Institute of Aerospace Technology Airforce College: Fundamental Studies 1

INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY
AIRFORCE COLLEGE
FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES 1
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY
Apprentice Course
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06 Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved
MIP/MECH/TN/009
RMAF TECHNICIAN
ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMME
NAME :
CLASS :
Apprentice Course
MIP/MECH/TN/009
WARNING
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only. The information it contains is as accurate as
possible at the time of issue, and it is not subjected to
amendment action. Where the information contained in
this training note is at variance with official documents,
the latter must be taken as the overriding authority. The
contents in this training note shall not be reproduced in
any form without the expressed permission of
(MATA) SDN. BHD.
Apprentice Course
MIP/MECH/TN/009
Fundamental Studies Royal Malaysian Air Force Basic Electricity
Basic Electrical Eng. 1.1.1 - II - 1
Apprentice Course -- Phase I
1 Basic Electrical Engineering
1.1 Basic Electricity
1.1.1 Basic Atomic Theory
1.1.1.1 Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest part of an element (carbon, copper, silver) and

is built up such as a small solar system.
-1
The nucleus in its centre consists of protons and neutrons. Spinning

around the nucleus are the electrons. The structure of the nucleus and
the number of spinning electrons decide the type of element.
The nucleus of the atom and the electrons have different electric
charges:
V the protons are positively charged
V the electrons are negatively charged
V the neutrons are electrically neutral.
These different electrical charges create forces which combine to hold

the atom together.
Protons and neutrons comprise almost the total mass of an atom.
1.1.1.2 Atomic Number
The number of planetary electrons in an atom varies with the element

and gives the atomic number of the element.
-2
Figure 2 shows two examples of atomic structures.
The atomic number of carbon is six, indicating that the carbon atom
has six electrons in orbit. Copper has an atomic number of 29 and
therefore contains 29 electrons.
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An atom under normal conditions is electrically neutral. The numbers

of electrons and protons are equal and, since the negative charge on
an electron is neutralized by the equal positive charge on a proton, the
the atom as a whole has zero charge. The neutron increases the mass
of the atom but does not contribute to its charge.
-3
The chemical and electrical characteristics of an element (atom)
depend upon the action of ’free’ electrons. ’Free’ electrons or are
those electrons that appear in the outermost orbit (shell) of an atom.
1.1.1.3 Ionisation
Atoms are affected by many outside forces such as heat, light, electric
fields, magnetic fields and chemical reaction. Often the balanced state
of the atom is upset by one or more of these forces.
As a result an atom can lose or gain an outer electron. When this

happens the atom is no longer in a neutral state, and becomes an ion.
-4
Figure 4, detail a) shows an atom that is neutral because it contains an
equal number of protons and electrons. Figure 4, detail b) shows the
condition that exists when an atom loses an electron. The atom now
has one more proton than electrons. Thus there is one positive charge
that is not cancelled by a negative charge. Therefore the atom has a
net positive charge and is known as a ’positive ion’.
If an atom has ’collected’ a stray electron there is one negative charge

which is not offset by a corresponding positive charge. Therefore the
atom has a net negative charge and is known as a negative ion
(Figure 4, detail c)).
In certain materials these outer electrons are so weakly bound to their

nucleus that they can easily be forced away and left to wonder among
other atoms at random. Such electrons are the ’free’ electrons as
described before. The movement of ’free’ electrons allow electric
current to flow.
1.1.1.4 Conductors and Insulators
A conductor is a substance in which there is a constant exchange of

’free’ electrons between atoms. Pure metals are good conductors,
silver being the best and copper ranking second.
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An insulator is a substance in which there is practically no random

movement of ’free’ electrons. In this case the outer orbital electrons
are tightly bound to their parent nuclei and will not normally break
away.
Good insulators are:

V porcelain
V mica
V ebonite
V dry air
V rubber.
-5
No firm line can be drawn between conductors and insulators. Silver is

a very good conductor; rubber is a very good insulator.
Between these extremes lies a group of material which are neither

good insulators or conductors. This group is termed semi--conductors.
Semi--conductors posses some very important properties, which are

used in transistors and other solid state devices.
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Basic Electrical Eng. 1.1.1 - OT - 1
Electron
Nucleus
Electron
Electron Electron
B 0137
Figure 1 The Atomic Structure
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Nucleus (6 protons, 6 neutrons)
6P 6 electrons
6N = atomic number 6
Carbon atom
Nucleus (29 protons, 35 neutrons)
29 P 29 electrons
35 N = atomic number 29
B 0138
Copper atom
Figure 2 Atomic Number of Elements
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6P
6N
Free electron
Carbon atom
29 P
35 N
B 0139
Free electron
Copper atom
Figure 3 Free Electrons of Atoms
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a) Normal atom
13 electrons
13 protons
b) Positive ion (one electron lost)
12 electrons
c) Negative ion (one electron collected)
14 electrons
B 0140
Figure 4 Ionisation of Atoms
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Silver Good conductors
Copper
Iron
Tin Poor conductors
Germanium
Silicon Semi--conductors
Tellurium
Bakalite Poor insulators
Glass
Mica
B 0141
Rubber Good insulators
Figure 5 Conductors and Insulators
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1.1.2 Unit of Charge and Current
1.1.2.1 Unit of Charge
The charge of an electron (or proton) is extremely small and is

inconvenient for practical measurements.
The practical unit of charge or quantity of electricity is the coulomb.

The symbol for coulomb is Q.
A charge of one coulomb is equal to the charge of 6.29 ⋅ 10 18 elec-

trons.
-1
There is a basic law which states that like charges repel and unlike
charges attract (coulomb’s law).
Because like charges repel, two electrons repel each other (Figure 1,
detail a)) as do two protons (Figure 1, detail b)). It can be seen how
the lines of force interact between two electrons or protons.
The next effect is that the electrons or protons attempt to move apart.
In Figure 1, detail c) an electron and a proton are shown. Here, the
two fields interact in such a way that the two charges attract and tend
to move together.
Coulombs law holds true for concentration of charges as well.

The force of attraction or repulsion between charged bodies can be
solved by the equation:
Q1 ⋅ Q2
F =
d2
Where
F = Force of attraction between unlike charges or the force of

repulsion between like charges.
Q 1 = The charge on one body.
Q 2 = The charge on the second body.
d 2 = The square of distance between the two bodies.
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A shortage of electrons causes a positive charge and is called a

positive potential. An excess of electrons causes a negative charge or
negative potential.
-2
The difference between positive and negative charge is called a

potential difference (PD) and is measured in Volts (V). Figure 2,
detail a) shows a PD of 100 V between a positive charge and a neutral
charge, whereby the neutral charge is negative with respect to the
positive charge.
In Figure 2, detail b) a PD of 100 V between a neutral charge and a

negative charge is shown. The neutral charge is positive with respect
to the negative charge. A PD of 200 V is shown on Figure 2, detail c)
between a negative charge of --100 Volts and a positive charge of
+100 V. The neutral charge between positive and negative is negative
with respect to +100 V and positive with respect to --100 V.
A difference in potential (voltage) will cause electrons to flow from the

negative potential to the positive potential if a conductor is connected
between the two potentials. The electrons are in effect attracted or
pulled to the positive potential and repelled or pushed away from the
negative potential.
1.1.2.2 Unit of Current
Current is the flow of electrons from a negative charge to a positive

charge. In order to measure current flow, the number of electrons
passing a point in a specific time must be measured. This measure-
ment requires a unit and is known as the ampere (A).
One coulomb is equal to 6.29 ⋅ 10 18 electrons. An ampere is equal to

one coulomb per second.
When 6.29 ⋅ 10 18 electrons flow through a wire each second,

the current flow is one ampere. If twice the number of electrons flow
each second, the current is two amperes.
This relationship is expressed by the equation:
Q (coulombs) = I (amperes) ⋅ t (seconds) or
Q
I = (amperes)
t
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The symbol for quantity of current is I. The unit of current (to measure
current) is ampere (A). The name ’ampere‘ is often shortened to ’amp‘
and is further abbreviated to ‘A‘.
Often, the ampere is a too large unit. In these cases metric prefixes
are used to denote smaller units. One thousandth (0.001) of an
ampere is one milliampere (1 mA). One millionth (0.000001) of on
ampere is one microampere (1 mA).
The rate of flow of electrons can be in one of three forms known as

direct current (DC), pulsating current and alternating current (AC).
-3
A direct current is formed when an electric current is flowing continu-

ously in one direction at a steady rate (Figure 3, detail a)). A pulsating
current is formed when current flows in one direction, but undergoes
regular, recurring variations in magnitude (Figure 3, detail b)).
An alternating current is formed by an electric current which alterna-
tively reverses its direction in a circuit in a regular manner. One cycle
is a complete variation (Figure 3, detail c)).
The number of such cycles occurring in one second is termed fre-

quency. The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
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a) Like charges (electrons)
b) Like charges (protons)
c) Unlike charges (electron and proton)

N 9544
Figure 1 Behaviour of like and unlike Charges
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+ -- 100 V +
a)
+ -- +
0V +100 V
Neutral charge Positive charge
+ -- 100 V + --
b)
-- --
+ -- + --
--100 V 0V
Negative charge Neutral charge
200 V
+ -- 100 V + -- 100 V +
c)
-- --
+ -- + -- +
--100 V 0V +100 V
Negative charge Neutral charge Positive charge
B 0142
Figure 2 Potential Differences
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a) I
0 t
b) I
0 t
I
0 t
c) I
1 Cycle
0
t
B 0143
Figure 3 Forms of Current
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1.1.3 Electromotive Force and Voltage
1.1.3.1 Generation of Electricity

-1
For an electron to move (electric current), it must be given force from
somewhere. This force is converted into electricity when electrons
move. The six basic means to bring about the movement of electrons
and thus generate electricity are friction, magnetism, heat, pressure,
light and chemical action.
Friction
A good example to explain static electricity is, to generate electricity by

friction. This is done by separating electrons from their parent atoms.
If two different materials are rubbed together, electrons may be forced

out of their orbits in one material and transferred to the other material.
The material which captures electrons acquires a negative charge of
course. The material which loses electrons acquires a positive charge.
The resulting distribution of electric charges is known as static electric-

ity. Both materials retain the static charges they have acquired, until
something occurs to ’discharge’ them. Materials easily acquire a
charge of static electricity include glass, amber, hard rubber, waxes,
flannel, silk, rayon and nylon.
-2
When a hard rubber rod is rubbed with fur, the fur loses electrons to
the rod. The rod becomes negatively charged and the fur positively
charged.
Magnetism
-3
The movement of a magnet in a coil causes an induced voltage in the
latter. This depends on the direction of the magnet field and the speed
of movement of the magnet in the coil.
-4
When a bar magnet is moved into and out of a coil a measuring
instrument connected to the coil indicates a voltage (induced voltage).
This process is called induction.
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During the induction process, mechanical energy is converted into

electrical energy.
The direction of the induced voltage depends on the direction of

movement of the magnet and on the direction of the magnet field.
The value of the induced voltage increases with the speed of the
magnet.
The generation of induced voltages can be explained by the fact that

the ’free’ electrons, present in the wire of the coil, are moved by the
movement of the magnet towards one end of the coil if the magnetic
flux increases.
Heat
-5
A thermo--electric effect is caused by heat being applied to two

conductors of different metals (iron and copper) connected together.
The generated voltage depends upon the material used and the
difference in temperature between the hot and the cold junctions.
The thermo--electric effect is used to measure temperature in a

thermocouple instrument of engines, exhaust gases, ovens and
furnaces.
It can be also used to measure current flow (the current heats a

resistor in which the hot junction is placed) where direct measurement
of a current (radio frequency currents for example) is not possible.
Pressure
-6
When a quartz plate is compressed, electric charges are generated on

its faces. Tension generates charges of the opposite sign. This effect is
known as electro striction or piezoelectric effect.
This electro striction or piezoelectric property is reciprocal. When a

voltage is applied between two faces of a quartz it contracts or
expands a little, according to which face is made positive and which is
made negative.
These effects are used for transmission and reception of ultrasonic

vibrations in water (sonar, echo sounder).
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Light
-7
A photo--electric effect occurs when light strikes a photo voltaic

material and causes electrons to be emitted. The result is an electric
voltage. This effect is used in photo--diodes, photo--transistors, solar
cells and silicon cells.
Chemical Action
Dissimilar substances have opposite polarities with respect to one

another and that, when two such substances are rubbed together,
one will have a positive charge and the other a negative charge.
Dissimilar metals also have this property, and when two such metals
are placed in contact with each other, there will be a momentary flow
of electrons from the one having a negative characteristic to the one
having a more positive characteristic.
-8
If two plates of dissimilar metals are placed in a chemical solution

called an electrolyte, opposite electric charges will be established on
plate A and plate B. The result is an electrical voltage (potential
difference). This arrangement of plates in an electrolyte is known as
simple cell. If two or more cells are connected in series a battery is
created. All cells and batteries use some form of electrolyte.
If certain substances are dissolved in water they will ionise, i.e. they
will give off positive and negative ions. This is known as electrolytic
dissociation. These substances are known as electrolytes, and
conduct electric current. Electrolytes used in cells or batteries are
either acids or alkaline.
-9
The relationship between dissimilar metals is known as the electro-

chemical series. If two electrodes made of different materials are
immersed in an electrolyte, an electrical voltage is formed between
them.
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Example:
The voltage of a Zn -- Cu cell.
Potential (voltage) of the Cu electrode = +0.34 V.
Potential (voltage) of the Zn electrode = --0.76 V.
The voltage (potential difference) of this cell is:
+0.34 V -- (--0.76 V) = 1.1 V.
- 10
A simple cell comprises a zinc and a copper electrode immersed in a
solution of sulphuric acid electrolyte. The function of the cell is to
provide a source of DC power. The cell achieves this by an energy
conversion process which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy.
As the zinc dissolves in the acid, positive ions move towards the
copper electrode, causing the zinc to become negative with respect to
the electrolyte. The positive ions attach themselves to the copper
electrode, causing it to be positive with respect to the electrolyte.
In electrical engineering a negative electrode is called cathode and a
positive electrode is called anode.
A potential difference of approximately 1 V then exists between the

anode and the cathode. The potential difference depends on the plate
(or electrode) materials. The voltage of the various materials is listed
in the electro--chemical series.
- 11
If an electrical connection is now made between the anode and
cathode, the potential difference existing across will cause a current
flow in the external circuit. The current flow is proportional to the plate
area (and to a lesser extent internal resistance and temperature).
More zinc will dissolve and ions will continue to pass through the
electrolyte to the copper. Electrons will flow in the external circuit from
zinc to copper, while the conventional current flows from copper
to zinc.
An electric current will continue to flow in the external circuit until one
of several things happen:
V all the zinc has been dissolved or
V the electrolyte has become exhausted i.e. the supply of ions
has been used up.
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Once one more of these conditions has arisen the cell will no longer
generate electric current and its useful life is finished.
When a cell is generating an electric current, bubbles of hydrogen gas

form at the anode. A film of hydrogen is slowly formed and acts as a
barrier to the chemical process. After a certain time the barrier effec-
tively becomes a kind of insulator preventing further current passing.
This has the effect of causing reduced potential difference across the
anode and cathode and increased internal resistance of the cell or
battery.
The formation of a film of hydrogen at the anode of a cell when it is

connected to an external circuit is termed polarization.
Cells or batteries fall into two classes:

V primary cells
V secondary cells.
Primary cells are not re--chargeable. These cells are generally sealed
units which must be disposed of as scrap when they become dis-
charged.
Secondary cells are re--chargeable units which can be regularly

serviced to restore the chemical energy. When discharged the cells
are connected to an electrical supply of suitable voltage and current.
The resulting electrolysis action restores the active plate materials and
also the electrolyte.
The cell voltage is also affected by the concentration of the electrolyte.

The literature values relate to a so called normal solution ( one
gramme equivalent of the dissolved substances to one litre of sol-
ution).
Measurement errors occur if the surfaces of the electrodes are not free
from strange substances. Chemical changes in the electrodes sur-
faces also occur if current is drawn from the cells (polarization of an
electrode through the deposition of reaction products).
This polarization results in a reduction in a cell voltage. In chemical

sources, torch batteries for example, special preventive measures are
used to suppress this undesirable polarization.
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1.1.3.2 Electromotive Force (EMF)

- 12
An electromotive force (EMF) is an electrical pressure that is able to

force electrons to move in a current flow around a circuit. Which
means that a cell, battery or generator can generate an EMF that can
force a current to flow around a circuit.
A simple closed electrical circuit such as a conductor and a lamp

connected between the terminals of a battery provides two concurrent
energy transformations. Chemical energy is converted to electrical
energy by the battery, and electrical energy is converted to light energy
in the lamp.
Note: Beside the light energy a part of the electrical energy is converted into
heat energy that is also radiated by the lamp.
- 13
Figure 13 shows a simple electric circuit which consists of a battery,

a switch and a resistor (component that consumes energy).
The battery generates an EMF to force a current flow when the switch
is closed. In this case a potential difference (PD) exists across the
resistor. The PD is the difference in electrical pressure or voltage
between two points.
- 14
The EMF can only be measured when no current flows (Figure 14,
detail a)). When a current flows the EMF cannot be measured, only
the PD can be determined. The reason for this is that a voltage is
dropped across the internal resistor of the battery (Figure 14, de-
tail b)).
When a current flows is:
EMF = PD + internal voltage drop.
When no current flows is:
EMF = PD.
EMF and PD are both measured in volts (V).
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Friction
Chemical
action
Pressure
Heat
Magnetism
B 0291
Light
Figure 1 Sources of Electricity Generation
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1 + Charges and electrons

are present in equal
quantities in the rod and fur
Fur
Hard rubber rod
Electrons are trans--

ferred from the
fur to the rod
B 0292
Figure 2 Generation of Static Electricity by Friction
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B 0293
Figure 3 Induced Voltage
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Magnetic flux
End of coil
--
Free electrons
N
U
N
Induced voltage Voltmeter
Bar magnet +
S
Start of coil
Direction of motion
of the magnet
Magnetic flux
End of coil
+
Induced voltage Voltmeter

S
Bar magnet S --
Start of coil
Free electrons
Direction of motion
B 0294
of the magnet
Figure 4 Induction Process
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Copper
Copper
Junction
(hot)
Junction
(cold)
Iron
B 0295
Figure 5 Thermoelectric Effect
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B 0296
Expanded quartz
Electrostatic Effect
Metal plates
Figure 6
Quartz
Compressed quartz
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Sunshine
B 0297
Solar cell
Figure 7 Photo--Electric Effect
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Plate a
Plate b
B 0298
Electrolyte
Simple cell
Figure 8 Chemical Effect
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Name of metal Electrode potential (volts)
zinc -- 0.76
chronium -- 0.56
iron -- 0.44
cadmium -- 0.40
indium -- 0.34
nickel -- 0.22
tin -- 0.14
lead -- 0.13
hydrogen 0.00
copper + 0.34
mercury + 0.79
silver + 0.80
platinum + 0.90
gold + 1.50
B 0144
Figure 9 Electro--Chemical Series
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-- +
Acid (H2SO 4)
SO −
4
H+
Zn +
H+
B 0145
Zinc (Zn) Copper (Cu)
Copper (Cu) = Anode (Electrode)
Zinc (Zn) = Cathode (Electrode)
Sulphuric
acid (H 2SO 4) = Electrolyte
Figure 10 Unloaded Simple Cell
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Conventional current
-- +
Electron flow
Acid (H2SO 4)
SO −
4
H+
Zn +
H+
B 0146
Zinc (Zn) Copper (Cu)
R (Resistor) = Electrical load
Copper (Cu) = Anode (Electrode)
Zinc (Zn) = Cathode (Electrode)
Sulphuric
= Electrolyte
acid (H 2SO 4)
Figure 11 Loaded Simple Cell
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Bulb
Current flow
Cell
Battery EMF
Generator N 9543
Current flow
Figure 12 Electromotive Force (EMF)
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Current flow
Switch
Battery Resistor PD
B 0147
Current flow
Figure 13 Potential Difference (PD)
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a)
Switch
Battery
EMF Resistor
Internal resistor
b)
Current flow
Switch
Battery
Resistor PD
Voltage drop
Internal resistor
B 0148
Current flow
Figure 14 EMF and PD
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1.1.4 Fundamentals of Electricity
1.1.4.1 Resistance Fundamentals
Resistance is that property which opposes current flow. Some ma-

terials such as glass and rubber, offer a great deal of opposition to
current flow; they are said to have ’a very high resistance’.
Other materials, such as silver or copper, offer very little opposition to
current flow. Therefore they have ’a very low resistance’.
The schematic symbol of resistance is R.
The unit of resistance is the Ohm (W) .
For smaller and larger resistance values the following terms are used:
1 Ohm =1 micro--Ohm =1 mW
1000000
1 Ohm =1 milli--Ohm =1 mW
1000
1000 Ohm =1 kilo--Ohm =1 kW
1000000 Ohm =1 Mega--Ohm =1 MW
Resistance is deliberately added to electric circuits to limit currents or

to divide voltages.
The devices used to add known resistance to a circuit are called

resistors.
-1
Resistors in circuit diagrams are sketched down by symbols as shown
in Figure 1.
Three factors affect resistance:

1. Length of resistance material, whereby the resistance is propor-
tional to length.
2. Cross--sectional area of resistance, whereby the resistance is in-
versely proportional to cross--sectional area.
3. Resistance material. Each material has a characteristic resistance
or resistivity (symbol Ã pronounced rho). Rho is normally the resis-
tance of a metre length of material with a cross--sectional area of
one millimetre squared (1 mm 2 ).
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mm 2
The unit for rho is given in Ω ⋅m
The values for
Copper mm 2
= 0.0178 Ω ⋅m
Iron mm 2
= 0.13 Ω ⋅m
Constantan mm 2
= 0.490 Ω ⋅m
The previous described factors have a narrow relationship:
length in metres ⋅ specific resistance

Resistance =
area in mm 2
expressed by the formula:
Ã
R = l⋅
A
Conductance is the opposite of resistance and is defined as the ease

with which a material passes current. Conductance is the reciprocal of
resistance:
Conductance = 1
Resistance
The unit of conductance is the Siemens (S).
Therefore is S = 1 or R = 1
R S
1.1.4.2 Ohm’s Law

-2
For a given battery voltage, different materials and different shapes

and length of the same material will allow different amounts of current
to flow.
For a given voltage U in volts and a given resistance R in Ohms there

will be a proportional current I in amperes.
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A conductor has a resistance of one Ohm (1 W) if a PD (potential

difference) of one volt (1 V) across the conductor establishes a current
of one ampere (1 A). The relationship, known as Ohm’s Law, is often
expressed as:
R = U
I
in which
R = Resistance of conductor in Ohms (W),

U = Pressure, or voltage across the conductor (resistor)
in volts (U),
I = Current through the conductor (resistor) in amperes (A).
The expression R = U can also be arranged in other formats.

I
For current:
I = U
R
For voltage:
U = I⋅R
1.1.4.3 Resistor Circuits

-3
Resistor circuits are series circuits (Figure 3, detail a)), parallel circuits
(Figure 3, detail b)) or a combination of series and parallel circuits
(Figure 3, detail c)).
Series Circuit
-4
When the voltage is applied to the circuit a current is forced through

the circuit. The current is the same in all resistors of the circuit.
I = I1 = I2 = I3
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The total resistance RT equals the sum of the separate parts.
R T = R1 + R2 + R3
Because the same current flows in all resistors of the circuit, the
voltage across each resistor can be found by multiplying by I.
Example:
U = I ⋅ R1 + I ⋅ R2 + I ⋅ R3
U = U1 + U2 + U3
I = U
RT
10 V
I =
5 Ω + 3 Ω + 2 Ω
I =1A
U = I ⋅ R1 + I ⋅ R2 + I ⋅ R3
10 V = 5 V + 3 V + 2 V
10 V = 10 V
Parallel Circuit
-5
The voltage is the same across each parallel branch (including the
applied voltage).
U = U1 = U2 = U3
The total current I T supplied to the circuit equals the sum of the
currents through the parallel branches.
I T = I1 + I2 + I3
U = U1 + U2 + U3
R T R1 R2 R3
But U is common (U = U1 = U2 = U3) therefore is :
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
R T R1 R2 R3
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The reciprocal of the total resistance R T equals the sum of the

reciprocal resistance of the individual branches.
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT 6 Ω 3 Ω 2 Ω
1 = 6
RT 6 Ω
RT = 1 Ω
24 V
I1 = = 4 A
6 Ω
24 V
I2 = = 8 A
3 Ω
24 V
I3 = = 12 A
2 Ω
I T = I1 + I2 + I3
I T = 4 A + 8 A + 12 A
I T = 24 A
24 V
IT = U = = 24 A
RT 1 Ω
-6
Sometimes only two resistors are connected in parallel. For the
determination of the total resistance a simplified formula has been
developed:
RT = R1 ⋅ R2
R1 + R2
4 Ω⋅6 Ω
RT =
4 Ω + 6 Ω
24 Ω 2
RT =
10 Ω
R T = 2.4 Ω
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-7
Sometimes two or more resistors which have the same value are
placed in parallel. There is a simple rule which governs this arrange-
ment. The total value (R T) is determined by dividing the value of one
individual resistor, by the number of similar resistors in parallel.
Value of one resistor

RT =
Number of resistors
The total resistance of the circuit as shown in Figure 7 is:
R T = R1
4
RT = 5 Ω
Series Parallel Circuit

-8
A circuit which consists of combinations of resistors in series and
parallel can be solved by reducing any parallel to a single equivalent
resistance and adding any resistance which may be in series in that
branch, repeating the procedure as necessary.
The total resistance is simple to calculate by the use of the formulae

for calculation of series and parallel resistors. The procedure is to
calculate an equivalent resistance for the parallel circuit (R2, R3). Then
this equivalent resistance is added to the series resistance (R1, R4).
The first step is to find the equivalent for the parallel network made up
of R2 and R3 and to label it R A.
RA = R2 ⋅ R3
R2 + R3
200 Ω ⋅ 300 Ω
RA =
200 Ω + 300 Ω
60000 Ω 2
RA =
500 Ω
R A = 120 Ω
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-9
Now R A is substituted for the parallel network of R2 and R3.

The circuit becomes a simple series network, therefore the formula for
calculating the total resistance of a series connected circuit can be
used.
R T = R1 + R A + R4
R T = 100 Ω + 120 Ω + 300 Ω
R T = 520 Ω
1.1.4.4 Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

- 10
At any junction in a circuit, the currents flowing in are always exactly

equal to the currents flowing out of the junction.
I1 + I2 = I3
When the incoming currents are labelled with +sign, and the outgoing
currents are labelled with --sign, the sum of all currents within the
junction is zero.
I1 + I2 − I3 = 0
- 11
Figure 11 shows a circuit of seven resistors in which the currents and

the direction of three are known. The junction are named A, B, C
and D. Under the use of Kirchhoff’s Law the unknown currents and
their directions can be determined.
At junction ’A’, I2 and I3 are outgoing currents. Therefore I1 is an

incoming current.
I1 = I2 + I3
I1 = 2 A + 4 A
I1 = 6 A
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At junction ’C’, I2 acts as an incoming current. I5 is an outgoing

current. I4 is determined as an incoming current, too.
I5 = I2 + I4
I4 = I5 − I2
I4 = 3 A − 2 A
I4 = 1 A
At junction ’B’ current I3 acts as an incoming current. I6 and I4 are

designed as outgoing currents.
I3 = I4 + I6
I6 = I3 − I4
I6 = 4 A − 1A
I6 = 3 A
The direction of I6 is from junction ’B’ to junction ’D’. At junction ’D’ the
currents I5 and I6 are incoming currents. I7 is the outgoing current,
flowing from left to right.
I7 = I5 + I6
I7 = 3 A + 3 A
I7 = 6 A
I1 = I7 = 6 A
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- 12
If all the voltage drops across the resistors in a closed circuit are
added together, their sum always equals the voltage applied to that
closed circuit.
U S = U1 + U2
In such circuit the sum of all voltages with respect to their directions
equals zero (counting clockwise positive, starting with U B1).
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Circuit, Figure 12, detail a):
− U B1 + U1 + U2 − U B2 = 0
− 120 V + 135 V + 45 V − 60 V = 0
Circuit, Figure 12, detail b):
− U B1 + U1 + U2 + U B2 = 0
− 120 V + 45 V + 15 V + 60 V = 0
It is important to consider the direction (polarity) of the voltage drops

and the applied voltages in a circuit. If there is more than one voltage
source, the actual applied voltage (U S) is the combined value of all
sources.
Thus, in Figure 12, detail a) the two battery voltages (U B1, U B2) are
connected in such a way that they aid each other and the total applied
voltage is the sum (U S = U B1 + U B2).
Whereby in Figure 12, detail b) the battery voltages oppose each other
and the total applied voltage is the difference (U S = U B1 – U B2).
- 13
Figure 13 shows a circuit of four resistors in which the voltage drops

and their direction of two are known. The applied voltage (Us) is 120 V.
Under the use of Kirchhoff’s voltage law the unknown voltage drops
can be calculated.
U S = U1 + U3 + U4
U3 = U S − U1 − U4
U3 = 120 V − 45 V − 35 V
U3 = 40 V
− U S + U1 + U3 + U4 = 0
− 120 V + 45 V + 40 V + 35 V = 0
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U S = U1 + U2
U2 = U S − U1
U2 = 120 V − 45 V
U2 = 75 V
− U S + U1 + U2 = 0
− 120 V + 45 V + 75 V = 0
U2 = U3 + U4
75 V = 40 V + 35 V
The Wheatstone Bridge
The two statements in Kirchhoff’s Law about the sums of currents and
voltages in a circuit are useful for solving certain circuit problems.
- 14
The arrangement of resistors as shown in Figure 14 is called a

’Wheatstone Bridge’. If the meter indicates no reading, then no current
is flowing between junctions ’B’ and ’C’, and so these points must be at
the same voltage. The bridge is then ’balanced’.
For points ’B’ and ’C’ to be at the same voltage, the voltage drop
across R1 must be the same as the voltage drop across R2. Moreover,
the voltage drop across R3 must be the same as that across R4.
If these voltage drops expressed in terms of I ⋅ R (U1 = I1 ⋅ R1),

for example it can be worked out that the meter reads zero, and the
bridge is balanced, when
U1 = U2
U3 = U4
Therefore is:
I1 ⋅ R1 = I2 ⋅ R2
I3 ⋅ R3 = I4 ⋅ R4
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The voltage drops must be in the same ratio if ’B’ and ’C’ have the
same potential.
i. e.
R1 = R2 or R1 = R3
R3 R4 R2 R4
- 15
The ’Wheatstone Bridge’ is used to measure an unknown resistance

(R X) as follows: R1 and R2 are of known fixed values, whereas R3 is a
calibrated variable resistor.
The unknown resistance is inserted in the bridge instead R4. R3 is

adjusted until there is no reading in the meter. The adjustment of R3 is
performed by a knob with an Ohm -- scale around, so the unknown
resistor is directly indicated.
1.1.4.5 Internal Resistance

- 16
Any source of supply must posses some ’Internal Resistance’ (R i) and

when a current flows in the circuit a voltage drop is developed across
this internal resistance. The internal resistance of the supply is 0.5 Ω
and the external resistance of the circuit is 5.5 Ω.
The total resistance of the circuit is:
R T = R i + R1
R T = 0.5 Ω + 5.5 Ω
RT = 6 Ω
The total current through the circuit is:
I T = EMF
RT
12 V
IT =
6 Ω
IT = 2 A
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Therefore two amperes are flown through the two resistances in series
developing a voltage drop each.
U Ri = I T ⋅ R i
U Ri = 2 A ⋅ 0.5 Ω
U Ri = 1 V
The polarity of U Ri is as shown in Figure 16 and is such as to subtract

from the EMF.
The terminal voltage PD of the supply (sometimes named applied

voltage) between terminals ’A’ and ’B’ is therefore:
PD= EMF − U Ri
PD= 12 V − 1 V
PD= 11 V
The current I T is checked again by the use of PD and R1:
I T = PD
R1
11 V
IT =
5.5 Ω
IT = 2 A
Conclusion:
When a current is taken from a supply, the PD is equal to the EMF

minus the voltage drop across the internal resistance of the supply.
EMF = PD + U Ri
EMF = I T ⋅ R T
PD = I T ⋅ R (external resistance)
1.1.4.6 Construction of Resistors
Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors are made of special resistance wire, carbon composi-

tion, or metal film. The construction adopted depends mainly upon the
value of current the resistor is expected to carry.
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While a resistor is flown through by a current, heat is continually

generated. If this heat cannot be lost easily and quickly, the resistor
will overheat and may burn out. Hence, in selecting a resistor, both the
value of resistance and the rate at which the resistor can lose or
’dissipate’ heat are important.
Bulky resistors lose heat more readily than tiny ones and the physical
size documented an indication of the rate at which heat can be
dissipated by the resistor. The size is not an indication of the resis-
tance value of a resistor.
Wire--wound resistors can normally be made physically larger than

carbon resistors so that they lose heat more readily. They are there-
fore used to control large currents. Carbon resistors are used for
smaller currents.
Carbon Composite Resistors
The element carbon is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator.

