FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
SCHOOL YEAR 2021 - 2022
TOPICS:
Part I – Physical Disabilities (Orthopedic
impairment, other health impairment
including ADHD, Deaf-blindness, Deafness,
Hearning impairment, Traumatic brain injury,
and visual impairment) and Learning
Disabilities (dyslexia, dyscalculia and
dysgraphia, and other learning issues)
Part II. Other Disabilities (Autism,
Emotional Disturbance, Intellectual
Disability, Multiple disabilities, Speech or
Language Impairment)
Encouraging others to be inclusive teacher
Lecture 1
Part I – Physical Disabilities
A physical disability is a physical condition that
affects a person's mobility, physical capacity,
stamina, or dexterity. This can include brain or spinal
cord injuries, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy,
respiratory disorders, epilepsy, hearing and visual
impairments and more.
Orthopedic impairment -
The orthopedic impairment must interfere with the
student's ability to perform in an educational
environment in order to qualify for special services.
This disability may interfere with a student's ability
to walk, write, or perform other physical tasks in the
classroom and laboratory setting. Under federal law
an orthopedic impairment means a severe bodily
impairment that adversely affects a child's education
& performance. An orthopedic impairment involves
the skeletal system, bones, joints and limitation of
associated muscles.
The extent to which a child's education is affected
due to their impairment varies. Factors such as the
type and severity of the impairment play a role.
While many students with orthopedic impairment do
not have cognitive or learning problems, some may
experience related neurological or motor issues that
can affect sensory processing, perception, and
learning.
For example, impairments such as amputations and
fractures can impact attendance, making it harder for
kids to keep up academically. Other impairments that
have accompanying brain involvement such as birth
trauma and cerebral palsy may lead to learning
difficulties resulting from sensory and cognitive
issues.
Below are some specific concerns and challenges that
children with orthopedic impairments may face.
Behavioral
Teachers in all subject areas should be aware of the
impact of an orthopedic disability on a student's
behavior in class. Students with these impairments,
for example, might get tired more quickly than their
peers without orthopedic disabilities.4
Participation
Physical education classes, in particular, may pose
difficulties. Some students with orthopedic
impairments will need to be excused from gym class.
Other students with mild orthopedic impairments
may be able to participate.
Seating
A student may need special seating arrangements to
help him with posture and mobility, as moving
around the classroom or moving around school
hallways may be difficult. Schools may also need to
arrange the schedules of these students in a way that
prevents them from having to travel long distances
from one class to another. Providing elevator access
can also help.
Technology
They may also need assistive technology devices to
help them communicate or lessons that address their
disability, such as those that will help them improve
their gross and fine motor skills. Devices and
technologies that might be utilized may include
wheelchairs, specialized desks, canes, crutches,
communication software, or speech recognition
software.
Travel
Children with orthopedic impairments may also face
challenges accessing transportation to get to and from
school. Federal law, however, requires school
districts to provide the transportation necessary to
help children with disabilities travel to and from
school.
ADHD
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is
a chronic condition that affects millions of children
and often continues into adulthood. ADHD includes a
combination of persistent problems, such as difficulty
sustaining attention, hyperactivity and impulsive
behavior.
ADHD is one of the most common
neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is
usually first diagnosed in childhood and often lasts
into adulthood. Children with ADHD may have
trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive
behaviors (may act without thinking about what the
result will be), or be overly active.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is
a condition that affects people's behaviour. People
with ADHD can seem restless, may have trouble
concentrating and may act on impulse .
Symptoms of ADHD tend to be noticed at an early
age and may become more noticeable when a child's
circumstances change, such as when they start
school.
Most cases are diagnosed when children are 6 to 12
years old.
The symptoms of ADHD usually improve with age,
but many adults who were diagnosed with the
condition at a young age continue to experience
problems.
People with ADHD may also have additional
