the "other side".
d. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrians' lane.
e. PROCEED WHEN CLEAR.
6. Flashing yellow.
a. This is the same as a YIELD SIGN.
b. Proceed through the intersection with CAUTION.
c. You have the right of way over a flashing RED LIGHT.
d. Vehicles on the other side will proceed after coming to a FULL STOP.
7. Steady Green and Steady Left/Right Arrow.
a. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn.
b. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make a right
turn.
c. The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a road sign
disallowing a right turn while the RED light is ON
PAVEMENT MARKINGS AND MARKERS
Concept
Pavement Markings and Markers. The pavements of all main highways
have certain markings to help you drive safely. Those include the center
lane lines, barrier lines, and directional arrows, depending upon the type of
highway and the needs for such markings to make the road safe under
varying conditions.
A. Pavement Markings Defined. These pertain to all lines, patterns,
words, colors, or other gadgets except signs set into the surface or applied
upon or attached to the pavement or curbing or to objects within or
adjacent to the roadway, officially placed for the purpose of regulating,
warning or guiding traffic.
Similarly, pavement markings are standardized as to color and location to
conform to international standards. Basically, pavement markings are
placed on the roadway to convey warning or information to the road users
without diverting his attention from the roadway under favorable condition.
Knowledge of the purpose and use of each type of marking is important in
order for motorists to drive safely. Failure either intentionally or by
ignorance to observe the lines can prove disastrous.
B. Types of Pavement Markings and Markers. Pavement markings and
markers are further classified into the following depending on their purpose
and location of placement.
1. Pavement Markings. These are the lines usually white and yellow or
a combination of yellow and white officially set on the roadway as
separation for motor vehicles traveling the opposite direction or the same
direction in case of two- lane one-way street, two-lane two-way street or
four-lane two-way street.
2. Curb Markings for Restrictions. These are markings placed on the
curbs or edges of the traffic for restriction or for parking regulation purpose
3. Object Markings. These are markings placed on objects on the road
or beside the road like humps, rocks or similar hazardous objects on the
side of the road.
4. Reflectorized Markings. gadgets designed to reflect and become
luminous when hit by vehicles' headlight. These are placed or installed in
the These are markings of middle of the roadway to supplement separation
lines or on object at the side of the roadway which are too near or within
the road pavement itself.
C. Specific Meaning of Pavement Markings. markings vary depending
on the traffic regulations in its location or depending on the road or traffic
condition.
1. Single White Dotted Line. This pavement marking indicates the following:
a. on two-lane road, it separates traffic moving in opposite directions.
b. on a one-way street, separates traffic moving in one direction
c. overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of oncoming possible.
2. Single White Continuous Line in A Two-lane Traffic Way. This line
indicates the following:
a. separates traffic moving in opposite direction.
b. could be found in road sections that are dangerous.
c. passing and overtaking can be made but ONLY under circumstances
when there is no oncoming traffic.
3. Single Continuous Line On a Four-lane Road. This sign when found on
four-lane streets, indicates:
a. when there are slow and fast lanes, NEVER overtake by passing over
the solid white line
b. lanes 1 & 4 (outer lanes) for slow moving vehicles. Vehicles on this lane
should not be BELOW the minimum speed limit.
c. lanes 2 & 3(inner lanes) are usually for faster moving vehicles.
4. Double Yellow Line or Double White Line. A double yellow or white line
with a dotted line in between means
a. ABSOLUTELY NO OVERTAKING.
b. overtaking is extremely dangerous.
c. stay in your lane until you pass the end of the solid lines.
5. Single Yellow/White Line. A yellow or white line with a dotted white line
means
a. that you cannot overtake if the solid line is on your side.
b. if you overtake, return to your lane BEFORE the solid line.
6. Yellow Continuous Line on Road Provided with a Passing Lane. This line
indicates the following
a. these are common on mountain roads.
b. slow moving vehicles such as buses and
c. heavy trucks should always use the outer lane (lane 3).
d. inner lane (lane 2) is for vehicles to pass without having to use the other
lane (lane 1) for vehicles coming from the opposite direction.
e. vehicles coming from the opposite direction (lane 1) should not use the
inner lane (lane 2) at the other side for overtaking
7. Crosswalk or Pedestrian Lane. This pavement marking indicates the
following (figure 36):
a. for pedestrian to cross.
b. stop for pedestrians on an intersection with no traffic light.
c. DO NOT STOP on pedestrian lane especially to load or unload
passengers.
d. pedestrians should ALWAYS cross a street on a crosswalk
8. Directional Arrows. These pavement markings indicate the following
traffic regulations
a. directions of permitted traffic movement.
b. when approaching intersections where pavement arrows are used, you
should enter the lane where the arrow points in the direction you want to
go.
c. if you get in the wrong lane, you should keep going in the direction
indicated by the arrow until it is safe to turn off and get back on the street or
highway which will carry you to your destination.
d. some have double headed arrows which means the lane is for traffic
going in the two directions indicated.
9. Stop Lines. These are painted across pavement lanes at traffic signs or
signals. Where these lines are present, you should stop behind the stop
line.
10. The Barrel Lines. A new concept in reducing the seriousness of
accidents. The barrels are engineered to act as impact cushion. Usually
installed in front of a solid obstacle or traffic island at an area of high
accident frequency
TOPICS 11&12 TRAFFIC ISLANDS / TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT
TRAFFIC ISLANDS
Concept
A. Traffic Islands Defined. These are areas within the roadway
constructed in a manner to establish physical channels through which
vehicular traffic is guided.
B. Functions of Traffic Islands. Traffic islands as part of traffic control
devices are designed to:
1. segregate pedestrians and vehicles; and
2. control streams of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite traffic flow
or increase safety.
C. Classifications of Traffic Islands. Traffic islands are classified
according to the design, place of installation, and purpose of construction.
1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers). These are constructed
between the pedestrian sidewalk and the road pavement to prevent
pedestrian from using the roadway in passing and to prevent motor
vehicles from using sidewalk for parking and passing purposes.
2. Traffic Islands. These are the raised portion in the middle of the traffic
way constructed to separate the streams of motor vehicles traversing on
opposite directions and at the same time preventing motorists from using
the opposite lane for overtaking.
Traffic islands are further sub-classified into three (3):
a. Division Islands. These are constructed primarily to divide the streams of
the motor vehicles
b. Channelizing Island. These are constructed to channelize or direct the
flow of traffic.
c. Rotary Islands. These are constructed along intersections or "rotundas"
for purposes of turning-around. Their functions are:
· prohibit pedestrians from crossing major thoroughfares at points
where such crossing are exceptionally hazardous,
· minimize imprudence and delays to vehicular traffic, and
· channelize and control pedestrians.
OTHER TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES AND AIDS
Concept
The improvements in traffic caused various complexities in traffic control
and traffic direction. The previous standard traffic control devices have their
limits or weaknesses. In this regard, traffic managers conceived new or
additional control devices and aids.
A. Median Barriers. These are usually movable concrete or hard
plastics with/without water inside installed on divided highway with narrow
medians to prevent head-on collision of vehicles and to restrict, the
pedestrians from crossing at any section of the road.
B. Guard Rails. These are safety devices installed at the road side to
protect vehicles, which run out of control from following on steep slopes or
hitting fixed objects. (See picture on the opposite)
C. Gantries. These are usually made of light metals installed overhead
on highways in which other devices and aids are also attached.
D. Reflectorized Markers and Solar (Cat's Eye) Markers. These are
markers installed along the curb lines and on the division lines providing
reflections during the night and when visibility is very low. (See picture on
the opposite side)
E. Traffic Bollards. These are upright metals, woods, plastics, or any
other hard materials installed along side streets and on parking areas to
limit the movement of motor vehicles.
F. Early Warning Devices. A triangular-shaped reflectorized device
used to warning or inform motorists about an emergency- stalled or parked
motor vehicle. (See opposite figure)
G. Traffic Cones. These are usually made of plastic materials or any
lightweight materials used as a replacement or aid to early warning devices
(EWD). (See picture on the opposite)
H. Curb or Curb stones. These are aligned stones along the sides of
roads or highways serving as highway or boundary lines. (See picture on
the opposite)
I. Close Circuit Televisions (CCTV). These devices could assist
traffic enforcers and managers monitor usual and unusual traffic
occurrences. CCTVs are also valuable in the detection, identification, and
apprehension of traffic law violators so the visible presence of these
devices provide general deterrence.
J. Weighbridges. These are either installed permanently on the road
pavement located at the entrances of main thoroughfares or some of these
are movable. Weighbridges are use to monitor overloading or exceeding
load limits of motor vehicles particularly cargo trucks.
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT
Concept
Traffic Law Enforcement Defined. Traffic Law Enforcement action is part
of enforcement involving the arrest, issuance of Temporary Operator's
Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report Summons, or warning of any person
who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance, or regulation pertaining
to the use of traffic roads.
Rationale. Traffic enforcement action may prevent such violation from
endangering persons, property, or inconveniencing other users of traffic
users of traffic roads, prevent continued violation, or discourage future
repetition.
As traffic law enforcer, he must decide the kind of action he will take in
case he has knowledge of any violation. Drivers are guided more by the
enforcement actions of traffic law enforcers than by the way the law is
written. It is therefore important that traffic enforcers should know what to
do and be consistent in their actions so that drivers may know exactly what
to expect. Further, consistency of traffic enforcers in the enforcement of
traffic laws builds respect and compliance with the law.
A. Scope of traffic law enforcement. The range of action of traffic law
enforcement includes but not limited to the following:
1. The action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience
movement and use of motor vehicles for the purpose of to traffic laws and
ordinances regulating the creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all
potential violators.
2. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at controlling
road users, let behavior by preventive persuasive and punitive methods in
order to effect a safe and efficient traffic movement; and
3. It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorized regulations
relating to the use of street and highways and operation of motor vehicles.
B. Two Major Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement. For more effective
traffic law enforcement and more specific roles in enforcement, the function
is divided into the following:
1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement. This function includes the enforcement
of traffic laws deterrent to law violations, special assistance to prosecutors
and courts and incidental service to highway users. Usually these are the
responsibilities of traffic enforcers like members of the PNP- TMG and the
LTO Law Enforcement Service (LES).
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement. One part of traffic law enforcement is
performed by the court through PROSECUTION, ADJUDICATION and
PENALIZATION of cases. These actions are usually undertaken by any of
the regular courts where traffic cases fall under their jurisdiction and the
Traffic Adjudication Service (TAS) of the LTO.
C. Three Important Goals of Enforcement Activities. For more specific
actions, enforcement activities aim:
1. To increase safety level - enforcement effort should be directed towards
the reduction of accidents or minimizing their effects.
2. To increase traffic efficiency when traffic violators are reduced
particularly those related to traffic obstruction through an effective
enforcement, there will be free-flow of traffic.
3. when there is an increase safety level and increase traffic To insure
harmonious and comfortable environment efficiency, traveling is more
comfortable and luxurious and it may reduce chaotic situations in the traffic
way.
D. Major Elements of Traffic Enforcement System. In the pursuit of
effective traffic enforcement, three elements are involved. Removing one of
the elements or any of the elements, enforcement is not complete.
1. Enforcement System. This area consists of legislation, police and the
courts. Legislation defines and specifies correct or incorrect road user
behavior. Police and the courts are charged with the responsibility of
insuring that these laws are adhered to.
2. Road Users System (Traffic Way User). This element includes
pedestrians, pedal cyclist, drivers, passengers and others.
3. Road System (Traffic System). This area is composed of the entire road
and vehicle complex, as well as all traffic rules and regulations.
E. Five (5) Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process. Enforcement of
traffic laws includes the following process:
1. Detection (of violation"). A whole police responsibility that entails
looking for defects in the behavior of motorist, pedestrians, vehicle,
equipment and roadway condition. Requires knowledge of law on the part
of the police.
2. Apprehension. It is also a whole police function which involves the
actual taking of enforcement actions.
3. Prosecution. This area is handled by the prosecution and partly the
court where the police also provide corresponding influences through
preparation and introduction of evidence or close contact with the
prosecuting officer.
4. Adjudication. While this is obviously a court and prosecutions' function,
the police provide influence on this step by acting as witness to the
prosecution or supplying additional evidence. innocence of the accused.
This step determines the guilt or
5. Penalization. The court after due process imposes the penalty upon the
accused if found guilty. The penalty is greatly influenced by previous
records of conviction as provided by police. Penalty involved is either fine
or imprisonment or both fine and imprisonment or may result to the
suspension or revocation of the driver's license of the accused.
F. Reasons for Violation of Traffic Laws. Road users violate traffic laws
and ordinances due to varying reasons. The following are the common
reasons why road users violate traffic laws, rules and regulations and other
traffic statutes:
1. physical disabilities or infirmities
2. ignorance of traffic
3. lack of training and experience
4. wrong attitude towards driving
5. PUV drivers for increased compensation
