Evaporation

Evaporation or vaporization is the process by which water changes from liquid state to
vaporous state. This change in state requires an exchange of approximately 2.5 kJ energy
for each gram of water evaporated. Two main factors influencing the evaporation from an
open water surface are the supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporization and the
ability to transport the vapour away from the evaporating surface. Solar radiation is the
main source of heat energy. The ability to transport the vapour away from the evaporating
surface depends on the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity gradient
in the air above it.

Estimating Evaporation from Free Water Surfaces

Rates of evaporation vary depending on meteorological factors and the nature of the
evaporating surface and the quality of evaporating water. Meteorological factors affecting
evaporation are solar radiation, differences in vapour pressure between a water surface
and the overlying air, relative humidity, temperature, wind, atmospheric pressure, etc. for
large bodies of water, because of the extensive surfaces involved, direct measurements of
evaporation is not possible. Therefore, a variety of techniques have been derived for
determining or estimating evaporation. Six methods are available for estimating
evaporation from free water surface:

1. Water Budget Method

The water budget method for the estimation of evaporation uses the water budget
equation of the lake or reservoir. Evaporation from the lake or reservoir is estimated by
knowing all the other terms in the water budget equation (i.e. precipitation, net surface
and ground water inflow, transpiration and change in storage). The water budget method
for determining evaporation is a very simple procedure, but it rarely produces reliable
results. This is because some other terms in the water budget equation are also difficult
to measure (e.g. seepage).

2. Energy Budget Method

This is an application of conservation of energy. Evaporation of water takes energy.

How much evaporation has occurred can be estimated by how much energy is consumed.
How much energy is consumed can be estimated by using the energy budget equation. The
energy equation accounts for incoming and outgoing energy balanced by the amount of
energy stored in the system and consumed in evaporation. Evaporation requires heat to
vaporize the liquid in form of latent heat of vaporization, which is the amount of heat
absorbed by a unit mass of a substance, without change in temperature, while passing from
liquid to the vapour state. The latent heat of vaporization varies with temperature which is
in calories per gram and in joules per kilogram are
Lhv =597.3−0.564 T ∧Lhv =2.501 x 10 −2370 T respectively wherein T is in °C.
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3. Mass Transfer (Aerodynamic) Methods

Besides the supply of heat energy, the second factor controlling the evaporation
rate is the ability to transport the vapour away from the evaporating surface. The
transport rate is governed by the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity
gradient in the air above it. This method estimates the rate of evaporation based on the
turbulent transfer of water vapour from an evaporating surface to the atmosphere. The
rate of transfer is mainly a function of the vapour pressure gradient.

4. Combination of Mass Transfer and Energy Budget Method

Evaporation may be computed by the aerodynamic method when energy supply is not
limiting and by the energy balance method when vapour transport is not limiting. But,
normally, both factors are limiting, so as a combination of the two is needed. The most
widely used is the Penman's Equation.

5. Empirical evaporation Equations

Meyer’s Formula (1915)

EL = KM (ew – ea) (1 + u9/16)

In which,
u9 = monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about 9 m above ground and
KM = coefficient accounting for various other factors with a value of 0.36 for large
deep and 0.50 for small shallow waters.
Rohwer’s Formula (1931)

EL = 0.771(1.465 – 0.000732 Pa) (0.44 + 0.0733 uo)(ew – ea)

Pa = mean barometric reading in mm of mercury
Uo = mean wind velocity in km/h at ground level, which can be taken to be the
velocity at 0.6 m height above ground.
The wind velocity can be assumed to follow the 1/7 power law.
Uh = C h 1/7
where,
Uh = wind velocity at a height h above the ground and
C = constant.
This equation can be used to determine the velocity at any desired level.
6. Use of Evaporation Pans

The most widely used method of finding reservoir evaporation is by means of

evaporation pans. Pans are basically water filled containers. Evaporation is found by
observing how much water is lost over time. There are different designs for these pans,
e.g. the US class A pan, ISI standard pan, Colorado sunken pan and the Russian GGI pan.
Evapotranspiration

In studying the water balance of a drainage basin, it is usually impracticable to

separate evaporation and transpiration, and the practicing engineer therefore treats the
two factors as a single item. Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation
directly from the soil and vegetation surface, and transpiration through leaves of plants.
The processes of evaporation from the land surface and transpiration from vegetation are
often referred to collectively by Evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration (ET) is limited
by:
(1) Supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporization,
(2) Ability to transport the vapour away from the surface, and
(3) Supply of water at the evaporative surface.

The evapotranspiration depends on the density of vegetation cover and its stage of
development. Thus, we distinguish between Potential and Actual evapotranspiration. The
Potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration that would occur from a fully
covered green vegetation surface when moisture supply is not limiting, and this is,
considered to be, equivalent to the evaporation from a free water surface of extended
proportions but with negligible heat storage capacity. Potential evapotranspiration no
longer critically depends on soil and plant factors but depend essentially on climatic
factors. The real evapotranspiration occurring in a specific situation is called Actual
evapotranspiration. Actual evapotranspiration drops below its Potential level as the soil
dries out. Clearly if we run out of moisture, the plants will not continue to transpire nor
does the soil surface continue to evaporate.