problems, such as sleep and anxiety disorders.
Many children go through phases where they're
restless or inattentive. This is often completely
normal and does not necessarily mean they have
ADHD.
But you should consider raising your concerns with
your child's teacher, their school's special educational
needs co-ordinator (SENCO) or a GP if you think
their behaviour may be different from most children
their age.
It's also a good idea to speak to a GP if you're an
adult and think you may have ADHD, but were not
diagnosed with the condition as a child.
What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD)?
The exact cause of ADHD is unknown, but the
condition has been shown to run in families.
Research has also identified a number of possible
differences in the brains of people with ADHD when
compared with those without the condition.
Other factors suggested as potentially having a role in
ADHD include:
 being born prematurely (before the 37th week
of pregnancy)
 having a low birthweight
 smoking or alcohol or drug abuse during
pregnancy
ADHD can occur in people of any intellectual ability,
although it's more common in people with learning
difficulties.
How attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
is treated
Although there's no cure for ADHD, it can be
managed with appropriate educational support,
advice and support for parents and affected children,
alongside medicine, if necessary.
Medicine is often the first treatment offered to adults
with ADHD, although psychological therapies such
as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may also
help.
Living with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD)
Looking after a child with ADHD can be challenging,
but it's important to remember that they cannot help
their behaviour.
Some issues that may arise in day-to-day life include:
 getting your child to sleep at night
 getting ready for school on time
 listening to and carrying out instructions
 being organised
 social occasions
 shopping
Adults with ADHD may also find they have similar
problems, and some may have issues with
relationships or social interaction.
Deaf-blindness,
DEAFBLINDNESS is a disability from the
combination of two sensory deficiencies (visual
and hearing). Deafblind people suffer unique
communication problems and have special needs,
arising from the difficulty to know and perceive
globally and, therefore, to be interested and engaged
with their environment.
A person who is deaf-blind has a unique experience
of the world. For people who can see and hear, the
world extends outward as far as his or her eyes and
ears can reach. For the young child who is deaf-blind,
the world is initially much narrower. If the child is
profoundly deaf and totally blind, his or her
experience of the world extends only as far as the
fingertips can reach. Such children are effectively
alone if no one is touching them. Their concepts of
the world depend upon what or whom they have had
the opportunity to physically contact.
Children who are called deaf-blind are singled out
educationally because impairments of sight and
hearing require thoughtful and unique educational
approaches in order to ensure that children with this
disability have the opportunity to reach their full
potential.
If a child who is deaf-blind has some usable vision
and/or hearing, as many do, her or his world will be
enlarged. Many children called deaf-blind have
enough vision to be able to move about in their
environments, recognize familiar people, see sign
language at close distances, and perhaps read large
print. Others have sufficient hearing to recognize
familiar sounds, understand some speech, or develop
speech themselves. The range of sensory impairments
included in the term “deaf-blindness” is great.
Deafness
Educational Implications
Hearing loss or deafness does not affect a person’s
intellectual capacity or ability to learn. However,
children who are hard of hearing or deaf generally
require some form of special education services in
 order to receive an adequate education. Such services
may include:
 regular speech, language, and auditory training from
a specialist;
 amplification systems;
 services of an interpreter for those students who use
sign language;
 favorable seating in the class to facilitate lip reading;
 its loudness or intensity (measured in
 captioned films/videos;
 assistance of a notetaker, who takes notes for the 
student with a hearing loss, so that the student can
fully attend to instruction;
 instruction for the teacher and peers in alternate
communication methods, such as sign language; and
counseling.
Children who are hard of hearing will find it much
more difficult than children who have normal hearing
to learn vocabulary, grammar, word order, idiomatic
expressions, and other aspects of verbal
communication. For children who are deaf or have
severe hearing losses, early, consistent, and conscious