6. driver's apathy towards signs, signals and markings
7. influential person violate because they feel they are exempted from
punishment.
G. Considerations that act as deterrents to motorist and
pedestrians. Some road users are hesitant in violating any traffic law or
ordinance because of varying reasons which are enumerated as follows:
1. fear of fine or punishment
2. loss of driving privilege
3. possibility of being involved in accident 4. positive area of good
citizenship doing what is right and setting an example
H. Kinds of Enforcement Action. detected violation of traffic laws, an
enforcement action may be taken against the individual which is either
arrest, or citation, or warning alone. When traffic enforcers
1. Traffic Arrest. It is an enforcement action which consists of taking a
person into custody for the purpose of holding or detaining him to answer a
charge of law violation before a court.
a. When a traffic violator can be arrested?
(1) offense committed is serious
(2) detention is necessary to avoid continued violation
(3) there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court
b. How is arrest made? In general, arrest is made by any of the following:
(1) by an actual restraint of the person to be arrested, or
(2) by his submission to the custody of the person making the arrest.
c. Use of force in arresting. No violation or unnecessary force shall be used
in making an arrest and the person arrested shall not be subjected to any
greater restraint than is necessary for his detention.
d. Arrest in Traffic. In arresting a traffic violator, the traffic officer must
consider the following:
(1) An arrest can be effected even without warrant if the offense is
committed in the presence of an arresting officer. the violator into custody
for the purpose of bringing
(2) The officer making an arrest must intend to take him before a court.
(3) Detention of the arrested person may take place.
(4) Officer making an arrest must act under legal authority when taking the
arrested person into
(5) The person being arrested must understand that custody. he is being
arrested.
(6) The purpose of arrest is to bring a suspended violator before a court to
answer a charge of violation.
e. Recording the Data of Arrest. Whichever action is used by the officer or
Agency, the following information are necessary:
(1) Date/time of Arrest.
(2) Place of Arrest.
(3) The common name person is arrested of the offense for which the
(4) The full name of the arrested person, his home address, his business
address and his telephone number.
(5) Physical description of the arrestee, including his date of birth,
nationality and marital status.
(6) Name of witnesses to the arrest.
(7) Name and badge number of arresting officer.
f. When taking person into custody. The arresting officer when taking a
person into custody must consider the following:
(1) the possibility that the person you are arresting may attempt to injure or
kill you or escape in your custody.
(2) inform him that you are placing him under arrest.
(3) explain to him why you are placing him under arrest.
(4) reasonable search may be carried out in connection with the lawful
arrest.
g. When transporting arrested person. The arresting officer should observe
the following guidelines in transporting arrested person:
(1) If your unit is equipped with radio, request for transportation unit and
maintain custody of your prisoner until it arrives.
(2) Give instructions to the transporting officer about the place where the
arrestee is to be delivered.
(3) Have the necessary information and instructions written out so that the
transporting officer will not err in the delivery.
(4) In certain conditions, direct the arrested person to drive his own vehicle
to your Headquarters and follow him with your police mobile.
(5) However, if the driver is not in good condition or the vehicle is in bad
shape, let someone drive the vehicle to the Headquarters.
h. Warrantless Arrest Oftentimes, arrest in traffic is made right after the or
Citizen's/Civilian commission of the traffic violation. Hence, traffic Arrest.
Enforcers should know the following rules to be observed in arresting a
person without warrant of arrest as stipulated by paragraphs a-c, Sec. 6,
rule 113, Rules of Court:
(1) When in the presence of the arresting officer, the person to be arrested
has committed, is actually committing, or is about to commit an offense.
(2) When an offense has in fact been committed, and the arresting officer
has personal reasons to believe that the person to be arrested has
committed it.
2. Traffic Citation. This is a means of having violators appear in court
without physical arrest. To ensure that an apprehended traffic violator will
appear to the court or to the proper authorit the traffic officer should
confiscate the violator's driver's license and issue Traffic Citation Ticket
(TCT), TOP, or Traffic Violator's Receipt (TVR).
a. Apprehension. As an apprehending officer duly designated by the LTO,
you should observe the following when apprehending a traffic violator:
(1) You may confiscate the driver's license or certificate of registration of
the vehicle for any violation of the RA 4136 and its rules and regulations,
City and Municipal Ordinances.
(2) Fill out the blank spaces of TOP/or TCT forms in order to provide a
detailed report of apprehension for the information, guidance and reference
of all concerned.
(3) Advise the violator to report within 72 hours, but not less than 24 hours
to give allowance for proper transmittal from receipt thereof to appropriate
offices.
b. Where the violator should report? The violator should be advised to
report to:
(1) Traffic Court, if in Manila and for violation of the City's Traffic Ordinance.
(2) City/Provincial Prosecutor, if in other chartered cities or provincial
capitals without traffic courts, for violations of local traffic ordinances.
(3) Municipal Court, in its municipalities, for violation of local traffic
ordinances.
c. Uses the TOP, the TCT, and the TVR. These are
official documents designed for various purposes, namely:
(1) It serves as a receipt for the confiscation of a vehicle or the driver's
license or the CR/OR of the vehicle.
(2) It serves as a temporary permit to operate motor vehicles for 72 hours
without extension from the time of confiscation or apprehension (in case of
TVR in Manila, 7 days).
(3) It is an official form of judicial or administrative citation to facilitate action
on the case for which it is issued.
(4) It is a record for disposing a case cited therein either administratively or
judiciary.
(5) It is also a receipt for release of the confiscated items after adjudication
and termination of the case.
d. Preparation of the Information/Complaint. Within your tour of duty,
prepare information or complaint by filling up the TOP for processing of all
traffic apprehensions at the appropriate office. e. Filing of
Information/Complaint. Within 24 hours from the time of apprehension, file
the complaints, together with the confiscated items, with the Clerk of Court
or Provincial Prosecutor or the court having appropriate jurisdiction as
previously stated.
f. Preliminary findings and disposition of License. Within 72 hours or three
(3) days from the filing of the case with the respective traffic enforcement
offices, the hearing authority shall make immediate preliminary findings on
the basis of police or complainant's witness reports as to whether or not
there is an imperative necessity of withholding the driver's license
confiscated.
3. Traffic Warning. This is an enforcement action which does not
contemplate possible assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a
result of warning alone. There are three types of traffic warning: visual,
verbal, and written.
a. Visual Warning. This is usually used when you have observed a minor
violation but are more importantly occupied at a moment. Indicate by
gesture of the hand and/or of the head.
b. Verbal Warning. This is a form of safety education. Tell the driver/violator
that he violated a law and explain the hazards of such violations.
c. Written Warning. warning and citations. It gives the spirit of verbal
warning This is a combination of verbal and the form of citation. This is
seldom used nowadays.
Decision Enforcement. In determining what enforcement action to be
taken, whether you arrest, cite or warn the apprehended violator, consider
the following:
1. Degree of violation;
2. Accuracy of observation;
3. Traffic and weather condition;
4. Evidence gathered;
5. Whether a new law or not; and
6. Continuous or momentary actions, a factor in some type of violations. J.
Pursuit in Traffic Enforcement. Pursuit is a part of routine enforcement
activity performed by police and is used when a violating driver is detected.
SITUATIONAL
1. When to pursue? When a violator fails to stop on signal, your normal
reaction is to pursue the violator until you apprehend him. However, due to
traffic congestion or other complications, such action is sometimes neither
practical nor safe. In pursuing, observe the following:
a. Pursuit must always be tampered with common sense and foresight of
like hazards.
b. Better judgment is used in deciding to lose a traffic violator who can be
apprehended at another time than giving great risk to yourself, your vehicle
and other drivers.
C. Pursuit requiring high speed operation of police vehicle may be justified
in certain circumstances such as in the apprehension of a driver
endangering the lives of motorists, pedestrians, and others through
operation which can be classified as other than reasonable and proper
which is dangerous and negligent. d. Type of serious violation is an
important factor in deciding to pursue:
(1) Non-hazardous violations. Pursuit to apprehend this violator seldom
warrants a prolonged chase or degree of risk as operation of your police
vehicle at high speed. These violations do not justify the same These
violations present may be justified as hazardous violations.
(2) Hazardous violations. continuing danger to other road users that require
immediate and sometime aggressive pursuit.
Examples are:
(a) Driving while under the influence of liquor;
(b) Reckless driving; and
(c) Driving on excessive speed.
e. Consider the following when pursuing hazardous violators:
(1) A violator of this nature is likely to have little concern for other drivers at
their safety.
(2) Successful flight from identification and apprehension is usually his
only concern.
(3) Be prepared for acts of this type of violator which could give him an
advantage while interfering with your pursuit and successful apprehension.
Like trying to force you or other motorists off the road.
f. Consider your driving skill and experience. Driving skill is that collection
of proper habits which enable a person to detect and evaluate road and
traffic conditions about him, and to maneuver his vehicle properly without
consciously thinking about what he is doing. Check your skill in these
areas:
(1) Manipulative skills - making your vehicle behave as you intend.
(2) Recognizing road and traffic conditions that may hinder your pursuit.
(3) Defensive driving - anticipating and allowing bad- driving by others.
g. Resisting distraction. You should know what evasive actions will permit
you to avoid or escape unfavorable traffic conditions. A driver can often
protect himself from danger if he knows how to recognize the danger in
time and take proper evasive action.
2. Pursuit Techniques. A successful pursuit operation can be attained if
the pursuing officer knows the following:
a. His limitations and strength in driving a patrol vehicle under normal
conditions.
b. Good driving combined with effective techniques will help to minimize the
dangers involved in pursuit in high speed.
c. Normal driving skill is not automatically improved by wearing a police
uniform, or by having a police car to operate.
3. Identification of Pursued Vehicle.
a. When alone, use a clipboard with attached paper and pencil. Anchor the
clipboard by sitting on part of it so that notes can be written without looking
down.
b. Post a list of wanted persons or vehicles on a "hot sheet" within easy
viewing range while in driving position. The list should be arranged by
cases of offense for rapid identification of violators wanted for more serious
offense.
c. Identify the violator's vehicle for later identification, particularly when
pursuit is lengthy, interrupted or abandoned, or in case you are injured by
the violators.
d. The registration plate is very important and accurate method of
establishing identity of a vehicle is also important. Train yourself to observe
complete license plate number at a glance.
e. Record the registration number as soon as possible, and check it against
your "hot sheet." Sometimes prescribed registration number on a clipboard
is the only clue to the identification of an escaping violator who has struck
or injured an officer.
4. Itemized Identification Features of the Vehicle. For an effective
identification of the pursued vehicle, the officer must be familiar with the
following features:
a. COLOR For example, red, black, etc. When the vehicle has more than
one color, first give the color of the body and then the top, i.e., black body,
gray top.
b. YEAR OF MANUFACTURE - learn to identify the year model of a
vehicle, i.e., "1996".
C. MAKE-Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, etc..
d. BODY TYPE -p-up, wagon, 4dr sedan, truck, etc..
e. LICENSE PLATE NUMBER - city or province of issuance, letter and
number prefixes, i.e., AAA 456
f. OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES - "wide- bank racing
stripe," vinyl top, particular damage which are noticeable as crumbled
fender, damaged door, or cracked door.
g. UNUSUAL PASSENGERS OF THE FEATURES - clothing, air, glasses,
etc..
5. Keep Headquarters Advised through the dispatcher - about the
progress of the pursuit operation.
a. It is your duty to apprehend violators as soon as possible. Radio contact
with HQs aids in accomplishing this objective by alerting other patrol units
in the area.
b. While in pursuit, use your radio whenever necessary and advisable. If
forced to abandon pursuit and there is no radio available, use any nearest
telephone.
6. Stopping and approaching a violator. It is completed when you have
stopped the violator's vehicle and move to the place where you will begin to
talk to the driver. The following should be observed:
a. In stopping a violator, it must be done in safety to you, the driver you
stopped, to other road users.
b. Approach the violator preferably on the left side from the rear and be
alert for the unexpected.
K. Officer-Violator Relationship. The first reminder for an officer is to
establish PLEASANT RELATIONSHIP with offending motorists or
pedestrians. This may be accomplished by:
1. The appearance of your uniform, equipment and person which will create
the violator's impression of you. A neat, clean uniform properly worn and
well-groomed person will create a good impression.
2. Observance of the following rules when talking with the violators:
a. Get your emotions under control. Don't appear before him when you are
both at the peak of tension. b. Advise the violator the nature of the alleged
violation in a manner that he can fully understand.
c. Allow the violator to talk and explain his side.
d. Be courteous and business-like. You may introduce yourself or use only
"good morning", "Sir" or "Madam."
e. Request compliance. Use requesting words such as "May I," "Please"
and "Kindly" when directing the violator.
f. Avoid telling the driver what not to do. If you want him to do something,
whenever possible, explain why you want him to do it.
3. Never open your conversation in a sarcastic or derogatory way. Avoid
such opening as:
a. Don't you know ---- ?
b. Who do you think are?
c. Where do you think you are going ?
d. What's your hurry?
4. Being alert at all times for the unexpected, approach the violator with
these cases:
a. Take time to get ready to talk with the violator.
b. Know what you are going to do and say.
C. Have any equipment you will need such as flashlights, clipboard, or
citation pad.
d. Review the facts which led you to your stopping the violator before you
begin to talk.
e. Decide what enforcement action you are going to take before you
approach the violator.
5. In requesting for the driver's license or vehicle registration certificate