It falls in between and is an ideal material for resistor construction.
- 17
Figure 17 shows the construction of a carbon composite resistor.

Granules of carbon and binder material are mixed together and
shaped into a rod. Wire leads are inserted and the package is sealed
with a non--conducting coating and colour coded.
This type of resistor has a very poor stability. The resistance value
varies considerably with temperature and load. Consequent it can only
be used in circuits where a considerable change in resistance is of no
importance to the circuit. The power that can be dissipated in this type
of resistor is relatively small. A typical value would be 2 Watts.
Carbon composite resistors are inexpensive, are easily manufactured

and obtainable over a large range of values.
Cracked Carbon Resistors
The stability of this type of resistor is far superior to that of the com-
posite carbon resistor.
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- 18
These resistors are manufactured by depositing a resistive film on a

non--conductive rod. Then the value of resistance is set by cutting a
spiral groove through the film. Therefore these resistors are called film
resistors. The most common type of film resistors is the cracked ribbon
type. Metal film types are also in use.
Wire--wound Resistors
The wire--wound resistors are often used in high current circuits,

where relatively high amounts of power must be dissipated. The
resistance can vary from less than 1 Ohm to several thousand Ohms.
- 19
The wire--wound resistor is constructed from nickel--chrome or

copper--nickel wire, wound on a ceramic former. These wires possess
a high resistivity and the small amount of wire required for a particular
resistance gives a resistor of reasonable size.
In addition, the temperature coefficient of resistance is low and,

therefore, resistivity remains fairly constant despite variations in
temperature.
- 20
After the resistor has been wound with the special resistance wire,
leads are attached to each end and the entire resistor is covered with
a hard protective coating so that high operating temperature will not
oxidise the wires. The value of resistance in Ohms is normally sten-
cilled or stamped on the resistor.
The wire--wound resistor has good stability characteristic, which are

often used to best advantage in the production of precise value
resistors required in measurement equipment.
Metal Film Resistors
Metal film resistors combine the stable characteristics of the wire--

wound resistor with the simplicity of the cracked carbon resistor.
The metal film resistor is widely used in electrical circuits.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
- 21
Figure 21 shows the construction of this type of resistor. Here, a

resistance film is deposited on a non--conductive rod. Then the value
of resistance is set by cutting a spiral groove through the film.
Variable Resistors
The volume controls on television and radio receivers are typical

examples of variable resistors. These devices can be varied in value
by simply rotating a shaft. A variable resistor is categorized into two
types, the rheostat and the potentiometer.
The Rheostat
- 22
A rheostat is a variable resistor which is inserted in series with other

devices in a circuit. Its value can be varied to alter the current in the
circuit. It has only two connections.
The Potentiometer
- 23
A potentiometer is a resistor arranged in such a manner, that a certain

proportion of the applied voltage can be ’tapped off’ for application to
another part of the circuit. A potentiometer always has three connec-
tions. The output voltage is variable between 0 % and 100 % of the
input voltage.
- 24
Variable resistors are constructed as carbon composition, cracked--

carbon film or wire--wound types depending on the stability and power
requirement.
A potentiometer consists of an incomplete ring (wire on either a

ceramic former or a carbon track), the ends of which are taken out to
two terminals. A wiper arm, operated by a shaft makes electrical
contact with this ring and is connected to the centre terminal.
As the wiper arm is moved, the resistance value between either of the
end terminals and the centre terminal is varied. The whole assembly is
enclosed in a sealed plastic or metal container.
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1.1.4.7 Coding of Resistors

- 25
The common types of resistors used in electronic engineering use

axial leads and the ohmic value of these resistors is indicated by
colour bands placed around one end of the device. Most resistors
have four colour bands. There are two methods of colour coding
(body--tip--spot and band method) as shown on Figure 25.
Example for the body--tip--spot method:

- 26
Body = green (5)
Tip = red (2)
Spot = orange (3)
Therefore the value of the resistor is 52 ⋅ 10 3 Ω = 52 kΩ.

The tolerance of the resistor value is +
− 20 % because there is no
colour information about the tolerance.
Example for the band method:

- 27
1. band = grey (8)
2. band = blue (6)
3. band = yellow (4)
4. band = gold
Therefore the value of the resistor is 86 ⋅ 10 4 Ω = 860 kΩ. The

tolerance of the resistor value is +
− 5 % because the colour informa-
tion about the tolerance is gold.
Identification of Resistor Values

- 28
Figure 28 shows which colours are associated with which colour code
bands on the resistor. In order to determine the resistance value in
Ohms and the tolerance in percent, the colour bands examined,
starting with the one closest to the end of the resistor.
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Description Symbol
Fixed resistor: General symbol
Alternative general symbol
Fixed resistor with fixed tapping

( voltage divider )
Alternative symbol
Fixed resistor with fixed tappings
Alternative symbol
Variable resistor: General symbol
Alternative symbol
Resistor with preset adjustment
Alternative symbol
Resistor with moving contact

( current limiter )
Alternative symbol
B 0149
Figure 1 Resistor Symbols
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+
U R
_
B 0150
R = U I = U U = I⋅R
I R
Figure 2 Ohm’s Law and its Equations
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a) Series circuit
R1 R2
R3
b) Parallel circuit
R1 R2 R3 R4
c) Series--Parallel circuit
R1 R2
R6 R3 R4
B 0151
R7 R5
Figure 3 Resistor Circuits
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I1
I
R1 = 5 Ω
U1
U = 10 V R2 = 3 Ω I2 U2
U3
B 0152
R3 = 2 Ω
I3
Figure 4 Resistor Series Circuit
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I1 U1
R1 = 6 Ω
I2 U2
R2 = 3 Ω
I3 U3
R3 = 2 Ω
B 0153
IT U = 24 V
Figure 5 Resistor Parallel Circuit
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R1 = 4 Ω
R2 = 6 Ω
B 0154
RT
Figure 6 Two Resistors in Parallel
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R1 = 20 kΩ
R2 = 20 kΩ
R3 = 20 kΩ
R4 = 20 kΩ
B 0155
RT
Figure 7 Equal Resistors in Parallel
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R3 = 300 Ω
R2 = 200 Ω
R1 = 100 Ω R4 = 300 Ω
B 0156
RT
Figure 8 Resistor Parallel Series Circuit
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R A = 120 Ω
R1 = 100 Ω R4 = 300 Ω
B 0157
RT
Figure 9 Simple Series Network
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R1
I1
R3
R2 I3
I2
Junction
R1
I1
R3
I3
R2
B 0158
I2
Figure 10 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
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I7 = ?
R7
Example of Kirchhoff’s Current Law

B 0159
I5 = 3 A
I6 = ?
R6
R5
I4 = ?
C
B
R4
I3 = 4 A
I2 = 2 A
R3
R2
Figure 11
A
I1 = ?
R1
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a)
U B1 = 120 V R1 U1 = 135 V
U S = 180 V
U B2 = 60 V R2 U2 = 45 V
b)
U B1 = 120 V R1 U1 = 45 V
U S = 60 V
U B2 = 60 V R2 U2 = 15 V
B 0160
Figure 12 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
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R1 U1 = 45 V
U3 = ? V R3
U S = 120 V R2 U2 = ? V
U4 = 35 V R4
B 0161
Figure 13 Example on Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
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IT
I1 I2
U1 R1 R2 U2
US B C
Meter
U3 R3 R4 U4
I3 I4
B 0162
Figure 14 Wheatstone Bridge
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RX
R2
R1 R3
0
70 10
Knob
60 Ω 20
Value indicated
50 30
40
B 0163
Figure 15 Resistance Measurement with

Wheatstone Bridge
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I
A
--
Ri 0.5 Ω U Ri
+ PD R1 = 5.5 Ω
Supply
+
EMF 12 V
--
B 0164
Figure 16 Internal Resistance
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B 0165
Figure 17 Carbon Resistor
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B 0299
Figure 18 Cracked Carbon Resistor
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B 0300
Figure 19 Wire--wound Resistor
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6.2 kΩ
100 W
An indication of maximum heat that can be dissipated
65 Ω 14 W
30 Ω 30 W
15 Ω 6 W
10 Ω 10 W
B 0301
10 Ω 3 W
Figure 20 Examples of Wire--wound Resistors
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B 0302
Figure 21 Metal Film Resistor
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I
Rheostat
Electronic device
Supply
B 0166
Figure 22 Use of a Rheostat
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Potentiometer
Supply
(U in)
(U out) Electronic device
B 0167
Figure 23 Use of a Potentiometer
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Wiper arm
Wire--wound resistor
or carbon track
Shaft
Spring contact
Terminals
Terminals
1 2
3
2
1
Movable shaft
1
2
3
B 0303
Figure 24 Examples of Variable Resistors
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Body--tip--spot method
Body (1. number) Spot (multiplier)
Tip (2. number) Tolerance
Band method
1. band (1. number) 3. band (multiplier)
B 0168
2. band (2. number) 4. band (tolerance)
Figure 25 Methods of Resistor Coding
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Green Orange
B 0169
Red
Figure 26 Body--Tip--Spot Method
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Grey Yellow
B 170
Blue Gold
Figure 27 Band Method
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Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4

Colour
First number Second number Multiplier Tolerance
black 0 0 1
brown 1 1 10
red 2 2 100
orange 3 3 1000
yellow 4 4 10000
green 5 5 100000
blue 6 6 1000000
violet 7 7 10000000
grey 8 8 100000000
white 9 9 1000000000
gold 0.1 ¦ 5%
silver 0.01 ¦ 10%

B 0171
none ¦ 20%
Figure 28 Resistor Value and Tolerance Colour Code
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1.1.5 Energy and Power
1.1.5.1 Introduction
An important part in the study of electricity is the proper use of the

correct terminology.
The statement ’the voltage through a circuit is so many volts’ is not
correct. Voltage does not pass through a circuit. Voltage or PD exists
between two points and therefore the correct statement is ’the voltage
across a circuit’ or ’the voltage between two points in a circuit’.
Likewise, the statement ’the current across a circuit is so many
amperes’ is not correct. Current does not exists across two points,
it flows through the wires and through the circuit. It should be said ’the
current through the circuit’ or ’the current through the resistor’.
Just as it is important to use the terms ’voltage’ and ’current’ correctly,
it is also important to use the terms ’energy’ and ’power’ according to
their technical meaning.
1.1.5.2 Energy
Energy is defined as the capability to do work. Energy has different

forms. ’Electrical energy’ is one form, because electricity is capable of
performing work. But it is necessary to use some kind of electrical
components to convert electrical energy into some other forms of
energy to accomplish work.
For example, an electric motor is used to exert a vertical force on an
elevator through a distance. Other examples of energy are heat and
light.
One of the first types of energy was mechanical energy. Mechanical
energy exists in two forms:
V potential energy and
V kinetic energy.
-1
Potential energy is the energy that a body has by virtue of its position.
It took a certain amount of work to get the box on the table. A vertical
force had to be exerted through a distance to accomplish this.
Once the box is resting in the table, it is capable of doing work simply
because of its position. In other words, it has potential energy.
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-2
If the box is knocked off the table, it will fall and strike the ground with
an impact. It is supposed there is a nail resting under the box where it
strikes. If the box is heavy enough, it can actually push the nail into a
wooden floor. Since this requires a force through a distance, the box
is capable of doing work.
Although the box resting on the table has potential energy, it will do no
work until this potential energy is converted into some other forms.
As the box is moving through space it has energy by virtue of its
motion. This is called kinetic energy. Both kinetic and potential energy
are forms of energy which represents the capability to do work.
When energy is converted into work, some of it may be lost in the form
of heat. The energy and the amount of work done are equivalent;
the heat losses are neglected.
Electrical energy expressed in watt--seconds (Ws) or watt--hours (Wh)

is found by multiplying the voltage times the current times the time.
Electrical energy = Volts ⋅ Ampere ⋅ time
W = U⋅I⋅t
1.1.5.3 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is
being used. Whenever the term power is used it should be noticed that
there is a certain amount of time involved.
The amount of energy in an electric circuit is obtained by multiplying

the voltage times the current times the time. The amount of electric
power is equal to the amount of energy, per unit of time. The word ’per’
means to divide.
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Energy
Power =
Time
Power = U ⋅ I ⋅ t
t
The two t’s cancel and the equitation for power becomes:
P = U⋅I
This is the basic equitation for electric power. When the voltage is in
volts and the current is in amperes, the power is given in watts.
From Ohm’s Law it is known that:
U = I ⋅ R; I = U
R
If these equations are used in conjunction with the power equation,
two furthermore definitions for power are obtained:
P = U⋅I U = I⋅R
P = I⋅R⋅I
P = I2 ⋅ R
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P = U⋅I I = U
R
P = U⋅U
R
2
P = U
R
Now three formulas are available to calculate power:
2
P = U⋅I P = I2 ⋅ R P = U
R
1.1.5.4 Maximum Power Transfer

-3
Maximum power is transferred from the source of electric power to the

load when the internal resistance of the source has the same resis-
tance as the load.
i.e. when:
R i = R Load
This is known as resistance matching and is of importance in radio

and electronic circuits, where a high internal resistance power source
exists.
Resistance matching is not considered when loads to the mains or

secondary batteries are connected because the internal resistance is
so low that the battery or mains would be overloaded.
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B 0172
Figure 1 Potential Energy
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B 0173
Figure 2 Kinetic Energy
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Ri
R Load
Supply
+
EMF
--
B 0174
Maximum power is transferred when:
R i = R Load
Figure 3 Maximum Power Transfer
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1.1.6 Capacitive Circuits
1.1.6.1 Capacitor
-1
A basic capacitance or capacitor consists of two metal conducting

plates separated by an insulator called a dielectric (Figure 1, detail a)).
It is an electronic component designed to retain an electric charge.
Figure 1, detail b) shows the symbol of a capacitor as used in circuit
diagrams. Normally parallel plates are used to store this electricity as
an excess of electrons on one plate and a deficiency on the other
plate.
-2
When the switch of the charge circuit is placed in position A the

applied voltage forces electrons to the negative plate and removes
electrons from the positive plate.
-3
The voltage between the plates forms an electric field. That means the
positive plate gives up electrons and the negative plate attracts
electrons.
Figure 3, detail a) shows uncharged positive and negative plates.

The positive plate gives up electrons easily, while the negative plate
offers little opposition to electron movement. When the plates are
partially charged (Figure 3, detail b)) the positive plate opposes the
movement of electrons from the plate and the negative plate slows
down electron movement.
The flow of electrons (charging current) continues until the potential

difference across the plates equals the applied voltage. The capacitor
is then fully charged and stops electron movement (Figure 3, detail c)).
-4
Figure 4 shows a graph of the current (I) and the potential difference
PD (U) across the capacitor during charging against the time.
The shaded area in the graph represents the product of the average
current in amperes and the time in seconds. From this it is possible to
calculate the amount of charge (Q) in coulombs:
Q = I⋅t
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1.1.6.2 Unit of Capacitance
Capacitance (C) is the ability of a capacitor to store an electric charge.

The unit of capacitance (C) is the ’Farad’ (F).
A capacitor has a capacitance (C) of one Farad (F) if a charge of one

coulomb (Q) raises the potential difference by one volt (U). This is
expressed mathematically as:
charge in coulombs (Q)

capacitance (C) =
PD in volts (U)
Therefore is:
Q
C= or Q= C⋅U
U
With Q = I ⋅ t (Amperes ⋅ seconds) and PD in volts is:
1 Farad (F) = 1 ⋅ As
V
In practice the Farad is an inconveniently large unit and capacitance is

usually expressed in:
V microfarad (mF) = 10 −6
V nanofarad (nF) = 10 −9
V picofarad (pF) = 10 −12
1.1.6.3 Electric Field Strength
The strength of an electric field or ’Electric Field Strength (E)’ which

exists between two potentials or two plates of a capacitor is measured
in volts per metre or volts per centimetre (distance):
E = Volts
distance
-5
Figure 5, detail a) shows a charged capacitor. The distance between

the plates is 2 mm and the applied voltage is 150 V.
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The electric field strength (E) is:
150 V
E =
0.2 cm
V
E = 750 cm
Figure 5, detail b) shows two parallel wires. The distance between the
wires is 5 m. The potential of wire ’A’ is 30 kV and of wire ’B’ is 0 V.
The electric field strength (E) is:
30 ⋅ 10 3 V
E =
5 m
V
E = 6000 m
E = 6 kV
m
1.1.6.4 Dielectric Strength -- Breakdown Voltage
The dielectric strength measured in kilo volts of an insulator (dielectric

in a capacitor) is the breakdown voltage, required to puncture one
millimetre thickness of insulation. The dielectric strength is defined as:
kV
mm
The dielectric strength of the dielectric of a capacitor must always be

much greater than the electric field strength. Otherwise a spark will
jump through the insulation and the capacitor cannot hold a charge on
the plates. In any dielectric the breakdown voltage will depend upon:
V dielectric material type
V thickness of the dielectric (thickness increases the break-
down voltage)
V temperature of dielectric (temperature increases or decreases
the breakdown voltage)
V frequency of the applied voltage (higher frequencies increase
the temperature).
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Examples of dielectric strength of important materials used in capaci-

tors are shown in the following table.
Dielectric Dielectric Strength

Air 3 kV/mm
Paper 15 kV/mm
Ceramics 60 kV/mm
Polystyrene 75 kV/mm
Mica 100 kV/mm
1.1.6.5 Factors affecting Capacitance
The capacitance between two plates depends on the following:

1. Area (A) of plates.
2. Distance (d) between the plates.
3. Dielectric.
Increasing the charge in coulomb that the capacitor can hold increases
the capacitance as shown in the formula below:
charge in coulombs (Q)

capacitance (C) =
PD in volts (U)
A further factor that influences the capacitance is called ’relative

permittivity’ Á r and depends on the dielectric material used in a
capacitor. The relative permittivity Á r is the ratio of:
capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric

capacitance of a capacitor with air
Whereby air has a relative permittivity of one.
The insulation material (dielectric) increases the attraction of the

positive and negative plate charges thus increasing the charge the
plates can hold. In general the capacitance can expressed by the
formula:
permittivity (Á) ⋅ area (A)

capacitance (C) =
distance (d)
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The permittivity (e) is equal to the relative permittivity (Á r) multiplied by

the absolute permittivity (Á 0).
Á = Ár ⋅ Á0
The absolute permittivity (Á 0) is a given constant factor of:
Ampere ⋅ seconds
Á 0 = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −12
Volts ⋅ metre
Á 0 = 8.85 ⋅ 10 −12 As
Vm
Therefore the capacitance (C) is:
Á0 ⋅ Ár ⋅ A
C =
d
or
8.85 ⋅ 10 −12 As ⋅ Á r ⋅ A
C =
Vm ⋅ d
The table below gives some examples of relative permittivity factors.
Material A
r
Air 1.0
Polystyrene 2.0
Rubber 3.0
Paper 3.7
Mica 5.5
Porcelain 7.0
Ceramics 7.0 -- 3000
-6
Capacitances or capacitors are represented in circuit diagrams as
shown in Figure 6.
1.1.6.6 Time Constant
A change of voltage applied across the plates of a capacitor causes

the capacitor’s charge to change. This takes time, therefore voltage
changes are delayed in a capacitive circuit.
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-7
When the switch is moved to position B a high rate of change of

voltage across the plates of the capacitor takes place (Figure 7,
detail a)). At this instant the current is maximum and only limited by
the circuit resistance R. All the applied voltage is dropped across R.
As the charge builds up on the plates the voltage rises and the current
decreases (due to the opposition of negative plate charge to the
electron flow).
At the time constant value of 1 τ = R ⋅ C in seconds the voltage

across the plates is 63.2 % of the applied voltage. The current is
36.8 % of maximum. Therefore the voltage drop across R is 36.8 % of
the applied voltage (Figure 7, detail b)).
At five time constants 5 τ = 5 ⋅ R ⋅ C the current has reached its

approximate final value. This means at 5 ⋅ R ⋅ C:
V 5 τ = 5⋅R⋅C
V rate of change of charge is minimum
V rate of change of voltage is minimum
V current flow is minimum
V I ⋅ R (voltage) drop across the resistor is minimum
V voltage across the plates is maximum.
-8
When the switch is in position A the opposite sequence of events to

occur is caused (Figure 8, detail a)). At the instant of switching to
position A:
V maximum rate of change of voltage occurs
V the charge and resulting voltage across the plates tries to main-
tain the voltage in the circuit
V the discharge current flows in the opposite direction to the
charge current.
The capacitor voltage decreases at a certain rate determined by the

capacitance (C) and the resistance (R) (Figure 8, detail b)). When the
current has reached its time constant 1 τ = R ⋅ C the voltage
across the plates is 36.8 % of the maximum value.
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The current is 36.8 % (opposite polarity to charge) and causes a

voltage drop across the resistor (R) of --36.8 % of the maximum value.
Current flows into a capacitor when it charges and flows out when it
discharges.
At five time constants 5 τ = 5 ⋅ R ⋅ C the capacitor voltage and

current is approximately zero. All of the energy stored in the electric
field of the plate charges has been discharged through the resistor.
A dielectric is a good insulator and practically no current leakage

occurs between the plates so a capacitor can hold its charge for a long
time. Therefore many circuits have discharge resistors connected
across the capacitor to slowly discharge the capacitor’s energy over
a period of about five minutes after the applied voltage has been
switched off.
1.1.6.7 Capacitor Circuits
Capacitors in Series
-9
In a capacitor series circuit is:
U T = U1 + U2 + U3
Q
But U =
C
Therefore is:
Q Q Q Q
= + +
CT C1 C2 C3
The same current and time charges or discharges each capacitor

(Q = I ⋅ t). Therefore the charge Q in coulombs is common.
That means:
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
CT C1 C2 C3
Capacitors in Parallel
- 10
The surface area of the plates is increased, therefore the charges Q
are also increased.
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The total charge Q T is therefore:
Q T = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
But Q = C ⋅ U
Therefore is:
C T ⋅ U T = C1 ⋅ U1 + C2 ⋅ U2 + C3 ⋅ U3
U T = U1 = U2 = U3
Therefore is:
C T = C1 + C2 + C3
1.1.6.8 Construction of Capacitors

- 11
In practical capacitors, the insulation thickness is kept small in order to
accommodate the required capacitance in a moderate space.
The thickness must not be reduced too far, otherwise electrical
breakdown will occur. The minimum allowable value increases with the
working voltage, so the capacitor becomes more bulky.
There is no perfect insulator, so a small leakage current flows through

the dielectric between the plates. The value of this current is propor-
tional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistivity of the
insulator. For the same type of capacitor, it increases with the capaci-
tance, because the effective area of the plates is also the effective
cross--section of the leakage path.
Capacitors are rated by:

V capacitance value and tolerance
V working voltage ranges (DC and AC)
V temperature range.
A capacitor is normally named after the dielectric used.
Plastic--dielectric Capacitors
These are the most commonly used capacitors. Plastic--film capacitors

have a very high insulation resistance, up to 1000 Volts. Various
synthetic polymer films are used, such as polycarbonate, polystyrene
and polypropylene.
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- 12
There are two general kinds of plastic capacitors:

V metallized--film capacitor
-- the plastic dielectric film is metallized to form plates.
This type is used for coupling and decoupling applications
V foil--film capacitor
-- the plates are sheets of metal foil separated by a dielectric
film. This type is used in interference--suppression, high cur-
rent, general purpose and tuned--circuit applications.
Ceramic Capacitors
- 13
Ceramic capacitors operate at comparatively high voltages (500 Volts)

and up to temperatures of about + 150 0C. The permittivity varies
greatly from 6 to 3 000 depending on the type of ceramic used.
Electrolytic Capacitors
- 14
An electrolytic capacitor consists of metal plates in an electrolyte.

The dielectric is formed, by applying a DC voltage across the plates.
The resulting DC current which flows through the electrolyte forms a
oxide insulation film on the positive plate. This film is the dielectric.
As the oxide dielectric is formed the DC current to nearly zero
(a leakage current always exists).
Because the dielectric is formed by a DC current electrolytic capacitors

are polarised and can be used only in DC circuits. The black band end
connection must be connected to negative and the other connection,
marked positive, must be connected to positive.
The dielectric is very thin. Therefore electrolytic capacitors have a high

capacitance to a small volume. Capacitance is further increased by
etching the plates, thus increasing the effective plate areas and
capacitance.
Electrolytic capacitors are suitable for DC pulse circuits such as

interstage coupling, smoothing, by--passing and pulse storage applica-
tions.
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There are two types of electrolytic capacitors:

V aluminium electrolytic capacitors
V tantalum electrolytic capacitors.
Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors
Aluminium electrolytic capacitors are commonly known simply as

electrolytic capacitors. The capacitors have aluminium plates and a
dielectric of aluminium oxide. The value of capacity is normally
stencilled or stamped on the capacitor.
Advantage:
V high capacitance to a small volume.
Disadvantages:
V can be used in DC circuits only
V a high leakage current which varies with load and temperature
V the capacitance varies with temperature and frequency
V the oxide dielectric film has to be reformed periodically if they
are stored for a considerable time by applying the capacitor’s
working voltage through a 100 Ohm resistor for about one hour.
Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors

- 15
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors have tantalum plates and a dielectric

of tantalum oxide.
Advantages:
V higher capacitance to a small volume, because the relative per-
mittivity is approximate 26
V the leakage current is extremely small
V the capacitance value remains stable with changes in tempera-
ture. Therefore they are suitable for use in precision timing cir-
cuits.
Disadvantage:
V can be used in DC circuits only.
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Variable and Trim Capacitors

- 16
Variable and trim capacitors use air, plastic and ceramic dielectrics.
They are used in tuning circuits.
1.1.6.9 Coding of Capacitors

- 17
The capacitor colour code is the same as the resistor colour code.
An additional information is the working voltage of the capacitor
(5. band). The capacitive of the first two bands is in pF.
- 18
The tantalum capacitor colour code is the same as the resistor and
ceramic capacitor colour with the following exceptions:
V the 4. band is not used
V the capacitance of the 1. and 2. band is in microfarads
V the dot is on one side of the capacitor only. When looking at the
dot the positive connection is on the right side
V the voltage colour is:
Working voltage Colour

3V white
6.3 V yellow
10 V black
16 V green
20 V blue
25 V grey
35 V pink
V the number of noughts (multiplier) are:
Multiplier Colour
10 mF brown
1 mF black
0.1 mF white
0.01 mF grey
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a)
Lead
Dielectric
Metal plates
Lead
b)
B 0175
Figure 1 The Capacitor
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Galvanometer Electrons flow
+
+
Supply Capacitor
--
--
A B 0176
Switch
Figure 2 Capacitor Charge Circuit
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a)
+ Plate -- Plate
Plates uncharged
b)
+ Plate -- Plate
Plates partially charged
c)
+ Plate -- Plate
B 0177
Plates fully charged
Figure 3 Electron Movement at a Capacitor
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Current (I)
0
Time (s)
Potential difference (U)
0
B 0178
Time (s)
Figure 4 Capacitor Charging
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a)
Supply = 150 V Distance = 2 mm
150 V
E =
0.2 cm
V
E = 750 cm
b)
A = 30 kV
Distance = 5 m
B=0V
30 kV
E =
5 m
E = 6 kV
B 0179
Figure 5 Electric Field Strength
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International symbols
B 0180
=
or
or
=
=
US/Canadian symbols
Capacitor Symbols
or
or
--
British symbols
Figure 6
German symbols
feed -- through
Description
electrolyte
Capacitor,
Capacitor,
Capacitor,
Capacitor,
polarized
Capacitor,
variable
general
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a)
I Switch
B
A
Supply C Applied
voltage
Voltage drop
b)
Voltage
100 %
90 %
Voltage rise
80 %
70 %
63,2 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 %
B 0181 A
Time constant
1 τ 2 τ 3 τ 4 τ 5 τ (time)
Figure 7 Capacitive Circuit and Voltage Rise Time
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a)
Switch I
B
A
Supply C Applied
voltage
Voltage drop
b)
Voltage
100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
60 %
50 %
36,8 %
30 %
20 % Voltage decay
10 %
B 0182 A
Time constant
1 τ 2 τ 3 τ 4 τ 5 τ (time)
Figure 8 Capacitive Circuit and Voltage Decay Time
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U1 U2 U3
C1 C2 C3
CT
B 0183
UT
Figure 9 Capacitors in Series
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U3
C3
U2
C2
U1
C1
CT
B 0184
UT
Figure 10 Capacitors in Parallel
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Conductor
Insulator
Conductor
Insulator
B 0304
Bakelite
Figure 11 Construction of a Capacitor
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0.15
WIMA
MKS
400 --
64
0.15 mF
B32234
0.047M
250
B 0185
0.047 mF
Figure 12 Metallized and Foil--film Capacitor
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B 0305
Figure 13 Ceramic Capacitor
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Terminal
leads
Foil
Positive terminal
marked
Paper saturated
with electrolyte
Foil Positive plate

Oxide layer Dielectric
Electrolyte Negative plate

Foil
B 0306
Figure 14 Electrolytic Capacitor
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B 0186
Figure 15 Tantalum Capacitor
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Variable air capacitor
P. V. C. trim
B 0307
Ceramic trim
Figure 16 Trim Capacitor
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1st and 2nd Number Tolerance Working

significant of noughts in % voltage
Colour 1st band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band 5th band
black 0 0 0 --
brown 1 1 1 100
red 2 2 2 200
orange 3 3 3 nF 300
yellow 4 4 4 400
green 5 5 5 500
blue 6 6 6 600
violet 7 7 -- 700
grey 8 8 x0.01 800
white 9 9 x0.1 900
gold -- -- -- ±5 1000
silver -- -- -- ±10 2000
no colour band -- -- -- ±20 500

B 0187
Figure 17 Capacitor Colour Code
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1st significant figure
Number of noughts
and positive indicator 2nd significant figure
Voltage
+
B 0188
Figure 18 Colour Code of Tantalum Capacitor
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1.1.7 Magnetic Circuits
There is a close relationship between electricity and magnetism.