use of visible communication modes (such as sign
language, fingerspelling, and Cued Speech) and/or
amplification and aural/oral training can help reduce
this language delay.
By age four or five, most children who are deaf are
enrolled in school on a full-day basis and do special
work on communication and language development.
Parents work with school personnel to develop an
individualized education program (IEP) that details
the child’s special needs and the services and
supports that will be provided to meet those needs.
IDEA requires that the IEP team address the
communication needs of a child who is deaf or hard
of hearing.
For Caroline’s parents, there were many clues along
the way. Caroline often didn’t respond to her name if
her back was turned. She didn’t startle at noises that
made other people jump. She liked the TV on loud.
But it was the preschool she started attending when
she was three that first put the clues together and
suggested to Caroline’s parents that they have her
hearing checked. The most significant clue to the
preschool was Caroline’s unclear speech, especially
the lack of consonants like “d” and “t” at the end of
words.
Types of Hearing Loss
Before we describe the types of hearing loss a person
may have, it’s useful to know that sound is measured
by:
units
called decibels, dB); and
its frequency or pitch (measured in units
called hertz, Hz).
Hearing loss is generally described as slight, mild,
moderate, severe, or profound, depending upon how
well a person can hear the intensities or frequencies
most strongly associated with speech. Impairments in
hearing can occur in either or both areas, and may
exist in only one ear or in both ears. Generally, only
children whose hearing loss is greater than 90
decibels (dB) are considered deaf.
There are four types of hearing loss, as follows
(eHealthMD, 2013):
1. Conductive hearing losses are caused by diseases
or obstructions in the outer or middle ear (the
pathways for sound to reach the inner ear).
Conductive hearing losses usually affect all
frequencies of hearing evenly and do not result in
severe losses. A person with a conductive hearing
loss usually is able to use a hearing aid well or can be
helped medically or surgically.
2. Sensorineural hearing losses result from damage
to the delicate sensory hair cells of the inner ear or
the nerves that supply it. These hearing losses can
range from mild to profound. They often affect the
person’s ability to hear certain frequencies more than
others. Thus, even with amplification to increase the
sound level, a person with a sensorineural hearing
loss may perceive distorted sounds, sometimes
making the successful use of a hearing aid
impossible.
3. A mixed hearing loss refers to a combination of
conductive and sensorineural loss and means that a
problem occurs in both the outer or middle and the
inner ear.
4. A central hearing loss results from damage or
impairment to the nerves or nuclei of the central
nervous system, either in the pathways to the brain or
in the brain itself.
Hearing is one of our five senses. Hearing gives us
access to sounds in the world around us—people’s
voices, their words, a car horn blown in warning or as
hello!
When a child has a hearing loss, it is cause for
immediate attention. That’s because language and
communication skills develop most rapidly in
childhood, especially before the age of 3. When
hearing loss goes undetected, children are delayed in
developing these skills (March of Dimes, 2010).
Recognizing the importance of early detection, the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (the
CDC) recommends that every newborn be screened
for hearing loss as early as possible, usually before
they leave the hospital. Catching a hearing loss early
means that treatment can start early as well and “help
the child develop communication and language skills
that will last a lifetime” (CDC, 2013).
Traumatic brain injury
A traumatic brain injury, or TBI, is an injury that
affects how the brain works. Anyone can
experience a TBI, but data suggest that some groups
are at greater risk for getting a TBI or having worse
health outcomes after the injury.
1. Concussions
A concussion is a minor brain injury that is caused by
shaking, an impact to the head, or a sudden change in
movement, like whiplash. Oftentimes, concussions
cannot be seen through an imaging test, but they
should still be considered serious and should be
treated as so. Concussions can cause headaches,
problems with concentration, memory loss, and
disorientation. Concussions are especially dangerous
if more than one is sustained over time, or if a second
one occurs before the first one heals. See Second
Impact Syndrome below.
2. Brain Contusions
A brain contusion is a bruise of the brain tissue, just
like one might have a bruise on their skin. And like
any other bruise, they are caused by the breaking and