(CR), observe the following:
a. Do not put your head or arms in the car windows.
b. While waiting for the license, ask the driver, "What is your name, Sir?"
c. Never accept anything other than the papers requested.
d. Ask the papers being requested be removed from the billfold or other
container. e. Have the driver hand the requested papers to you outside the
window.
f. Establish the identity of the driver and check the entries of both the
license and the registration papers for any possible fraud, or false identities
or falsifications.
g. Do not return the driver's license and vehicle registration certificate until
you are about to terminate the interview.
6. In terminating your contact with the violator -
a. Explain to the driver what action he must take.
b. Tell him when and where he must appear.
c. Don't discuss probable bail penalties with the violator.
d. Avoid any naughty suggestion that he should engage in the services of a
counsel or how he should plead.
e. When you are certain the driver understands what he should do, close
the interview by:
(1) Thanking the driver for his cooperation.
(2) Explaining how he may avoid further difficulty.
L. Road Check. This is another enforcement activity which involves the
conducting of actual inspection of vehicles, and motorists on the road.
1. Objectives of road check. The objective of road check is to detect and
inspect the following:
a. faulty vehicle equipment
b. registration and licensing violations
c. intoxicated drivers
d. the load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight
2. Considerations to be taken.
a. minimum delay to motorist
b. thorough checking procedure
c. protection/safety of both motorist and officers
d. timing, location and frequency
TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL
Concept:
As discussed earlier, the movement of people, goods, vehicles, trains,
ships, and airplanes from one place to another is called traffic. And
controlling traffic involves attempts to make these movements as fast, safe,
and efficient as possible. Aside from utilizing traffic signs, pavement
markings and markers, and traffic signal systems, one important aspect of
traffic control is the assigning of traffic officers along intersections where
traffic congestions are common problems.
Assigning of traffic officers on strategic places does not only ensure the
obedience to traffic laws, rules and regulations but it also serves as
emergency solution when traffic lights suddenly fail or when the traffic
signal light could not control the flow of traffic. Traffic officers manning
intersections can also provide emergency services to the public not only
during lights out but also during disasters or calamities like fire or
ambulances responding to fire or crime scenes. During these moments,
traffic officers can immediately give way to responding fire engines, police
cars, or ambulances by directing and control traffic along intersections.
Intersection Defined. As applied to a street or highway, it means the
space occupied by two streets at the point where they cross each other.
Usually, this is the place where traffic direction and traffic control is needed.
Police Traffic Direction. It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians
when, how and where they may or may not move or stand at a particular
place, especially during emergencies or period of congestion.
A. Who are tasked to direct and guide traffic? In the Philippines, traffic
officers are usually deputized by the Land Transportation Office who
normally comes from the PNP-TMG, police auxiliaries, MMDA Traffic
Management Section. In some places, volunteers coming from barangay
security forces and other civic organizations assist in the directing and
controlling of traffic particularly during rush hours, special occasions, and
time of emergencies.
B. Directing and Guiding Traffic. The following are the basic concept for
an effective directing and guiding traffic:
1. When you are assigned to direct traffic, you are expected to indicate or
show to the drivers and pedestrians how, when, Sue and where they may
move.
2. In order to do this, use a type of sign language which shall be clearly
understandable to all persons you will be directing.
3. However, if your signals are different from those used by other officers,
motorists would probably fail to understand them and ignore you altogether.
4. Hence, it is important for the efficient direction of traffic that the officers
use uniform gestures and signals.
5. Moreover, the signals should be able to be seen over a fairly long
distance. When directing traffic, you first want Me drivers and pedestrians
to recognize that you are the officer who will tell them what to do. But you
must also know how to tell them when to stop, go or turn by using gestures
alone.
6. Normally, this is in the center of the intersection. Stand as though you
mean business. Stand straight with your weigh equally distributed to each
foot.
7. When you are not signaling, let your hands fall at your sides. When you
authorize vehicles to move, do not face bag them. vehicle. Stand so that
your side is toward the oncoming
C. Suggested Methods of Directing and Guiding Traffic.
1. Use hand signals to designate decisions to motorists and pedestrians.
2. Supplement the arm/hand signals with a whistle:
a. one long blow to STOP.
b. two short snappy blasts for GO.
c. three blasts to be used for assistance.
3. If two or more officers are assigned in one intersection, only one makes
the decision, while the other take theirs from him.
4. To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give the
driver the opportunity to stop.
5. The hand signal should be made with the arm extended and the palm
facing the person or vehicle to be stopped.
D. Night Control of Traffic. There are instances when traffic officers are
needed to direct and guide traffic during night time, not only during lights
out where traffic lights are not functioning but also during some instances
where an accident occurs and traffic officers are needed to guide the
motorists. Whichever case, the following are the suggested methods to be
used while directing and guiding traffic during night time.
1. When light is sufficient, work as in day time.
2. If light is not sufficient, use flashlight:
a. To STOP, direct the flashlight in line of the vision and move back and
forth.
b. To START, use the same motion as in daylight except with flashlight.
C. Supplement the actions with whistle..
E. Hand Signals. the standard hand signals when directing traffic.
Note: The signals may be modified also by the traffic direction officer as it
deemed necessary so that motorists may clearly understand the decision of
the traffic officer especially during night time. In addition to the hand signals
and blowing of the whistles, flags with varying colors (usually red and
green) are used to supplement the signaling.
TOPIC 13 - TRAFFIC PATROL/ TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Concept
In maintaining order in the streets and highways, it is not sufficient to install
traffic control devices and aids. Traffic signs, pavement markings and
markers, and other traffic rules and regulations are likely to be violated in
the absence of traffic law enforcement officers. Therefore, to ensure
compliance to these traffic rules and regulations, traffic patrol officers are
needed.
Traffic Patrol. It refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior
of the drivers and other users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic
supervision and law enforcement and providing authorized traffic-
connected services to the public.
However, traffic patrol is not all moving from one place to another place,
but it also involves stationary observation particularly on strategic places
where accidents and traffic violations are very common occurrence.
A. Types of Traffic Patrol. Traffic patrol may be conducted on area or line
bases which refer to the territory covered. It includes, for enforcement
purposes, stationary observation to detect drivers' behavior as well as
moving about to detect violators.
1. Line Patrol. This involves either moving or stationary observation at a
certain route or point of a major street in a city. Usually, this is done by foot
patrol officers.
2. Area Patrol. This involves the conduct of observation either by moving
patrol or observation of a certain area which included a number of streets,
roads or sections of a highway. Area patrolling is usually the job of mobile
police officers as well as those motorcycle cops.
B. Types of Stationary Observation. As discussed earlier, observation of
traffic conditions of selected place, usually one with unfavorable accident
experiences for traffic law supervision. Stationary observation may be
conspicuous, visible, or concealed, depending upon the location of the
patrol unit in relation to the street under observation.
1. Conspicuous Observation. Stationary observation in which observer
remains in full view of traffic conditions. Here, the traffic patrol officer is
situated in any place where he could be seen by all traffic users.
2. Visible Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is in
full view but so located, for example, at side street, so as to require effort
on the part of traffic users to discover the observer.
3. Concealed Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is
not visible to persons using ordinary power of observation from the
roadway being observed.
C. Purposes of Traffic Patrol. Traffic patrolling is usually conducted for
the following purposes:
1. Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving.
2. Detecting and apprehending violators.
3. Observing and reporting traffic conditions.
4. Observing and reporting road conditions, including view obstruction
which needs attention.
5. Providing certain services to the public. 6. Handling emergencies as they
arise and keeping traffic flow smoothly.
D. Deterring Drivers from Violating. The effect of traffic law enforcement
on the behavior of the motorist drivers depends upon what they think the
police will do or the reputation of the police for action. Once you have a
reputation as a good traffic enforcer for taking action when it is necessary,
a deterrent effect may be achieved in several ways:
1. Be sure you are seen by other motorists while taking enforcement
actions against a violator.
2. Be in full view while simply patrolling or inspecting
3. Leave the area and proceed to another area after you have taken
enforcement action.
4. In order to achieve a deterrent in law enforcement, be sure to spend
more time in some area wherein motorists or drivers fail to be aware of
their common bad driving practices.
5. Enforcement action should be taken at once among habitual violators in
order to deter traffic violators.
E. Deter Violator for Unsafe Driving. Be alert for potentially hazardous
drivers. His action may not be illegal, but may serve as road hazards that
need to be cautioned. This kind of driver may not have enough driving
experience; he may be under the influence of liquor or narcotics that may
later on contribute to an accident if no action is taken against him at once.
F. Example of Actions and Conditions which may Need Close
Watching for Further Investigations. While patrolling, traffic officers must
give special attention to some conditions that may result to greater danger
or continuous violations. These are:
1. Driving extremely at low speed.
2. Slow moving vehicles in left or "high speed" lanes.
3. Racing motor sliding stops, jumping starts, and the like.
4. Excessive maneuvering such as backing up four or five times to get into
a parking space.
5 Pulling to curb lane at traffic signal.
6. Having turn signals on when not attempting to turn.
7. Waving in roadway.
8. Failing to slow for an intersection with obstructed view.
9. Passing or attempting to pass several cars in a bunch.
10. Suddenly turning off at approach of police vehicle.
11. Teen-age groups at night particularly when in two or more vehicles.
12. Damage or dressed up vehicles.
13. Faulty or obscured license plates.
14. Unlighted parked cars with motor running.
H. Observing Traffic Conditions. As traffic patrol officer, you are the eyes
and ears of the department when on traffic patrol. You must supply
information about what is happening on the street. This information may be
used for many purposes.
I. Road Intelligence. Unusual points of serious congestion must be noted.
You may observe an unusual amount of delay at a certain intersection each
morning and when you learn that it is due to loading or unloading of
passengers on a "NO LOADING ZONE", be sure to report the situation at
once to your superior officer. Pay special attention to congestions that tie
up traffic for a block or more. You should also report unnecessary delay at
stop signs or signals which are installed when traffic is heavier. Include in
your report all road and bridge conditions.
J. Patrol Assignment. You may be assigned to either area or line patrol,
or you may have instructions to use a combination. For example, you may
patrol a certain street noted for excessive accidents in a line at specific
times. The following are some guidelines when assigned in traffic patrol
unit.
1. Be sure to be familiar with the street lay out in your area. Learn the
short cuts, the dead ends, and the back streets. Learn which streets are
likely to serve as escape routes from the city or provincial roads.
2. Familiarize yourself with the places where congestion is likely to occur
so that you can "drive around" these places when on emergency call.
3. When assigned to area patrol, you may or may not be able to cover
your entire assignment area on each tour of duty, depending upon its size.
You may not be able to give the same amount of attention to each section
due to the necessity of concentrating on a certain trouble spots. However,
you should consider yourself responsible for traffic conditions in the entire
area.
4. When assigned to line patrol, you are responsible for the traffic
conditions on a particular street or highway. You may be permitted to
depart from your assigned street when, for example, you pursue violator or
on an authorized break time such as lunch.
5. You may also want to employ patrol techniques which will require
you to depart momentarily from an intersecting street rather than always
approaching it from the street which you are patrolling. At times this will
enable you to get better view of traffic conditions on your assigned street.
K. Patrol Tactics and Techniques. Occasionally, you may have an
assignment in which you work with another patrol unit. When multiple patrol
units are used, special tactics are possible. Examples of these are the
following:
1. When one unit overtakes a group of vehicles, the other unit brings up the
rear of the group. If one or more drivers in the group think that they can no
longer be observed since they have been passed by the first patrol unit,
they feel free to violate. The following patrol unit observes and apprehends
the violators. A conspicuous and concealed unit may be used together in
much the same manner.
2. When an entire column of vehicles must be stopped, one unit stays at
the rear while the other overtakes the leader. If two vehicles are racing, or if
two violators separate, the paired patrol units can separate for individual
pursuit.
3. Another advantage of working together is that officers can protect each
other, particularly when approaching suspicious persons or vehicles.
Except for special purposes or occasions, patrol unit works independently
so that more areas can be covered that way.
L. unusual situations while on field operations. The following are some
of the guidelines to be observed when faced with unusual incidents:
1. What to do in case of abandoned motor vehicle? A motor vehicle is
said to be abandoned when it is left unattended in an area not provided for
parking or unattended for one or two days in an area provided for parking.
For these reasons, unattended vehicles become a problem to traffic flow. In
some instances, they are accidentally found to be a more serious problem
than what is actually thought of, particularly when they are abandoned by
carnappers or hold- uppers. Abandoned vehicles may be classified into two
categories:
a) unattended due to mechanical defects, and
b) abandoned by carnappers or hold-up men.