Not only can an electric current generate magnetic effects, but also
a movement of a magnet can generate electrical effects.
Electromagnets can be constructed which may to be used to convert

electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The movement of a magnet causes an electric current to be set up in a

conductor. So it is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
The most common method of converting mechanical energy into

electrical energy is by the use of magnetism in a generator. In an
electric motor electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by
the use of magnetism.
1.1.7.2 Natural Magnets
A natural magnet is a certain type of iron or lodestone that has the

property of attracting and picking up pieces of iron and steel.
-1
Also, if freely suspended, a natural magnet comes to rest pointing in

a north--south direction.
-2
This is because the earth itself is a large natural magnet with a north
pole and a south pole, and the magnetism or magnetic force of
attraction pulls the magnet into a magnetic north--south line.
The magnetic field or ’lines of force’ between north and south poles
are invisible. Thus a magnet is a piece of material which has a
magnetic field surrounding it. Such magnets are also called permanent
magnets.
-3
Modern permanent magnets are made of steel. They exists in many

different shapes, for example, compass needles, bars, rods, horse-
shoes and rings.
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1.1.7.3 Magnetization
-4
If a piece of soft iron is placed near to one end of a magnet, the iron
becomes slightly magnetized. This process is called induction,
meaning that magnetism has been led into the iron, or induced. If the
soft iron is stroked a number of times in one direction with the end of
the magnet, the iron becomes even more strongly magnetized.
1.1.7.4 Magnetic Materials

-5
It is useful to know about magnetism which types of materials are

magnetic, i.e. which materials are attracted to a magnet and which
are not. In general there are three different kinds of materials related
to the study of magnetism.
A magnet can be used to lift a pair of scissors, nails, tacks and

needles. Those materials which attracted to a magnet are called
magnetic materials. Another name for them is ferromagnetic materials.
These materials are iron, nickel and cobalt.
A magnet cannot pick up a piece of wood or paper. These materials

are called nonmagnetic. Another name for them is paramagnetic
materials.
There is a third class of materials, called diamagnetic, that act in a

very unusual way near a strong magnet. Instead of being attracted to
a magnet as are magnetic materials, or indifferent to the magnet as
are nonmagnetic materials, diamagnetic materials actually move away
from a magnetic field.
So far, diamagnetism has not been put to any large practical use
because the effect is relatively small. It would take a very strong
magnet to move diamagnetic materials with any noticeable force.
If pieces of iron becomes magnetized by a loadstone they are called
artificial magnets.
Some of the artificial magnets are able to retain their magnetism for
long periods of time, while others lose their magnetism quickly.
The ones that lose their magnetism quickly are called temporary
magnets, while the ones that can retain their magnetism over a long
period of time are called permanent magnets.
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There are applications in electricity in which a material is need to

become magnetized for a short period of time, and there are also
applications where permanent magnets are wanted. Soft iron is a
material that is used for making temporary magnets.
This name is very misleading. There is nothing soft about the iron.
Instead, the name comes from the fact that it cannot retain a magnetic
field for any period of time.
1.1.7.5 Magnetic Poles

-6
The two ends of a magnet have different characters. One end is called
a ’south--seeking pole’, while the other is called a ’north--seeking pole’.
As described before a bar magnet will align it self in a north south
direction if the freedom of movements are allowed. The ends of a
magnet are usually referred to simply as the north and the south poles.
The north pole of a magnet is defined as that end which points

towards the north pole of the earth. The south pole of a magnet points
towards the south pole of the earth.
1.1.7.6 Magnetic Field of Permanent Magnets

-7
The area immediately surrounding a magnet, in which magnetic

attraction occurs, is said to contain a magnetic field. A magnetic field,
in the form of lines of force, can be mapped out on a sheet of paper by
using some iron filings (Figure 7, detail a)).
The magnetic lines of force travel outside from and to the poles of the
magnet in the direction north to south or more correctly, from the
north--seeking pole to the south--seeking pole. Inside the magnet the
lines of force travel from the south pole towards the north pole (Fig-
ure 7,detail b)).
1.1.7.7 Magnetic Attraction and Repulsion
When two magnets are placed close together, according to how they
are placed they will either attract or repel each other.
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-8
The north pole of one magnet will tend to draw towards itself to the
south pole of an adjacent magnet and vice versa. It can be seen by
means of the iron filings that magnetic lines from a north pole are
drawn into an adjoining south pole.
-9
Two north poles or two south poles close together will tend to push
away from one another. The iron filings show that the magnetic lines
from two adjoining north poles or south poles are forced apart.
The content or the last two paragraphs can be summed up by saying
that, in common with the charges in atomic particles:
V unlike poles attract
V like poles repel.
1.1.7.8 Magnetic Flux
The lines of force within magnetic fields form a magnetic flux

(symbol F -- Greek letter phi), a term which indicates that what issues
or flows out from a magnet.
The more powerful the magnet the greater is the amount of flux which
it generates. For some applications it is the concentration of flux or flux
density (symbol B) which is important, rather than the total amount of
flux generated by the magnet.
- 10
If a permanent magnet is left for a long period without a keeper,

or means of completing the magnetic path for the flux, its magnetic
strength will soon decrease. A soft iron keeper for each pair of poles
provides a closed magnetic path for the flux and the result is very little
loss of magnetism.
- 11
Where magnetic flux would be undesirable (e.g. in the vicinity of a

watch) a magnetic screen of iron is used. This has the effect of
concentrating the flux within itself so that it does not penetrate the
surrounding air space.
The soft iron magnetic flux concentrating effect is called permeability,

i.e. soft iron has a high permeability and air has a low permeability.
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1.1.7.9 The Magnetic Effect of Current

- 12
Whenever a current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is

developed. There are two methods for determining the field direction.
- 13
Figure 13 shows the ’right hand rule’, whereby the thumb points into
the current direction through a conductor and the other fingers point
into the magnetic field direction.
- 14
Figure 14 shows the ’corkscrew rule’. When the current flows into the
paper the magnetic field is clockwise. When the current direction is out
of the paper the magnetic field is counter-clockwise.
- 15
The direction of the current within a wire is indicated as follows:

V an arrow indicates direction of current flow
V the cross represents tail of arrow pointing into the page
V the dot represents head of arrow pointing out of the page.
1.1.7.10 The Magnetic Field of a Coil
A coil carrying a current is surrounded by a magnetic field like a

permanent magnet. One end of the coil acts like a south pole the
opposite pole acts like a north pole. By reversing the current direction
in the coil its magnetic poles are interchanged.
If a conductor is straight piece of wire a weak magnetic field of little

practical use is developed around the wire. Although the magnetic flux
has direction the conductor has no north or south pole.
- 16
By changing the shape of the conductor its magnetic properties can be

greatly improved. Figure 16 shows a view of a short piece of wire
twisted into a loop. Simply forming the loop improves the magnetic
characteristics in three ways:
V brings the flux lines together
V concentrate the flux lines at the centre
V creates north and south pole.
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- 17
The north pole of an electromagnet can be determined by the use of

the ’right hand grasp rule’. The fingers of the right hand comprehend
the coil and point into the current direction. The thumb point to north.
The flux density of an electromagnet depends on the current in the

coil, the number of turns and the core material, if arranged within the
coil.
Iron within a coil concentrates the flux and therefore increases the
strength of the magnet. The iron core makes the magnetic force
stronger, so that heavy loads can be carried. Comparison of coils with
different numbers of turns shows that with a higher number of turns a
smaller current is sufficient to hold a load of equal weight.
As well as its high load bearing capacity the electromagnet has the
further advantage, in comparison with a permanent magnet, that this
capacity can be varied within wide limits by varying the supply current.
1.1.7.11 Magnetic Characteristics
The Magnetic Circuit

- 18
The flux lines or lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet or a

current carrying solenoid are all continuous or completely closed.
The magnetic circuit is formed by the closed path of magnetic flux.
One of the simplest forms of magnetic circuit is shown in Figure 18
where part of the magnetic circuit is in the iron and part is in the air
gap.
The Magnetic Field Strength
The magnetic field strength (symbol H) is the intensity of the magnetic

force that sets up the magnetic flux density (symbol B) in an electro-
magnet (magnetic circuit). It can be compared with the EMF that
forces a current (I) through an electric circuit. The magnetic field
strength is determined as:
Amperes ⋅ turns
Magnetic field strength (H) =
length (of magnetic circuit)
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Permeability
- 19
Permeability or flux--multiplying factor (symbol m) is a measure of how

easily a magnetic flux can be set up in a material.
Air and most materials (including most metals) have a multiplying

factor of approximately one. Iron placed in a magnetic field causes the
lines of flux to concentrate in it. In doing so the iron itself becomes
magnetized. The iron generates ’flux lines’ of its own so more ’lines’
are added to the original flux. Thus the presence of iron increases the
flux density.
Multiplying factors m range from 1 to some thousand, depending on the

material.
Reluctance
Reluctance (symbol S) is the opposition to magnet flux and therefore

the opposite or reciprocal of permeability. Reluctance can be com-
pared to resistance in an electric circuit. A material for example has a
permeability of 2700 (m = 2700) and a reluctance of:
S = 1 = 0.00037
2700
Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials are divided into ferromagnetic materials and

non--magnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic materials are materials such as iron, cobalt and nickel.

Most of their alloys which can be magnetized have a high flux concen-
trating power. Iron for example has a flux--multiplying factor m of
about 5000.
Non--magnetic materials are those that have no flux--multiplying factor.

Its permeability m is around one. Non--magnetic materials are copper,
aluminium, water and air. Air is a standard and has a permeability
of one.
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Magnetic Field Strength/Flux Density Curve (B--H Curve)

- 20
If a circuit is set up as shown in Figure 20 the current can be varied by

moving the rheostat slider. Adjusting the current, changes the mag-
netic field strength (H) because:
Amperes ⋅ turns
(H) =
length of magnetic circuit
The formula shows that the number of turns and the length of the
magnetic circuit are fixed values. Only the current is variable.
Increasing the magnetic field strength (H) increases the flux density
(B) because flux density (B) is proportional to:
V magnetic field strength (H)
V permeability (m) of the magnetic circuit or core (multiplying fac-
tor.
Therefore is B = m⋅H
- 21
The B--H curve for air is therefore linear (a straight line) because the
permeability of air is one.
- 22
Figure 22 shows a typical ferromagnetic B--H curve. Increasing H from

0 to 1 results in a small increase of B due mostly to H in air.
The ferromagnetic material has little effect, therefore the permeability
of the ferromagnetic material is very low here.
Increasing H further from 1 to 2 results in a large increase of B

because the ferromagnetic material itself magnetises, multiplying that
increase of B due to H in air. The ferromagnetic material has a great
effect on the increase of B. Therefore the permeability of the ferro-
magnetic material rapidly increases to a large value.
Increasing H still further from 2 to 3 results in a small increase of B in

fact the slope of the graph (rate of increase) is about the same
as from 0 to 1. This is because the ferromagnetic material is fully
magnetized so there are no more flux multiplying effects and the
increase of B is due only to the air.
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The ferromagnetic material has therefore reached saturation point,

the material cannot be magnetized any further and the permeability
decreases to a very low value.
Hysteresis
The B--H curve shows the magnetic characteristics of a material when

the magnetic field strength is increased to eventual saturation. If the
magnetising force is removed some magnetism may remain with the
material. This effect is known as ’hysteresis’. Hysteresis then is the lag
of flux density (B) behind the magnetic field strength (H).
- 23
If the magnetic field strength is increased from zero in a positive

direction the flux density B rises as in a normal B--H curve.
- 24
On reducing the magnetising force H to zero again the flux density B

does not follow its original path to zero but follows the path Q/R. When
the material has first reached saturation the flux density at R is called
the remanence or residual magnetism. If the material has not reached
saturation the flux density at R is called remanent flux density.
- 25
The flux density B always lag behind the magnetic field strength H
because of the inertia required to change the magnetism in the
material.
Retentivity
Retentivity is a measure of the magnetism retained by a material over

a long period of time. Retentivity must not be confused with rema-
nence since in some materials remanence is quickly reduced to zero
under normal conditions.
- 26
As shown in Figure 26, a negative value of magnetising force H must

be applied to reduce the flux density B to zero (S). The actual value of
negative magnetising force H necessary to do this is known as the
’coercive force’. If the material has first reached saturation this value is
termed the ’coercivity’ of the material.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
- 27
If the negative value of magnetising force is increased past flux density

B zero the material will eventually reach saturation T. This relationship
shows that for a permanent magnet, a material with a high coercivity is
required, i.e. the force required to ’remove’ the magnetism must be
very large.
Characteristics of ferromagnetic Materials

- 28
Ferromagnetic materials are classed as soft or hard magnetic ma-

terials. Soft and hard refer to how easily they magnetise and not
whether they are mechanically hard or soft.
Hard magnetic Material
A high magnetic field strength (H) is required to saturate a hard

magnetic material and a high value of coercivity is required to remove
the remanence of the magnet (residual magnetism). A hard magnetic
material has therefore a good retentivity making it a good permanent
magnet.
Because a high magnetic field strength H is necessary to magnetise a

hard material, the area of the loop is large and therefore the energy (H
is proportional to current) to complete a full cycle or loop , is large.
A hard material has therefore large hysteresis losses proportional to
the hysteresis loop area and frequency of the magnet field strength H.
A typical hard magnetic material is ’Alnico’ used for permanent
magnets. ’Alnico’ alloys consist of aluminium, cobalt, nickel and iron.
Soft magnetic Materials
A low magnetic field strength (H) is required to saturate a soft mag-

netic material and a low value of coercivity is required to remove the
remanence of the magnet (residual magnetism). A soft magnetic
material has therefore a low retentivity making it unsuitable for use as
a permanent magnet.
Because a low magnetic field strength is necessary to magnetise a

soft material the area of the loop is small and the energy required to
complete a full cycle or loop is small.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
A soft material usually has a low hysteresis loss and high permeability
values make it suitable for use when the magnetic field strength is
alternating (AC current) driving the flux density through a complete
hysteresis loop as in AC electric motors, generators and transformers.
Steel alloys such as permalloy or stalloy are suitable for AC use.

For DC applications soft iron is used. Soft iron has a high permeability
but also a relative high hysteresis loss.
- 29
As most of the core materials used in electronic equipment are

ferromagnetic it is important to compare the various characteristics
exhibited by the most common used materials. The main characteris-
tics of ferromagnetic materials can be ascertained by a study of their
hysteresis loops as shown in Figure 29.
1.1.7.12 Application of Electromagnets
A typical application of an electromagnet is the relay.
The Relay
- 30
When a current (control current) is fed to an electromagnet the

lever--like armature is attracted. Depending on the construction this
closes the contact (normally--open contact) and an external circuit is
closed (Figure 30, detail a)) or this opens the contact (normally--closed
contact) and an external circuit is interrupted (Figure 30, detail b)).
When the control circuit is interrupted the armature returns to its initial
position through a restoring force of a spring.
- 31
In the circuit diagrams of electric equipment it is necessary to identify

individual relays and their contacts by a system of numbering. There-
fore they are usually annotated as shown in Figure 31. Furthermore
the relay number (RL 2) and the denominator (3) that documents the
number of contacts associated with the relay is shown.
- 32
Figure 32 shows the various symbols of relays as used in circuit

diagrams.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
- 33
Figure 33 shows an equipment that is switched on from a remote

control point. The current taken by the equipment will develop a
considerable voltage drop in the connecting cables. The terminal PD
will be much less than the supply voltage.
- 34
By the use of a relay it is possible to prevent excessive voltage drop

across long length of cable. The electrical equipment can be switched
ON/OFF from a remote point by the use of a relay.
When the switch at the remote point is switched ON relay RL 2

becomes energized and contact RL 2/1 closes thereby connecting the
equipment to the supply. There is now only a small voltage drop in the
connecting cable. The current taken by the relay is small.
- 35
With a relay, a heavier current can be switched ON or OFF by a weak

control current, sometimes over long distances. In this connection
distinction is made between fields of application, e.g. heavy and
light--current relays or according to the duty, e.g. protective, indicating,
power and telegraph relays.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
S
B 0308
Figure 1 Magnet in Earth’s Magnetic Field
MIP/PH1/TN/009
North magnetic
pole
B 0309
South magnetic
pole
Magnetic field
Figure 2 Magnetic Field and Poles of the Earth
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Compass needle Bar
Rod
Horseshoe Ring
B 0189
Figure 3 Shapes of Magnets
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Magnet
Motion
B 0190
Iron
Figure 4 Magnetization by Induction
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Strong magnet
Magnetic material (tacks)
Strong magnet
Nonmagnetic material (wood)
String
Diamagnetic material (copper)

Strong magnet
B 0191
Motion
Figure 5 Magnetic Materials
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South pole
N
B 0310
North pole
Figure 6 Magnetic Poles
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a) Magnetic field
Iron filings
N S
b) Magnetic field direction

Lines of force
N S
B 0311
Figure 7 Magnetic Field and Direction
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Lines of force
Magnetic field
N S B 0312
Pattern of iron filings
Figure 8 Magnetic Attraction
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Lines of force
Magnetic field
N N
B 0313
Pattern of iron filings
Figure 9 Magnetic Repulsion
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Horseshoe magnet
N
Magnetic Flux
Keeper
Bar magnet
N S
Magnetic Flux
S N
B 0192
Keeper Bar magnet Keeper
Figure 10 Magnets with Keepers
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Magnetic flux
Magnetic screen
(soft iron)
B 0314
Figure 11 Magnetic Screen
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Conductor
B 0315
Magnetic field
Current
Figure 12 Magnetic Field around a Conductor
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Current
Magnetic field B 0316
Right Hand Rule

Figure 13
Magnetic field
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B 0317
Conductor
Current
Anti--clockwise field
(out of paper)
Corkscrew Rule
Figure 14
Clockwise field
(into paper)
Current
Conductor
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Wire
Wire
Wire
Wire
B 0193
Figure 15 Direction of Current
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N S
B 0318
Figure 16 North and South Pole of a Coil
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North
B 0319
North--South Direction of a Coil

South
South
Figure 17
North
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Flux lines
Coil Air gap
I I Iron ring
B 0194
Figure 18 Magnetic Circuit
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B 0320
Effect of Iron in a Magnetic Field

N
and increased by iron
This flux multiplying
PERMEABILITY
concentrated
Lines of flux
power is
Iron
S
Figure 19
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Rheostat
B 0195
Slider
Current Control of a Coil

Current
Supply
Figure 20
Coil
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+B
Flux density
0 +H
Magnetic field strength
B 0196
Figure 21 B--H Curve for Air
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+B
Flux density
0 1 2 3 +H
Magnetic field strength

B 0197
Figure 22 B--H Curve for a typical

Ferromagnetic Material
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+B
Saturation
-- H +H
-- B
B 0321
Figure 23 B--H Curve
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+B
Q
-- H +H
-- B
B 0322
Figure 24 Remanence or Residual Magnetism
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+B
-- H +H
B 0323
-- B
Figure 25 Hysteresis Loop
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+B
S
-- H +H
B 0324
-- B
Figure 26 Coercive Force
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+B
Q
S
-- H +H
B 0325
-- B
Figure 27 Negative Saturation
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Hard magnetic material

B
B 0326
Soft magnetic material
Figure 28 Hysteresis Loop of Magnetic Materials
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+B
Mild steel Tungsten steel
35 % cobalt--iron
-- H +H
B 0327
-- B
Figure 29 Hysteresis Loop of Ferromagnetic Materials
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a) Relay, contacts normally--open
To external circuit Relay contacts
Yoke
Armature Coil
Supply
Core
Switch
b) Relay, contacts normally--closed
To external circuit Relay contacts
Yoke
Armature Coil
Supply
Core
Switch
B 0198
Figure 30 Construction of a Relay
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Relay number
RL 2
3
Contact numbers
RL 2/1 RL 2/2 RL 2/3

B 0199
Contacts
Figure 31 Circuit Symbol of a Relay
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Description German symbols British symbols US/Canadian symbols International symbols
MIP/PH1/TN/009
For training purposes only
=
Basic Electrical Eng.
Fundamental Studies
Operating element with

automatic return on
discontinuation of or or =
actuating force for
contactors, relays and
releases or or
Operating coil energized
Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06

(the arrow denotes the
operating state, if this
deviates from the
standard representation
=
Royal Malaysian Air Force
or or
Relay with two coils or
acting unidirectionally
or
B 0200
Figure 32 Symbols of Relays in Circuit Diagrams

Basic Electricity
1.1.7 - OT - 32
Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

Electrical equipment
Terminal
PD
Supply
Long cable length

B 0201
Remote ON/OFF switch
Figure 33 Remote Control of a Circuit
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Electrical equipment
Terminal
PD
Contact
RL 2/1
Supply
RL 2
Relay
1
B 0202
Remote ON/OFF switch
Figure 34 Remote Switching using a Relay
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B 0203
Motor
Heavy Working Current switched by a Relay

Heavy working current
Supply 220 V AC
Contact
RL 1/1
RL 1
1
Relay
Weak control current

Relay supply
Figure 35
Remote ON/OFF
switch
MIP/PH1/TN/009
1.1.8 Electromagnetic Induction
1.1.8.1 Faraday’s Law
Electrical energy is generated in a generator or transformer as a result

of movement between a magnetic field and conductors.
-1
If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic field this causes

the free electrons in the conductor to concentrate at the right end side,
thus producing a lack of electrons at the left hand end of
the conductor.
The result is that a potential difference (PD) is developed between the

two ends of the conductor. This PD exists only while the conductor is
cutting the magnetic flux lines of the magnet.
When the conductor moves out of the magnetic field the electrons
return to their original position and the PD disappears. The PD also
disappears if the motion of the conductor is stopped in the magnetic
field. Thus the conductor must move with respect to the field before a
PD is developed.
Motion or a rate of change is essential to electromagnetic induction.

Some external force must be applied to cause the conductor to move
through the magnetic field. This mechanical force is converted into an
electromotive force (EMF) by electromagnetic induction.
-2
The movement of the conductor in a magnetic field ’cuts’ the magnetic

flux or results in a rate of change of magnetic flux.
Instead of moving the conductor through a static magnetic field (as in

a generator) the magnetic field can move through a static conductor
(as in a transformer) if the switch in circuit ’A’ is closed and opened.
Both methods generate a rate of change of flux and therefore an EMF
is induced in the conductor of circuit ’B’.
-3
Movement of a conductor in the same direction as the magnetic flux or

movement of the magnetic flux in the same direction as the conductor,
generates no rate of change in flux and therefore no EMF is induced in
circuit ’B’.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
-4
Increasing the angle of the conductor from zero to ninety degrees

increase the rate of change of flux. Therefore the induced EMF
increases from minimum at zero degrees to maximum at ninety
degrees. Figure 4 shows that an amount of EMF is induced in circuit
’B’ when the switch in circuit ’A’ is closed or opened.
1.1.8.2 Rate of Change of Flux
The rate of change of flux and the magnitude of EMF induced in

a conductor is determined by:
V the speed of the conductor through the field
V the length (proportional to number of turns) of the conductor
in the field
V the strength of the magnetic field
V the angle between conductor and field.
Faraday’s law summarizes these four points as follows:
When a conductor cuts or is cut by a magnetic flux there is induced

an EMF in it, which is proportional to the rate at which the flux
is cut.
The induced EMF corresponds to the rate of change of flux divided

by rate of change of time (speed).
Furthermore the EMF corresponds to flux density (B) multiplied by

length of conductor (l) and multiplied by the speed (V) of the
conductor through the field at ninety degrees.
Expressed in a formula is EMF:
EMF = B ⋅ l ⋅ V
MIP/PH1/TN/009
1.1.8.3 Direction of an induced EMF (Lenz’s Law)
The induced EMF in a closed circuit sets up a current in the conductor

which creates its own magnetic field.
-5
The conductor’s magnetic field is:

V in front of the conductor’s motion strengthened
V behind the conductor’s motion weakened.
A mechanical force is therefore required in order to oppose the change

of flux (or ’cutting’ of the magnetic field) by two interacting fields.
The direction of the opposing force or drag of the conductor’s mag-
netic field opposes the change of flux caused by the motion.
Lenz’s law summarized this:
The induced current always opposes the motion or change

generating it.
In an open conductor circuit an EMF is induced but there is no

opposing force or drag because no current is flowing in the conduc-
tor to create a magnetic field.
Lenz’s law can therefore be used to determine the direction of an

induced current.
-6
The direction of current can be determined as follows:

V the direction of conductor motion has to be noted
V the field direction of conductor has to be determined
V the right hand corkscrew rule should be used in reverse to
determine induced EMF and current direction.
-7
The right hand generator rule is another method of determining the

direction of induced EMF current in a conductor moving in a magnetic
field.
The magnetic flux is from north to south. The lines penetrate into the
inside hand and tread out at the outside hand. The direction of
conductor movement is indicated by the thumb and the fingers point
into current direction.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
-8
The magnetic field of parallel conductors carrying current interact with

each other to either attract or repel.
The magnetic field direction around the conductors is determined

using the right hand corkscrew rule. The result is:
V currents with same direction attract (Figure 8, detail a))
V currents with opposite direction repel (Figure 8, detail b)).
1.1.8.4 Force on a Current--carrying Conductor in a magnetic Field

-9
When a current--carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field an

interaction of two fields happens. The current--carrying conductor’s
field is:
V strengthened on one side where the lines of force are all in
the same direction
V weakened on the other side where the lines of force of the two
fields oppose each other.
A mechanical force moves the conductor from the strengthened field

to the weakened field. Electrical energy is therefore converted into
mechanical energy. The direction of force can be determined as
follows:
V the direction of the magnetic field (north to south) has to be
noted
V the current direction in the conductor has to be determined
V the right hand corkscrew rule should be used to determine the
field direction of the conductor.
- 10
Another method of determining the direction of force is the left hand

motor rule. The magnetic flux is from north to south and the lines
penetrate into the inside hand and tread out at the outside hand.
The fingers point into current direction and the thumb indicates the
direction of force.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
The magnitude of this force is proportional to:

V the flux density of the magnetic field between the poles
V the conductor current (proportional to the current--carrying con-
ductor’s flux density)
V the length of the current--carrying conductor in the magnetic
field between the poles.
This can be expressed as:
Force = flux density ⋅ current ⋅ length.
F = B⋅I⋅l
1.1.8.5 Back EMF and Inductance
Back EMF
As the current--carrying conductor moves through the magnetic field

between the two poles of a magnet (main field) it ’cuts’ the main field
magnetic lines of flux. The flux in the conductor changes or there is a
rate of change of flux. Therefore an EMF is induced in the current--
carrying conductor which opposes the conductor current that causes
the conductor to move in the first place.
This EMF is called ’back EMF’ (--EMF) because it opposes the applied
voltage and reduces the effective voltage driving the current through
the conductor. The applied EMF is always greater than the --EMF.
For the --EMF is also relevant:
− EMF = B ⋅ l ⋅ V
Inductance
Inductance is the opposition to a change of current or change of flux.
Moving a bar magnet past a coil induced an EMF in the coil.

The resulting current’s flux interacting with the bar magnet field causes
a drag which is the opposition to a change of flux. The conductor
therefore has inductance.
Any circuit which has an EMF induced into it by a change of current

through that circuit posses self--inductance (L).
MIP/PH1/TN/009
- 11
When the current is changed in the loop the strength of magnetic lines
of flux are also changed. This change of flux ’cuts’ the loop itself
inducing a back EMF in the loop, which opposes the change of
applied voltage.
When the loop’s applied voltage and current increases, a back EMF in
the loop is induced, which opposes the applied voltage increase.
Likewise decreasing the loop’s applied voltage and current induces a
back EMF in the loop, which opposes the applied voltage decrease.
In an inductance (inductive) circuit when current increases the circuit

stores energy in the magnetic field. When current decreases the circuit
gives up energy from the magnetic field.
The energy stored in a magnetic field depends on the inductance and

the coil current.
All conductors posses self--inductance. But a conductor wound into the

form of a coil has a much greater inductance because the turns ’cut’
each other. A coil is therefore called an inductor.
The inductance (L) is measured in Henrys (H) with the units:

V ⋅ s Volt ⋅ seconds
A Ampere

A circuit has an inductance of one Henry when a change of one
ampere in one second causes a --EMF of one volt to be induced
in the circuit.
Therefore is:
− EMF (V)
Inductance (L) = rate of change of current (A)
rate of change of time (s)
- 12
With increase of current in an iron cored coil the inductance increases

relatively linearly until saturation is reached. Increase of current after
saturation, results in rapidly decreasing of inductance.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
When in a non--magnetic core (air, copper or aluminium) the current

increases, the core does not saturate. Inductance therefore remains
constant, independent of coil current.
Inductance is proportional to the back EMF. Back EMF is proportional
to the rate of change of flux or to the number of magnetic force which
’cut’ the conductor. This ’cutting’ depends on the following:
V number of turns (N) squared (more turns, more ’cutting’, and
more induced back EMF)
V cross sectional area (A) of the core (the greater ’A’ is, the more
flux ’cuts’ the conductor)
V Permeability (m) (the greater ’m’ is, the more flux ’cuts’ the con-
ductor and the greater the induced back EMF)
V length (l) of the core (the less flux there is).
Therefore is the inductance (L) expressed as a formula:
N2 ⋅ A ⋅ m
L = (in Henrys H)
l
- 13
Inductances or inductors are represented in circuit diagrams as shown
in Figure 13.
1.1.8.6 Time Constant
A change of current induces a back EMF in an inductive circuit which

opposes the change of current. Thus current changes are delayed in
an inductive circuit.
- 14
When the switch is moved to position B as shown in Figure 14,
detail a), a high rate of change of circuit current is observed as seen at
the slope of the graph at time t = 0 (Figure 14, detail b)).
A high back EMF is induced in the inductor L which opposes the rate
of change of current flow. That means at the instant of closing the
switch to position B:
V the time is nearly zero (t = 0)
V the rate of change of current is maximum
V the back EMF of the inductor is maximum and nearly equal to
the applied voltage
V the I ⋅ R (voltage) drop across the resistor R is minimum.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
The current flow increases at a certain rate determined by inductance

(L) and resistance (R). When the current has risen to 63.2 % of its final
value the current has reached its ’time constant’ value (t) as shown in
Figure 14, detail b).
The time constant (t) is announced in seconds and is calculated by:
L (Henrys)
τ =
R (Ohms)
At the time constant value of 1 t the current is 63.2 % of the final

current. Therefore the voltage drop across resistor R is 63.2 % of the
applied voltage. The back EMF is 36.8 %.
The applied voltage V (100 %) = 36.8 % + 63.2 %. At five time con-

stants 5 t = 5 ⋅ L , the current has reached its approximate final value.
R
This means at 5 ⋅ L :
R
V 5t= 5⋅ L
R
V back EMF of inductor is minimum
V rate of change of current is minimum
V current flow is maximum
V I ⋅ R (voltage) drop across the resistor R is maximum (applied
voltage).
- 15
When the switch is moved to position A (Figure 15, detail a)) the
opposite sequence of events to occur is caused. At the instant of
opening the switch:
V maximum rate of change of current occurs
V the back EMF of the inductor is maximum and tries to keep the
current flowing.
The current flow decreases at a certain rate determined by inductance

(L) and resistance (R). When the current has decreased 63.2 % the
current has reached its time constant value of 1 t (Figure 15, detail b)).
 
At the time constant value of 1 t τ = L the current is 36.8 % of its
R
maximum value. Therefore the voltage drop across resistor R is
36.8 % of the applied voltage. The inductor back EMF is also 36.8 %.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
At five time constants t = 5 ⋅ L , the current is approximately zero.