leaking of small blood vessels. On the skin level, this
leaking blood under the skin is what causes the blue
coloring; on the brain, the leaking causes a plethora
of issues that mostly relate to a building of pressure.
Brain contusions can be caused by any impact to the
head. For example, a contusion may occur in a car
accident when the head hits the steering wheel, a slip,
and fall when the head hits the ground, or in a sports-
related accident in which the brain takes a significant
impact.
During the impact that causes a brain contusion, it’s
possible for the brain to be damaged directly under
the site of impact, on the opposite side from the point
of impact as the brain is slammed into the opposing
side of the skull or both. These differences in the site
of injury are classified under coup and contrecoup
injuries.
Contusions, like concussions, can range dramatically
from minor to extremely severe. Severe contusions
may cause a loss of consciousness, confusion,
tiredness, emotional distress, or agitation. More
severe contusions may cause the brain to swell, could
prevent proper oxygenation, and other serious
consequences.
3. Penetrating Brain Injuries
Penetrating brain injuries occur when some type of
object pierces through the skull. This may cause the
object, or hair, skin, or fragments of the skull, to
make contact with the brain. This contact with and
force on the brain can cause serious injury to a
concentrated, or large, part of the brain. Penetrating
brain injuries may be caused by any external force or
object that is strong enough to break through the
skull, such as:
 Slip and fall causing the skull to crack
 Motor vehicle accident in which something
penetrates or breaks the skull
 Gunshot wound to the head, which is the
leading cause of death by TBI
 Sports-related injury due to excessive force[2]
4. Anoxic Brain Injuries
Anoxic brain injury occurs when the brain does not
receive enough oxygen to operate properly. After just
four to five minutes without a proper amount of
oxygen, brain cells will begin to die and brain injury
will occur. Since oxygen is carried to the brain by
blood, anoxic brain damage most often occurs
because of a blockage of this blood flow.
Blockage can occur as a result of a blood clot, stroke,
heart attack, or serious trauma, among others. It may
also be possible the blood flow to the brain, in
quantity, is normal, but that the blood itself is not
carrying enough oxygen. This can occur as a result of
poisoning, drowning, carbon monoxide poisoning,
choking, suffocation, or anything that prevents the
lungs from taking in a normal amount of oxygen
molecules.
Physiotherapy Management
Just as two people are not exactly alike, no two
brain injuries are exactly alike. Therefore, the
approach to neurological rehabilitation and
physiotherapy after traumatic brain injury should
observe neuroplasticity , motor learning, and motor
control principles as well as taking a patient-
centred approach with individual involvement in
goals setting and choice of treatment procedures.
 Initial treatment during the acute phase focuses
on promoting respiratory health and prevention
of secondary adaptive changes to the
musculoskeletal system.
 Subacute physiotherapy management focuses
on the provision of an appropriate environment
to assist functional recovery and on the
assisted practice of meaningful tasks, relevant
to the ability of the individual, using a full
range of treatment modalities.
 Postacute physiotherapy management focuses
on reversing secondary adaptive changes and
improving specific motor skills with a focus on
functional goals for the day to day activities
and is dependent on skilled sensorimotor
assessment and a collaborative approach with
other team members, the individual, and
family. This stage can include inpatient,
outpatient, and community-based settings and
for some individuals may require lifelong
access to services including planned reviews.
[11]
With the complexity of the traumatic brain
injury and its wide-ranging consequences, no
single medical speciality is sufficient to address all
areas of management. In traumatic brain injury
management, the role of the multidisciplinary team
is invaluable with the physiotherapist/physical
therapist role at its heart from acute to chronic
stages.
The increasing recognition of the impact of
traumatic brain injury on the individual, the family
and society is resulting in developments in
prevention, service design, legislation and funding.
Developments in neuro-protective and neuro-
restorative treatments and therapeutic approaches
increase neuro-plastic change at cell and network
levels. Access to more precise diagnostics is
enabling more effective treatment choices. The
expertise of specialist medical and rehabilitation
centres is becoming more widely shared and
implemented. We are living in truly exciting times
when more than ever can be done for traumatic
brain injury survivors.

visual impairment

Strategies for Teachers of Students with Visual

Impairment
 Provide ample time for children to inspect any
objects presented for exploration. This may be
time spent in addition to circle time, either
before or after, describing the salient features
of the object as the student manually explores
it.
 Before students participate in circle time,
provide orientation to instructional materials
that are regularly used, such as calendars,
name charts, counting objects, and pointers.
Children also benefit from opportunities to
practice with the materials so that when it is
their turn to put the new number on the
calendar, for example, they have a greater
level of comfort and familiarity.
 Provide opportunities to practice the
movements that accompany the songs that are
regularly sung, explaining, when necessary,
why they accompany the words in the song.
For instance, when singing “I’m a Little
Teapot,” one hand is held up like a teapot
 spout, while the other is hand is placed on the
hip, as if forming a handle. A real teapot
should be shown to the child as a model
during description and practice.
 Encourage youngsters with visual
impairments to listen for the voice of their
teacher or the person who is speaking during
activities. Teach them to turn their bodies so
that they face the speaker while seated. This
will take practice until it becomes natural.
 Teach children how to raise their hands in
response to and when asking questions during
circle-time instruction. This, too, will take
practice.

Strategies for Classroom Teachers

 Choose a circle-time seating arrangement that
places the student with visual impairment in
close proximity to instructional materials and
actions. In this way the child will experience
the activity more fully, and teacher support
will be nearby when necessary.
 Use the names of children consistently so that
the student with visual impairment will know
who is called on or involved in an activity.
 Use precise positional terminology during
instruction. For example, when directing
students to point to or place an object, use
specific language, for example, “Put the
counting bear in the ones cup on the right."
 Encourage the child with visual impairment to
participate during circle-time activities by
calling on him or her regularly, with the
expectation that the child can participate fully.
In the beginning it will support the child if he
or she knows in advance that he or she will be
asked to tell the name of the day, for example.
Prepare the child for what to expect.
 When presenting new ideas and concepts, link
them to the child’s prior experiences and
knowledge.

Lecture 2
Learning Disabilities (dyslexia, dyscalculia and
dysgraphia, and other learning issues)

Part II. Other Disabilities
Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), refers to
a broad range of conditions characterized
by challenges with social skills, repetitive
behaviors, speech and non-verbal communication.
Delvelopmental learning delays over or under
sensitivity to light, sound, touch or taste
Difficulty communicating
Repetitive movements and behaviors
Difficulty in social situations
Trouble with transitions
Attachment to unusual interests
Recurring sleep problems
Difficulty understanding emotions
Insufficient Impulse control
Lecture 4
Encouraging others to be inclusive teacher
Inclusive teaching refers to pedagogy that strives to
serve the needs of all students,
regardless of background or identity, and support
their engagement with subject material.

What is inclusive education?

Inclusive education means students and special
needs students learn while sharing the same physical
space and interacting socially and academically. It’s
not either-or; simply sharing the same physical space,
but engaging in completely different activities, is not
inclusive. Because of this, it’s important for a
school’s whole community to understand inclusion
and make it a goal: School administrators, teachers,
parents and kids all have to buy into its value. When
this happens, everyone benefits.
The importance of inclusive education monitoring in order to make the experience
successful and beneficial for all students. Parents of
At its core, inclusive education is about appreciating
all children will find an inclusive school has:
each individual’s differences and unique set of
strengths and limitations. It’s not just an education
 A learning resource center or an
philosophy; it’s an important life skill. Children grow
in-house team of specialists
into adults who live in a world filled with people
who can address the unique
different from themselves; learning how to interact
needs of special needs children.
and work with these people is a key accomplishment
 A sensitized teaching staff with
of childhood, as integral as academic proficiency. An
the enthusiasm and skill to
inclusive school is a perfect training ground for real
teach inclusively.
life, because daily social, physical and academic
interaction between kids who are typically
developing and their special needs peers means
students develop:
Living an inclusive life
 Greatersensitivity. Children
Inclusion isn’t just an educational style, it’s a life
who develop in a typical
philosophy. Children pick up cues from adults early
manner become more sensitive
on, and if you make a big deal of people’s
by learning side-by-side with
differences, your children will, too. Inclusive
special needs children. They
education combats the world’s tendency toward
understand how words can hurt,
prejudice and fear, and produces more tolerant,
they practice patience, and they
peaceful, and open children—and adults.
learn empathy.
 Better understanding of
strengths/weaknesses. Kids in
inclusive schools learn that
everyone has strengths and
weaknesses. They learn to
appreciate these differences and
how to collaborate in order to
accomplish something.
 More tolerance. Inclusive
schooling teaches kids the
value of another human being
—no matter what that person
looks or sounds like. Physical
and mental differences do not
equate to a lesser value.

Typical and atypical development and

characteristics of learners with exceptionalities.
Spotting the inclusive school
a. Typical and atypical growth and
Inclusive education in the real world requires a
development
delicate balance of resources, goodwill and
As children grow, there are different ways that they
need to develop.
The different childhood developmental stages help to
track a child's progress.
The child will need to develop cognitive, language,
physical, and social skills.
From the moment a baby is born, to the time they go
off to college, they go through
different developmental stages.
The skills usually develop predictably and are known
as developmental milestones.
However, every child develops at their own pace. It
can be difficult to determine differences between
typical and atypical children because all kids have
their strengths and weaknesses.
How will you know if a child is having a typical or an
atypical development?
Typical development will give generic progress of
the child compared to peers of the same age.
Atypical development occurs when the child appears
to lag behind or is way ahead of same-age peers in
any of the different skills. You can learn how to
recognize the differences between typical and
atypical
Physical Development
It is important to know that children grow physically
at different rates. Girls often grow faster and are
usually taller than boys of the same age during the
adolescent years. However, boys continue to add
inches into their early 20s, often overtaking the girls.
In some cases, a failure to thrive occurs where
physical growth does not follow the typical pattern.
Social Development
Typical children with appropriate social skills are
able to form friendships easily. They can maintain
healthy relationships and they understand social rules
and standards. The social skills developed in
childhood will lead to an emotionally healthy adult
life. You can find out age-level pointers that will help
you to identify any areas of concern in your child.
The ability to communicate well with others as well
as getting involved in the interactive play are part of
healthy social development. Identifying atypical
social development in your child will help you to get
appropriate help early enough.
Cognitive Development
Understanding how your child compares to other
children of the same age when it comes to mental
ability is important. This information can help you to
identify any special needs that your child may
have. Cognitive skills in a school going child can be
measured using the school’s find program.
For a toddler or younger child, being unable to
understand the function of simple household items
can be a red flag. A typical 21-month old baby should
have some level of understanding when it comes to
shapes and colors and can identify or find hidden
objects. Some atypical children do not show
recognition of items that they see every day.
Adaptive Life Skills Development
The development of adaptive life skills is essential
for helping a child to function independently. The
skills are age-related. You cannot expect your three-
year old to perform at the same skill level as your six-
year-old. Age-appropriate behaviors often develop
gradually over time. Mastering adaptive life skills
that are age-appropriate is important for the child’s
future.
You can monitor typical development by
communicating with your child and talking to other
parents with kids of the same age or older. Find out
how the other kids are doing or how they were doing
at the age your child is in. This will help you to
differentiate between typical and atypical
development.
The Time Frame Issue
Childhood development usually follows a course that
is predictable. The mastery of different milestones or
skills is used as a way to determine progress. Skills
like speech, crawling, and walking are developmental
milestones that can be used to determine whether the
child is typical or atypical. While it is true that
children usually reach milestones at different times,
there is a time frame that is generally expected. This
time frame will help to determine if the child is
typical or atypical.
There are some red flags that will indicate where
there is a developmental delay. However, the red
flags should not be cause for panic but rather signals
for closer observation. Parents can learn what to look
for when it comes to their baby’s development. This
knowledge is helpful in identifying potential issues
that may require professional intervention.
It is thought that learning disabilities may be caused
by hereditary, teratogenic factors (for instance,
alcohol or cocaine use during pregnancy), medical
factors (premature birth, diabetes, meningitis of
mother or offspring), and/or environmental factors
(malnutrition, poor prenatal healthcare).
There are many different causes of disability,
including: genetics, injury, disease, and the
unknown being the most common.

b. Etiologies and medical aspects.

Etiologies – pathology: the study of the causes of the
disease ; causes or origin of disease; the study of
causes,causation, casuality as in philosophy, biology,
or physics ;