a. In the case of the first category:

(1) verify and check on the ownership of the vehide,
(2) and if possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to a much safer
place.
b. In case of the second category:
(1) get the plate number and other data of the vehicle,
(2) make a report on the presence of the abandoned vehicle to the
nearest TRAFCOM or traffic police unit,
(3) make possible steps to inform the owner,
(4) bring the vehicle to the TRAFCOM or traffic police impounding area
and conduct a Technical Inspection Report in the presence of the alleged
owner,
(5) advise the owner to present all pertinent papers of the vehicle for the
identification of the ownership,
(6) if the vehicle is found to have violated any provision of RA 6539, note
its violation and together with the Technical Inspection Report, submit it for
investigation, and
(7) finally, submit a duly accomplished spot report.
2. What to do on stalled or bogged down motor vehicles? In most
instances, traffic accidents or jams are caused by stalled or bogged down
vehicles that are left carelessly unattended in the highways. therefore, it is
important that you should know the basic courses of actions in order to
avoid unnecessary risks of human lives and property and further allow the
continuous free flow of traffic. When you notice stalled or bogged down
vehicles having mechanical defects and blocking the roads; take these
precautionary measures: In these cases
a. Check the defect or condition of the vehicle,
b. Ensure the safety of vehicles and persons involved by conducting traffic
direction in the vicinity,
c. If practicable, push the vehicle to the road shoulder. You may request
assistance of other motorists to do this, otherwise avail of wreckers or
heavy trucks to move it,
d. Advise the owner of the vehicle to avail the services of a repairman, and
e. Provide early warning devices or any lantern to deter accident
occurrences and provide appropriate precautions for the safety and
conveniences of the repairman and the other motorists.
3. How to handle traffic jam? Traffic Jam is caused by such factor as
vehicular accident, stalled vehicle due to engine trouble, absence of traffic
officer at an intersection, or road construction. Steps to be taken by a traffic
officer are:
a. Determine the cause of the traffic jam,
b. If traffic jam is caused by vehicular accident, conduct fast, immediate but
complete investigation and remove vehicles involved at the scene of
accident,
c. If traffic jam is caused by mechanical trouble, assist motorist to push the
vehicle to a place where it will not obstruct the flow of traffic,
d. Establish yourself and conduct systematic flow of
e. Observe if the flow of traffic became smooth, if not, refer back to letter
“a” above, and
f. Implement proper traffic regulation to avoid further traffic jam.
4. In case of vehicle cannibalization. Vehicle cannibalization is
characterized by stealing the parts of the motor vehicle instead of
carnapping the whole car. In case of this incident, take the following steps:
a. Determine the vehicle parts that were stolen,
b. Take down the name of the owner of the vehicle, the description of the
vehicle, and the location or where the incident took place,
c. Look for immediate possible clues that might lead to the identification of
the perpetrators or their modus operandi,
d. Interview the witnesses and owner to get a general picture of the
situation prior to the incident,
e. Prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest TRAFCOM Unit, and
f. If further investigation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for
safekeeping.
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Concept:(Most of these were taken from the old PC-HPGTraffic
Investigation Manual)
Traffic Accident Investigation. Generally, to know what question to ask
and what to look for, you must have some fundamental bearing on
accidents and their causes. When you speak of traffic accident, everybody
knows what you mean. SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the highway,
either a wrecked car, somebody is injured or possibly killed.
A. What Traffic Accident Investigation Determines? It aims to know the
five (5) "Ws" and one (1) "H" of the incident:
1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. WHY did it happen?
5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?
B. Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation. There are four (4) main
reasons, depending on who does the investigation: about the causes and
circumstances of the accident.
1. Everyone involved is curious
2. For the police to find out whether there is enough evidence of law
violation in the accident.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part
of the drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be
properly adjusted.
4. Officials and others want specific information about accidents to know
how to prevent future accidents.
C. Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident
Investigation. The following words and phrases with their corresponding
meaning are often used in the process
1. Accident. It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually
produces unintended injury, death, or property damage.
2. Traffic Accident. An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic
way.
3. Motor Vehicle Accident. Events resulting in unintended injury or
property damage attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor
vehicle or its loads. Included are:
a. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
b. Fires;
c. Explosion;
d. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
e. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on
stationary rails or tracks; and
f. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.
4. Motor Vehicle. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle
which is propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires,
but not operated upon rails.
5. Key Event. An event on the road which characterizes the manner of
occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic accident.
6. Debris. The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other
materials left at the scene of the accident caused by a collision.
7. Skid Marks. These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not
free to rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels
locked.
8. Traffic Unit. Any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other
purposes as a pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal which
he is using. It applies not only to motor vehicles but also to:
a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclists
C. Street cars
d. Horse-drawn
e. Farm tractors vehicles;
f. Other road users in almost any combination
Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.
9. Hazards. A hazard is generated when a critical space- motion
relationships between a traffic unit and another object develops due to the
movement of either or both. Example: A curve in the path is a hazard.
Another traffic unit in the path is also a hazard.
10.Safe Speed. The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or
the road and traffic situation ahead. Safe speed on the road is determined
by the road rather than the particular driver of a vehicle. Example: A curve
ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be
taken comfortably.
11. Strategy. It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, and
direction of motion, giving signals of intent to turn or slow down, or any
other action in situations involving potential hazards.
12. Tactic. Any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations
like steering, braking, or accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.
13. Impact. The striking of one body against another or a collision of a
motor vehicle with another motor vehicle.
14. Contact Damage. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure
of some foreign object in a collision or roll over. It is usually indicated by
striations, rub-off of material or puncture.
15. Factor. Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the
result could not have occurred or it is an element necessary to produce the
result, but not by itself sufficient.
16. Primary Cause. A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or
easily explained factor in the cause of an accident or the most easily
modified condition factor.
17. Cause. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without
any one of which result could not have occurred.
18. Attribute. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person
that affects the probability of a traffic accident.
19. Modifier. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or
temporarily.
D. Kinds of Traffic Accidents. In the investigation of traffic accidents, it is
imperative for the traffic investigator to know the kinds on accident occurred
in order to map out the necessary activities to be done when responding
and investigating.
1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Refers to any accident occurring on
a traffic way involving persons using the traffic way or travel or
transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in motion. Example:
pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident which
occurs entirely in any place other than a traffic way. Example: accident on a
private driveway.
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident occurring on
a traffic way.
E. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event.
1. Running off road. This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling
on the roadside or on a cliff along mountainous roads
2. Non-collision on road. this does not involve any collision
3. Collision on road. On the other hand, this type of accident includes all
forms of accident as long as there is a collision. Examples of this are motor
vehicle colliding with:
a. Pedestrian - may be walking, running or standing on a roadway.
b. Other motor vehicle in traffic - may be head on, head and rear, sides
opposite direction, sides the same direction, head and side collision, etc
c. Parked motor vehicle - the form of collision may be similar to a moving
vehicle like head on collision, however, one is parked anywhere on a
roadway.
d. Railroad train this type of collision usually occurs along railroad
crossings.
e. Bicycle in this form of collision, it is either the motor vehicle or the
bicyclists who initiated the collision.
f. Fixed object - traffic islands, pedestrian barriers, electric post
g. Other objects - street cars, ice cream vendor, etc
F. Classification of Accidents According to Severity.
1. Property Damage Accident. There is no fatal or injury to any person
but only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to
animals.
2. Slight. Only slight damages to properties.
3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident. This results in injuries other than fatal to
one or more persons.
4. Less Serious. Only less serious injuries to persons.
5. Serious. This causes serious injuries to persons.
6. Fatal. This results in death to one or more persons.
G. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents. Traffic accidents occur
due to varying circumstances and only after thorough investigation, when
liability and responsibility can be ascertained. Notwithstanding that no
driver will readily accept that he initiated the accident. With these, the traffic
investigator is faced with a gargantuan task of bringing out the truth on who
should be held responsible for the unusual incident. His primary concern
will be to determine how and why the accident happened.
1. Simultaneous Factors
a. Road conditions.
b. Drivers' attitude or behavior.
c. Weather condition.
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe.
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction).
3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards.
b. Driver's non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.
4. Perception Factors
a. Driver's inability to react promptly to a situation.
b. Driver's faulty action to escape collision course.
then the investigator may have identified the combination of factors causing
the accident.

H. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident. For the purpose of reporting,

traffic accident may usually be described well enough as a single
occurrence but when accident is investigated, attention is directed to
particular stages of the occurrence. In fact, an accident may be usually
defined as a series of an expected events leading to damage or injury. One
event usually leads to another so that the series can be spoken of as a
"chain of events." These events are described and illustrated below:

1. Perception of Hazard. It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding

the usual or unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign
of the accident about to happend.
2. Start of evasive action. It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to
escape from a collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard
3. Initial Contact. The first accidental touching of an object collision course
or otherwise avoids a hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement. It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision.
The force between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest
at maximum engagement.
5. Disengagement. It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an
object with which it has collided. The force between the object ceases at
this time
6. Stopping. This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest. It usually
stabilizes the accident situation.
7. Injury. It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur
after the accident but within any of the chain of events. It may also happen
right after the evasive action taken by the drivers involved or during the
initial contact.
8. Other events that may occur during an accident.
I. Who Conducts the Traffic Accident Investigation? In some instances,
the police traffic officers assigned in the field or highways upon learning of
an accident usually responds and conduct initial inquiries. However, police
stations normally have designated traffic accident investigators.
In cases of Major Traffic Accidents such as those that attract national
media attention or those that involve numerous victims, the local traffic
investigator shall immediately inform the nearest PNP Highway Patrol
Group Office which shall then take the lead in the investigation under the
Special Investigation Task Group (SITG) which shall be activated to
manage the case. (PNP Field Manual on Investigation of Crimes of
Violence and Other Crimes, 2011)
When the proper crime scene processing is necessary, the traffic
investigators may also ask the assistance of the Scene of the Crime
Operation Team (SOCO Team).

J. Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation. In the

investigation of traffic accidents, the police are guided by the following
stages or levels of investigation:
1. Reporting. This stage involves basic data collection to identify and
classify a motor vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned
movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation. This level involves all action taken by the
investigator at the scene of the crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation. This involves delayed traffic accident data
collection and organization for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction. This involves efforts to determine from
whatever information is available, how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis. This last level usually involves final analysis on the
causes of accident which are bases for the prevention of similar accident.
K. Steps Taken by the Police during Traffic Accident Investigation.
Like in any other forms of police investigations, the traffic investigators
follow chronological steps in responding and investigating traffic-related
accidents to ensure gathering of thorough information.
1. Step One. Upon Learning of the Accident.
a. Ask first: When did the accident happen?; Exactly where was it?; How
bad was it?; Did you see the accident happened?; and Where can you be
reached?
b. Decide whether to go to the scene: Will scene have been cleared by the
time of arrival?; Is it in the investigator's area?; and Should headquarters
be informed or consulted?
c. Then find out, if necessary: Is traffic blocked?; Has ambulance been
called?; Has wrencher been called?; and Was fire apparatus called?
2. Step Two. Start for the Scene. With two-way radio, you can do two
things while on the way.
a. Choose Best Approach. Consider: Time; possible traffic jams; possible
route of driver involved; and probable situation at scene.
b. Drive Safely. Get there safely; if you get involved in accident yourself,
then other units must be used.
c. Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene: As possible witnesses or hit and
run drivers; and record registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.
d. Get Equipment Ready for Use. So far as practical on the way.
e. Look for Conditions confronting a driver approaching Scene: Low
visibility view obstructions; and traffic control devices.
f. Note Hazards to approaching Traffic: Drop helper to direct traffic if
necessary; and look for physical evidence. Have it guarded until it can be
examined, collected or located.
3. Step Three. Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene.
a. Select parking place carefully: Is it safe?; Will it block traffic?; and Can
headlight illuminate scene?
b. Care for injured: Stop arterial bleeding; call for help if necessary; help
injured from cars safely; protect injured from exposure; and ask for
emergency assistance from bystanders from anywhere.
c. Look over bystanders and others: Look for drivers; look for possible
witnesses; look for volunteers who will help you; and get them under
control.
d. Have Emergencies Under Control: Have spilled gasoline guarded; look
for fire and electrical hazards; look for traffic hazards; put out flares; ask
helper to direct traffic; keep bystanders off roadway; and request help from
headquarters if needed.
e. Locate drivers: Consider possibility of hit and run accident; and need to
alert headquarters.
f. Measure location of short lived evidences.
g. Arrange for clearing roadway.
h. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.
4. Step Four. When Emergency is Under Control.
a. Preliminary questioning of drivers: Who was driving each vehicle?; Note
unpremeditated statement; and look for signs of nervousness, confusion
and intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars: Question other witnesses
especially bystanders in hurry to go; and if needed, get signed statement at
once from why who may be hard to find later.
c. Examine drivers' conditions: Get specimen for chemical test; and
question about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully: Check license and record data from it; verify
and identify address; check registration and record data; verify ownership
and correct address; and Get step by step account of what driver saw and
did.
e. Position and condition of vehicles: Note lights and light switches; note
gear position and tires; mark position of vehicles if it must be removed; and
look for unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occurs.
g. Photography: Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles; and mark
skid mark location for later measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will
be taken.
5. Step Five. After Getting Short-live Evidence.
a. Get additional evidence: Make test skids; decide whether proof of
violation is sufficient for arrest; if so, make arrest or issue citation; get
additional formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene; and
have road clear if traffic is obstructed.
b. Suggestion to drivers, if necessary: How much accidents can be avoided
in the future; and tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss
them.
c. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved. Look for: View
obstructions; traffic control devices, etc.; probable points of perception; and
road surface conditions.
d. Complete examinations of vehicles.
e. Locate key event of accident.
f. Make additional photographs of: Vehicle damage; view obstruction;
pavement's conditions; and control devices, and general view, etc.
g. Establish exact location of accident and record it.
h. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
i. Review notes of evidence or testimony: Get additional facts at scene; and
identify all notes with places and time.
j. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
k. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone. Nowadays, the cellular
phone is a ready alternative in reporting to police headquarter.
6. Step Six. After Leaving the Scene:
a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.
b. Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately
questioned; and take needed additional statements.
c. Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and/or Owner of vehicles.
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
e. Have photograph developed; get prints if needed for report.
 f. Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made if necessary; file
report and copies; and complete factual data on investigation report if not
completed at scene.
g. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available
for making it.
h. Reconstruction of the accident: Estimate speeds of vehicles involved;
draw scale diagram; analyze angle of collision; get technical help if
necessary; and summarize opinions.
i. Present case summary to a lawyer.
j. Complete report or investigation.
k. Submit to superior for approval.
l. Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene which
needs attention for safety.
7. Step Seven. If Case Goes to Court:
a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.
b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following: Additional
photographs of general scene and long-lived evidence; measure for scale
diagram for use in court; and Locate additional witnesses and review their
testimony.
c. Locate also, if necessary: Relatives and friends who confirm activities
before the accident; technicians who developed pictures, made chemical
tests, etc.; and expert who can help.
d. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.
e. Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
f. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.
g. Ensure that subpoenas are issued.
h. Testify in court.
i. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.
j. Ensure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers' record and other
reports.
L. The Traffic Accident Report. In the preparation of the traffic accident
investigation report, the officer of the case must consider the following:
1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
a. By a competent, bonafide traffic accident investigator.
b. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as
evidence gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of
witnesses.
c. Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in five (5)
copies for: the Court or Prosecutor's Office; TRAFCOM (TMG) or Traffic
Division; the Investigator; the Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and
the Insurance Co. of Party-involved #2.
M. Sample of Traffic Accident Investigation Report Form. Attached on
the next pages is an example of the standard traffic accident investigation
report form used to facilitate speedy investigation of accidents. The form is
designed for an expeditious investigation because it is filled-up mostly by
checking the corresponding boxes that describe the accident.
However, additional paper is usually used by traffic accident Investigators
to prepare the on-the-spot sketch of the accident Scene
Topic 14 - HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION; SKIDMARK AS A TOOL IN
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Concept
Rationale. The objective of the investigation of a motor vehicle accident
involving the flight of one of the participants is two fold: First, responsibility
for the collision must be determined; and second, the identity of the driver
of the vehicle who fled the scene must be established.
This lesson covers the latter of these objectives, the identification of the
driver who left the scene without complying with the legal requirement of
stopping, giving aid and identifying himself to the other participants.
A. Hit-and-Run Cases Defined. Evading responsibility is a term commonly
applied to a traffic accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of the
duties required by Sec. 55 of RA 4136. Further, it states that no driver of a
motor vehicle concerned in a vehicle accident shall leave the scene of the
accident without aiding the victim, except under any of the following
circumstances, as discussed earlier in this book: If the driver is in imminent
danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason of
the accident; if the driver reports the accident to the nearest officers of the
law; or if the driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
B. Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-Run Drivers.
Hit-and-run drivers must be apprehended and the proper charges must be
filed against them because of the following reasons:
1. Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver had
promptly sought help instead of leaving the accident scene;
2. Streets would not be safe if motorists could flee accident scenes without
accepting responsibility. Unless the negligent driver is found, accident
victims cannot get compensation for injuries and property damage;
3. Public knowledge that the police usually apprehend and convict hit-and-
run drivers deters other drivers who might otherwise be inclined to evade
responsibility by committing this serious offense; and
4. Since leaving the scene of an accident is not socially acceptable, the
police secure increased public support for the entire traffic control program
by prompt apprehension and successful prosecution of these offenders.
C. Two Important Considerations. In any investigation of this kind of
accident, two basic considerations must be kept in mind. These are:
1. The driver who flees the scene of an accident is not necessarily the
driver responsible for the accident. His reasons for flight are often more
important than the simple evasion of responsibility. He may be wanted for
another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid license, etc.
2. The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage to his own vehicle as
having been the result of another hit-and-run accident in which some "other
mysterious driver" fled without identifying himself. Similarly, it is not unusual
for the hit-and- run driver to abandon his vehicle and then report it stolen as
a means of covering up his involvement in the accident.
D. Elements of Hit-and-Run. To attain the objective of identifying and
apprehending the hit-and-run driver, as the investigator:
1. You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at the time of the
accident. Even if you have witnesses to prove this, get evidence to
disprove his alibi.
2. Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or
damage to property.
3. Suspect failed to stop, give aid or information as to his identity to other
person(s) involved, to police or to anyone at the accident scene; or failed to
take reasonable steps to notify the owner of damaged property other than a
vehicle. Do not overlook the possibility of a simulated second accident to
explain damaged caused by the first accident.
4. Suspect had knowledge of the accident.
a. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.
b. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would
preclude allegation of lack of knowledge. If suspect refrained from using his
vehicle for several days since the accident, this would also indicate the
guilt.
c. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.
E. The Hit-and-Run Operator. The personality of the hit-and-run driver
may be one of the following:
1. Three categories based upon possible psychological explanations for
their motivation of flight:
a. Apprehensive-panic-drive, fearful driver: intoxicated drivers; without
license; no insurance; his companion in the car is not his/her mate; stolen
car; stolen goods in car; leaving scene of another crime; and fleeing crime
scene or wanted for crime
b. Projectionist-projects guilt. This type of drivers sits as judge and jury,
tries the case himself, finds the other driver at fault refuses to be a party to
the accident and drives off as the offended person.
c. The sneak operator. property-damage-only accidents like one that
smashes a This type involves minor fender and smashes grillwork in his
daily occupational activities and chalks up his action as the calculated risk
shared by all vehicle owners who place their vehicles on the roadway.
2. Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers. They could be: Drunk drivers;
criminals fleeing from the scene of the crime; improperly licensed drivers or
drivers with no license or with revoked or expired license; drivers who fear
publicity and prosecution; ignorance of the accident; driver who flees in
panic; drug addicts; insurance or financial reasons; and or juveniles.
F. Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run Investigation. The following usually
serve as the guideline for hit-and-run cases investigators:
1. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
2. Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and driver.
a. A good description may be obtained from partial descriptions given by
witnesses.
b. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
c. Concentrate on the car's description first.
d. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the
Headquarters and to police agencies that may assist in spotting and
stopping the suspect vehicle.
e. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and driver to all police units
and offices.
f. Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.

3. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc. 4.

Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.
a. These may include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps, paint
scrapping from hit-and-run car, other evidence such as dirt from subject
car, radiator, ornament, etc..
b. Carefully preserve and label all evidence found at the scene.
c. Request laboratory study of evidence.
d. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of
the accident. This has been known to happen.
4. The Victim
a. Check his clothing; other parts of his body, tire marks, grease, paint
chips, fragments, and such things that might have been left on him by the
suspect car.
b. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood from him at
the morgue and samples of hair, skin, etc.
c. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and
other items he was wearing at the time of the accident.

G. Follow-up Investigation. During follow-up investigation, the

investigator should:
1. Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit- and-run driver;
also operators of filling stations and garages.
2. Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garages.
3. Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and
on the same day of the following weeks to obtain additional witnesses such
as delivery men operating on scheduled routes.
4. Follow-up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts.
5. Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.
H. Search for Suspect Car. If it is located and recovered:
1. Look for physical evidence, such as latent fingerprints, pieces of clothing,
marks, damaged parts, hair, blood, etc. which will identify the car as that
involved in the hit-and-run accident.
2. Search the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there is
indication of disturbance in the grease or dirt adhering to it.
3. Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.
I. Interview of Suspect. When The suspect is apprehended:
1. Obtain a signed statement if you can.
2. Get a full account of suspect's whereabouts and write it down just in
case he refutes in later.
3. Approach and apprehend the driver of the suspect car as soon as his
identity and whereabouts are ascertained.
4. Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions
upon approach.

SKIDMARK AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Concept: (Most of these were taken from the old PC-HPG Traffic
Investigation Manual)
Skidmarks. The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked
wheel condition places great pressure between the brake shoe and the
brake drum that the frictional force at this point becomes greater than the
frictional force between the tire and the road surface. When this condition
exists, the wheels skid.
A. Skidmarks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation. The following
are the principles underlying on skid marks: as tool in investigation.
1. Measurement of skidmarks gives idea on how fast the car which left
these marks was going prior to the accident.
2. Estimates of speed based on skidmarks may lead to convictions; or
knowing how to estimate speed correctly may help to keep an innocent
person from being convicted.
For example, skidmarks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene.
A test skid made 20 miles per hour showed 20 feet long skidmarks. It was
argued in court that with skidmarks 20 feet long from a speed of 20 miles
per hour, the car must be going 80 miles per hour to leave 80 feet
skidmarks. The driver was unjustly convicted. His actual speed was more
nearly half of that, or 40 miles per hour.
B. Other Tire Marks. The investigators' first job is to find out if the mark on
the pavement is a skid mark or another type of tire mark. Thus, he must
familiarize himself with the following marks that may be left by a motor
vehicle on a road surface:
1. Centrifugal skid mark. A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire
and wheel of a speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle
is above the critical speed of the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or
partially overcomes the friction between the mass of the vehicle and its
tires and the surface of the roadway.
2. Impending skid marks. Marks caused by the forward rotation of the
wheels being slower than the forward movement of the vehicle. The
shadowy beginning of a skid mark along the approach path of the vehicle is
the impending skid mark (a.k.a. as tire shadow marks), while the darker
markings are the skid marks which begins in the impending skid mark and
ends at the point of collision or final rest.
3. Yawn mark. A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark
made on the road by a rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to
the axle of the wheel.
4. Skip mark. A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals;
the skid mark made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel
from turning. Compare with gap skid.
5. Side Skid Mark (Scuff mark) - It is a roadway marking left by the tire
and wheel of a vehicle sliding sideways as a result of force other than
centrifugal force
6. Gap skid. A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and
reapplication of brakes or which terminates by release of brakes before
collision.
C. Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on the
Road Surface or on the Other Motor Vehicle. When a motor vehicle
overturned or collided with another object like another motor vehicle, it
sometimes impresses or leaves marks that may be used to identify the
motor vehicle, if it fled the accident scene. These impressions or markings
are:
1. Ruts. A sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road; hence, a groove
forming a path for anything.
2. Gouge. A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car
after sides weeping each other or it may be left on a road surface by a
motor vehicle which overturned then slid on the road surface.
3. Paint Strips. When a vehicle collided with other object, it sometimes
transfers its paint to the other object.
D. Skidmarks as Evidence in Accident Cases. Skidmarks will: Aid in
determining the speed prior to the accident or collision; show if the vehicle
was traveling in the wrong side of the road; indicate if the driver failed to
observe the right of way; and also show if the driver did not obey a traffic
signal.
E. Skidmarks Do Not Show All of the Speed. Skidmarks never show all
of the speed of a car before the accident happened. They show only how
far the car would have had to slide to stop in the distance shown by
skidmarks.
Evidence of Additional Speed. A car is somewhat going faster and often
faster is calculated from skidmarks because in addition to losing speed is
sliding the distance shown by the skidmarks, the car losses some of its
speed on one or more of the following ways:
1. Sliding with one or more wheels before any skidmarks begin to appear.
Dark clear skidmarks do not appear until the tires have slid far enough to
get hot enough to smear rubber or scar on the pavement. This is less true
on such materials as gravel and dirt.
2. Braking without skidding. Cases that the motor vehicle does not skid
particularly: before sliding begins; during gaps; and after marks and before
the car comes to rest.
3. Dragging the car as it hits some object.
4. Damaging other cars or objects.
5. Sliding other cars or objects along the way
6. Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.
F. How to Estimate the Approximate Speed of Motor Vehicle in Case
Skid Mark is not present? In many accident of course, other evidence of
terrific speed is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF DAMAGE), but there are no
skidmarks at all because brakes were not put on hard enough to lock the
wheels. The following guides the investigator:
1. When brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the skidmarks
maybe only two or three feet long and therefore, show a speed of only five
or six miles per hour. While the wreckage tells that total speed may have
been ten times as great.
2. In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed
calculated from skidmarks may come close to showing how fast the car
was actually going. Accidents involving pedestrians are the most common
ones of this kind. 3. In any accident in which great damage was done will
skidmarks show more than small part of the speed, often a very minor part
of it; but if the skidmarks have been rightly identified and measured, it can
be said that the car was going faster than the speed calculated from the
skidmarks, much faster if there was considerable damage.
G. Things that Determine Skidding Distance. How far a car will take to
skid or slide to stop when all four wheels are locked depends on many
things. Three of these factors are important, and you must consider them in
every estimate of speeds based on skidmarks: Speed itself is by far the
most important; slipperiness of the pavement; and grade or slope of the
road whether road up or down.
H. Other Factors that Affect the Skidding. Every driver knows, of course,
that it takes much longer to stop on pavements that are slippery, and that
he can stop more quickly on an upgrade than downgrade road. Of many
other factors on which distance depends, none has had a very great effect.
Most of them will affect a calculated speed by only a few miles per hour.
They, therefore, have a little effect on the speed calculated from the
skidmarks usually not more than a couple of miles per hour. Among those
other factors are the following:
1. Brake Pedal Pressure. When wheels are actually sliding, additional
brake pedal pressure will not make the stop any quicker. Once the wheels
have been locked and the car is sliding, the brakes have done all they can
in slowing the car and the grab of the pavement on the tires is what
determines how fast the car will slow down.
2. Weight of the Car. Makes a great difference in stopping distance before
the wheels lock, but once they have locked, it makes a very little difference.
It is true that it takes much greater pressure to lock the wheels on a vehicle
when it is heavily loaded than it is empty. However, when the wheels are
once locked, a greater weight of the vehicle, which gives it greater
momentum, also causes it to press harder on the road surface and
therefore, give it a corresponding greater drag from the pavement.
3. Tire Thread. On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and one with
a deep tread pattern will stop the car in about the same distance. On some
other surfaces, particularly on ice, a smooth tread is better because it
distributes the weight over a greater area.
4. Air Pressure. Makes a very slight difference in stopping distance. On
ice, for example, soft tire will distribute the weight a little more and give
somewhat better traction.
5. Tire Material. There is a slight difference between tires made of
synthetic and those made of natural rubber.
6. Road Surface. Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on ice, tires
equipped with chains have a better road-gripping capacity. On some hard
pavements, however, chains may decrease road-gripping capacity.
7. Direction of Slides. Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire will
lengthwise except in materials so soft that it plows or sinks.
8. Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface. Make some difference.
In general, on ordinary pavements, hot weather produces longer stopping
distance. This is not necessarily on ice and snow.
9. Against Head Wind. A car will slide a little farther from given speed with
a tall wind than against a head wind, but this is not a matter of great
importance.

I. Speed Estimates. For most ordinary purposes, you do not have to

consider those minor factors in establishing speeds from skidmarks.
Because the minor factors are neglected, we cannot calculate speeds
precisely. We only estimate them. Some of the minor factors would tend to
give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they would partly
balance or cancel out.