R
All of the energy has been discharged through the resistor.
If there is no resistor for the current to discharge as shown in Fig-

ure 15, detail a) the rate of change of current is much greater than,
when the switch is closed.
A much higher back EMF, many times the applied voltage could
release all the stored inductive energy in a destructive arc across the
opening switch contacts or even break down the insulation. This high
back EMF is also dangerous to servicing personal.
Closing a switch induced a back EMF not higher the applied voltage,
but opening a switch can induce a dangerously high back EMF many
times the value of the applied voltage.
In order to give the students a better understanding of time constants carry out
the following calculations at the blackboard and ask the students how to get
the solutions.
A circuit has an inductance of eight Henrys (H) and a resistance

of 400 W.
a) What is the time constant of the circuit?
b) What total time is required for the current to reach maximum?
a) τ = L
R
8 H
τ =
400 Ω
τ = 0.02 seconds
b) Total time = 5 ⋅ τ
Total time = 5 ⋅ 0.02 seconds
Total time = 0.1 seconds
MIP/PH1/TN/009
1.1.8.7 Inductance Circuits
Inductances in Series
- 16
Inductances in series are calculated like resistors in series because

the total voltage U T is:
U T = U1 + U2 + U3
The total inductance L T is therefore:
L T = L1 + L2 + L3
Calculate the total inductance L T of the following example of series induc-

tances at the blackboard.
L T = 1 H, L2 = 0.5 H, L3 = 0.3 H
LT = ?
L T = L1 + L2 + L3
L T = 1 H + 0.5 H + 0.3 H
L T = 1.8 H
Inductances in Parallel
- 17
Inductances in parallel are calculated like resistors in parallel because

the total current I T is:
I T = I1 + I2 + I3
With Ohms law is:
I = U = U
R L
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Therefore is:
UT
= U1 + U2 + U3
LT L1 L2 L3
U is common for all inductances:
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
LT L1 L2 L3
Calculate the total inductance L T of the following example of parallel induc-

tances at the blackboard.
L1 = 2 H, L2 = 1 H, L3 = 4 H
LT = ?
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
LT L1 L2 L3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
LT 2 H 1 H 4 H
1 = 2 + 4 + 1
LT 4 H 4 H 4 H
1 = 7
LT 4 H
LT = 4 H
7
L T = 0.57 H
MIP/PH1/TN/009
+ S
B 0205
--
Direction of conductor motion
Figure 1 Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field
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B 0206 A
Direction of the
magnetic flux
Direction of the
conductor
Induction of an EMF
Induced EMF
B
Figure 2
S
A
N
Switch
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B 0207
No induced EMF
V
No Induction of EMF
B
Direction of the conductor
Figure 3
N
Direction of the
magnetic flux
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B 0208
Maximum
X
Induction of a Value of EMF

Direction of the conductor
V
B
S
Figure 4
N
Direction of the
magnetic flux
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Motion Drag
N
B 0209
Figure 5 Conductor cutting a Magnetic Field
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Direction of reaction force due to induced current
N S
Direction of wire motion
Direction of reaction force due to induced current
N S
Direction of magnetic field around wire to generate reaction force
N S
The dot indicates direction of current in the wire which will

B 0210
cause the magnetic field with direction
Figure 6 Application of Lenz’s Law
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Magnetic
Direction of current
field
flow causing
voltage induction
Direction of
conductor
movement
A 6466 A
Figure 7 Right Hand Generator Rule
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B 0211 A
Figure 8 Field of Parallel Conductors
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Force
N
B 0212
Figure 9 Current--carrying Conductor

in a Magnetic Field
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Direction of Magnetic
current causing field
conductor movement
Direction of
conductor
movement
B 0328
Figure 10 Left Hand Motor Rule
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Current direction
S B 0329 N
Figure 11 Magnetic Lines of Flux around a Loop
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Inductance
Saturation of coil
Iron cored coil
Air cored coil
Current
B 0330
Figure 12 Inductance of Cored Coils
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B 0213
US/Canadian symbols International symbols
or
L
or
L
= or
Inductor Symbols
British symbols
or
Figure 13
German symbols
with tappings
Description
Winding,
Winding,
Winding,
inductor,
inductor
inductor
variable
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a)
Switch
B
A
Supply Applied L Back
voltage EMF
I
Voltage drop
b)
Current
100 %
90 %
Current rise
80 %
70 %
63,2 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 %
B 0214 A
Time constant
1 τ 2 τ 3 τ 4 τ 5 τ (time)
Figure 14 Inductive Circuit and Current Rise Time
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a)
Switch
I
B
A
Supply L Back
EMF
Voltage drop
b)
Current
100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
60 %
50 %
36,8 %
30 %
20 % Current decay
10 %
B 0215 A
Time constant
1 τ 2 τ 3 τ 4 τ 5 τ (time)
Figure 15 Inductive Circuit and Current Decay Time
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U1 U2 U3
L1 L2 L3
LT
UT
B 0216
Figure 16 Inductances in Series
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U3
L3
I3
U2
L2
I2
U1
IT
L1
I1
LT
B 0217
UT
Figure 17 Inductances in Parallel
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1.1.9 Basics of Alternating Current
An electric current has been seen to be the steady drift of electric

charge around a circuit. Such as current is called a ’direct current’,
such circuits are called ’direct current circuits’, or ’DC circuits’.
There is however, widespread use of circuits in which the electric

current is not uni--directional, but is continually reversing. In these
circuits in which the electric charge starts to move in one direction,
then stops and restarts to move in the opposite direction, only to stop
and reverse.
Since the current flows in alternate directions, it is known as an

’alternating current’, and such currents are called ’alternating current
circuits’ or simply ’AC circuits’.
1.1.9.2 Generation of Alternating Current

-1
Figure 1 shows the physical arrangement of a loop arranged to rotate

in a magnetic field. The connections to the end of the loop, or coil,
have been made by sliding contacts known as ’slip rings’, so that any
one terminal is always connected to the same side of the loop.
-2
Figure 2 shows a part of the loop at the instant when it has turned
through an angle θ (Theta) from the reference point shown, midway
between the magnetic poles.
The instantaneous velocity (V) of the loop, which will be tangential to

the circle described by the rotating loop, may be considered to have
two components at right angles. From the geometry it follows that the
component of this velocity at right angles to the direction of the
magnetic field is V ⋅ sin θ, while the component of velocity parallel to
the magnetic field is V ⋅ cos θ. The speed with which the loop cuts
across the magnetic field will be V ⋅ sin θ, and this speed will deter-
mine the EMF induced in the loop at the instant considered.
The component of velocity V ⋅ cos θ, parallel to the magnetic field

does not contribute to the ’cutting’ of any lines of magnetic flux.
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1.1.9.3 Wave--form Shape and Instantaneous Value
The loop as shown in Figure 2 is rotating at a constant speed, there-

fore its tangential velocity is always the same. It is the component of
this velocity which cuts across the magnetic field that determines the
rate at which the loop cuts the magnetic flux and so determines the
value of induced EMF. It is this component of the loop velocity across
the magnetic field that varies from instant to instant.
-3
The magnetic field between the poles is represented by a number of

equal spaced parallel lines of force, and the loop is in various positions
as it moves round.
Since the loop is assumed to be moving at a constant speed, and

each point, shown numbered, represents 15 0 movement from the next
point. The time taken for the loop to move from one point to the next
will be the same in each case.
The number of lines of force ’cut’ by the loop in moving one point to
the next, which represents the flux cut by the loop in the time taken,
will then represent the rate of cutting of flux; that is, the average EMF
induced during this time.
As the loop moves from:
1 to 2, it cuts 0 lines,
8 to 9, it cuts 35 lines.
The time interval for each movement is the same and the flux cut
during each movement in this time increases up to a maximum as the
average position of the loop reaches a point under the pole (7 to 8, 26
lines).
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-4
The values of flux cut in equal times, are proportional to the EMF
induced in the loop. This can be plotted against average loop position
in degrees.
The instantaneous EMF (u) induced in the loop, i.e. the EMF at any
point in the 360 0 rotation of the loop is given by the formula:
u = EMF max ⋅ sin θ
When the loop has been round one revolution from any instantaneous
position considered, it will be back again in the same position relative
to the magnetic field.
It will have the same instantaneous velocity across the magnetic field,
and so it will have induced in it at that instant, the same EMF as when
it was there before.
This type of wave variation is known as SINUSOIDAL, so that the EMF

induced in the loop is named ’sinusoidal’ alternating EMF.
-5
Figure 5 shows the instantaneous loop EMF against values of the
angle θ, for three complete revolutions of the loop.
In this diagram the scale for the angular position of the loop, as
measured by the angle θ, goes beyond 360 0. Each complete 360 0
represents one complete revolution, so that 1.25 revolutions from zero
is represented by an angle of 1.25 ⋅ 360 0 = 450 0.
Alternating wave--forms other than sinusoidal wave--forms may be

encountered in practice. However the sinusoidal wave--form has many
advantages over all other kinds for supply purposes, and a great deal
of effort is made in electric supply systems to ensure a pure sinusoidal
wave--form for alternating voltages and currents.
The basics of alternating current as described in the previous chapters

are related to a so-called ’single phase’ or ’one phase’. However, many
ships and other consumers use ’three phase’ electrical power as their
primary power. All rules and laws of alternating current are to be used
for ’single phase’ and ’three phase’ as well.
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-6
Figure 6, detail a) shows the wave--form of a three phase alternating

current. Each phase is shifted 1200 by another. The generation of
these wave--form is performed by an arrangement of coils and a
rotating magnet as shown in Figure 6, detail b).
Three coils are fitted on a core with a shift of 1200. The rotating
magnet with constant speed induces in each coil a sinusoidal voltage
originated by cutting of flux lines of the magnet.
1.1.9.4 Definitions of a Sinusoidal Wave
Peak Value
-7
Figure 7 shows peak values that occur during an AC sine wave.

Two peaks occur during one complete revolution of 360 0. One peak
occurs during the positive part of the wave when its maximum height is
reached. This point represents the maximum positive value that occurs
during the AC sine wave.
A second peak value occurs during the negative part of the wave,
when the maximum height below the zero line is reached. This point is
known as the negative peak value.
Peak--to--Peak Value
-8
Figure 8 shows the peak--to--peak value of a sinusoidal wave.

This value is measured between the point of maximum positive swing
and the point of maximum negative swing. The peak--to--peak value is
therefore twice the peak value.
Root Mean Square Value
When a direct current flows through a resistor, a certain amount of

power is dissipated by the resistor in a form of heat.
A certain amount of heat is also generated if an alternating current is

allowed to flow through the same resistor.
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However, the heat generated by a DC of one ampere will generate

more heat than an AC current with a peak value of one ampere.
The alternating current generates less heat because it reaches its

peak value of one ampere only once during each half wave.
The average value must, therefore, be lower than one ampere.
Therefore an AC current with a higher peak value must be used to
generate an equivalent amount of heat.
An alternating current that will generate the same amount of heat (in a
specific resistor) as a direct current that has a value of one ampere is
considered to have an effective or rms value of one ampere.
The rate of dissipation of energy as heat in a resistor depends upon

the SQUARE of the current or voltage:
2
P = I 2 ⋅ R or P = U .
R
-9
Figure 9, detail a) shows that the square of the sinusoidal current (I 2)

plotted against the time, generates a curve which is always above the
time axis (+ I 2 = + I 2 ; − I 2 = + I 2 ) and symmetrical about
the halfway line. The energy dissipated over any time interval is
proportional to the shaded area beneath the curve.
If the peaks of the I 2 graph are imagined as being cut off half way up,
they will fit exactly in the troughs as shown in Figure 9, detail b). This
indicates that the height of the equivalent rectangle is exactly 50 A 2
and the equivalent current can be stated more accurately as 7.07 A
(I 2 = 50 A 2, I = 50 A 2, I = 7.07 A).
This heating effect of an alternating current is very important in AC

theory and is the value usually indicated by meters.
For example, when the statement is made that the alternating voltage
available at the consumers supply terminals is 220 V, it is the effective
or rms value that is given.
Therefore the peak value is:
Peak value = rms value ⋅ 2
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The factor 2 is to be seen as a given value.
Peak value = 220 V ⋅ 2 .
Peak value = 220 V ⋅ 1.414.
Peak value = 311 V.
That is, the heating effect resulting from applying this peak voltage
across a resistance would be the same as that resulting from an
application of a steady DC voltage of 220 V, for the same length
of time.
Since the effective value is less than the peak value for a sinusoidal
wave-- form, a 220 V sinusoidal supply will have instantaneous values
greater than 220 V for some parts of the cycle, and will have a peak
value just over 311 V. Since it is calculated by finding the square root
of the average value of I 2 or U 2, the effective value is known as the
root mean square or rms value.
Period and Cycle
When a sinusoidal wave--form is analysed it is often necessary to

know how much time is required to generate one complete cycle of
the wave--form.
- 10
The period is normally measured in seconds. Furthermore the period
is often represented by the letter ’T’.
If a generator generates one cycle of output voltage in one second, the

output sine wave has a period (T) of one second. If four cycles are
generated in one second, the output sine wave will have a period of
one quarter of a second (T = 0.25 seconds). The period is the time for
one cycle, not the total time required to generate any given number
of cycles.
Frequency
- 11
Often it is necessary to know how rapidly an AC wave is changed its
value. It is important to know how many cycles of the wave occur in a
given period of time. The number of cycles that occur in a specified
period of time is the ’Frequency’ (f) of the wave.
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Each time the armature (loop) of a simple generator completes one

revolution, one cycle is generated. Therefore the frequency of an
AC wave is determined by the speed at which the armature rotates.
As the speed of rotation increases, more cycles are generated in a

given period of time, thus causing the frequency to increase.
The frequency (f) of a sinusoidal (sine) wave is expressed in terms of

the number of cycles generated per second.
For example, an armature (loop) that rotates one complete revolution

each second generates one cycle of ac output voltage each second.
The AC voltage would therefore have a frequency (f) of one cycle
per second.
Although the frequency is the number of cycles generated each

second, it is expressed in HERTZ (abbreviated Hz).
A generator which generates an AC voltage that completes one cycle

per second, operates at a frequency (f) of one Hz. The term Hertz
is simply used in place of cycles per second.
If the AC generator generates 30 cycles of AC output voltage each

second, it operates at a frequency of 30 Hz. Likewise, an output
of 60 cycles per second would be expressed as 60 Hz.
- 12
There is a definite relationship between the frequency and the period

of a sine wave. When the period of a sine wave is equal to
one second, the frequency will be equal one Hz.
If the period decreases to 0.5 seconds, or one half of its original value,
the frequency would double, or increase to 2 Hz. This is because
exactly twice as many cycles would occur each second. Similarly if the
period were doubled, the frequency would be cut in half.
The relationship between frequency (f) and period (T) is therefore:
f = 1
T
This equation states that the frequency (f) is equal to one divided
by the period (T).
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Furthermore, if the period is expressed in seconds, the frequency

obtained will be in Hz. For example, when the period of a sine wave is
equal to 0.05 seconds, the frequency of the wave will be equal to:
f = 1
T
f = 1
0.05 s
f = 20 Hz .
A period of 0.05 seconds therefore corresponds to a frequency

of 20 Hz. If the period was cut in half or reduced to 0.025 seconds,
the frequency would be:
f = 1
T
f = 1
0.025 s
f = 40 Hz.
The result is that the frequency increases to 40 Hz, or double.

The equation shows that f and T are inversely proportional. When one
increases the other decreases by a proportional amount and vice
versa.
The equation f = 1 can also be transposed so that T can be

T
determined when f is known:
T = 1
f
For example, when f is 100 Hz, T can be determined as follows:
T = 1
f
T = 1
100 Hz
T = 0.01 seconds.
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Frequencies that range from a few Hz to many millions of Hz are

widely used in electronics. For example, the 220 V AC electric power
that is in common use has a frequency of 50 Hz. This 50 Hz voltage is
used to operate lights and appliances.
In many electrical applications, the frequencies involved are much

higher. This high frequencies are required to carry information or data.
Also the higher frequencies are easier to convert into electromagnetic

(radio) waves which can be transmitted over long distances.
These higher frequencies cannot be generated by AC generator

machines, since these devices rotate at a very high speed which
would be necessary. Instead they are generated by electronic circuits
which do not require moving parts.
When frequencies are used that extend up to many millions of Hz,

large numbers must be handled. These large numbers can be reduced
to manageable size by the use of various metric prefixes:
Prefix Symbol Value

kilo k 1000 (103)
mega M 1000000 (106)
giga G 1000000000 (109)
The prefixes can be placed before a word to change its meaning. For
example, the prefix kilo means 1000 and when it is placed before the
unit Hertz, the word ’kilohertz’ which means 1000 Hz.
General 1000 Hz are expressed simple as 1 kilo--hertz, or the

symbol k is used to represent kilo and the symbol Hz to represent
Hertz; the quantity is expressed as 1 kHz.
In a similar manner the prefix mega (M) is used to represent 1000000.

Therefore 1000000 Hertz can be expressed as 1 mega--hertz
or 1 MHz. The prefix giga (G) represents 1000000000.
Therefore 1000000000 Hertz can be expressed as 1 giga--hertz or

1 GHz or 1000 MHz. Also a frequency of 10000 Hertz could be
expressed as 10 kHz.
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- 13
Figure 13 shows the frequency band that is most commonly used.

The frequencies between 15 Hz and 20 kHz are referred to as audio
frequencies.
An AC voltage that has a frequency within this range will generate an

audible tone to which the human ear will respond. However the AC
must applied to device, such as a loudspeaker, which will convert it
into sound waves that can be detected by the human ear.
The frequencies between 3 kHz and 300 GHz are referred to as radio
frequencies (RF) since they are used extensively in radio communica-
tions and radar systems.
The radio frequency band is subdivided into frequency ranges as

follows:
V very--low frequency (VLF) -- 3 kHz to 30 kHz
V low frequency (LF) -- 30 kHz to 300 kHz
V medium frequency (MF) -- 300 kHz to 3 MHz
V high frequency (HF) -- 3 MHz to 30 MHz
V very--high frequency (VHF) -- 30 MHz to 300 MHz
V ultra--high frequency (UHF) -- 300 MHz to 3 GHz
V super--high frequency (SHF) -- 3 GHz to 30 GHz
V extremely--high frequency (EHF) -- 30 GHz to 300 GHz.
Above the upper limit of 300 GHz other forms of electromagnetic

energy such as, light waves, x rays and cosmic rays are encountered.
Wave--forms
The fundamental wave--form of electrical engineering is the sine wave,

generated when a loop rotates in a magnetic field. If a sinusoidal
current is passed through a linear resistance, capacitance or induc-
tance, then the voltage developed across the component is also
sinusoidal.
For any other wave--form shape the voltage will differ from the shape
of the flown current, if there is some capacitance or inductance
in the circuit.
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- 14
Figure 14 shows typical examples of wave--form shapes used

in electric circuits.
Pulse trains and square waves are used extensively in electronics,

because of their fairly precise time at which the voltage levels change,
in many timing applications.
In a radar system, for example, a pulse is transmitted and the radar

receiver picks up any reflection from objects such as ships or aircraft.
The time between transmission and reception of the pulse is a
measure of the distance away of the object.
Pulse generators usually generate a stream of pulses at regular

intervals.
- 15
Two more quantities must therefore be considered:

V the number of pulses per second, known as pulse repetition fre-
quency (PRF)
V the ratio of the pulse duration to the time between two pulses,
known as mark--to--space ratio.
The pulses in Figure 15 contain a mark--to--space ratio of 1 : 4

(mark = 1 ms ; space = 4 ms).
The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) can be determined as follows:
PRF = 1
PRT
Whereby PRT is the time of mark plus the time of space.
PRF = 1
t mark + t space
PRF = 1
1 ⋅ 10 −6 seconds + 4 ⋅ 10 −6 seconds
PRF = 1
5 ⋅ 10 −6 seconds
PRF = 200 kHz.
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Angular Velocity
- 16
The relationship between the instantaneous EMF in a sine wave and
time is an important consideration in alternating voltage and current
circuits. The angle Q can be expressed in such a way that the instan-
taneous value of the EMF is made dependent on time. This angle Q is
expressed in RADIANS, instead of degrees.
A radian is the angle at the centre of a circle subtended by an arc of

the circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle.
The circumference of a circle contains 360 degrees. It length is 2p
times the radius. Thus, the rotation through 360 degrees is the same
as rotation through 2p radians.
360 0 = 2p radians
180 0 = p radians
90 0 = π radians
2
One radian is:
360 0 = 360 0 = 57.3 0.
2π 6.28
If one revolution is performed the loop has passed through 360 0 or 2p

radians. If the loop rotates at f revolutions per second it passes
2p⋅ f radians per second.
This is termed ’Angular Velocity’, which is equal to:

2p ⋅ f = w (radians per second).
At any interval of t seconds from the commencement of rotation, the

loop is rotated through an angle Q equal to 2p ⋅ f ⋅ t = w⋅ t (radians).
The instant voltage u at this instant is:

u = U sin Q
u = U sin w t (volts).
Similar, with an alternating voltage in a circuit, the value of the current

at any instant is:
i = I sin Q
i = I sin w t (amperes).
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Phase Difference
- 17
It is often necessary to compare two AC wave--forms of the same

frequency and to determine if the two wave--forms coincide, i.e. occur
at the same time. In many cases, two AC wave--forms within the same
circuit will be displaced in time or by a given number of degrees.
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency pass through

corresponding points in a circle at the same time they are ’In Phase’.
- 18
If they pass through the corresponding points in the circle at different

instants of time the are ’Leading or Lagging’ by a certain phase angle.
As shown in Figure 18, i 1 is leading i 2 by F radians or i 2 is lagging i 1

by F radians. Thus i 1 reaches its maximum value, F radians before i 2.
Therefore i 1 leads i 2 by a phase angle of F, or i 2 is lagging i 1 by a
phase angle of F.
The instantaneous values can be solved by the use of the following

equations:
i 1 = I sin w t
i 2 = I sin (w t -- F).
1.1.9.5 Pure Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in AC Circuits
Pure Resistance in AC Circuits
When purely resistive components are used in an alternating current

circuit Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws and the usual circuit rules for
voltage and current can be applied exactly as in direct current circuits
both to all instantaneous values and rms values.
In the following ideal conditions are considered and a circuit with pure
resistance is assumed.
- 19
In the circuit shown in Figure 19 a sinusoidal voltage u = U sin w t is

applied to a resistance R. At any instant, in the circuit Ohm’s Law
applies.
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Therefore the current i can be determined from the expression:
i = u
R
U ⋅ sin ω ⋅ t
i =
R
- 20
Figure 20 shows that the current and voltage rise and fall together.
So they are in phase.
As the voltage and current in a pure resistive alternating circuit are in

phase, any similar measurement of U and I can be used
to calculate R.
Therefore is:
u instantaneous
R =
i instantaneous
U peak
R =
I peak
U rms
R =
I rms
Pure Inductance in AC Circuits
If in an AC circuit only a pure inductance is arranged, the current does

not rise or fall at exactly the same time as the voltage. The maximum
current is reached a quarter of a cycle later than the voltage, and it
remains a quarter of a cycle behind at all points in the cycle.
Although there is no such device as a pure inductance, the ideal is

assumed for the purpose of better understanding.
When the current through an inductance (inductor) changes the

following effects will happen:
V the magnetic field surrounding the inductor changes
V the changing magnetic field causes lines of flux to cut
the inductor
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V when lines of flux cut an inductor a voltage is induced

V by Lenz’s Law this induced voltage opposes the applied voltage
(back EMF)
V the magnitude of the induced voltage (back EMF) is proportional
to the rate at which the current changes (D i) in conjunction with
time changes (D t):
∆ i
u = −L
∆ t
- 21
Figure 21 shows an inductor connected across a sine wave source

which causes a current i to flow.
- 22
Figure 22 shows the sinusoidal lapse of the current i in relation to the

time t or angle F.
- 23
Figure 23 shows the rate of change of the current i in relation to the

sinusoidal lapse. When the current wave--form passes through the
zero axis the rate of change is greatest, while at the peak values (both
maximum and minimum) the rate of change is zero.
- 24
Figure 24 shows that the back EMF is proportional to the rate of

change of current, and hence has the same shape as the rate of
current. However it is reversed in sign because it always opposes the
rate of change of current (Lenz’s Law).
- 25
As the inductor is the only component in the circuit, the back EMF
must be exactly equal the applied voltage. The wave--form of the
applied voltage is therefore equal but opposite to the back EMF.
When the current and the applied voltage wave--forms are superim-
posed, it can be noticed that the voltage leads the current by
90 degrees in a pure inductive circuit.
Inductance affects current flow only while the current is changing. In

an AC circuit the current changes continuously and the induced back
EMF provides continuous opposition to current flow.
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This opposition to current flow is known as ’Inductive Reactance’ and

the symbol is X L. As with resistance, reactance is equal to the ratio of
voltage to current.
Therefore is:
U rms
U peak
XL = =
I rms I peak
The value of X L can also be calculated from the expression:
X L = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ f ⋅ L (Ohms).
Whereby:
p = 3.14
f = frequency in Hz
L = inductance in Henrys.
- 26
Inductive reactance (X L) is proportional to frequency. Thus a graph of
X L against f must be a straight line as shown in Figure 26.
This results in the following conclusions:

V at a given applied voltage, if the frequency increases, the reac-
tance increases and the current decreases
V at a given frequency, if the inductance increases, the reactance
increases and the current decreases
V at zero frequency (i.e. direct current) the reactance is zero. An
ideal inductance offers no opposition to the flow of direct
current.
Pure Capacitance in AC Circuits
In practice it is impossible to have a pure capacitive circuit because

the connecting leads and dielectric inevitably have some resistance.
This resistance, can be made so small in relation to the reactance of
the capacitor that this resistance can be ignored.
When a DC voltage is applied across a capacitor, a current flow
removes electrons from one plate of the capacitor and deposits them
on the other via the external circuit. A voltage u C across the capacitor
and an electric field, which stores the energy is generated by the
current flow (charge).
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- 27
When the resistance of the circuit is negligible, as shown in Figure 27,

the voltage u will appear only across the capacitor, and u C will be
equal u. Thus as u changes u C will also change.
The voltage across the capacitor changes with the change of the
supply source voltage, so if e.g. u is a sine wave, u C will also be a sine
wave of the same amplitude.
- 28
As already mentioned u C is proportional to the charge on the capaci-

tor, therefore changes in u C can only be brought about by a current i,
which removes electrons from one plate and deposits them on the
other.
- 29
Consequently i must be proportional to the rate of change of u C.
∆ uC
i.e.
∆ t
At point A in Figure 29, u C is changing at maximum rate and therefore

i must be at maximum as shown at point B. At point C the rate of
change of u C is momentarily zero and consequently the corresponding
value of i is zero. Superimposing of u on the graph i shows that the
voltage lags the current by 90 0 in a pure capacitive circuit, i.e. the
phase angle F is equal to 90 0.
Current will flow in a pure capacitive circuit while the applied voltage is
changing. Even then, the size of the current is only sufficient to adjust
the charge on the capacitor so that the voltage across it remains equal
to the applied voltage.
Since i is directly proportional to f and C, it follows that the resistance

to current flow, known as ’Capacitive Reactance’ (X C) must be
inversely proportional to these quantities.
Therefore is:
XC = 1
2⋅π⋅f⋅C
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Whereby:
p = 3.14
f = frequency in Hz
C = capacitance in Farads.
Capacitive reactance is equal to the ratio of voltage to current, in the

same manner as resistance and inductive reactance:
U rms
U peak
XC = =
I rms I peak
- 30
Since the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the fre-

quency, a graph of X C against f will be as shown in Figure 30.
This results in the following conclusions:

V as the frequency increases the reactance decreases and there-
fore the current increases
V as the frequency decreases the reactance increases and there-
fore the current decreases
V at zero frequency (DC) the reactance is infinite, i.e. a capacitor
acts as a ’block’ to DC.
The phase relationship in inductive and capacitive circuits are as

follows:
V in an inductor, voltage leads current
V in a capacitor current leads voltage.
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Slip rings
B 0331
Figure 1 Loop in a Magnetic Field
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V cos θ
Direction of
V rotation
θ
Direction of 90 0
magnetic field
V sin θ θ
θ
.
Reference position
of loop
B 0219
Figure 2 EMF Generation
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8 7
9 6
S
B 0220
15 0
Figure 3 Flux Cut by a Loop in a Magnetic Field
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Lines cut
37
35
30
25
20
15
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105
B 0332
Average loop position (degrees)
Figure 4 Lines Cut against Loop Position
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Degrees
G
1080
B 0221
990
3rd revoloution
900
EMF against Loop Position

810
720
630
2nd revoloution
540
450
Figure 5
360
1.25 revoloutions
270
1st revoloution
180
90
+ EMFmax
-- EMFmax
+e
--e
0
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a) + EMF max
U3 U1 U2
+e
−e
120 0 120 0
− EMF max
U1 (coil 1)
b)
120 0 120 0
U2 (coil 2)
U3 (coil 3) B 0222
120 0
Core
Figure 6 Generation of Three Phase Alternating

Current
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Voltage or current
Positive peak value of U or I
Time (t)
Negative peak value of U or I

B 0223
Voltage or current
Figure 7 Peak Value of a Sinusoidal Wave
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Voltage or current
Positive peak value of U or I
Peak -- to -- peak value
Time (t)
Negative peak value of U or I

B 0224
Voltage or current
Figure 8 Peak--to--Peak Value of a Sinusoidal Wave
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a)
I 2 [A 2]
100
50
0
00 90 0 180 0 270 0 360 0
b)
I 2 [A 2]
100
50
0
B 0225
00 90 0 180 0 270 0 360 0
Figure 9 Root Mean Square Value (rms)
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Voltage or current
1 Cycle
Time (t)
Period (T)
B 0226
Voltage or current
Figure 10 Period of a Sinusoidal Wave
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Voltage or current
1 Cycle
f = 1 Hz
Time (t)
T = 1 second
Period (T)
B 0227
Voltage or current
Figure 11 Frequency of a Sinusoidal Wave
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1 Cycle
f = 1 Hz
Time (t)
Voltage or
current
Period (T)
T = 1 second
1 Cycle 1 Cycle
f = 2 Hz f = 2 Hz
Voltage or
current
Time (t)
Period (T) Period (T)

T = 0.5 second T = 0.5 second
B 0228
Figure 12 Period and Frequency
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1 Hz
10 Hz
100 Hz
Audio frequencies (AF)

(15 Hz -- 20 kHz)
1 kHz
Very low frequency (VLF)
(3 kHz -- 30 kHz)
10 kHz
Low frequency (LF)
(30 kHz -- 300 kHz)
100 kHz
Medium frequency (MF)
(300 kHz -- 3 MHz)
1 MHz
High frequency (HF)
(3 MHz -- 30 MHz)
10 MHz Radio frequencies (RF)
(3 kHz -- 300 GHz)
Very high frequency (VHF)
(30 MHz -- 300 MHz)
100 MHz
Ultra high frequency (UHF)
(300 MHz -- 3 GHz)
1 GHz
Super high frequency (SHF)
(3 GHz -- 30 GHz)
10 GHz
Extremely high frequency (EHF)
(30 GHz -- 300 GHz)
100 GHz
B 0229
1000 GHz
Figure 13 Frequency Band
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Sawtooth
Pulse train
Triangular
Square
Sinusoidal
B 0230
Figure 14 Typical Wave--forms
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U/I
Mark Space
1 ms 4 ms
t
B 0231
Pulse repetition time
(PRT)
Figure 15 PRT and Mark--to--Space Ratio
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Arc of length r
1 Radian
Angle Q
Radius r
B 0232
Figure 16 The Radian
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+
U max
u = U max ⋅ sin ω t
i = I max ⋅ sin ω t
I max
3π∕2 2π
π∕2 π ω t
I max
U max
B 0233
--
Figure 17 Sine Waves in Phase
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i 1 = I max ⋅ sin ω t
+ Φ
U max
i 2 = I max ⋅ sin(ω t − Φ)
3π∕2 2π ω t
π∕2 π
U max
B 0234
--
Φ
Figure 18 Sine Waves out of Phase
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uµ R
B 0235
Figure 19 Sine Wave in a Resistance Circuit
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Voltage/current
U peak
I peak
Time (t)
B 0236
Figure 20 Voltage and Current in Phase
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uµ L
B 0237
Figure 21 Sine Wave in an Inductance Circuit
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Current i
t or Q
B 0238
Figure 22 AC in an Inductance Circuit
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Current i
0
t or Q
Rate of change
of current
∆I
∆t
0
t or Q
B 0239
Figure 23 Rate of Current Change
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Rate of change
of current
∆I
∆t
0
t or Q
Back EMF
− L ∆I
∆t
0
t or Q
B 0240
Figure 24 Comparison of Current Change

and Back EMF
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Back EMF
− L ∆I
∆t
0
t or Q
Applied voltage u
Current
0
t or Q
B 0241
Figure 25 Comparison of Applied Voltage

and Back EMF
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XL = 2 π f L
L increases
L decreases B 0242
f
Hertz
Figure 26 Inductive Reactance
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uµ uC C
B 0243
Figure 27 Sine Wave in a Capacitance Circuit
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u = uC
t or Q
B 0244
Figure 28 Voltage across a Capacitor
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Φ
i
uC
t or Φ
A
B 0245
Figure 29 Relationship between u and i
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XC = 1
2 π f c
0
f
B 0246
Figure 30 Capacitive Reactance
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1.1.10 Effects of Alternating Current
1.1.10.1 The Nature of Electric Current

-1
In a conductor under normal conditions there is a continual random

movement of ’free’ electrons between the static atoms. But this does
not constitute a current.
-2
An electric current is the movement of ’free’ electrons in the same

direction through a conductor. The ’free’ electrons can be caused to
move through the conductor in one general direction towards a point
which is positive and therefore attracts them. This constitutes a
conduction current. By convention, the direction of an electric current
is from positive to negative.
This convention was made before the discovery of the electron.

The result is that a large number of electrical laws are defined in term
of conventional current. According to present day electronic theory,
electrons move in the reverse direction in a conductive circuit from
negative to positive. This is called an electronic flow. In these docu-
ments conventional flow direction is always used.
1.1.10.2 Heating Effect
When an electric current flows in a conductor, the conductor becomes

warm or hot. The reason is that energy has been dissipated in the
form of heat. During their passage through the conductor, electrons
collide with small particles (molecules) and give up some of their
kinetic energy. The molecules, already in a state of agitation, move
faster and further from one to another. This results in both, heat and
expansion of the conductor.
The effect of heat is used in:

V flat--iron
V immersion heater
V electrical lamps
V fuses.
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1.1.10.3 Chemical Effect
An electrical current flowing through an electrolyte causes a change in

the chemical composition of the electrolyte and any electrodes
immersed in the solution. For example in:
V battery charging
V electro plating.
1.1.10.4 Magnetic Effect
An electric current through any medium generates a magnetic field.

This is used in devices such as:
V electric bells
V relays
V electric motors
V transformers.
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Random Movement of Electrons (No Current)

B 0247
Valence electrons
Conductor
Positive ions
Figure 1
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Directed Movement of Electrons (Current Flow)

B 0248
Valence electrons
Conductor
Positive ions
Figure 2
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1.1.11 Electrical Safety Precautions
Electricity is a form of energy. It is easy transported over large dis-

tances through power lines and can be easy converted into other
forms of energy. For instance mechanical energy is obtained when
electrical energy is fed to an electric motor and electrical energy is
converted into radiation energy when an electric light is turned on.
Electricity cannot be seen, heard, tasted or smelt. However, the effects
of electricity can be observed and felt if precautions against electric
shock are not taken.
1.1.11.2 Electrical Hazards
When working on electrical equipment the following rules must be

observed thoroughly:
V whenever possible turn off power when working on electrical
equipment
V never touch a conductor with your hands that carries a voltage
of more than 50 Volts DC or 30 Volts AC; this could cause a
lethal electrical shock
V never touch any parts of an electrical equipment directly if you
are not sure that it carries a voltage of less than 50 Volts DC
or 30 Volts AC
V if you are not sure about any voltage measure it
V if you observe an involving electrical shock don’t just stand there
do something.
1.1.11.3 Rescue of Shock Victim
The victim of an electrical shock is dependent upon you to give him

prompt first aid. Observe these precautions:
V shut off the high voltage
V if the high voltage cannot be turned off without delay, free the
victim from the live conductor
V protect yourself with dry insulating material
V use a dry board, your belt, dry clothing, or other non--conducting
material to free the victim
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V when possible push -- do not pull the victim free of the high volt-
age source
V do not touch the victim with your bare hands until the high volt-
age circuit is broken.
1.1.11.4 Mouth--to--Mouth Resuscitation

-1
The two most likely results of an electrical shock are bodily injury from
falling, and cessation of breathing. While doctors and ambulance are
being sent for, do the following things:
V control bleeding by use of pressure or a tourniquet
V turn the victim on his back
V begin immediately mouth--to--mouth resuscitation if the victim is
not breathing or is breathing poorly by carrying out the following
procedure:
-- clean the mouth, nose and throat. If they appear clean, start
resuscitation immediately. If foreign matter is present, wipe it
away quickly with a cloth or your fingers
-- place the victim’s head in the ’sword--swallowing’ position.
(Place the head as far back as possible so that the front of
the neck is stretched)
-- hold the lower jaw up. Insert your thumb between the victim’s
teeth at the middle line and pull the lower jaw forcefully out-
ward so that the lower teeth are further forward than the
upper teeth. Hold the jaw in this position as long as the victim
is unconscious
-- close the victim’s nose. (Compress the nose between your
thumb and forefinger).
-- blow air into the victim’s lungs. Take a deep breath and cover
the victim’s open mouth with your open mouth, making the
contact air--tight. Blow until the chest rises. If the chest does
not rise when you blow, improve the position of the victim’s
air passageway, and blow more forcefully. Blow forcefully into
adults, and gently into children
-- let air out of the victim’s lungs. (After the chest rises, quickly
separate lip contact with the victim allowing him to exhale)
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-- repeat the last two steps at the rate of 12 to 20 times per

minute. Continue rhythmically without interruption until the
victim starts breathing or is pronounced dead. (A smooth
rhythm is desirable, but split--second timing is not essential).
1.1.11.5 Accident Prevention at Experiments
In order to avoid accidents at experiments:

V no one is allowed to switch on the power supply, operate control
boards or close switches except the person in charge of the ex-
periment
V in the event of danger, immediately push the EMERGENCY
OFF switch
V when setting up a circuit for an experiment, take all necessary
precautions to prevent excessive contact voltages on bare sur-
faces
V no one but the person in charge of the experiment is allowed to
switch on the power supply
V the power supply must be switched off before any changes are
made in the circuit connections
V all circuits must clearly set--up
V report any defective items of equipment to the person in charge
immediately
V make sure that the diameter of all conductors are adequate
V do not use the lead to pullout of sockets
V do not touch any parts that are live.
1.1.11.6 Safety Requirements at Experiments
In order to carry out an electrical experiment a closed circuit must be

connected from one of the three (black) power supply lines L 1, L 2
or L 3 (also called live or phase wire) through:
V a protection device (fuse or circuit breaker)
V a switch
V a load
to the neutral (blue) power supply line.
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The power source supplies normally an EMF of 220 Volts AC between

line and neutral. A supply earth (green / yellow) cable (P.E.) is con-
nected to the metal frame or case of the load appliance. This ensures
that the metal case is at earth potential, and that a dangerous potential
between the case and earth can never exists.
The neutral cable is connected to earth potential by the electricity

supply authority. That means that the phase line has a dangerous
voltage (220 V) between phase and neutral, phase and earth or phase
and body contact when a person is standing on a non--insulated
material and has contact with earth.
In some circuits there is more than one phase line. There can be either
two phase lines (2--phase system) or three phase lines (3--phase
system). Between two phases L 1, L 2 or L 3, exists a higher voltage of
1.73 times phase voltage, i.e. in a normal 220 V system, 380 V exists
between two phases.
A danger to life exists if contact is made between phase line L 1, L 2, L 3

and earth or neutral or two phase lines.
Damp conditions considerably increase the danger to life because the

person makes a better contact to earth. The wearing of rubber shoes
therefore reduces the danger.
The fuse or circuit breaker and switch must always be connected in

the phase line. The load is then safe when the circuit is switched off.
Therefore:
V always make sure that the metal frame of a load is connected to
earth
V use the list of components to select the modules required
V place the modules in neat order
V connect up the modules as shown in the relevant circuit diagram
V carry out a clear arrangement of the circuit by suitable selection
of the colours of the connecting leads, e.g. PE: green / yellow,
N: blue, phase leads: black
V check the circuit to see that it is connected up properly
V take note of the main data of the equipment used
V ask the person in charge to switch the power on.
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Clear the mouth

and throat
Tilt head back

and lift jaw
Pinch nose
(or seal lips)
Blow
N 3457 A
Figure 1 Mouth--to--Mouth Resusciation
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1.1.12 Practical Exercises: Basic Electricity
The following laboratory exercises are related to Lessons 1.1.1 to 1.1.10 with
the Topic title ’Basic Electricity’. They are to be carried out in the laboratory
using electronic components.
The individual tasks are given in Worksheets which form part of this Lesson.
Dependent on the time available decide which tasks are to be carried out and
which are to be omitted.
Ensure that the particular electronic components, measurement equipment and

accessories necessary for the tasks are available in serviceable condition.
Hand out the equipment to the students and stress the importance of the
safety precautions to be observed. Introduce the exercises to be carried out
and explain the circuit diagrams and the measurement set--up.
Check the assembly built up by the students before power is switched on;
supervise the execution of the exercises and give advice, if necessary.
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Basic Electrical Eng. 1.1.12 - WS - 1
Task 1: Measurements on Resistor Series/Parallel

Circuit
Objective:
Various voltage and current measurements at a resistor series/parallel circuit with

fixed resistors, fed from a variable AC/DC power supply are to be carried out.
The results are to be entered in a table.
These values are to be used to calculate different ohmic resistances.
Furthermore the original resistor network has to be represented simplified in four

steps. Each step has to be sketched down by means of a circuit diagram.
Materials/equipment required:
V 1 variable AC/DC power supply
V 2 multimeters
V 1 resistor 82 W (R1)
V 1 resistor 1.2 kW (R3)
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Task 1 (continued):
Execution:
1. Build up the following circuit:
R1 R4
A
A
+ *
*
Variable
AC/DC
US
power U3 I3 U6 I6
supply
V V
--
R3 R6 R7
Itotal
* A
R2 R5
Note: US = USupply.
Dotted lines represent temporary connections.
* = bridge or multimeter.
2. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7 to the variable AC/DC power
supply.
3. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to DC.
4. Switch on the power supply and adjust voltage (US) to 12 V.
5. Connect multimeter (A) to the circuit and measure current Itotal.
6. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit. Measure voltages US, U3 and U6.
7. Enter the values of Itotal, US, U3 and U6 in table 1, overleaf.
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Task 1 (continued):
Table 1
US = V Itotal = mA
U3 = V I3 = mA
U6 = V I6 = mA
8. Connect multimeter (A) to the circuit. Measure current I3 and enter the value
in table 1.
9. Connect multimeter (A) to the circuit. Measure current I6 and enter the value
in table 1. Switch off the power supply.
10. Calculate R3, R6, R7 and Rtotal by means of the values of table 1.
11. Simplify the following original network within four steps.
Original:
R1 R4
R3 R6 R7
R2 R5
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Task 1 (continued):
Step 1:
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Task 1 (continued):
Step 2:
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Task 1 (continued):
Step 3:
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Task 1 (continued):
Step 4:
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Task 2: Measurements on Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Objective:
Voltage and current measurements related to Kirchhoff’s current law in a resistor

network, fed from a variable AC/DC power supply are to be carried out.
These values are to be used to calculate the ohmic resistance and conductance of
the branches (R/Rtotal, GR/Gtotal). The results are to be entered in the same table.
V 2 multimeters
V 1 resistor 1 kW (R2)
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Task 2 (continued):
Execution:
A B C
Itotal
IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4
Variable A A A A
AC/DC
V US
power
supply
--
R1 R2 R3 R4
Note: US = USupply.
2. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4, multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the
variable AC/DC power supply.
3. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to DC and switch on the power supply.
4. By means of multimeter (V), adjust voltage (US) to 10 V and enter the value in
table 1, overleaf.
5. Measure current Itotal by means of the multimeter (A), enter the measured
value in table 1, overleaf.
6. Measure current IR1 by means of the multimeter (A), enter the measured value
in table 1, overleaf.
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Task 2 (continued):
in table 1.
in table 1.
in table 1 and switch off the power supply.
Table 1
US = V IR1 = mA R1 = W GR1 = S
US = V Itotal = mA Rtotal = W Gtotal = S
10. Calculate resistance R and conductance G of the branches and network.
11. Enter these results in table 1.
12. Develop the current equations of junctions A, B and C.
Junction A :
Junction B :
Junction C :
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Task 3: Measurements on Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Objective:
Resistor value determinations, performed by means of the resistor colour code are
to be carried out. The results are to be entered in a table.
Furthermore voltage and current measurements related to Kirchhoff’s voltage law

in a resistor network, fed from a variable AC/DC power supply are to be carried
out. The results are to be entered in a second table.
These values are to be used to calculate component powers and total power
of the resistor network.
V 2 multimeters
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Task 3 (continued):
Execution:
R1
+
Variable
AC/DC
power
supply
--
R2
2. Be sure that the power supply is switched off.

3. Determine the values and tolerances of the resistors R1 and R2 by means of
the resistor colour code and enter these values in table 1.
4. Calculate minimum (Rmin.) and maximum (Rmax.) values of the resistors.
5. Enter these values in table 1.
Table 1
Nominal value and Rmin. Rmax.

tolerance
R1 W W W
R2 W W W
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Task 3 (continued):
6. Calculate the total resistance Rtotal of the resistor series circuit by the use of
resistor nominal values.
Rtotal =
R1 UR1 V
+
Variable
AC/DC
US Utotal V
power
supply
--
R2 UR2 V
Note: US = USupply.
8. Connect resistors R1 and R2, multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the variable
AC/DC power supply.
10. Switch on the power supply, adjust voltage (US) to 15 V and enter the value in
table 2, overleaf.
11. Measure voltages UR1, UR2 and Utotal by means of the multimeter (V) and enter
the measured values in table 2, overleaf.
12. Measure current IR1/IR2 and Itotal by means of the multimeter (A) and enter the
measured values in table 2, overleaf and switch off the power supply.
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Task 3 (continued):
13. Calculate the resistor values R1, R2 and Rtotal by the use of the measured
voltage and current values and enter these results in table 2.
Table 2
US = V UR1 = V IR1 = mA R1 = W
US = V UR2 = V IR2 = mA R2 = W
US = V Utotal = V Itotal = mA Rtotal = W
14. Answer the following question and calculate the task:

Are the above calculated values of R1 and R2 within the tolerance band as
determined by the resistor colour code (Rmin./Rmax.)?
yes
no
Calculate component powers and total power of the resistor network by the use
of the measured values US, IR1, IR2 and Itotal.
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Task 4: Measurements on Unloaded/Loaded Voltage

Divider
Objective:
Voltage and current measurements in a resistor network, fed from a variable

AC/DC power supply are to be carried out. The results are to be entered in tables.
These values are to be used to calculate the ohmic resistance. The results are to
be entered in respective tables.
Furthermore this task includes calculations related to voltage ratio, output voltage
and power.
V 2 multimeters
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Task 4 (continued):
Execution:
Itotal
R1 U1 V
+
Variable
AC/DC
US
power
supply
--
R2 U2 V Uout
Note: US = USupply.
2. Connect resistors R1, R2 and multimeter (A) to the variable AC/DC power
supply.
4. Switch on the power supply, adjust voltage (US) to 15 V.
5. Connect multimeters (A) and (V) to the circuit. Measure current Itotal and
voltages U1 and U2.
6. Enter the measured values in table 1, overleaf.
7. Switch off the power supply.
8. Calculate the resistor values R1, R2 and Rtotal by the use of the measured
voltage and current values and enter these results in table 1, overleaf.
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Task 4 (continued):
Table 1
Itotal = A U1 = V U2 = V
Rtotal = W R1 = W R2 = W
9. Develop the formula to calculate the output voltage Uout and under use of the
nominal resistor values, calculate Uout.
10. Calculate the power at resistors R1 and R2.
Itotal
R1 U1 V
Variable
AC/DC
US
power A I2 A I3
supply
--
Uout V
R2 R3
Note: US = USupply.
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Task 4 (continued):
12. Connect resistors R1, R2 and R3 to the variable AC/DC power supply.
14. Switch on the power supply.
15. Adjust voltage (US) to 15 V.
16. Connect multimeter (A) to the circuit. Measure current Itotal.
17. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit. Measure voltage U1.
18. Enter the measured values in the table 2.
19. Connect multimeter (A) to the circuit. Measure current I2.
20. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit. Measure voltage Uout.
21. Enter the measured values in the table 2.
22. Connect multimeter (A) to the circuit. Measure current I3.
23. Enter the measured value in the table 2 and switch off the power supply.
24. Calculate the resistor values R2, R3, Rtotal and R2 // R3 by the use of the
measured voltage and current values.
25. Enter these results in table 2 (// stands for parallel).

Table 2
Itotal = mA U1 = V
I2 = mA Uout = V
I3 = mA
26. Calculate the power at resistors R1, R2 and R3 and total power Ptotal.
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Task 4 (continued):
R1
Variable
AC/DC
US
power
supply
--
Uout V
R2 R3
Note: US = USupply.
Dotted line represent temporary connection.
28. Connect resistors R1, R2 and R3 to the variable AC/DC power supply.
30. Switch on the power supply, adjust voltage (US) to 15 V.
31. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit. Measure voltage Uout.
32. Enter the measured value in table 3, overleaf.
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Task 4 (continued):
34. Calculate the voltage Uout by means of Ohm’s law.
35. Enter the value in table 3.

Table 3
Uout measured = V
Uout calculated = V
36. Compare the measured value of Uout with the calculated value of Uout and
explain the difference.
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
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Task 5: Measurements at Bridge Circuit
Objective:
Various voltage measurements at a resistor bridge circuit with fixed resistors, fed
from a variable AC/DC power supply are to be carried out. The results are to be
entered in tables.
These values are to be used to confirm the previous measurements by means of

calculations related to Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Furthermore questions are to be answered related to the behaviour of the bridge

circuit under different loads.
V 1 multimeter
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Task 5 (continued):
Execution:
C C
UAC UBA UBC

R1 R2
V UAB V
+ UCA UCB
V
Variable
AC/DC
US A B
power
supply
-- UDA UDB
V V
UAD R3 R4 UBD
D D
Note: US = USupply.
2. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 to the variable AC/DC power supply.
5. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit.
6. Measure the voltages UAB and UBA and enter the results in table 1.
Table 1
UAB = V UBA = V
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Task 5 (continued):
7. Explain the relationship between voltages UAB and UBA.
......................................................................
8. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit. Measure voltages UAC, UAD, UCA, UDA,
UCB, UBD, UBC and UDB.
9. Enter the values in table 2.

Table 2
UAC = V UAD = V UCA = V UDA = V
UCB = V UBD = V UBC = V UDB = V
11. Use Kirchhoff’s voltage law in order to calculate the bridge voltage UAB by the
use of the measured voltages UAC and UCB.
use of the measured voltages UAD and UDB.
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Task 5 (continued):
C C
UAC UBA UBC

R1 R2
V UAB V
+ UCA UCB
V
Variable
AC/DC
US A B
power
supply
-- UDA UDB
V V
UAD R3 R5 UBD
D D
Note: US = USupply.
14. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3 and R5 to the variable AC/DC power supply.
16. Connect multimeter (V) to the circuit. Measure voltages UAB, UBA, UAC, UAD,
UCA, UDA, UCB, UBD, UBC and UDB.
17. Enter the values in table 3.
Table 3
UAB = V UBA = V
UAC = V UAD = V UCA = V UDA = V
UCB = V UBD = V UBC = V UDB = V
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Task 5 (continued):
19. Use Kirchhoff’s voltage law in order to calculate the bridge voltage UBA by the
use of the measured voltages UCA and UBC.
use of the measured voltages UAD and UDB.
21. Name the influence of R5 related to the voltage (potential) at point ’A’ with
respect to ground.
The potential:
became more positive
became more negative
remain constant
22. Name the influence of R5 related to the voltage (potential) at point ’B’ with
respect to ground.
The potential:
became more positive
became more negative
remain constant
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Task 6: Charging/Discharging Processes of Capacitors
Objective:
Charging and discharging processes of a RC circuit. fed from a variable

AC/DC power supply are to be examined. The determined values are to be
entered in tables.
Furthermore these values are to be transferred into diagrams in order to construct

graphs.
V 2 multimeters
V 1 stop watch
V 1 change--over switch (S1)
V 1 capacitor 100 mF (C1)
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Task 6 (continued):
Execution:
S1
b
A
a R1
I
Variable
AC/DC
US
power V UC
supply
--
C1 C2 C3 R2
Note: US = USupply.
Dotted line represent temporary connection.
2. Connect resistors R1, capacitors C1, C2 and C3 to the variable AC/DC power
supply.
3. Connect multimeters (V) and (A) to the circuit.
4. Set switch S1 to position ’a’.
5. Set the variable AC/DC power supply to DC, switch on the power supply and
adjust voltage US to 20 V.
6. Set switch S1 to position ’b’ and measure voltage UC at the points

of time tcharge given in table 1, overleaf.
7. Enter the measured values (UC1) in table 1, overleaf.
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Task 6 (continued):
Table 1
Charging process UC = f (t charge)
t charge
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
s
UC (1)
V
UC (2)
V
UC
V
8. Set switch S1 to position ’a’ in order to discharge the capacitors.
9. Connect resistor R2 to the circuit.
10. After two minutes, disconnect resistor R2 and set S1 to position ’b’.
11. Repeat the measurement of voltage UC.
12. Enter the measured values (UC2) in table 1.
UC (1) + U C (2)
14. Use UC1 and UC2 in order to calculate the mean value UC = .
2
15. Enter the calculated values UC in table 1.
16. Name the reason why two identical measurements had been carried out
in order to calculate the mean value.
......................................................................
......................................................................
18. Connect resistor R2 to the circuit and switch on the power supply.
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Task 6 (continued):
20. Measure current IC at the points of time tcharge given in table 2.
21. Enter the measured values (IC1) in table 2.

Table 2
Charging process IC = f (t charge)
t charge
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
s
IC (1)
mA
IC (2)
mA
IC
mA
23. Connect resistor R2 to the circuit.
25. Repeat the measurement of current IC.
26. Enter the measured values (IC2) in table 2.
IC (1) + I C (2)
28. Use IC1 and IC2 in order to calculate the mean value IC = .
2
29. Enter the calculated values IC in table 2.
30. Name the reason why two identical measurements are to be carried out.
......................................................................
......................................................................
31. Transfer the mean values of UC (table 1) and IC (table 2) into diagram 1,
overleaf, in order to construct the graphs UC = f (tcharge) and IC = f (tcharge).
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Task 6 (continued):
Diagram 1
IC UC
,
mA V
2.0 20
1.8 18
1.6 16
1.4 14
1.2 12
1.0 10
0.8 8
0.6 6
0.4 4
0.2 2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 t
s
32. Sketch down the supply voltage US and the maximum charge current Imax.
into diagram 1.
33. On what value of US has the capacitor voltage UC risen after completion
of time constancies tcharge?
Table 3
UC = = =
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Task 6 (continued):
34. By the use of graph UC = f (tcharge) determine time constant tcharge and enter
the result in table 4.
Table 4
tcharge = s
35. On what value of Imax. has the capacitor current IC fallen after completion
of time constancies tcharge?
Table 5
IC = = =
36. By the use of graph IC = f (tcharge) determine time constant tcharge

and enter the result in table 6.
Table 6
tcharge = s
37. By which components is time constant tcharge influenced by?

R1
R2
C1
C2
C3
38. Calculate the total capacitance Ctotal of the examined circuit.
39. Use the values of the components to determine time constant tcharge.
41. Set switch S1 to position ’b’ and have this position for a minimum of three
minutes in order to charge the capacitors.
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Task 6 (continued):
42. Set switch S1 to position ’a’ and measure voltage UC at the points
of time tdischarge given in table 7.

Table 7
Discharging process UC = f (t discharge)
t discharge
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
s
UC (1)
V
UC (2)
V
UC
V
45. Set switch S1 to position ’a’ and measure voltage UC at the points
47. Use UC1 and UC2 in order to calculate the mean value UC.
48. Enter the calculated values UC in table 7.
50. Set switch S1 to position ’a’ and measure current IC at the points
51. Enter the measured values (--IC1) in table 8, overleaf.
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Task 6 (continued):
Table 8
Discharging process --IC = f (t discharge)
t discharge
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
s
− IC (1)
V
− IC (2)
V
− IC
V
53. Set switch S1 to position ’a’ and measure current IC at the points
54. Enter the measured values (--IC2) in table 8.
56. Use --IC1 and --IC2 in order to calculate the mean value --IC.
57. Enter the calculated values --IC in table 8.
58. Transfer the mean values of UC (table 7) and --IC (table 8) into diagram 2,
overleaf, in order to construct the graphs:
V UC = f (tdischarge)
V --IC = f (tdischarge).
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Task 6 (continued):
Diagram 2
− IC UC
,
mA V
--2.0 20
--1.8 18
--1.6 16
--1.4 14
--1.2 12
--1.0 10
--0.8 8
--0.6 6
--0.4 4
--0.2 2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 t
s
59. Sketch down the supply voltage US and the maximum charge current Imax.
into diagram 2.
60. On what value of US has the capacitor voltage UC fallen after completion
of time constancies tdischarge?
Table 9
UC = = =
61. By the use of graph UC = f (tdischarge) determine time constant tdischarge

and enter the result in table 10, overleaf.
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Task 6 (continued):
Table 10
tdischarge = s
62. On what value of Imax. has the capacitor current --IC fallen after completion of
time constancies tdischarge?
Table 11
--IC = = =
63. By the use of graph --IC = f (tdischarge) determine time constant tdischarge
and enter the result in table 12.
Table 12
tdischarge = s
64. By which components is time constant tdischarge influenced by?
R1
R2
C1
C2
C3
65. Calculate the total capacitance Ctotal of the examined circuit.
66. Use the values of the components to determine time constant tdischarge.
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Fundamental Studies Royal Malaysian Air Force Power Electrics
1.2 Introduction to Power Electrics
1.2.1 Power Electric Components
1.2.1.1 Switches
The switch is a device for making, breaking or changing the connections

in electric circuits. A switch is understood to be manually operated unless
otherwise stated, e.g. by mechanical, hydraulic, thermal, barometric or
gravitational force.
Switches are rated in amperes and volts referring to the maximum

voltage and current of the circuit in which the switch is to be used.
The switch contacts should be opened and closed quickly to minimize
arcing; therefore switches normally utilize a snap action. Many types
and classifications of switches have been developed. A designation is
by the method of working principle or actuating.
There are:
V tip switches (toggle and tumble switch)
V touch switches (push--button switch)
V rotary switches (rotary selector switch, key switch).
-1
A toggle switch which is spring--loaded to the OFF position and must be
held in the ON position to complete the circuit is called a momentary--
contact two--position switch. If the toggle switch comes to rest at any of
three positions, it is called a three--position switch. Toggle switches have
their moving parts enclosed.
Push--button switches have one or more stationary contacts and one

or more movable contacts. The movable contacts are attached to the
push--button by an insulator. This switch is usually spring--loaded and
is of the momentary--contact type.
The momentary--contact normally--open push--button, such as used for

START buttons, merely closes its contacts for whatever period of time
the button is held down. The normally--closed momentary--contact
push--button opens its contacts for whatever period of time the button
is held down.
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Push--buttons are also available in the double--pole style. This push--

button has one set of contacts which are normally closed and one set
which are normally open. Another push--button switch design has a
latching mechanism.
When the button is first pressed the contacts go into their ’make’
position and by a second pressing the contacts break again. These
switches are generally provided with a pilot light, indicating the make
or break position with coloured lamps. This type of maintained--contact
push--button switch is often used as a pilot device for contactors or
circuit breakers.
-2
The pilot devices necessary for the control of a machine are usually
mounted on a common housing, which is then called a ’push--button
station’.
Rotary Disc Switches

-3
Rotary disc switches are universal switchgears with small dimensions

and high making and breaking capacity applied on DC and AC.
For many years they have been used as main switches and control
switches in industrial engineering and switchgear constructions.
The essentials of a rotary disc switch are stacked elements of contact

and circular insulating discs bolted together so as to form dust--tight,
arc--resistant, closed switch elements. The drive and the snap
mechanisms are isolated from live (energized) parts.
The snap mechanism locks the switch in its respective switching

position and precludes interpositions. It is constructed like a notch
arresting mechanism. The switching angle may be 30°, 45°, 60°
or 90°.
Cam discs transform the rotational motion of the drive into a linear
tappet motion. The tappet with the contact is released by the curves of
incidence at the periphery of the cam discs. Thus the contact is closed
by the contact spring force. The number and positions of the curves of
incidence are ruled by the switching program.
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The switch element with the two contacts (current paths) constitutes
the basic component of the rotary disc switch. Each current path
consists of two fixed and one moving bridge--type contact elements.
The contact surfaces of the contact members are lined with a
silver alloy.
The terminals arranged outside are executed as switch blades towards

the inside, which engage into the connecting link. A high contact
pressure and a low transition resistance ensure high faultless switching
reliability. Several switch elements can be installed in series, so that a
number of various switching combinations are possible.
The most important feature of this construction is the direct connection

of hand--drive, catching and cam discs without any springy elements in
between. This arrangement ensures clear and reliable functioning and
indication of the respective switching position.
Switch Disconnectors
-4
Switch disconnectors serve to disconnect electric motors and their
control circuits from the power supply line in case of maintenance
or damage. They are also applied in power distribution panels to
disconnect single power lines in the system. Switch disconnectors
are able to handle currents of several hundred amperes.
The switch disconnectors can make and break load circuits in three--
phase systems under operating conditions. The disconnectors can
also be used in DC systems. They fulfil the requirements for the main
switches for the electrical equipment of machines and machinery.
The disconnectors are equipped with latching operating mechanisms
ensuring rapid make or break, regardless of the speed of actuation.
The three pole assemblies of the disconnectors are fitted in a base

frame of glass fibre reinforced polyester resin (see sectional drawing).
The moving contacts are positioned in the arc chutes and main
contact parts. The type of switch disconnector shown in Figure 4 is
equipped with additional arcing contacts. In the switched--on state the
current flows over the closed main contacts. When the disconnector is
switched off the arc develops at the arcing contacts.
Thus the main contact surfaces are not affected by the arc and the
contact resistance is very low. The arcing contacts, in turn, are easily
replaceable and their resistance does not affect the switch behaviour.
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-5
A short--circuit protection can be combined with the switch disconnector.
For this purpose fuses or electromagnetic releases are integrated in the
disconnector design. The design of many switch disconnectors allows the
handle to be blocked by a padlock. This is important if a control circuit
or electric motor is switched off for maintenance. In this case the circuit
must be protected against unintended or unauthorized switching--on for
safety reasons.
1.2.1.2 Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers designed to protect electrical service systems or

components, such as lines, machinery, equipment or motors, are line
and motor circuit breakers. Protective circuit breakers for human and
animal protection are fault voltage circuit breakers and fault current
circuit breakers.
-6
Line protection circuit breakers are so--called automatic cut--outs with
electromagnetic and electrothermal release.
Their job is to protect circuits and electrical machinery and equipment

against short--circuits and overcurrents. They are preferred to fuses,
as they offer higher operational reliability of electrical service systems.
Circuit breakers for system protection, as shown in Figure 6, are
widely applied in distribution systems for the supply of lighting systems
and small electric motors and their control circuits.
Automatic Switch--Fuses
-7
Low--power circuit breakers are often used instead of fuses to protect
lighting systems and other low--power consumers in distribution systems.
Their purpose is to protect against short--circuits and overloads in
selective distribution systems. Where an automatic switch--fuse is used
for replacing a melting fuse cartridge, it is constructed removably as a
single--phase screwed or plugged type. Module--type switch--fuses are
mounted in lines on frames and combined in distribution panels. Such
modules may be designed for single--phase protection or for two or
three--phase power supply. If the internal release is actuated due to an
overcurrent or short--circuit, the switching lever or button returns to the
OFF position.
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Earth Leakage Breaker
Earth leakage breakers provide human and animal protection against

fault voltages and fault currents by disconnecting the supply.
The protective ground turns a body contact into an earth fault and the
fault current flowing through the earth lead enables the preceding
differential current protection device. Upon back--flow of the earth
leakage current through the earth the resistance on protected service
system components must not be excessively high. With fault current
and voltage earth leakage breakers installed, all--polar disconnection
of the connected load occurs within 0.2 seconds, as soon as a
dangerous contact voltage results.
1.2.1.3 Contactors and Relays
Contactors and relays can be considered to be components by which

it is possible to operate other components in associated electrical
circuits by remote control. Since the principle of magnetism is applied,
they can be described as an automatic, magnetically operated
remote--controlled switch. Contactors and relays may be considered,
dependent on operational requirements, to be either light--duty or
heavy--duty.
Relays
Relays are switchgear components which carry only a light current

through their contacts and can be employed to control a number of
different functions within one electrical system. Relays, often used for
specialist circuit requirements, might be concerned with the following
functions. They might be required
V to close contacts, when operated, to complete an electric circuit
or
V to open contacts, when operated, to break an electric circuit.
Relays may also be required to carry out both operations at the same
time.
Relays may be defined as electrically controlled switches handling up

to 10 A at 220 V at their contacts. Anything above this may be classed
as a contactor.
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Typical Relay Construction
Relays for low current and low voltage are usually of the clapper type
while relays for relatively low current and higher voltage are of the
solenoid type.
Clapper--Type Relays
-8
The main characteristic of clapper--type relays is the pivoting armature.

When current flows through the coil, the armature is attracted and
operates the contacts of other circuits connected. At rest condition,
the armature is forced off the iron core by the armature spring. Clapper--
type relays are built for single closing or opening contacts or for a
number of closing and opening contacts. These contacts are often
designed as switch--over contacts, as shown in Figure 8.
Contactors
Contactors (heavy--duty relays) operate much the same as light--duty

relays. The difference is only in the size and the contact pieces. There
are applications for consumers with high current, for example heaters,
air--conditioning, motors and lighting installations. There are single--
phase and three--phase contactors. Single--phase contactors are used
in lighting installations or for single--phase motor control.
Contactors are employed to perform the functions of start and stop on

many heavy loads, such as electric furnaces, signs and similar types
of equipment that do not require running protection. Perhaps the best
way to describe a contactor would be to say that it is a magnetically
closed switch.
Operating Principle
-9
When the supply is connected to the electromagnetic coil by a

control contact, the steel armature is attracted and closes the
movable contacts to the fixed (stationary) contacts. If the electromag-
netic coil is disconnected from the supply, the contacts are opened by
the helical spring. Any contactor has at least one set of stationary
contacts and one set of movable contacts which are brought together
by means of the pull of an electromagnet.
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Toggle switch Tumble switch
Push--button switches
Maintained--contact type push--button
Indicating lamp
Switching and
latching mechanism
A 2010 B
Operating
button
Figure 1 Toggle Switches and Push--Buttons
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A 2023 A
Mounting
plate
Figure 2 Push--Button Station

Switching
elements
Indicator
buttons
Casing
Push--
lamp
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Switch
elements
Snap mechanism
Handle
Cam disc Contacts
Arresting
pin
Tappet
Notched
wheel
A 2004 B
Snap mechanism Switch element
Figure 3 Rotary Disc Switch
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Terminal cover Terminals
Drive
shaft
Contact
lever
Handle
Complete Arc chute removed
Sectional view
Top terminal
Base frame Arc chute
Main contact,
fixed
Arcing contact,
fixed
Arcing contact,
moving
Main contact,
moving
A 2002 C
Bottom
terminal
Figure 4 Switch Disconnector
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a) Fused switch disconnector
b) Switch disconnector with short--circuit release

A 2003 B
Figure 5 Disconnector with Fuse or Release
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a) Complete
b) Main components
Base body
Release block
Circuit--
breaker case
Arc chute
Undervoltage
relay
Auxiliary switch
N 4816 C
Anti--shock device
Switch lever
Covers
Figure 6 Circuit Breaker for System Protection
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a) Module type
Single--phase design Three--phase design
b) Single--phase screwed type

A 2011 B
Figure 7 Automatic Switch--Fuses
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Insulation
Contact Contacts
terminals
Spring
Armature
Coil
Coil terminals Core
A 2018 B
Figure 8 Clapper--Type Relay
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Coil Spring Fixed contact
Movable
contacts
A 2016 A
Mounting Supply Armature Fixed contact

base
Figure 9 Operating Principle of a Contactor
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1.2.2 Fundamentals of Power Circuits
1.2.2.1 Letter Codes and Symbols

- 1 to 3
According to various standards the kind of equipment may be identi-

fied by a single letter. This can be allotted to an individual item of
equipment and also to a combination of various items, e.g. a starter
with limit switch. For the identification of a particular item the letter
code may be completed with a consecutive number.
-4
Figure 4 illustrates the application of such a letter code in the internal

connection diagram of a generator circuit breaker.
It is apparent that all auxiliary switches are marked by the letter ’S’
regardless of whether they are manually operated (push--buttons) or
attached to the circuit breaker components. They are marked by an
additional number and can thus be identified easily. S14, for example,
is the switch attached to the over--current and short--circuit release
indicating their state.
The protective devices in this circuit are the fuses F10 to F13 and the
releases F4 and F6. The electrically operated mechanical release of
the energy store is identified by Y1. H1 identifies the lamp indicating
the circuit breaker state. The terminals connecting the circuit breaker
module to the peripheral devices are arranged as terminal strips and
marked X5 to X8. The individual terminals are numbered separately.
For future training it will be necessary that the students especially learn the
meaning of the letter codes A, F, H, K, M, Q, S, T and X.
- 5 to 17
These Figures show various national and international graphic

symbols of electrotechnical devices.
’=’ indicates that symbols are identical
’--’ indicates the absence of a suitable symbol.
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In order to facilitate the tracing of a particular symbol the complete set

has been separated into the following categories:
Denomination Sheet
General circuit elements 1, 2
Operating mechanisms 3, 4
Couplings, brakes 5
Releases 6
Switches, switchgear 7
Transformers and reactors 8
Electrical motors 9, 10
Measuring devices 11
Acoustic and visual signalling devices 12
Conductors and junctions 13
1.2.2.2 Kinds of Diagrams
The graphic representation of a circuit system as practised in electrical

engineering is contained in so--called circuit diagrams. They include
information on various functional features and modes of operation,
switchgears and devices, and sometimes enormous quantities of wirings,
terminals and designations. The circuitry representation must be uni-
formly and generally applicable and give unambiguous clear information
on all concerns of planning, assembly, maintenance and trouble--shoot-
ing. For this purpose, in circuit diagrams common symbols, codes,
designations and types of diagram are laid down in standards.
The most important types of diagrams are block diagrams, one--line

diagrams, circuit diagram in assembled representation and circuit
diagram in standard form.
- 18
A clear and unequivocal diagram make--up and arrangement require
the following general rules to be observed:
V The diagram must be structured in a top--to--bottom and left--
to--right reading direction. The line circuit or power line must
be drawn lying in the upper part and the load in the lower part
of the diagram. All circuit lines must be drawn in vertical or
horizontal arrangement (no diagonal or otherwise oblique
routing is allowed).
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V The electrical symbols should possibly be arranged uniformly in

vertical current paths, so that they can be located quickly by the
current path numbers later on.
V All contact mechanisms are presented in their normal
(not switched) positions. So, for instance, a normally open
(NO) contact is shown in the open position and a normally
closed (NC) contact is shown in the closed position.
Any deviation from this principle requires a special note in the
drawing.
V The operating direction of the contact mechanisms is left to
right, i.e. a NC contact opens in a left--to--right direction and
a NO contact closes in a left--to--right direction.
V Each electrical device, switchgear or contact mechanism is
coded by a letter identifier according to the standards. For the
distinction of identical units, an ordinal number is added to the
identifier.
One--Line and Block Diagrams

- 19
The one--line diagram is an extremely simplified, unipolar representation
of a circuit system without auxiliary lines and auxiliary equipment.
Figure 19 shows that the overall diagram contains only the effective
parts of the main circuit and the pertaining designations.
The vertical main current paths are given consecutive path numbers,
which appear above the path and before the identifier. In order to
preclude confusion, in case of several identical units in one path and
thus the same letter code and consecutive path number, another
consecutive number is added to the prefixed path number.
The additional prefix number may be omitted, where clearness and
distinctness of the diagram are not affected.
Meaning of codes in this example:
Q Main switch (tripolar)
10F1, 11F1 Line protection panels
10K1, 11K1, 12K1 Main contactors
10F2, 11F2, 12F1 Motor protection relays
10M1, 11M1, 12M1 Three--phase asynchronous
motors
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From this survey one can recognize the order and kind or size of the
main switchgears and the number of main circuits. Functional relations
and sequences of circuit control cannot be shown in an overall
diagram. For this purpose a schematic diagram is drawn.
- 20
A special type of diagram is the block diagram, where the electrical
relations between component groups (assemblies) are illustrated,
e.g. an alarm system, in which a horn is operated via a relay, as soon
as the bridge circuit tuning is staggered by the alarm signal.
Power feed--in is by a mains rectifier and a battery.

A1 Bridge circuit
A2 Relay circuit
B1, B2 Burglar alarm signal transmitter
G1 Power supply unit
G2 Battery
H1 Horn
S1 Push--to--test button
Circuit Diagram (Assembled Representation)
A circuit diagram in assembled representation is a complete wiring

diagram showing all the main and auxiliary lines of a circuitry.
Major consideration is given to a clear representation of the electrical
cooperation and relations between the devices involved in a system.
The switching and the driving elements are drawn on the same
working line so that the operating function of the switchgears can be
seen. Circuit functions, instead, can hardly be derived from such a
diagram, in particular in case of ample and complex systems involving
a large number of inevitable line crossings and branchings.
Therefore, the application of functional diagrams is limited to smaller
circuit systems.
- 21
From this circuit diagram, the arrangement of components, the line
connections, the location of terminals and the number of conductors of
the connecting lines can mainly be seen. Larger (more extensive)
circuits are better made up in standard form circuit diagrams to ensure
maximum clearness.
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F0 Control circuit fuse
F1 Main circuit fuses
F2 Thermal overload protection
S1 Start push--button
S01 Stop push--button
H1, H2 Switch--on indicator lamps
H01 Cut--out control lamp
K1 Main contactor
M Main motor
Circuit Diagram (Standard Form)
The circuit diagram in standard form is the functional representation of a

circuit. All the branched and crossing electrical lines are split up and put
together in an ordered logical scheme, i.e. the so--called current paths.
To get an illustration without crossing lines, the contact mechanisms and
drives of a switchgear are allowed to be arranged in different places of
the schematic diagram. The cooperation, unit association and electrical
identity are, however, clearly defined by the respective letter code and
identification number of the unit.
- 22
Figure 22 shows the circuit diagram with and without identifying letter
code. As demonstrated in detail a), with a missing or incomplete
identification, the functional circuitry features remain unclear.
From detail b), instead, one can clearly see that the signal lamps H1
and H2 are actuated by relay K. All control circuits are based on the
procedure of signal generation and its routing and conversion.
Apart from the simple on-- and off--functions, a circuit structure may,
of course, be made up with additional and combined circuits involving
NC and NO contacts, change--over contacts, etc. Circuit diagrams in
standard form are most widely used. This is why they are often simply
called ’circuit diagrams’.
Principles of Representation
- 23
The following measures and considerations are indispensable
prerequisites for a clear organization of a circuit diagram in its
standard form.
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V The power supply system shall be arranged in a horizontal

order, with vertical, not crossing current paths. Diagonal or
otherwise slanted (oblique) arrangements of electrical lines
should be avoided. This system allows the equipment units to
be arranged vertically, one succeeding the other in the direction
of current flow.
V The components of a functional unit, such as a solenoid, the
main contacts and the NC and the NO contacts must in any
case be given identical designations. Distinction between
several identical contact mechanisms of an electrical device
may be made by stating the respective terminals (for example
main contacts of K1 in detail a) and coil and auxiliary contacts
of K1 in detail b).
V The electric drives, signalling devices etc. are all uniformly
placed directly at N (neutral) or, in case of a control transformer,
at a conductor. For safety reasons, contact elements must not
be arranged between the relay coil and N or PE, respectively.
In the first instance this is a safety precaution but it also helps to
ease diagram reading.
V All vertical current paths containing contact mechanisms shall
be labelled with the respective current path numbers in a
consecutive left--to--right order. The numbers are stated at the
bottom of the circuit diagram of the control circuit, and on top
of the circuit diagram of the main circuit.
V Beneath large schematic diagrams, for each drive the respective
current path numbers, in which the individual contact mechanisms
lie, should be given, in order to ease and speed the contact
identification in the diagram (detail c)).
Comparing the diagrams shown in Figure 21 and Figure 23 makes the

differences evident. In the assembled representation the components
are drawn in their local and mechanical correlations.
In the standard form the components are drawn in their logical correla-
tion. This makes it much easier to understand the function of a circuit
and to find out interdependencies. Mechanical interlinks between
switchgear components are often omitted. This is possible because all
mechanically connected components are identified by the same
designation.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Example: The contactor in the circuit shown in Figures 21 and 23 have three
main contacts and two NO and one NC auxiliary contacts. In Figure 21
all the contacts and the contactor coil are connected by a broken line
representing the mechanical link. In Figure 23, detail a), only the main
contacts and the coil are drawn and connected.
In the control circuit diagram (Figure 23, detail b)) the coil and
the auxiliary contacts are drawn but not connected. In this case the
designation ’K1’, common to coil and contacts, represents the
mechanical link and simultaneous operation. In the main circuit
diagram only the heating elements of overload protection F2 are
drawn. The NC contact of this protection is drawn in the control circuit
diagram, to which it belongs logically.
How to Read a Circuit Diagram

= 23
To read a schematic diagram, start at the left--hand side of the top line
and proceed to the right and downwards. If a contact is open, the
current will not go through; if it is closed, the current will go through.
In order to energize the coil or other device in the circuit, every contact
and switch must be closed to form a complete path. In other words,
if there is an open contact, the coil will be dead; if not, it will be ener-
gized. Remember that contacts and switches are shown in their
normal, or deenergized position.
The symbols used in schematic diagrams must have some means of

indicating what operates them and on what component they will be
found. Since they have been put in their electrical instead of their
physical position in the circuit, the different contacts of a relay might be
scattered from one end of the diagram to the other. In order to identify
the relay coil and its various contacts, a unique designation (letter
code) must be chosen and written next to the coil symbol.
Each of the contacts that are operated by this coil will have the coil
designation written next to the symbol for the contact. In order to
identify different contacts of one relay or contactor, the terminal
numbers may be added. It is quite easy to read the main circuit
diagram (detail a)).From the mains supply lines (L1, L2, L3) branch
lines lead to the fuses F1 and to the main contacts of contactor K1.
If all the fuses are okay and the contactor is energized (i.e. the main
contacts are closed) current will flow through the heating elements of
overload protection F2 to the motor. The motor will run.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
The conditions for contactor K1 to close or open can be read from the
control circuit diagram (detail b)). A branch line from mains line L1
supplies the control circuit via fuse F0. This protects the complete
control circuit. The next steps are the NC contacts of F2 and S01.
Under normal conditions both contacts are closed and allow current to
flow to the terminals of S1 and of the auxiliary contacts of K1. The NC
contact of K1 in current path 3 (terminals 12--11) allows current to flow
through the indicating lamp H01. Under normal conditions, this lamp is
on, as long as the supply voltage is present.
If switch S1 is closed current will flow to the coil of K1 and energize

the contactor. Now all the contacts of K1 change their state, i.e. all
NO contacts close and the NC contact opens. After the NC contact in
current path 3 is open, the lamp H01 is dark. The NO contacts in
current paths 2 and 4 close and switch on the indicating lamps H1 and
H2. If the NO contact of S1 is open again, the contact of K1 in current
path 2 still supplies the coil of K1. The control circuit remains in this
state until either S01 or F2 interrupts the supply.
Other Standards
When introducing the symbols of electrical engineering in the previous

lesson, it was stated that the German symbols are used for the represen-
tation of electrical circuits. In manufacturers’ manuals, on the other hand,
circuits may be drawn according to other standards.
- 24
The circuit diagrams shown demonstrate the differences between
two standards: NEMA is a US standard, DIN is a German standard.
In both diagrams, the same electrical circuit is drawn in assembled
representation. The use of other symbols is not the only difference
between these standards. The letter codes and designations differ,
as well as the structure of the diagram. The circuit diagram (detail b))
shows that this motor control circuit comprises seven components:
V One motor (M)
V One main contactor (K1) with three main contacts and one
NO auxiliary contact
V Three overload protection devices (F1, F2, F3) with one
NC contact each
V One ’start’ push--button (S1, NO)
V One ’stop’ push--button (S01, NC).
MIP/PH1/TN/009
All these components can be found in the NEMA standard diagram as

well (detail a)). The motor and the ’start’ and ’stop’ push--buttons can
easily be identified. They have a textual designation. The contactor
coil is represented by a circle. The letter ’M’ in the circle indicates that
this is the coil of a main contactor. The main contacts of the contactor
are designed as ’line contacts’. The overload protection elements are
designated as ’OL’ and identified by T1, T2 and T3. Their NC contacts
are drawn next to the respective heating elements.
The lines of the control circuit additionally are marked by a number

at both ends. Line No. 1 leads from the mains line L1 to the ’stop’
push--button. Line No. 2 leads from the ’stop’ push--button to the
’start’ push--button and to the auxiliary contact of the main contactor.
Line No. 3 connects the auxiliary contact to the ’start’ push--button and
to the contactor coil. Line No. 4 connects the coil to the first overload
protection device, Nos. 5 and 6 interconnect the OL devices and
No. 7, at least, leads to the mains line L2. These line designations
must not be misunderstood as terminal numbers.
1.2.2.3 Contactor Control Circuits
Contactor circuits are made up of main circuits and control circuits.

= 18
In the main circuit the current flows via overcurrent protection devices
and contactor contacts to the load. All circuit components carrying
the main load current belong to the main circuit. All components not
carrying this current, but meant to control the main circuit, belong to
the control circuit.
In many cases a control circuit is built up to control two or more main

circuits. This is required for interlocking purposes. For example, the
main motor of a lathe should be allowed to run only if the lubricating
oil pump motor is running.
Basic Control Circuits

- 25
Extensive control circuit systems can be reduced to less complex control

circuitry patterns. The basic circuits shown here are autonomous systems
which can be composed to combinations as requested.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
For reasons of simplification, the main circuits are left out in this lesson,
and only the control circuits are drawn in standard form. Basically, two
types of control circuits can be distinguished by their mode of operation:
V steady--state control circuits
V pulse control circuits.
Steady--state Control Circuits
Steady--state control circuits are mainly accomplished in systems with

hand--operated rotary, toggle or lever switches and automatic limit
switches or automatic controllers, i.e. latched switches which after
being operated remain locked in the new position. They need no
self--holding as the pulse types do. The basic steady--state control
circuit is drawn in Figure 25, detail a).
A number of circuit arrangements can be set up by appropriate

combinations of NC and NO contacts. Practical application of steady--
state circuits is limited to cases where after a mains failure with
subsequent reestablishment of the line potential a contactor or a load
may be reenergized immediately without any risk of damage or
danger. Motor protection relays, on the other hand, must be secured
against automatic reconnection by a holding--out locking device.
Pulse Control Circuits
Pulse control circuits are handled by means of momentary contact

switches, e.g. by push--button keys, automatic controllers, regulators,
contactors, etc. Also electronic components are often used for pulse
signalling.
There are two basic types of pulse control circuits: the momentary
circuit, a non--holding type, and the self--holding type. Non--holding
and self--holding types of basic control circuits may be built up to a
number of various combinations. The basic momentary circuit is
shown in Figure 25, detail b). Only if the push--button of S2 is pressed,
lamp H2 is on. As long as S2 is not operated the lamp is off.
In detail c) a push--button switch with one NC and one NO contact is

used for performing a change--over operation. As long as S3 is not
operated, lamp H3 is on and lamp H4 is off. As long as the push--but-
ton is pressed this state is reversed, H3 is off and H4 is on.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
A single contact can operate several devices simultaneously, as

shown in detail d). Both contactor K1 and lamp H5 are energized as
soon as and as long as S4 is closed. Details e) and f) show a fre-
quently used control circuit principle: the sequence control.
The difference between the two circuits is their mode of operation.
The circuit shown in detail e) is operated by a notch--arresting switch.

Thus the complete circuit shows a steady--state behaviour. Neverthe-
less, only the part shown in current path 7 is a real steady--state
circuit. The circuit of current path 8 is, in fact, a pulse--controlled
circuit. It is operated sequentially by the first circuit. The circuit shown
in detail f), is an overall pulse--controlled circuit. Again the second
half--circuit (current path 10) is operated in sequence by the first one
(current path 9).
- 26
Another important feature of basic control circuits is the possibility of
carrying out logical functions. These are the basic logical functions:
V H1 is energized if S1 is switched on (Figure 26, detail a)).
V H2 is energized if S2 is not switched on (detail b)).
V H3 is energized if both S3 and S4 are switched on
(detail c)).
V H4 is energized if either S5 or S6 is switched on
(detail d)).
The AND function is often used as accident prevention in machine

tools. For example, a punching machine may be operated only if the
operator presses two buttons arranged so that injuries are precluded.
The OR function can be used for initiating control functions from two
(or more) different points of actuation. These logical functions can be
found in most control circuits performing various tasks. One applica-
tion of AND and OR functions is the self--holding circuit.
Self--Holding Circuit
Pulse--controlled momentary circuits have a great disadvantage: their

switching action takes place only as long as the pulse signal is
present. For many purposes it is desirable to combine pulse control
and steady--state performance. Storing relays (as, for example,
a current surge relay) may be used for such purposes. As these
components are special designs, they are expensive. A cheaper
solution is the self--holding circuit.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
- 27
In order to read the diagram in this Figure start at L1, which is a hot
line, and follow the circuit across the page. First we come to the STOP
button (S01). It is normally closed so that the current can flow through,
and we can proceed to the START button (S1) and auxiliary contact K.
Both of these are normally open, so the current cannot go any further.
Contact K closes when coil K is energized, so we cannot complete the
circuit that way. The START button S1 can be pushed, which will close
its contacts and allow current to flow to the coil K and to N. This action
completes the circuit to coil K and closes the auxiliary contact K. When
we release the START button, thus opening its contacts, the coil does
not drop out, because contact K is now held closed by coil K.
The circuit is now closed and will remain so until the control circuit
from L1 to N is broken.
In order to open the circuit manually, it is necessary to push the

STOP button S01, which interrupts the circuit at this point, causing an
interruption of current to coil K and dropping out the contacts of the
contactor. Contact K being operated by coil K is now open, so that
when we release the STOP button, the coil is not energized again.
Contact K, connected in parallel with S1, is called a self--holding
contact.
If S01 and S1 are actuated simultaneously, the contactor is switched

off because in motor--drive engineering the ’stop’ command must have
priority. This control circuit is connected such that the ’stop’ command
dominates, i.e. when the STOP button is pressed the contactor cannot
be closed by simultaneously pressing the START button.
Brief description:
By pressing button S1 the coil circuit is closed and the contactor K

picks up. After release of button S1 the contactor will not drop out,
as it is self--holding in current path 2 by means of its auxiliary
contact (NO contact). Manual switch--off is possible by S01.
Drop--out occurs in case of voltage failure.
Circuits with hold--in control elements or self--holding features are

used for keeping a circuit established after a short impulse on--
command signal. They are also used for cut--outs initiated by a cut--out
(off) pulse. Practical examples of this principle are contactor and
relay control systems.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
For control from different points, the switching--on momentary switches

(NO contacts) must be connected in parallel (OR function), while the
cut--out switches (NC contacts) are arranged in series (AND function).
The switching--on and the holding element must be arranged in
parallel. In the case of supply line failure, the self--holding mechanism
is opened, as the contactor armature drops out, and cannot provide
reconnection automatically, when power supply is available again.
This principle is called under--voltage tripping. For reconnection
another switching--on input from the command switch is necessary.
For safety reasons, contactor K shall not pick up in case both buttons
S01 and S1 are actuated at the same time. This requirement is met by
arrangement of S01 and S1 in series.
- 28
In this Figure two diagrams of one self--holding circuit with two STOP
and two START push--button switches are depicted. This circuit allows
complete control from two different points of actuation.
Interlocking Control Circuits
Interlocking control circuits are used for enforcing or precluding cut--ins

and cut--outs of current paths. In many cases an interlocking switch
system is intended to prevent two main contactors from making
contact at the same time and from overlapping action in the switching
phase. Interlocks are installed in reversing systems, star--delta motor
starters, pole--changing circuits and similar applications.
In the case of missing or insufficient interlocking, functional trouble

may arise including short--circuit with all its consequences. In com-
bination with electrical interlocks there may also be mechanical
latching mechanisms providing additional security. Such mechanical
latching can be performed by lever force on switchgears, which form
one constructional unit. Electrical interlocking is by switching the NC
contacts of contactors and the command switches in the control
current paths.
- 29
In the cross--over interlock with the contactor NC contacts there is the
risk of overlapping action. The risk of a short--circuit is particularly high
for reversing switchgears upon reversal of the direction of rotation.
With S1 and S2 closed at the same time, both contactors are energized
simultaneously.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
The consequence is that the contactor armatures pick up at the same

time and there is short--term closing of all main contacts. The quicker
contactor (i.e. the one which is first to switch) will then use its NC
contact for cutting out the slower contactor. On the other hand, this
circuit has an advantage for many purposes under normal conditions.
If button S1 is pushed to actuate contactor K1, the NC contact K1 in

current path 3 of contactor K2 is opened. K2 cannot be connected in,
unless K1 was cut out again before, i.e. S01 must have been pressed
beforehand. As one NC contact of contactor K2 lies in current path 1
of K1, also K1 can be switched in only when K2 is out. So only one
contactor can be connected into the circuit at a time under normal
conditions. It is impossible to change over from one contactor to the
other one without switching the whole circuit off by means of S01.
In reversing contactor designs, where immediate change--over from

anti--clockwise to clockwise operation is to be prevented, the switch--
over from K1 to K2 must not be possible but over an intermediate
off--condition brought about by the STOP switch S01. Another basic
interlock circuit using NC push--button contacts is often applied to
purposes where direct switch--over is desirable.
- 30
The push--buttons S1 and S2 have, in addition to the making contact

(NO contact) for contactor K1 and K2 operation, a NC contact, which
for S1 lies in the current path of contactor K2, and for S2 in the current
path of contactor K1. This means that with contactor K1 switched into
the circuit and upon actuation of S2 contactor K1 will automatically
drop out and K2 will attract, and this, in turn, means direct switch--over
by push--button interlock. Accordingly, with K2 in the circuit and S1
actuated, K2 drops out and K1 picks up. In case S1 and S2 are
actuated simultaneously, neither K1 nor K2 can attract.
The following laboratory exercises are to be carried out in parallel to the

corresponding lecture. The laboratory provides the equipment to be used for
the particular exercise.
Compose practical exercises out of the catalogue of tasks and have the
students perform the tasks on the Worksheets. Give an introduction to the
practical exercises; explain the circuit diagrams and the set--up. During
execution of the exercises explain the experiments and ask questions.
Let the students read off the values and data from the measurement equipment
and have them transfer the values into the corresponding Worksheets.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Letter code Kind of item Examples
A Assemblies, subas- Amplifier with tubes or transistors,

semblies magnetic amplifier, laser, maser
B Transducers, Thermoelectric sensor,

from non--electrical thermo cell, photoelectric cell,
quantity to electrical dynamometer, crystal transducer,
quantity or vice microphone, pick--up, loud-
versa speaker, synchros, resolvers
C Capacitors
D Binary elements, Combinative elements, delay

delay devices, lines, bistable elements, mono--
storage devices stable elements, core storage,
register, magnetic tape recorder,
disc recorder
E Miscellaneous Lighting devices, heating devices,

devices not specified elsewhere
in this table
F Protective devices Fuse, overvoltage discharge

device, arrester
G Generators, Rotating generator, rotating fre-

supplies quency converter, battery, supply
device, oscillator, quartz--oscillator
H Signalling devices Horn, lamp

N 5421 D
Figure 1 Letter Code for Electrical

System Components (A -- H)
MIP/PH1/TN/009
K Relays, contactors
L Inductors Induction coil, line trap
M Motors
N Amplifier, regulator
P Measuring equip- Indicating, recording and integrat-

ment, testing equip- ing measuring devices, signal
ment generator, clocks
Q Mechanical switch- Circuit--breaker, isolator

ing devices for
power circuits
R Resistors Adjustable resistor, potentiometer,

rheostat, shunt, thermistor
S Switches, selectors Control switch, push--button, limit

switch, selector switch, selector,
dial contact, connecting stage
T Transformers Voltage transformer, current

transformer
U Modulators, Discriminator, demodulator, fre-

changers quency changer, encoder, inverter,
converter, telegraph translator
N 5420 C
Figure 2 Letter Code for Electric System

Components (K -- U)
MIP/PH1/TN/009
V Tubes, Electronic tube, gas--discharge

semiconductors tube, diode, transistor, thyristor
W Transmission paths, Jumper wire, cable, busbar, wave-

waveguides, aerials guide, waveguide directional
coupler, dipole, parabolic aerial
X Terminals, plugs, Disconnecting plug and socket,

sockets test jack, terminal board, solder-
ing terminal strip
Y Electrically operated Brake, clutch, pneumatic valve

mechanical devices
Z Terminations, hybrid Cable balancing network, com-

transformers, filters, pandor, crystal filter
equalizers, limiters
N 5419 C
Figure 3 Letter Code for Electric System

Components (V -- Z)
MIP/PH1/TN/009
A 2062 A
X8 63 64 53 54 41 42
41
42
S2.1
53
54
63
64
S26
1
2
3
Figure 4 Circuit–Breaker Connection Diagram

31
32
X7 13 14 23 24
S1
23
24
S14
p
13
14
2
F4
F6
Ut
6
X6 115 116 117 118 119 120
H1
Iuu
Iuu
3
4
1
2
S51
Y1
K2
Off
F12
On
F13
L+
L–
X5 111 112 113 114
2
S3
3
M2
K1
F10
F11
S52
L1
L2
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
German British International
Description Canadian
symbols symbols symbols
symbols
= = =
Resistor or or or
Winding, inductor or = or or
L
Capacitor = or
with tapping =
Polarized capacitor + + = =
Polarized electrolytic + + +
capacitor = or
=
Permanent magnet or = or =
PM
Accumulator cell, battery

= =
(long line = positive pole)
Earth (ground)
= = =
connection
Frame or chassis
connection
Electrically driven fan

or blower
N 5357 A
Figure 5 Graphic Symbols of Electrical Engineering

Sheet 1: General Circuit Elements
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Variable in
operation
= = = = = = = = =
= continuously
= stepwise
Variable for
testing (preset = = = = = = = = =
adjustment)
Variable under the

influence of a = = = = = =
physical quantity linearly non--
linearly
= = =
or or or
Variable Resistor
or
Thermocouple =
Converter,
= =
transmitter
Amplifier, general
or = or = = or =
symbol
Single--phase
bridge--connected
rectifier
supply side or
or
Fuse or = = or
= or or = or =
Plug and socket

or or
N 5358 B
device

Sheet 2: General Circuit Elements
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Hand--operated
= = =
mechanism
Foot--operated
mechanism
or
Cam--operated 3
= =
2
mechanism 1
Pneumatic operating PNEU =

mechanism
Power operating
mechanism (stored = =
energy type), general
Operating physical
property (entered
in square):
Over/under normal ν>/ν< v> / v<

flow speed
Over/underpressure p>/p< P / P = / =
Over/undertemperature Â>/Â< T / T = / =
Over/under normal V>/V< L / L > / <

liquid level
Over/underspeed n>/n< SP / SP v> | v<
= or
Motor--operated M = =
mechanism MOT
Unidirectional
= =
latching device
N 5359 A

Sheet 3: Operating Mechanisms
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Device for time--

delayed operation,
=
following actuating
force to right
Latching
SW MECH
mechanism
Operating element
with automatic =
return on
or = or
discontinuation of =
actuating force for
or or
contactors, relays,
releases
Time--delay for
electromechanic
operating elements
or SR
=
Coil of slow-- (slow--releasing) = or SR (slow--releasing)
releasing relay
(very slow--releasing) (very slow--releasing)
=
(slow--operating) (slow--operating)
Coil of slow--
= or SO
operating relay
(very slow--operating) (very slow--operating)
Coil of a
or =
remanent relay
N 5360 A

Sheet 4: Operating Mechanisms
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Mechanical
coupling,
hand--operated,
or = =
disengaged when
operating means is
non--operated
engaged when
operating means is or = =
non--operated
Brake released
when operating or
means (not shown)
is energized
Brake applied
when operating or
means (not shown)
is energized
N 5361 A

Sheet 5: Couplings, Brakes
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Thermal overload
or = or =
release
Magnetic
or I> or OC I>
overcurrent release
Undervoltage
or U< UV UV U<
release
Open--circuit
or T TC
shunt release
N 5362 A

Sheet 6: Releases
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
or or or or
Make contact (NO) or or or =
or or or or
Break contact (NC) or or or or =
or
Change--over or
contact
or or = or
= or
Contactor with
thermal overload
releases
Triple--pole
load--break switch
Single--throw
switch manually
operated
Spring--return
switches, manually
=
operated with 1 NO
contact
N 5363 A

Sheet 7: Switches, Switchgear
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
= = =
Transformer with
two separate or or or
windings
or or =
= = =
Auto transformer or or or
or or =
=
Reactor or
or or =
Current or
or
transformer
or or =
or
Voltage (potential)
transformer
or
or
or =
N 5365 A

Sheet 8: Transformers, Reactors
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
M
Single--phase 1µ
induction motor with
squirrel--cage rotor
or
and starting winding M M
in stator with 1µ 1µ
capacitor
3µ
M
Three--phase
induction motor or M M M
3µ 3µ
with slip--ring rotor
M
3µ
Three--phase
induction motor or
M M
with squirrel--cage
rotor
M
N 5366 A

Sheet 9: Electrical Motors
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
or
DC series--wound
motor, interpole
windings arranged M M M M
in symmetry with
the armature
or
3 4 3
M
3µ
(8/4+6) P
Change--pole
squirrel--cage
induction motor
or
with 2 separate
windings for
changing from 8 to
4 poles and 6 poles,
respectively
8/4 P 6P
M
N 5367 A

Sheet 10: Electrical Motors
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Ammeter A = = =
Voltmeter V = = =
Single--phase AC
watthour meter, k Wh k Wh k Wh k Wh
form 1 µ
=
or
Instrument shunt =
Synchro
K K K
Rotor and stator
three--phase
Rotor single--phase, K K K
stator three--phase
Torque transmitter/ K MG/ME K TX/TR K TX/TR

receiver
Torque differential MDG/MDE TDX/TDR TDX/TDR

transmitter/receiver
Control transmitter/ SG/SE CX/CT CX/CR

transformer
Control differential SDG CDX CDX

transmitter
Resolver transmitter/ FG/FE RS RX/RR

transformer
Resolver differential FDG RDX

transmitter (not standardized
by DIN)
N 5368 B

Sheet 11: Measuring Devices
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Horn
HN
Bell = =
Siren = =
SR
Buzzer or
Pilot light,
= or =
indicating light
N 5371 A

Sheet 12: Signalling Devices
MIP/PH1/TN/009
US/
symbols
Conductor, general = = =
Flexible conductor
Protective conductor
Neutral = = =
Screened conductor,
= = or =
one conductor
Conductor with screen

= = =
earthed
Line marked to
denote number of = = =
conductors
Junction of
= = or = or
conductors
Junction
in general = = =
(or not separable)
separable = = =
=
or
Terminal strip 1 2 3 4 = =
1 2 3 4
N 5372 A

Sheet 13: Conductors and Junctions
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Main circuit
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
F1
Control circuit
L1.1
Q
F0
L1.1
S01
K
S1 K
F2
F2
K H
N
M
A 2069 B
M
3µ
Figure 18 Circuit Diagram Rules
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Current path number
10 11 12
10F1 11F1
10K1 11K1 12K1
10F2 11F2 12F1
M M M
10M1 11M1 12M1
3µ 3µ 3µ
A 2067 B
Figure 19 One--Line Diagram
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Mains
µ
G1
y
A1 B1 B2
G2
A2 S1
A 2066 A
H1
Figure 20 Block Diagram
MIP/PH1/TN/009
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
F1 F0
1 3 5 13 23 11 H2
a
K1
2 4 6 14 24 12
H01
F2
M
M S1
3µ
H1
S01
A 2064 A
Figure 21 Circuit Diagram (Assembled

Representation)
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a)
L1
N
1 2 3
b)
L1
S K K
K H1 H2
N
A 2065 A
1 2 3
Figure 22 Component Identification in Circuit

Diagrams
MIP/PH1/TN/009
A 2063 C
Figure 23 Circuit Diagram in Standard Form

24
33
4
K1
H2
Current path numbers

12
11
(10)
(10)
(10)
K1
H01
(3)
(2)
(4)
14
13
2
4
6
12
14
24
K1
H1
b) Control circuit
1
F0
K1
c) Terminals
F2
S01
S1
1
3
5
11
13
23
L1
N
Current path
10
1 3 5
2 4 6
3
M
a) Main circuit
F1
K1
M1
F2
N
L1
L2
L3
PE
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a) NEMA standard
L1 L2 L3
2 1 7
Auxiliary Line Line
contact contact contact
Start 3
Coil M
2 4
3 3 T2
1 2
Stop 5 7
4
OL OL OL
5 6 6
T1 T3
Motor
b) DIN standard
L1
L2
L3
S01
K1 S1
F1
F2
F3
A 2068 B
M
M
3µ
Figure 24 Circuit Diagrams according to Different

Standards
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a) Steady--state circuit b) Pulse--operated momentary circuit
L1 L1
S1 S2
H1 H2
N N
1 2
c) Change--over operation d) Simultaneous operation

L1 L1
S3 S4
H3 H4 K1 H5
N N
2 4 5 6
e) Steady--state sequence control f) Pulse squence control

L1 L1
S5 K2 S6 K3
K2 H6 K3 H7
A 2070 A
N N
7 8 9 10
Figure 25 Basic Control Circuits
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a) Basic circuit b) NOT
L1 L1
S1 S2
H1 H2
N N
1 2
c) AND d) OR
L1 L1
S3 S5 S6
S4
H3 H4
A 2071 A
N N
3 4 5
Figure 26 Logical Control Circuits
MIP/PH1/TN/009
L1
S01
S1 K
N
A 2072 A
1 2
Figure 27 Basic Self--Holding Circuit
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a) Assembled representation
L1 L2 L3 L1
N
S02 S01
K S12 S11
U V W
b) Standard form
L1
S01
S02
S11 S12 k
K
A 2073 A
N
1 2 3
Figure 28 Self--Holding Circuit with Two

Stop and Start Switches
MIP/PH1/TN/009
L1
S01
S1 K1 S2 K2
K2 K1
K1 K2
A 2074 A
N
1 2 3 4
Figure 29 Control Circuit with Contactor Interlock
MIP/PH1/TN/009
L1
1
S01
2
3 13 3 13
S1 K1 K2
4 14 4 14
1 1
S2
2 2
K1 K2
A 2075 A
N
1 2 3 4
Figure 30 Control Circuit with Push--Button Interlock
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 1: Construction of an AND Function
Objective:
An AND circuit has to be constructed by means of two push--buttons and one

contactor. Furthermore, the function of the circuit has to be examined.
V 1 contactor (K1)
V 2 push--buttons (S1/S2)
V connecting leads
Execution:
L1
S1
S2
K1
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 1 (continued):
2. Actuate push--button S1.
Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................
4. Actuate both push--buttons simultaneously.

Observation:
...................................................................................
5. Answer the following question.

Why does this circuit perform an AND function?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 2: Construction of an OR Function
Objective:
An OR circuit has to be constructed by means of two push--buttons and one

contactor. Furthermore, the function of the circuit has to be examined.
V 1 contactor (K1)
V connecting leads
Execution:
L1
S1 S2
K1
N
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 2 (continued):
Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................

Why does this circuit perform an OR function?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 3: Construction of a Self--Holding Control Circuit
Objective:
A self--holding control circuit has to be constructed by means of two push--buttons

and one contactor. Furthermore, the function of the circuit has to be examined.
V 1 contactor (K1)
V connecting leads
Execution
L1
S01
S1 K1
K1
N
1 2
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 3 (continued):
Observation:
...................................................................................
3. Actuate push--button S1 and hold it closed.

Observation:
...................................................................................
4. Release push--button S1.

Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................
7. Answer the following questions.

Which element is responsible for the self--holding performance of this circuit?
...................................................................................
How must the elements be connected to achieve the self--holding

performance?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 4: Construction of Control Circuit with Contactor

Interlock
Objective:
A control circuit with contactor interlock has to be constructed by means of three

push--buttons and two contactors. Furthermore, the function of the circuit has to
be examined.
V 2 contactors (K1/K2)
V 3 push--buttons (S01/S1/S2)
V connecting leads
Execution:
L1
S01
S1 K1 S2 K2
K2 K1
K1 K2
N
1 2 3 4
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 4 (continued):
Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................

Observation:
...................................................................................
8. Actuate push--buttons S1 and S2 simultaneously.

Observation:
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Fundamental Studies Royal Malaysian Air Force Electrical Machines
1.3 Introduction to Electrical Machines
1.3.1 Generators
1.3.1.1 Principle of Operation

-1
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field as shown in

Figure 1, the lines of magnetic force are cut and voltage is generated
(induced) in the conductor. This induced voltage is usually called the
electromotive force (EMF). EMF is the designation of the force which
maintains a potential difference between two points of batteries or
electric generators.
When the conductor is moved through the field in reverse direction,

an EMF is produced in the opposite direction. Because the EMF is
produced only when a conductor is moved through the magnetic field,
that means, only when field lines are cut, the following basic rule can
be stated:
If lines of magnetic force are cut by a conductor, a voltage is

induced in this conductor.
The induced voltage produces a current. The direction of this current

depends on the direction of the conductor’s motion through the
magnetic field and can be determined using the right--hand rule.
-2
In order to continuously generate an EMF a loop of wire rotates

around an axis within a magnetic field. The loop is turned around an
imaginary axis and provides a continuously changing induced voltage.
This is the basic principle of EMF generation by a generator.
-3
The method of producing electrical energy by voltage induction is

shown in Figure 3. The loop rotates in a magnetic field. The ends of
the loop are connected to two slip rings which are insulated from each
other. Two brushes on the slip rings allow to take off the voltage and
feed it to the voltmeter of any other load.
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The voltage which is generated at the slip rings is the sum of the two
voltages which are induced in the two parts of the loop and which are
represented in Figure 3 by the two arrows U1 and U2. The reason for
the addition of the two voltages U1 and U2 is the fact that the two parts
of the loop are moved through the magnetic field in opposite direc-
tions. Thus the two voltages which are generated have opposite
directions, too.
When a conducting loop is moved through a magnetic field as shown

in Figure 3, a voltage is generated in the conductor. The amount of the
generated voltage depends on the magnitude of the magnetic flux 'Φ'
which is cut by the conducting loop, the velocity ’v’ of the loop moving
through the magnetic field and the number of windings (loops) of
which the conductor is composed.
-4
The instantaneous amount of the EMF induced in each winding
depends on angle at which the field lines will be cut by the conducting
loop. If the conductor moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic
lines of force (0° position) no voltage will be induced since no cutting of
flux occurs under these conditions. If the conductor moves rectangu-
larly to the direction of the lines of magnetic force (90° position) the
maximum value of voltage will be induced.
Since the conducting loops rotate within the magnetic field the angle at
which the lines of force are cut increases from 0° to 90°. Thus the
induced voltage increases from 0 V to its maximum value. If the loop
has passed the 90° position the induced voltage will decrease be-
cause the angle at which the field lines are cut is decreasing.
The value of the induced voltage will be zero when the loops have
turned about 180° á180° position).
If the windings turn from 180° to 0° the induced voltage has the
opposite direction because the field lines will now be cut in the
opposite direction (right--hand rule).
1.3.1.2 AC Generators
-5
An AC generator consists of two main components:
V The ’rotor’ is the rotating part which is turned by mechanical
energy.
V The ’stator’ is the fixed part of the generator.
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In practice electromagnets are employed in order to produce the

magnetic field. The advantage of using electromagnets in order to
produce a magnetic flux is that the EMF can be controlled by variation
of the field strength. More current flowing through the field windings
increases the magnetic field; therefore the EMF increases, too.
-6
In AC generators, usually, the magnetic field rotates and the machine

component in which the alternating voltage is induced stands still.
The advantage of this construction is that alternating current, which
may be large, can be drawn from fixed terminals and need not be
collected from brushes. In order to produce the rotating magnetic field
a relatively small exciting current must be fed to the electromagnet via
the slip rings.
-7
Normally, the practical application of an AC generator is the three--

phase generator. As shown in Figure 7, detail a), three identical
windings are arranged in the stator at an angle of 120° to each other.
During rotation of the rotor its N and S poles pass the stator windings
1, 2 and 3. This causes an alternating voltage to be induced in each
winding. The time pattern of these three alternating voltages is shown
in Figure 7, detail b). The voltages are displaced relatively to each
other in time by one third of the time of rotation and thus do not have
the same oscillation phase. They exhibit a phase shift.
-8
Figure 8 shows the arrangement of a ’Three--phase synchronous

generator’. This is the most important type of AC generators.
Three windings spaced at 120 degrees are accommodated in the
stator. The rotor, often driven by a turbine, is fitted with an excitation
winding, which is powered by a DC source via the slip rings.
The DC source is normally obtained from a small DC generator,

mounted on the same shaft as the synchronous generator. When the
excitation winding is rotated, a voltage is induced in the stator wind-
ings as previously explained.
The three--phase AC voltage is provided at the terminal connectors U,

V, W which are contained within a terminal box. The machine shown in
Figure 8 is equipped with a rotor which has one north pole and one
south pole when the DC source is connected.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
This type of machine is termed ’two--pole machine’, which means it

has one pair of poles. The number of pole pairs is one quantity which
determines the frequency of the AC voltage supplied to the terminal
box. The frequency of an AC generator is proportional to the number
of revolutions of the rotor in a given time.
If the rotor is equipped with a magnet system consisting of two pole

pairs (two north poles and two south poles) two induction periods
occur during each revolution. Consequently, two periods of AC are
produced during one complete revolution. Machines which are
equipped with more than one pole pair on their rotor are called 4--pole,
8--pole or 16--pole machines according to the number of pole pairs
established. The number of pole pairs and the number of revolutions
determine the output frequency of the AC waveform. The frequency
can be computed by the formula:
n⋅p
f [Hz] =
60
n =^ revolutions/minute, p =^ pair of poles.
Since the frequency is a fixed nominal value the revolution must be

constant. Consequently the amplitude of the generated voltage can
only be changed by increasing or decreasing the exciting current.
-9
As shown in Figure 9 the ends of the three stator windings are identi-
fied by the letters U, u; V, v; W, w. Terminal connectors u, v and w are
connected together whereas U, V and W are connected to the terminal
box.
Figure 9, details a) and b) show the connections u, v and w at a point

which is called the ’star point’ or ’neutral’ which is normally connected
to ground or earth, as shown in detail b). Detail c) shows the standard
circuit symbol for a synchronous generator.
1.3.1.3 DC Generators
Basics of DC Generators
As explained already an alternating voltage is generated when a

conductor loop is moved through a magnetic field. The same principle
is used for producing a DC voltage.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
- 10
The voltage which is induced during the rotation of a loop through the
magnetic field can be rectified by means of two commutator segments
(Figure 10, detail a)). As shown in detail b), the commutator is a
cylinder--shaped conductor. Two insulators are used for separating
one half of the cylinder from the other half. The opposite sides of the
loop are permanently connected to the opposite sides of the commuta-
tor. Thus, the commutator rotates with the loop. The brushes which are
used for making contact with the rotating commutator remain station-
ary and supply the EMF to the external circuit.
- 11
Figure 11 shows the course of the EMF provided during one revolution
of the commutator. This EMF is called a ’pulsating DC voltage’
because the level fluctuates. Rotation of the loop from 0° to 90° will
cause a progressively increasing EMF. From 90° to 180° the rate of
change of flux linkage decreases causing a corresponding decrease in
the EMF induced in the loop. Each brush is in contact with one
segment of the commutator. The current flow in the external circuit is
as indicated.
At 180°, no EMF is induced in the conducting loop because the

conductors are in parallel with the field. Further rotation of the conduc-
tor from 180° to 360° causes a reverse EMF. It also causes the
commutator segments to move under opposite brushes, as the EMF is
reversed.
The brushes maintain their original polarity (in this case the right--hand
brush is positive, the left--hand brush is negative). The current in the
external circuit flows in the same direction. The graph of EMF shows
that the external supply voltage falls to zero twice in one revolution,
and reaches maximum twice in the same direction of polarity.
- 12
As shown in Figure 12, a more constant brush voltage and a smoother

flow of current can be obtained by placing additional loops symmetri-
cally around the axis of rotation. Therefore additional segments are
needed on the commutator. Each loop is connected between adjacent
segments. The end of one loop is connected to the beginning of the
next loop via a segment. All commutator segments are insulated from
each other.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
The coils are arranged around the axis of rotation in such a way that
when one side of a coil passes under a north pole, the other side of
the coil passes under the corresponding south pole.
By this arrangement the voltage induced in each loop (or coil) reaches
its maximum value at different times. The voltage at the brushes is the
sum of the voltages induced in the loops connected in series with the
brushes. Since only one loop (in a four--loop generator) can be in
zero--voltage position at any time, the total brush voltage can never fall
to zero.
- 13
Figure 13 shows the basic structure of a DC generator. The stator
magnetic field represented by the broken line, is generated by current
Is flowing through the stator windings at the stator cores. The flux Φs is
divided to the right and the left in the machine casing and then joins
again at the north and south poles and penetrates the rotor forming a
closed magnetic circuit.
Both windings, that of the north pole and that of the south pole are
connected in series (E1’, E2’) such that the flux created at the poles
has the same direction. The other ends of the two coils are connected
to terminals E1 and E2 in the terminal box.
- 14
Figure 14 shows the construction of the rotor. The rotor core is made
from stamped steel laminations that include slots, into which the rotor
coils are inserted. The ends of each coil are connected to commutator
segments which are separated from each other by insulating material.
The current from the rotor coils is collected by the brush gear and sent
to the rotor terminals. Each slot in Figure 14 houses two conductors
(numbers 10 and 4’ in slot number 10). For clarity three complete coils
are only shown. There would normally be 12 in the machine; so
inserted that all prime--numbered conductors are in the inner portions
of the slots. The rotating part of a DC generator is called an armature.
Excitation of DC Generators
The magnetic field, which is necessary to induce an EMF in the

rotating coils of the DC generator can be produced by two different
methods. According to the applied method for supplying the exciting
current to the field windings DC generators are classified as separately
excited generators and self--excited generators.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Separately Excited Generators
In separately excited generators the excitation current is taken from a

separate voltage source, e.g. an outside DC network or a battery.
- 15
Figure 15 shows the principle of a separately excited generator. Two

separate circuits are present. The field system is supplied from an
outside system. The voltage can be different from the voltage which is
produced in the rotor system. The characteristic of a separately
excited generator is that at no load the terminal voltage is the EMF. If
the generator is connected to a load the load current increases and
the terminal voltage decreases.
The advantage of a separately excited generator is that it will operate

in a stable condition with any field excitation. Thus, a wide range of
output voltages may be obtained. The disadvantage of a separately
excited generator lies in the inconvenience and expense of providing
the separate excitation source. For this reason the use of this type of
generator is largely confined to experimental and testing laboratories
where such a source is available and a wide variation of output voltage
is desirable.
Self--Excited Generators
Self--excited generators deliver their own exciting current. The self--ex-

citation is based on the ’dynamo--electric principle’. In a generator pole
shoe a certain remanence (residual magnetism) will exist after its first
magnetization. Self--excited generators are classified according to the
type of connection between excitation windings and armature:
V DC shunt--connected generator
V DC series--connected generator.
DC Shunt Generator
- 16
As shown in Figure 16, detail a), a shunt generator has its excitation
field connected in shunt, or parallel, with the armature.
A residual magnetism exists in the poles. The field lines of this residual
magnetism are cut when the rotor of the shunt generator is turned on.
This produces an initial low voltage.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Since the fields are connected across or in parallel with the armature,
the initial voltage produced by the residual magnetism causes a
current to flow in the field windings. This current flow, when it is in the
proper direction, adds magnetism to the residual magnetism in the
poles, which further increases the induced voltage.
The voltage continues to increase when the excitation field becomes

stronger, and the field becomes stronger as the voltage increases.
This process continues until the magnetic field in the poles reaches
saturation, i.e. the shunt generator has reached its maximum ’no--load’
or ’open circuit’ voltage. If the DC shunt generator is loaded the output
voltage decreases as shown in Figure 16, detail b). Thus, the following
statement is justified:
The shunt generator does not maintain a constant voltage with
varying loads.
The field windings of the DC shunt generator are connected in parallel

with the armature and receive the total armature voltage. Since the
load is also connected in parallel with the armature and also receives
the entire armature voltage the voltage across the field windings
decreases when the load increases. This causes the excitation field to
weaken and the output voltage decreases again.
The shunt generator may be used for excitation supply of AC gener-

ators or in other applications where the distance from the generator to
its load is short. It is also used for charging accumulators.
DC Series Generator
- 17
As shown in Figure 17, detail a) the field winding of a series generator
is connected in series with the armature. The total armature or load
current flows through the excitation field circuit and thus energizes the
field. With ’no load’, no current flows in the field winding and the
existing small voltage is generated by the residual magnetism in the
poles.
Figure 17, detail b, shows the external load characteristic of the DC

series generator. When the load increases, the field becomes stronger
and the voltage increases proportionally up to the point of saturation of
the magnetic fields in the poles. Series generators have few applica-
tions; they are used in electric welding machines and for wheel braking
purposes in railways.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Voltmeter
Hinge
Permanent
magnet
Movably
positioned loop
Ι Ι
Movement
Φ
B 0962
A B C
Figure 1 Voltage Generation
MIP/PH1/TN/009
B 0963
Basic Principle of EMF Generation

S
F
EMF
Rotation
Figure 2
N
MIP/PH1/TN/009
V
N
Brushes
U1
Axis
U2
Slip rings
S
B 0964
Figure 3 Simple AC Generator
MIP/PH1/TN/009
N N N N N
S S S S S
0° position: 90° position: 180° position: 270° position: 0° position:

no field max. rate of no field lines max. rate of the loop has
lines are cut, cutting are cut, thus cutting field turned
thus zero field lines, zero voltage lines, but in about 360°,
voltage positive the opposite zero voltage
max. voltage direction,
thus negative
max. voltage
u
+u
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

--u
B 0985
One period
Figure 4 Generation of AC Voltage
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a) Rotor
b) Stator
A 0880 B
Figure 5 Main Components of an AC Generator
MIP/PH1/TN/009
the stator
E from
Magnet wheel
B 0992
(rotor) with
winding
AC Generator Working Principle

N
S
Stator, armature
Magnetic flux
and winding
Exciting
current
360°
Negative half–wave
270°
Return conductor
Shaft
Period
Figure 6
180°
Positive half–wave
90°
Brush
0°
+u
–u
rings
+
–
Slip
MIP/PH1/TN/009
t
B 0993
G
3
V1
generator in wiring diagrams

Symbol for the three–phase
Three–Phase Generator Principle

of a three–phase system
b) Time pattern of voltages
V2
120°
V3
V
V2
Figure 7
a) Three–phase generator
(diagram of principle)
V3
°
V1
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Terminal u
box U
U N
F1 V
V
v
W
F2
S
w
W B 0994
Figure 8 Three--Phase Synchronous Generator
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a) U b) U
u u
w v
F1
W V
F2
w v
W V
c) U V W
B 1172
F1 F2
Figure 9 Synchronous Generator Circuit

Diagrams
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a)
Brushes
Commutator segments
b)
Loop
Brush
To external
circuit
B 1190
Commutator Brush
To external
Insulators circuit
Figure 10 DC Generator Working Principle
MIP/PH1/TN/009
S
B 1192
360°
360°
N
Current
S
Communitator Action
+
270°
270°
Current
N
–
S
180°
180°
N
Figure 11
Current
Brush
S
Current
+
90°
90°
Commutator
N
–
S
0°
0°
load current
Brush voltage and
N
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2 3 4
1
Loop 4 Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 3
Commutator
segments 4 1 1 2 2 3 3 4
Brush
Mica
insulation
Brush
Resultant output voltage

Load
Brush voltage
1 2 3 4
Axis of
rotation
Four loops connected in

series to four commutator
segments
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Time
B 1193
Figure 12 Smoothing of the Induced EMF
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Stator yoke
Stator windings
IS
Terminal box
Pole shoe
E1’ S Stator field Φs
E1
A1 Rotor windings
A2
E2 Brushes
E2’ N Commutator
Rotor or
armature core
B 1100
Figure 13 Basic Structure of a DC Generator
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Coil sides
Armature
core
Commutator riser
Segment
Brush
Insulation
B 1195
Figure 14 Rotor Construction
MIP/PH1/TN/009
L+ L+
L-- L--
Field symbol
G
Rotor B 1194
symbol
Figure 15 Separately Excited Generator
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a)
L+
L--
Field symbol
G
Rotor
symbol
b) External load characteristic
Drop due to:

Terminal voltage
1. V--Load
2. Armature reaction
3. Weakened shunt field
Full--load
current
B 1196
Load current
Figure 16 DC Shunt Generator
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a)
L+
L--
Field symbol
G
Rotor symbol
b) External load characteristic
Magnetization
curve
Terminal voltage
Drop due to:

Full--load current
1. Armature reaction
External 2. IR drop in armature
characteristic and series field
B 1197
Load current
Figure 17 DC Series Generator
MIP/PH1/TN/009
1.3.2 Motors

-1
A movable conductor located in a magnetic field is moved out of the

magnetic field by a force which is present when the conductor is
carrying a current.
If the switch shown in Figure 1 is closed a current flows through the

conductor and a magnetic field is generated. This field exists around
the conductor which is carrying the current. Both magnetic fields, that
of the permanent magnet and that of the live conductor react on each
other. The force resulting from this reaction deflects the conductor.
Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
-2
Figure 2 shows the development of the force which moves the conduc-
tor out of the magnetic field.
The field lines of the two magnetic fields affect each other. On the left
side of the conductor (detail a)) the field lines of the permanent
magnet and the current--carrying conductor follow the same direction,
thus the field lines of the permanent magnet and the field lines around
the live conductor add themselves up. Thus, the field on this side of
the conductor becomes stronger.
On the right side of the conductor the field lines of the permanent
magnet and the field lines around the live conductor have opposite
directions. Thus, the resultant field is weakened. The result is force ’F’,
as shown in detail b). The direction of the force is always the direction
in which the resultant field is weakened.
This force moves the live conductor, if it is movable, out of the mag-
netic field of the permanent magnet. The direction of the force effect
can be determined by means of the ’left--hand rule’.
-3
In order to use the force to drive a motor the conductor is replaced by

a loop which is revolving around an axis. For a continuous movement
of the loop it is necessary that the current which flows through the loop
changes its direction once per rotation. This is achieved by using a
commutator feeding the DC voltage to the loop.
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The loop current must be commutated once per rotation because the
torque which drives the loop must have the same direction at each
position of the loop during one rotation. This is achieved by changing
the loop current once per rotation using the commutator. This principle
is the basis on which the direct current motor operates.
1.3.2.2 DC Motors
-4
The construction of a DC motor is completely identical to the construc-

tion of a DC generator. Both of them consist of an armature (rotor,
as shown in Figure 4, detail a)) and a stator (detail b)).
Theoretically it would be possible to use a DC motor as a DC gener-

ator and, conversely, to use a DC generator as a DC motor. In prac-
tice, however, this will never be done since DC motors and DC
generators are designed for different nominal voltages.
-5
Figure 5 shows the basic structure of a DC motor, which consists of

the same components as a DC generator. The excitation field, which is
necessary to produce a torque, is generated by an electromagnet.
The excitation field of the DC motor, shown in Figure 5, is produced by
the stator windings around the pole shoes. Similarly to DC generators
DC motors can also be differentiated according to the way how the
rotor winding is connected to the stator winding.
A distinction is made between DC shunt motors, DC series motors and

DC compound motors.
1.3.2.3 AC Motors
The basic principles of magnetism and electromagnetic induction are

the same for AC and DC motors, but AC motors do not require any
commutator for supplying the rotor with energy, because the alternat-
ing current changes its direction rapidly and thus the direction of the
produced magnetic flux is also changed.
There are two principal types of AC motors:

V the induction motor (asynchronous motor)
V the synchronous motor.
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The Induction Motor (Asynchronous Motor)
The induction motor, commonly called ’asynchronous motor’ is the

most widely used AC motor. The induction motor can be designed
as three--phase motor or single--phase motor.
Both types of induction motors are designed in such a way, that a
rotating magnetic field is produced by means of the stator windings.
The windings of the rotor are cut by this rotating magnetic field and a
torque is produced. The advantage of the induction motor is that it
does not require a commutator, thus most of the troubles encountered
in the operation of DC motors are eliminated.
Another typical feature is that this type of motor is particularly adapted
for a constant speed application.
Three--Phase Motor
Major Parts
-6
The major parts of such a type of motor are the stator and the rotor.
The stator (Figure 6, detail a)) is the stationary part of the machine.
It carries the windings which are responsible for producing a rotating
magnetic field. The windings are placed in slots around the pole
shoes.
The rotor is the rotating part of the machine. In the example shown in
detail b) it consists of an iron core with longitudinal slots around its
circumference in which copper or aluminium bars are embedded.
These bars are shorted on both ends by short--circuit rings, thus a
current is able to flow through the bars.
Because the rotor looks like a squirrel cage this type of rotor is called
’squirrel--cage rotor’ and the motor can also be called ’squirrel--cage
induction motor’.
Principle of Operation
-7
The generation of the rotating magnetic field can be explained using
Figure 7. Detail a) shows the structure of a three--phase induction
motor including the pole shoes which are labelled 1 to 6. Two pole
shoes each form a pair of poles whose windings are supplied by one
of the three voltages marked a, b and c.
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As shown in detail b), the three voltages are equal in amplitude but
differ in phase. At the instant of time shown as time ’0’, the resultant
magnetic field produced by the application of the three voltages has its
greatest intensity in a direction extending from pole 1 to pole 4. Under
this condition, pole 1 can be considered as north pole and pole 4 as
south pole.
At the instant of time shown as time ’1’, the resultant magnetic field will
have its greatest intensity in the direction from pole 2 to pole 5 and,
in this case, pole 2 can be considered as a north pole and pole 5 as a
south pole. Thus, between instant ’0’ and instant ’1’, the magnetic field
has rotated clockwise.
At time ’2’, the resultant magnetic field has its greatest intensity in the
direction from pole 3 to pole 6 and it is apparent that the resultant
magnetic field has continued to rotate clockwise. At instant ’3’, poles 4
and 1 can be considered as north and south poles, respectively,
and the field has rotated still farther.
At later instants of time, the resultant magnetic field rotates to other

positions while travelling in a clockwise direction, a single revolution of
the field occurring in 1 cycle. This speed is known as the synchronous
speed of the rotating field.
The rotating magnetic field generated by the stator windings induces a

voltage in the longitudinal bars of the rotor. This induced voltage
causes a current to flow through the bars.
The direction of the current flowing through the rotor bars produces its
own magnetic field whose direction depends on the direction of the
flowing current. The forces resulting from the reaction of the two
magnetic fields produce a torque which turns the rotor. The rotor
rotates at nearly the same speed as the rotating field. The difference in
speed is called ’slip’ and is expressed as a percentage of the syn-
chronous speed.
Example:
If the rotor turns at 1,750 rpm and the synchronous speed

is 1,800 rpm, the difference in speed is 50 rpm.
The slip then is 50 ⋅ 100 = 2.78 percent.

1, 800
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If the rotor rotated at the same speed as the magnetic field, no field
lines would be cut by the conductors of the rotor, no EMF would be
induced, no current could flow and there would be no torque. The rotor
would then slow down. The difference in speed just being sufficient to
induce enough current in the rotor is the result of mechanical and
electrical losses in the rotor. When the motor is loaded the slip in-
creases.
Standard Rating Plate

-8
Figure 8 shows a standard rating plate for electrical machines (motors

and generators). All important data of the machine carrying the plate
are presented in separate fields. One item given by the rating plate is
the rated speed, i.e. the speed at which the motor is designed to run.
Another important item of information is the rated voltage, i.e. the

voltage to which the motor must be connected in order to operate
correctly.
Single--Phase Motor
The usual voltage of 220 V is called a single--phase voltage (phase--

to--neutral wire). Therefore, motors which are commonly used in
household appliances, such as washing machines, refrigerators,
pumps, kitchen machines and also fan motors must be designed for
single--phase operation.
These types of motors are called ’single--phase’ motors. Single--phase

motors are asynchronous motors and equipped with squirrel--cage
rotors similar to those used in three--phase motors.
The function of a single--phase motor may be compared with that of a

three--phase squirrel--cage motor, if one of the three phases (L1, L2 or
L3) is not connected to the three--phase motor. In consequence of the
fact that one phase is missing, the motor is not able to start by itself
and a starting aid is necessary. After the motor has been started,
the rotor keeps on rotating.
-9
A starting aid for self--operation of a 3--phase motor, which is only

connected to two phases, is given by connecting one phase via a
capacitor C.
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The single--phase motor is constructed with a main winding connected

to terminals U and V and an auxiliary winding connected to terminals
W and Z. The starting capacitor is switched on in order to produce a
starting torque. After the starting period of the motor the capacitor is
switched off either by a time relay R or by a centrifugal contact.
Shaded--Pole Motor
- 10
An important single--phase motor is the shaded--pole motor. This type

of single--phase motor is used for applications in which power con-
sumption is low. The rotor is constructed as a squirrel--cage rotor.
The stator has salient poles which carry the main winding. A short--cir-
cuit copper band is placed around a shaded portion of each pole,
forming the auxiliary winding for the starting period.
Together with the stator winding the short--circuit copper band forms
a transformer. The stator winding forms the primary winding and the
copper band the short--circuit secondary winding.
A part of the flux of the stator winding penetrates the copper loop and
a voltage is induced which drives a current through the loop.
The current flowing through the stator winding and the current of the
copper loop are phase--shifted. The two magnetic fluxes created by
the two currents are equally phase--shifted resulting in a common
rotary field which enables the rotor to turn. A single--phase motor
which operates in a similar way is known as ’split--phase motor’.
The Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motors, as the name implies, rotate at a speed which is

synchronized with the applied alternating current.
Three--Phase Motor
The three--phase synchronous motor has three separate windings in

the stator which produce a rotating field like the stator of an induction
motor. In a very small synchronous motor the rotor may be a perma-
nent magnet, but in larger motors the rotor is an electromagnet excited
by an external source of direct current.
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- 11
Figure 11 shows a synchronous motor which is excited by an external

source of direct current. The stator of a synchronous motor has the
same general form as the equivalent induction motor. It consists of a
laminated soft--iron shell with coils wound through slots on the inner
surface.
The rotor of a synchronous motor consists of one or more pairs of

poles with concentrated or distributed windings supplied through slip
rings and brushes from a DC source. The rotor of the synchronous
motor represented in Figure11 consists of two pole pairs.
The magnetic field produced by the current flowing through the rotor
windings causes the rotor to run at the same speed at which the stator
field revolves. In other words, the rotor runs synchronously with the
rotating stator field.
A synchronous motor is not able to run up by itself because it has zero

starting torque. Hence, this machine must be run up to operating
speed by an external drive.
When the rotor poles are almost in synchronism with the rotating field
produced by the stator they pull into step and the rotor runs at syn-
chronous speed. Since the motor turns at a precisely constant speed,
it can be used to drive an alternator through a differential gear system
and thus to provide an exact frequency of any desired value. For that
reason, synchronous motors are also used to change the frequency of
alternating current.
Single--Phase Motor
Single--phase synchronous motors are available in miniature sizes and

with fractional horsepower. They are employed for driving low torque
paper drivers, clocks and gramophone turn--tables.
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Electrical energy Switch open

source Switch closed
Movably
positioned
conductor
Φ Φ
Movement
caused by
force F
B 0995
Permanent magnet with magnetic field
Figure 1 Movement of a Current--Carrying

Conductor in a Magnetic Field
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a) b)
Permanent magnet
with magnetic field
N N
Field Field Resultant Movement

intensification weakening field caused by
force F
S S
Live conductor with
magnetic field
B 0996
Figure 2 Field Relationships
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Loop
Brushes
B 0997
Commutator segments
Figure 3 DC Motor -- Principle of Operation
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a) Rotor
Commutator
Slots
Shaft
Coils
b) Stator
Commutator bars
Riser
Mica collar
or ring
B 0999 A
Fiber
insulation
Steel V--ring or
Mica insulation
clamping flange
Figure 4 DC Motor Construction
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Stator yoke
Stator windings
IS
Terminal box
Pole shoe
E1’ S Stator field Φs
E1
A1 Rotor windings
A2
E2 Brushes
E2’ N Commutator
Rotor or
armature core
B 1100
Figure 5 Basic Structure of a DC Motor
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a) Stator
b) Rotor
End ring
B 1106 A
Laminated
stator
Copper rotor bars
Laminated rotor
Figure 6 Major Parts of an Induction Motor
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a)
1
6 2
5 3
4
b)
0 a 1 2 c 3 4 b 5 6
B 1105
60° b a c
Time
Figure 7 Principle of a Three--Phase Induction

Motor
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Manufacturer
Type Type identification
Operating principle No. Serial number
Rated voltage V Rated current A
Rated power kW cos j Power factor
Rated speed /min Frequency Hz
(Exciter voltage) V (Exciter) A
Insul. Insulation P Protection Weight t
A 0462 B
Figure 8 Standard Rating Plate for

Electrical Motors
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L1
L2 (N)
C
Auxiliary W W
winding
Z
Z
U V U V
Reserve connection
M
B 1111
Main
winding
Figure 9 Circuit Diagram of a Single--Phase Motor

with Starting Capacitor
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L1
Short--circuit copper band
Shaded pole
Squirrel cage
B 1112
N
Figure 10 Shaded--Pole Motor Principle
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A three--phase winding
produces the rotating
Slip rings
magnetic field
--
B 1114
Figure 11 Synchronous Motor Excited by an

External Source
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1.3.3 Transformers

-1
It has been explained earlier that an EMF is induced in a conductor if

the conductor is moved through a magnetic field in such a way that
magnetic flux lines are cut. Since this effect is reversible, an EMF is
also induced in the conductor if the conductor is fixed and the mag-
netic flux is alternating.
-2
The device which makes use of the effect that EMF is induced by an
alternating flux is called a ’transformer’. A transformer in its basic form
consists of two coils fitted to a magnetic iron core (Figure 2).
The two coils are located in such a way that one coil is cut by the
magnetic flux lines of the other. The windings connected to the source,
are called primary windings and the windings in which an EMF is
induced are called secondary windings. The supplied voltage ’Up’
(primary voltage) causes a current to flow through the primary wind-
ings. This produces magnetic flux lines in the iron core. The flux
linkage induces the voltage ’Us’ (secondary voltage) in the secondary
coil.
If the secondary circuit is closed, that means any load is connected to

the secondary windings, a current ’Is’ (secondary current) flows
through the secondary circuit caused by the secondary voltage ’Us’.
Thus, energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary
circuit without any electrical connection between both circuits.
The ability of a transformer to transfer energy from its primary circuit to

its secondary circuit through the agency of flux linkage is a function of
inductive coupling or high mutual inductance. This means that the
inductance of each winding should be as great as possible.
-3
Figure 3, detail a), shows two symbols which are employed in circuit
diagrams to represent a transformer. The characteristics are enumer-
ated in detail b).
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-4
The phase relationship between the primary AC voltage and the

secondary AC voltage depends on the direction of the windings with
reference to one another. The secondary voltage may be in phase with
the primary voltage or both voltages may be 180° out of phase with
reference to one another as shown in Figure 4.
In some applications, this phase shift is unimportant while in other

applications it is extremely important. Therefore the phase relationship
between the AC voltages of the different windings is sometimes
indicated on circuit diagrams by dots ’.’ as shown in Figure 4, details b)
and c).
1.3.3.2 Turns Ratio

-5
In theoretical contemplation the voltage induced in the secondary

winding of a transformer is proportional to the number of turns of the
secondary winding in relation to the number of turns in the primary
winding. This is described by the formula:
Up U
= s
Np Ns
This equation may be written:
Up ⋅ Ns
Up ∙ Ns = Us ∙ Np or U s =
Np
If 250 V AC is applied to the primary winding, the voltage induced in

the secondary winding is assumed as:
Up ⋅ Ns 250 V ⋅ 1, 000
Us = = = 250 V ⋅ 4
Np 250
Us = 1,000 V
The expression Ns/Np or Us/Up is called the ’turns ratio’ of a trans-

former and may be expressed as a single factor. In the example
shown in Figure 5 the transformer has 250 turns in the primary winding
and 1,000 turns in the secondary winding. The turns ratio is 4 : 1 or 4.
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A transformer in which the voltage induced in the secondary winding is

greater than the voltage supplied to the primary winding is called a
step--up transformer. A step--down transformer is one in which the
voltage induced in the secondary winding is less than the voltage
supplied to the primary winding.
In the transfer of electrical power across an ideal transformer, the

power absorbed by the primary winding is equal to the power delivered
by the secondary winding. Hence:
Pp = Ps
Pp = primary power, Ps = secondary power.
In such an ideal transfer of energy from generator to load, the load

appears as a pure resistance of the generator, and the apparent power
is equal to the true power. Therefore, the power factor of the trans-
former is 1 and the phase angle is 0°. Thus, the power on either side
of the transformer is equal to the volt--amperes, or:
Pp = Up ∙ Ip, Ps = Us ∙ Is
Up ∙ Ip = Us ∙ Is
Ip U
= s
Is Up
As the ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is equal to the turn

ratio:
Us N
= s
Up Np
the ratio of current in the primary winding to current in the secondary

winding is equal to
Ip N
= s
Is Np
This means a transformer which steps up voltage must at the same

time step down current, and vice versa. This indicates that the current
ratio is inversely proportional to the turns ratio.
Ip N U
= s = s
Is Np Up
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Voltmeter
Hinge
Permanent
magnet
Movably
positioned loop
Ι Ι
Movement
Φ
B 0962
A B C
Figure 1 EMF Induction
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Flux linkage
Primary Secondary
Flux leakage
µ Up Us
Load
AC power
B 1116
supply
Figure 2 Transformer Principle
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a)
b)
Up = primary voltage
Us = secondary voltage
Ip = primary current
Is = secondary current
Pp = primary power in an ideal trans--
Ps = secondary power former Pp = Ps
Np = primary windings
B 1117
Ns = secondary windings
Figure 3 Symbols and Abbreviations
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a)
b)
c)
B 1118
Figure 4 Phase Relationship between Input

and Output Voltage
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Np = 250 turns Ns = 1,000 turns
µ Up = 250 V Load Us = 1,000 V
B 1119 A
Figure 5 Turns Ratio of Voltage
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Fundamental Studies Royal Malaysian Air Force Measuring Techniques
1.4.1 Basic Measurements
1.4.1.1 Digital and Analogue Multimeters
Digital and analogue multimeters are the mainly used measurement

devices in the field of electrical and electronic engineering. A multi-
meter consists of a voltmeter, an amperemeter and ohmmeter com-
bined in a single unit.
The electrical quantities usually measured are current (DC and AC),
voltage (DC and AC) and resistance.
The minimum number of functions available on a common multimeter

are:
V several DC amperes ranges
V several AC amperes ranges
V several DC voltage ranges
V several AC voltage ranges
V several ohm ranges.
Measurement of Current (DC -- AC)

-1
A multimeter used as an amperemeter (ammeter) is connected to the

circuit in series, so that the current passing through it is the total
current through the load.
In order to carry out an accurate measurement, the multimeter, when

in use as an amperemeter, must have a very low input resistance
compared with that of the load.
An instrument with high resistance would affect the current through the
load too greatly and would generate unacceptable measurement
errors.
When current is measured the multimeter must be always connected

in series with the load.
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Measurement of Voltage (DC -- AC)

-2
A voltage exists between two points. Therefore, a voltmeter must be
connected across the two points where the voltage is to be measured.
The multimeter when used as a voltmeter must have a very high input
resistance compared with that of the load. Otherwise a large measure-
ment error will occur.
When voltage is measured the multimeter must be always connected

in parallel with the load.
Measurement of Resistance
-3
Current flow in circuits is limited by resistance. In order to measure
resistances the multimeter is used in its function as an ohmmeter.
For ohmic measurements the multimeter must have a very high input
resistance. Otherwise a large measurement error will occur.
1.4.1.2 Digital Multimeter

-4
The advantage of digital multimeter is the digital readout. In addition to
the obvious benefit of the clear and definite numerical display, the
digital multimeters offer a variety of flexible versions for improved
accuracy of the readings.
For example, in comparison with a conventional pointer type of panel

meter for DC volts with a + 1 % tolerance, a digital panel meter
provides a basic accuracy of + 0.1 % + 1 digit, thus improving the
tolerance figure by at least 10 times, without incurring any possible
additional inaccuracies due to human error in making the reading.
The digital multimeter extend this improvement in accuracy by the

increased number of digits in the readout. Many advanced models of
digital multimeters are available with 4 or 5 digits, providing an
accuracy of + 0.01 % or better.
In order to obtain a clear and proper reading the instrument is provided

with seven segment displays. Range and function switching is effected
manually by means of push--buttons and a rotary button.
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Measurements with a Digital Multimeter
The instrument can be used to perform the following measurements:

V DC voltages up to max. 1000 V
V AC voltages up to max. 750 V
V DC currents up to max. 10 A (fuse protected)
V AC currents up to max. 10 A (fuse protected)
V Resistance up to max. 40 MW
V Continuity testing and diode testing
V Measurements of frequencies up to max. 200 kHz
V Measurements of temperatures between --40 °C and +1370 °C.
The last three applications are not described within this Lesson.
The polarity of DC voltages and DC currents is automatically indicated.

The decimal point is set automatically by the range switch.
Direct Voltage Measurements
In order to measure DC voltage the following actions are necessary:

V depress the ON/OFF button to ON
V set rotary mode selector switch to V= or mV=
V select the correct measuring range
V connect the voltage source to be measured to terminals
’COM’ and ’V/W/Hz’.
Direct Current Measurements
In order to measure direct current the following actions are necessary:

V set rotary mode selector switch to A=, mA= or mA=
V connect the current source to be measured to terminals
’COM’ and ’A or mA/mA’.
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Alternating Voltage Measurements
In order to measure alternating voltages the following actions are

necessary:
V set rotary mode selector switch to Vµ
V connect the voltage source to be measured to terminals
Alternating Current Measurements
In order to measure alternating currents the following actions are

necessary:
V set rotary mode selector switch to Aµ, mAµ or mAµ
V connect the current source to be measured to terminals
’COM’ and ’A or mA/mA’.
Resistance Measurements
In order to measure resistance the following actions are necessary:

V set rotary mode selector switch to W
V connect the resistance to be measured to terminals
1.4.1.3 Analogue Multimeter

-5
A moving--coil meter forms the heart of an analogue multimeter.
The heart of the moving--coil meter is the measuring element.
The most popular type of measuring element is the permanent
magnet. A horseshoe magnet produces the stationary magnetic field.
To concentrate the magnetic field in the area of the moving coil, pole
pieces are added to the magnet. The lines of flux tend to concentrate
in this area as shown. Also, a stationary soft--iron core is placed
between the pole pieces.
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A moving coil is fitted around the soft--iron core. The coil consists of
many turns of extremely fine wire on an aluminium frame. The two
ends of the coil are connected to the leads of the meter.
The pointer is attached to the moving coil so that it moves when the
coil does. Counterweights are often attached to the pointer so that a
perfect balance is achieved. Retaining pins on either side limit the
distance that the pointer and other rotating parts can move. Two spiral
springs at opposite ends of the moving coil force the pointer back to
the zero position when no current is flowing through the coil. In most
cases, the spiral springs are also used to apply current to the moving
coil.
The moving coil, pointer, and counterweights rotate around a pivot

point.
A conductor is deflected at a right angle to a stationary magnetic field

if current flows through the conductor. The left--hand motor rule
describes this action. Current is forced to flow through the coil so that
current flows ’out of the page’ on the left. When applying the left--hand
rule to the coil at this point, the coil is forced up on the left and down
on the right. This forces the pointer to move up the scale in clockwise
direction.
The amount of torque produced by this tiny ’motor’ is proportional to

the magnitude of the current which flows through the moving coil.
Measuring elements are rated by the amount of current required to
produce full--scale deflection. For example, a 50 mA element deflects
full--scale when only 50 mA of current flow through it. The 50 mA
element is one of the most commonly used types.
The instrument can be used to perform the following measurements:

V DC voltages of 300 mV to 1000 V
V AC voltages of 300 mV to 1000 V
V DC currents of 10 mA to 6 A
V AC currents of 10 mA to 6 A
V Resistance of 1 W to 5 MW.
Classes of Accuracy and Errors
No measurement can be absolute. It is only possible to reduce the

errors. In order to do this it is necessary to know what types of error
can occur and how these errors can be reduced.
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The number of possible errors can be divided into two groups. The first
group contains the errors made during manufacturing of the instru-
ment. The manufacturer knows the accuracy of his instruments and
inscribes the class of accuracy to which the instrument belongs on the
scale. The second group contains the errors made by the operator.
Accuracy of Instruments
-6
Figure 6 shows seven classes of accuracy and the conditions for each
class. Three classes, the classes 0.1, 0.2, and 0.5 are reserved for
precision measurement instruments. The others are for industrial
measurement instruments.
Measurement error is the difference between the indicated value and

the true value. Should the indicated value be less than the true value
the error is negative and vice versa.
Operator Errors
The other group of errors concerns errors made by the operator.

It begins with the wrong choice of instrument and may end with a false
scale reading.
-7
The wrong choice of instrument may happen if the operator does not
understand the term internal power consumption. Figure 7, detail a)
shows typical internal power consumption of meter movements and
the allocated ranges. Any measurement consumes a certain amount
of energy to drive the meter movement. The source of this energy
must come from the circuit which is to be measured. Two types of
errors can occur dependent on the measuring method.
If the meter movement is in series with the circuit to be measured the

internal resistance of the meter movement increases the total resis-
tance so that the current through the complete circuit decreases.
The reverse happens if the resistance of the movement is switched in
parallel with the circuit which is to be measured. However, any
measurement changes the situation in the circuit to be measured.
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If current is to be measured the internal resistance of the movement

cannot be small enough. If voltage is to be measured the internal
resistance cannot be high enough and, if the power consumption of
the movement is high, the power generated in the circuit must be very
high.
The relationship between the power consumption of the meter move-

ment and its auxiliary components and the power generated in the
circuit decides how accurate the measured result will be. A very low
value may be the factor ten, better factors are thousand and more.
On many instruments the information ’resistance per volt’ (characteris-

tic resistance) is given. Figure 7, detail b) shows a table for typical
values. The lower values of W/V are normally used in high power
circuits and the higher values are better suited to low power circuits
such as electronic circuits.
Apart from the incorrectly chosen instrument other common errors can
be happen.
-8
The class of accuracy of the instrument is only given for a full scale
deflection (f.s.d.).
Figure 8, detail a) shows an indication on the meter requiring a full

scale deflection of the pointer. Because the accuracy of the instrument
states 1.5 % to f.s.d. the true voltage may be 100 V 1.5 %. There-
fore the true value can be between 100 V plus 1.5 V or 100 V minus
1.5 V (between 98.5 V and 101.5 V). This means that the measured
result has a range of uncertainty of 3 V.
Figure 8, detail b) shows an indication of 50 V on the same instrument.

The range of uncertainty is still the same: 50 V 1.5 V. That means
the voltage is between 51.5 V and 48.5 V. But the accuracy is only half
as much as before: 100 % times 1.5 V divided by 50 V is 3 %.
Figure 8, detail c) shows an indication of 10 V on the same instrument.

The range of uncertainty is still the same: 10 V 1.5 V. That means
the voltage is between 8.5 V and 11.5 V.
But the accuracy now is: 100 % times 1.5 V divided by 10 V is 15 %.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
The meter accuracy becomes progressively worse the nearer the

pointer approaches the zero calibrated position. For this reason
measurements are more accurate when a measurement range on the
instrument is selected that will cause a nearly full scale deflection of
the meter pointer.
Not all meters can be used with equal success in both horizontal and
vertical positions. Such is the mechanical construction of many meters
that their accuracy will vary considerably with the angle at which they
are held.
Panel mounting type meters, for instance, are normally adjusted for
use only in a vertical position, while meters used in test sets generally
work better when they are held or laid flat.
-9
A set zero adjustment on the front of the meter is used to set the meter
needle at zero on the scale when no current is flowing. This adjust-
ment is carried out with a small screwdriver and should be checked
when using a meter, particular if the vertical or horizontal position of
the meter is changed.
- 10
Meters should always be read from a position directly in front of the

meter face (i.e. at right angles).
The reason is that meter divisions general have to be small to accom-

modate enough of them on the scale, and that the pointer has to be
raised some little way above the scale in order to be able to move
freely round it.
Reading the position of the pointer from an angle to one side or the
other will therefore result in an inaccurate reading, often as much as a
complete division on the scale.
An error caused by reading a meter from the wrong angle is named a

’parallax error’.
Figure 10, detail a) shows an incorrect meter reading in the opposite to

Figure 10, detail b) where a correct meter reading is illustrated.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Measurements with an Analogue Multimeter
Direct Voltage Measurements
Voltage measurement procedure:

V adjust the pointer to ’zero’ on the scale
V set the selector switch to position (DC/voltage)
V set monoknob to the highest voltage range
V connect measuring leads to the test sockets
V connect measuring points and select measuring range so that
the pointer comes to rest at the right hand end of the scale.
Direct Current Measurements
Current measurement procedure:

V set the selector switch to correct position (DC/current)
V set monoknob to the highest ampere range
Alternating Voltage Measurements
Voltage measurement procedure:

V set the selector switch to position (AC/voltage)
V set monoknob to the highest voltage range
Alternating Current Measurements
Current measurement procedure:

V set the selector switch to correct position (AC/current)
V set monoknob to the highest ampere range
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Resistance Measurements
Resistance measurement procedure:

V set the selector switch to correct position (resistance)
V set monoknob to required value
V adjust zero ohms control in order to zero the meter reading
whilst holding the measuring leads together. If zero setting not
possible replace the batteries
V connect the test leads to the component to be measured and
select required range.
Note: Before resistance is measured the power supply to the component to

be measured must be disconnected. The monoknob should be always
placed at a range which provides a reading in the second half of the
scale in order to reduce measurement errors. After the measurements
are finished the meter has to be switched back to position ’transport’
or to one of the highest voltage ranges (AC or DC).
The following laboratory exercises are to be carried out in parallel to the

corresponding lecture. The laboratory provides the equipment to be used for
the particular exercise.
Compose practical exercises out of the catalogue of tasks and have the
students perform the tasks on the Worksheets. Give an introduction to the
practical exercises; explain the circuit diagrams and the set--up. During
execution of the exercises explain the experiments and ask questions.
Let the students read off the values and data from the measurement equipment
and have them transfer the values into the corresponding Worksheets.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Power supply
V A
R1
Current (I)
R2
Multimeter
Current
Common
G 0173
Test leads
Figure 1 Current Measurement with Multimeter
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Power supply
V A
Multimeter
Voltage
R1 Common
Test leads
Current (I)
R2 Voltage (U)
G 0174
Figure 2 Voltage Measurement with Multimeter
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Multimeter
Ohm
R1 Common
Test leads
R2 Resistance (R)
G 0175
Figure 3 Resistance Measurement with Multimeter
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G 0182
Figure 4 Digital Multimeter
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Ω Ω
X 1 Ω
X 100 Ω
X 10 kΩ
10 mA
30 mA
100 mA
300 mA
1 A
Common
6 A
B 0261
Figure 5 Analogue Multimeter
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Conditions*
0.1 "0.1 % "0.1 % "0.1 % general"3.0 % "0.1 % "0.1 % "0.1 %
Precision for moving–coil
0.2 "0.2 % "0.2 % "0.2 % "0.2 % "0.2 % "0.2 %
MIP/PH1/TN/009
measurement instrument: 1.5 %
instruments
For training purposes only

for iron screened
0.5
Basic Electrical Eng.
"0.5 % "0.5 % "0.5 % "0.5 % "0.5 % "0.25 %

Fundamental Studies
instrument: 0.75 %
1.0 "1.0 % "1.0 % "1.0 % "0.5 % general "6.0 % "1.0 % "1.0 % "0.5 %
1.5 for moving–coil

Industrial "1.5 % "1.5 % "1.5 % "0.75 % "1.5 % "1.5 % "0.75 %
instrument: 1.5 %
measurement
instruments 2.5 for iron screened
"2.5 % "2.5 % "2.5 % "1.25 % "2.5 % "2.5 % "1.25 %
instrument: 0.75 %
Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06

5.0 "5.0 % "5.0 % "5.0 % "2.5 % "5.0 % "5.0 % "2.5 %
B 0262 A
*Notes:
Error in indication: referred to the full–scale Influence of frequency: measured at a frequency of 15 . . 65 Hz

deflection point.
or at "10.0 % of the nominal frequency.

Royal Malaysian Air Force
Influence of temperature: measured, when temperature Influence of voltage: measured at "20.0 % of the nominal
is "10 °C related to 20 °C. voltage, (only for power meters).
Influence of warm up: measured after 60 minutes at Influence of mounting: measured when mounted in an iron
80 % of full–scale deflection point. panel of 3 mm thickness "0.5 mm.
Influence of stray fields: measured when the stray field
is 400 amperes per metre.
Figure 6 Classes of Accuracy

Measuring Techniques
1.4.1 - OT - 6
Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

a) Power consumption
Internal power consumption Range

Type of meter movement
(approximately) (approximately)
Galvanometer moving--coil
10 --17 W -- 10 --14 W 0.3 mA -- 15 mA
movement
Precision moving--coil
4 mW -- 60 mW 25 mA -- 250 mA
movements
Industrial moving--coil
0.1 mW -- 0.5 mW 0.4 mA -- 10 mA
movements
Iron vane movements 0.1 VA -- 5 VA 0.03 A -- 12 A
Electrodynamic movements 1 VA -- 3 VA 500 W
about 50 Hz
Vibrating--reed movements 2 VA -- 10 VA
at 100 V -- 500 V
Moving--coil recording
10 mW -- 60 mW about 250 mA
movements
b) Characteristic resistance
Current at full--scale deflection Characteristic resistance

IF mA RCh W/V
10 100
3 333
2 500
1 1000
0.5 2000
0.1 10000
0.05 20000
B 0263 A
0.02 50000
Figure 7 Power Consumption and Characteristic

Resistance
MIP/PH1/TN/009
a) Indication 100 V V
uncertaint 98.5 – 101.5 V,
error  1.5 %
Class 1.5
error of  1.5 % of 100 V

=  1.5 V
At f.s.d.;
single error
b) Indication 50 V V
error  3 %
Class 1.5
At 0.5 f.s.d.;
error doubled
c) Indication 10 V V
error  15 %
Class 1.5
B 0264 A
At 0.1 f.s.d.;
error increased tenfold
Figure 8 Indication Position versus Error
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Zero set screw
B 0334
Figure 9 Meter Zeroing
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Correct meter reading
Incorrect meter reading

B 0335
Figure 10 Parallax Error
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Task 1: Measurements of Voltage and Current
Objective:
DC voltages and currents in a simple network, fed from a variable AC/DC power
supply are to be measured. The determined values are to be entered in a table.
V 2 multimeters
V 1 bulb, 6 V/30 mA (h2)
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 1 (continued):
Execution:
+ A
Variable
AC/DC V
power US UM
supply
h2
--
Note: US = USupply, UM = UMultimeter
2. Connect bulb h2, multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the variable
AC/DC power supply.
5. By the use of the internal voltmeter, adjust the variable DC supply step by step
to the voltages (US) as given in table 1 and measure these voltages (UM) by
means of the multimeter (V).
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 1 (continued):
Table 1
US 1V 3V 5V 8V 10 V 12 V 15 V 20 V 25 V 30 V
UM V V V V V V V V V V
8. Explain the differences between the voltages US and UM.
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
A I
Variable
AC/DC V
power US
supply
h2
Note: US = USupply
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 1 (continued):
AC/DC power supply.
13. By the use of multimeter (V) adjust the variable DC supply step by step to the
voltages (US) as given in table 2 and measure the related currents by means of
the multimeter (A).
14. Enter the measured values in table 2.
Table 2
US 6.0 V 5.0 V 3.5 V 3.0 V 2.2 V 1.0 V 0.5 V
I mA mA mA mA mA mA mA
16. Answer the following questions.

What relationship exists between voltage US and current I?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
What relationship exists between voltage US and brightness of bulb h2?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 2: Measurements related to Ohm’s Law
Objective:
DC voltages and currents in a resistor network, fed from a variable AC/DC power
supply are to be measured. The determined values are to be entered in a table.
These values are to be used to calculate the ohmic resistance of the network by
means of Ohm’s law. The results are to be entered in the same table.
The determined values US and I of the table are to be transferred into a diagram in
order to construct a graph.
V 2 multimeter
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 2 (continued):
Execution:
I
A
Variable
AC/DC V US
R1
R2
R3
R4
power
supply
--
Note: US = USupply
2. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the
variable AC/DC power supply.
5. By the use of voltmeter (V), adjust the variable DC supply step by step to the
the multimeter (A).
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 2 (continued):
Table 1
US/V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
I/mA
Rt/W
8. Name the formula to calculate the ohmic resistance R.

R =
9. Calculate the total ohmic resistance Rt (R1//R2//R3//R4) by the means of the

measured values US and I and enter these results in table 1.
10. Transfer the values of US and I into diagram 1 in order to construct a graph.
Diagram 1
I
mA
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 U
V
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Task 2 (continued):
What relationship exists between current and voltage of the graph?
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 3: Measurements of Resistance and DC
Objective:
Resistor values are to be determined by means of the resistor colour code and a
multimeter. The results are to be entered in a table.
Furthermore DC voltages and currents in this resistor network, fed from a variable
AC/DC power supply are to be measured. The determined values are to be
entered in a second table.
These values are to be used to calculate the ohmic resistance of the resistors by
means of Ohm’s law. The results are to be entered in the second table.
V 2 multimeter
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Task 3 (continued):
Execution:
Variable
AC/DC
power V US
supply
-- W
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Note: US = USupply
2. Be sure that the power supply is switched off.

3. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6 one after another to the multi-
meter (W) and enter the measured values in table 1.
Table 1
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Value (measured)
Value (colour code)
4. Determine the values of the resistors by means of the resistor colour code and
enter these values in table 1.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 3 (continued):
A
I
Variable
AC/DC V
power US
supply
--
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Note: US = USupply
6. Connect multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the variable

AC/DC power supply.
8. Switch on the power supply and adjust the voltage (US) to 12 V DC.
9. Connect resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6 one after another to the circuit.
10. Read off the related voltage and current values and enter these in table 2,
overleaf.
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 3 (continued):
Table 2
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
US/V
I/mA
R/kW
G/mS
12. Calculate the resistor values R/kW by the use of the measured values US and I
and enter these results in table 2.
R =
R1 = R1 =
R2 = R2 =
R3 = R3 =
R4 = R4 =
R5 = R5 =
R6 = R6 =
13. Calculate the conductances G/mS of the resistors and enter these results in
table 2.
G =
GR1 = GR1 =
GR2 = GR2 =
GR3 = GR3 =
GR4 = GR4 =
GR5 = GR5 =
GR6 = GR6 =
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Task 3 (continued):
14. Carry out the following task.
Explain the relationship between conductance and resistance.
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
...................................................................................
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Task 4: Measurements related to Power and Work
Objective:
Power and electrical energy of two electrical circuits are to be calculated by means
of voltage and current measurements.
V 2 multimeter
V 1 bulb, 12 V/5 W (h1)
V 1 resistor 27 W/5 W (R1)
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 4 (continued):
Execution:
Variable
AC/DC V h1
power US
supply
--
Note: US = USupply
AC/DC power supply.
the multimeter (A).
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Task 4 (continued):
Table 1
US/V 14 13 12 10 8 6 4 2 1
I/mA
P/W
8. Name the formula to calculate power P.

P =
9. Calculate power P by the use of the measured values US and I and enter these
results in table 1.
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
10. Name the formula to calculate electrical energy W.

W =
11. Calculate the electrical energy if bulb h1 operates 24 hours at nominal power
of 5 W.
W =
W =
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 4 (continued):
Variable
AC/DC V R1
power US
supply
--
Note: US = USupply
13. Connect resistor R1, multimeter (A) and multimeter (V) to the variable
AC/DC power supply.
the multimeter (A).
MIP/PH1/TN/009
Task 4 (continued):
Table 2
US/V 14 13 12 10 8 6 4 2 1
I/mA
P/W
19. Calculate power P by the use of the measured values US and I and enter these
results in table 2.
P =
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
P = P=
MIP/PH1/TN/009

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Institute of Aerospace Technology Airforce College: Fundamental Studies 1

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INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

This training note is intended for training purposes

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

1 Basic Electrical Engineering

1.1 Basic Electricity

1.1.1 Basic Atomic Theory

1.1.1.1 Atomic Structure

An atom is the smallest part of an element (carbon, copper, silver) and

The nucleus in its centre consists of protons and neutrons. Spinning

These different electrical charges create forces which combine to hold

Protons and neutrons comprise almost the total mass of an atom.

1.1.1.2 Atomic Number

The number of planetary electrons in an atom varies with the element

Figure 2 shows two examples of atomic structures.

An atom under normal conditions is electrically neutral. The numbers

As a result an atom can lose or gain an outer electron. When this

If an atom has ’collected’ a stray electron there is one negative charge

In certain materials these outer electrons are so weakly bound to their

1.1.1.4 Conductors and Insulators

A conductor is a substance in which there is a constant exchange of

An insulator is a substance in which there is practically no random

Good insulators are:

No firm line can be drawn between conductors and insulators. Silver is

Between these extremes lies a group of material which are neither

Semi--conductors posses some very important properties, which are

Figure 1 The Atomic Structure

Nucleus (6 protons, 6 neutrons)

Nucleus (29 protons, 35 neutrons)

Figure 2 Atomic Number of Elements

Figure 3 Free Electrons of Atoms

b) Positive ion (one electron lost)

c) Negative ion (one electron collected)

Figure 4 Ionisation of Atoms

Silver Good conductors

Tin Poor conductors

Bakalite Poor insulators

Rubber Good insulators

Figure 5 Conductors and Insulators

1.1.2 Unit of Charge and Current

1.1.2.1 Unit of Charge

The charge of an electron (or proton) is extremely small and is

The practical unit of charge or quantity of electricity is the coulomb.

A charge of one coulomb is equal to the charge of 6.29 ⋅ 10 18 elec-

Coulombs law holds true for concentration of charges as well.

F = Force of attraction between unlike charges or the force of

Q 1 = The charge on one body.

Q 2 = The charge on the second body.

d 2 = The square of distance between the two bodies.

A shortage of electrons causes a positive charge and is called a

The difference between positive and negative charge is called a

In Figure 2, detail b) a PD of 100 V between a neutral charge and a

A difference in potential (voltage) will cause electrons to flow from the

1.1.2.2 Unit of Current

Current is the flow of electrons from a negative charge to a positive

One coulomb is equal to 6.29 ⋅ 10 18 electrons. An ampere is equal to

When 6.29 ⋅ 10 18 electrons flow through a wire each second,

This relationship is expressed by the equation:

Q (coulombs) = I (amperes) ⋅ t (seconds) or

The rate of flow of electrons can be in one of three forms known as