J. Facts Needed. Good estimate of speed is based on certain facts that

come from observations and measurements at the scene of the accidents.
The accuracy of the estimate depends upon the accuracy of these
observations and measurements.
1. Length of Skidmark. Consider the following:
a. Be sure they are skidmarks - not just tire marks.
b. Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire
is sliding forward or sidewise.
c. Are there any gaps in the skidmarks? Be sure there are gaps caused by
a release of brake pedal pressure and not skids caused by bounced.
d. What is the length of each skidmarks around any curves? It may not
make straight from beginning to the end in the shortest line. You may want
to consider two separate lengths for each Skid mark.
e. Use the length that the wheels skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires which
leave two marks are considered as one wheel, and the Skid mark length is
counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this mark.
f. There are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the same kind
of pavement. These are:

(1) Straight Line. A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel skidmarks

do not go off to one side of the front wheel skidmarks.
(a) Use the length of the longest Skid mark left by any wheel minus gaps in
it. This method is possible because all wheels slide about the same
distance. We know that the brakes definitely have been applied throughout
the entire distance of the longest Skid mark.
(b) If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about to slide
when the others began. The drag on the pavement by this wheel is about
the same just before it begins to slide as when it is actually sliding. It may
even be greater.
(c) Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are dragging as
much as if there were sliding wheel skid applies to motorcycles, trucks,
truck and trailer combinations, and buses as well as ordinary motor
vehicles.
(2) Spin. A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheel skidmarks do get off
to one side of the front wheel skidmarks.
(a) Take the length of each skidmarks minus gaps. Add the Skid mark
length for all wheels and divide the numbers of wheels.
(b) This method is necessary in the case of the spins because some of the
wheels slid much farther than others; one end of the car may practically
stand still while the other sweeps around it.
(c) Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and
rear wheels; that is usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks
with trailers or heavily loaded trucks having duel tires on the rear wheels.
Uneven weight with a spin requires special calculations.
(d) This method gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It
is not necessary to compute it more accurately than to the nearest foot. For
this length you may have two figures, one a positive distance and one a
possible distance.
(e) Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example,
investigators may:

(1) Fail to show whether all wheel slid.

(2) Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by a shadow as well
as that more clearly shown by the smear of the hot tire.
(3) Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of the
skidmarks.
(4) Show only an overall length without separate measurements for each
wheel. This usually includes the wheel base of the car with the result that
the sliding distance appears to be length longer than it really is.
(5) Fail to note whether the skidmarks are straight or a spin.
(6) Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve skidmarks
rather than around its length.
(f) If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about
the distance the car slid. For legal purposes, you may assume only what
may be true beyond reasonable doubt. Hence, poor observations and
measurements often leave you little value to go on.
(g) Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more
definitely observed in investigations may be very helpful in coming to a
conclusion about what probably happened.
2. Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor. It is the measurement of the
maximum frictional resistance of pavements. It is equal to the force exerted
when the wheels are skidding divided by the weight of the car.
Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate speeds
from skidmarks. We tell what this slipperiness by a number, usually decimal
less than 1.00. When any object is sliding, the surface it slid on puts a
friction drag on sliding tire that slows the car. A slippery movement creates
a small friction drag and an abrasive pavement a big drag. If we divide the
amount of friction drag in pounds by the weight of the car in pounds, we get
the number that describes the slipperiness.
a. Principle of Computation. For example, the drag of the pavement on
the sliding tires of an automobile is 3,000 lbs.. The automobile weights
4,000 lbs. The number representing the slipperiness of the pavement, or its
friction drag, is then 3,000 divided by 4,000 or 0.75.
(1) This friction drag factor or slipperiness number is called technically the
"COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION." You can measure the drag factor of a
pavement by making a test skid which tells how far a car slides on that
pavement while stopping from a known speed.
(2) The drag factor or coefficient of friction can be determined by use of a
formula. If we let "S" stand for the speed in miles per hour from which the
test skid is made and "D" the distance in feet that car slides in coming to
stop, then the drag factor, which we call "F", the formula will be:
F = S ^ 2/ 30(D)
(3) The "30" is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and
the distance in feet (transformation of feet per second to miles per hour). It
is called a constant because it stayed the same in all problems for which
the formula is used.
(4) Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and
then divided by 30 times the stopping distance. You do not need to carry
the division out more than two places to the right of the decimal point.
b. Applying the Principle of Computation. On a test to measure
pavement slipperiness, a car was stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.
(1) Substituting these numbers for the letters representing them in the
formula, and doing the arithmetic involved, we have:
F = (S ^ 2)/300 = (30 ^ 2)/(30(40)) = 900/(1, 200) = 0.75
(2) It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness
be correctly made. You are unlikely to do it right without special experience.
(3) At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately
for each. within 0.05 each other friction calculated from any of several test
skids made on the same paving. This is necessary if you want to be sure
beyond reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.
(4) Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the best.
They thus take care of some of the minor factor such as the weight of the
car, the tire material, the tread pattern, tire pressure and therefore, make
the estimate more reliable.
3. Grade or slope (Gradient). This is the degree of inclination or
declination of the road. It is quicker to stop uphill than on level road and
downhill road.
a. Grade is measured by a number usually less than 1.00. The
measurement is the number of the feet that the road rises or falls for each
feet of the horizontal distance.
b. To find: divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance. It is not
necessary to carry these division more than two places to the right of the
decimal.
c. Use this formula:
F=horizontal distance / vertical rise or fall
d. Possible ranges of pavement Drag Factors for rubber tires. The drag
factor or coefficient of friction of a pavement of a given description may
vary considerably because quite a variety of road surfaces maybe
described in the same way. Some of these variations are due to the weight
of the vehicles, air pressure in the tire; tread design, air temperature, speed
and some other factors.

4. Reaction Time. This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes.
It is computed by:
a. Divide seconds in an hour (3,600) into feet in a mile (5,280) = 1,467.
b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 or
1.50) times the speed at which you ( 1.47 are traveling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is 3/4 of a
second on the average. The age of the driver should be considered.
d. X speed = length in feet covered before brake works.
5. Brake Tests. The brakes of the car can be tested when the test skids
are made. If the brakes are inadequate, the operator should be advised
that he may attempt to demonstrate their adequacy.
a. In most states (U.S.), a vehicle traveling at 20 mph must stop within the
following minimum distances: Two- wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should
stop within 45 ft; four-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within
30 ft.; and hand brakes: vehicle should stop within 75 ft.
b. Brake tests should not be conducted when the road surface is wet. Tests
on wet surfaces may result in personal injuries to bystanders or others
concerned in the tests. The vehicle should be examined to ascertain if it
complies with legal safety requirements and whether its braking system is
in operating order.
c. Use of Decelerometers. These are devices which hold their readings and
indicate on a clocklike face braking efficiency of the car being tested.

K. Procedure Followed by the Philippine National Police

(PNP). Members of the PNP when considering skid mark as evidence
observe the following:
1. The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the
skidmarks and the Court interprets the facts in the light of other evidence:
Some courts require the assistance of an expert; measurement should be
accomplished by two men; and sketches and photographs with
measurements indicated should be made soon after the accident.
2. Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from
the legal speed limit, if this can be done safely, and compare the skidmarks
with those in the accident.
3. Some would draw conclusions from tests based on physical calculation.
4. Measurement of Skidmarks.
a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skidmarks and the
distances should verify each other's measurements so that they can
corroborate each other's testimony in court.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skidmarks were made by
the suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.
L. Basic Principles in Calculating Speeds from Skidmarks.
1. Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed
possesses energy. As the speed of the vehicle increases, the resulting
energy developed also increases as the square of the ratio of the increase
in speed.
Examples:
20kph = 40 30kph = 90 40kph = 160
2. Stopping a Motor Vehicle. Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped,
the energy which it possesses at that time must be expended or spent. It is
only when most or all of the vehicle's energy is expended through skidding
of tires that a fairly accurate calculation may be made of the vehicle's
speed before the accident.

3. Test Runs. In making calculations for speeds from skidmarks, it is

often necessary to conduct one or more test runs, using the vehicle
involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of similar
characteristics may be used.
a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident
occurred. The character of the road, whether wet or dry should be the
same.
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. Vehicle's speedometer should be checked, and any difference from
accurate calibrations should be noted.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should
be selected for the test run.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible when the
car is moving at the selected test speed.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be
accurately determined using such equipment, either mechanically or
electrically operated.
h. It is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed. The
test of longest braking distance which favors the defendant is used in
calculation.
i. To avoid possible differences in the application of brakes by the driver, it
is advisable to have the driver of the accidents vehicle drive the car in the
test runs.
M. Speed Calculation. If vehicle stopped solely by skidding, it is possible
to calculate the speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid by using
the formula based on the principle that skidding or braking distances vary
as the square of the speed.
1. Formulas Used in finding Speed Estimates. The following are some
of the formulas being used in estimating speed (mph):
a. S= 5.5 divide by DF equals (speed on a level road)
b. S= 5.5 divide by DF (+/-f) (up or downhill)

2. Where: S = speed (mph); F = coefficient of friction (drag factor); f =

grade (1, 2, 4) or super elevation; and D distance (feet).
When accident vehicle can not be driven: When the vehicle is damaged
that it cannot be driven, part of the vehicle's energy is expended in
damaging the car and the object struck.
1. A calculation of speed from skidmarks left under these
circumstances gives a speed based only on the amount of energy
expended in the skidding.
2. Consequently, the resulting speed value may be consid- erably less
than the actual pre-accident speed, since it is not possible to determine
how much farther the vehicle would have skidded had there been no
collision.
N. Sample Problem. A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing
down along Marcos Highway suddenly steps on the brake when a young
boy ran across the vehicle's path. In the process, the vehicle skidded
before hitting the boy. When the skid mark was measured, it yields 55 ft.
long markings. Applying the formulas for speed calculations, find for the
approximate speed of the Toyota Tamaraw FX before it skidded if: 1) the
skid mark of the motor vehicle when tested at 30 mph is 35 ft. and 2) the
vertical fall of the highway is 1.5 ft. The solution will be:

1. Compute first for the Drag Factor

2. Calculate for the gradient because the highway is down hill
3. Then compute the speed by using the formula since the highway is
downhill add the computed “f”
4. Then substitute the figures: