THE DESIG N OF SEALS F R OM I NDU S VALLEY
Geom etric, Natu ralistic & Narrati11e Moti fs
UAC K GROU N 0 Al\D C: H RO:-lOLOG Y
Tiu· .~rearer / 11cl11, 1:111,rv of 1ulrnr is now Paki.<1J11
,111d tur>lt'l"ll /11t/1,1 111a.1 1/ie bmliplace u{ tlie
J11clus C111iliz.11i1111 also lrnowu ,1s / larap1"1
Ct1lrt1re' (26110 1900 11c1). an 111·b• t1 <ourrv
il1Jf was c0Jru•rnpora11eouli witl1 tlic•great tO'bau
uoJJi-:.Jfions o{ ,uu w111 Egypr , \(esoporauuJ
.111tlCl111a.
l'AR LY ll ARA l'l'A PH AS E-CH.'\LCOLITll l C
(c.HOO BC E)
T/ie rarlir>I 1,,.111111 11•a/s ;u·e found dw111g die
l.11rr C/1alrn/ithw J'l'llOd '1arn11g Jro1111d J'ill(J
111:1 ar ,\lrh11:;11·J/ .md Jko .or the sue ofHaraJ>p•
1
mar•i l'lia>r, c. HOO1:c:r). Tl1ese r,1 rlie't exam-
p le~ ofb,4rton ,c•cil. . ma1y 11.t11c· seroecl as m11anu•11h
sewn onto d odr m~ or worn a.) amulets. Tlu·,r
sC'afs rw1·e ge1wrC1!h1mrlclr of ten·a<·otta <1nd orr.r·
swlla!lv ofboll<• <W .,opsoapstone.
KO T Dl jl Pll ASE ( 280 0 - 2600 llCE)
Tlie Kot Diii l'li.rn• rrpre>enrs a 11e1iod dun11.~
wliidi n-gioJJal rnlrural ~tvlrs of po11eri and ra~-lv
urbdn mun-., were f.'Stal1lbl1ed 1liroi1ghour tlll'
lrldus <11d (;/1as_~ar-Hah<1 1·rgio11. Kor D111a11
<etrlemmt- >11< 11 a' I fJrapJ>a a11d R1•l1111•n Olien
(( ;11m•i Plai11) ''""""Seti as regional urLan
C<'lltres, eacli wi1/i d1>1i11c1we_ivpes of button >eJI<.
some of whirl1 u••re decorated wuli comb111atw11s
of• 11i111al moti/s.mdsoipt. Ar rlie site ofHarappa,
a seal i111pres,ion 111 d~v indicate., rhal 10/ llf
thrs<' <eals we re w,ed /Or nwrr d1t01 1mr
dernranon; dav >rali11g,· were 111ade to do~e
~torerooms or seal comauw rs u~ed /o>' trade.
<:m1tinued u11 11ext l'"Se
Figure I. ,\ hdtrpli•-h,·adl'd ammal >eal, sir.1111i·.
,\!ohe11io-d.1rn, ."\a11011al Muse11111 of l'akf\l.rn
(N,\ I P1 50.29·1.
llw ;ezl wulr three dlllln.1/ l1eads clc-picls • ,/,ori
horned bt11l u1u/1 Ire.rd lowe11•d ,md lll'tl
.rn1..lope-li/1e .rmma/., rotth horns Jrdnn:~
rogcrloer bel1i11d tire head a11d 111 Jro 111of11; ;111ce
1here arr no .rcrual Jlllelop<'S 111 South Asia 1111111
long fonv<11·cl-arrh111g lwrns, ir '' pos;ibl<• rl1a1
this animJl n·pn·~t'n f\ " umcorn w11h two
!torn>, or J1wtl11·r '!'vtlrirnl a111111.rl. Tire 111011[
nrnld repn-,e111 J ll allrn11rr be111•ee11 1wofa1111li«.1
or an c{ficial who h.rd multiple posrtrnns.
,";01e: The·""'" Jrc· 1w1 ·'·' pe1 011gi11<1I scJlr.
jONAT H AN M A R K K ENOYER
I NTROD U C T I ON
The evidence o f graphic art during th e prehistoric
pe ri ods of ancie nt So uth Asia are preserved on a range
o f materials and created with various t echniques. Cave
paintings dating from 30,000 to 10,000 years ago
found in Balochistan and throughout peninsular India
were made with mineral pigme nts such as charcoal and
ochre. Large boulders with geome tri c and naturalistic
motifs created by pecking or incising (called p etro-
glyphs) have been fo und al ong the uppe r Indus River
and in parts of Balochistan and Afghanistan.
The earliest pet roglyphs dat e from around 10,000
years ago and co nt inued to be made through the pre-
historic and p~otohistoric p eriods. 4 •5•6 Many of the
motifs appearing on cave paintings and pet roglyphs
represent aspects o f the natural environment in which
people lived; plants, animals, mo untai ns, and the peo -
ple t hemselves. Abstract geometric and fl oral symbols
were also cr eated and they probably reflected religious
beli efs or ideologies about the structure o f the uni-
verse or of society as a who le . Stepped c ross symbols
may have indicated sacred mountains, circle and dot
motifs could have b ee n astral o r solar symbols, wh ile
the e ndless knot and stylized trees could have indicat-
ed concept s such as eternity and the branching tree o f
of life that e ncompasses all cre ation .
In later hist orical times, travellers, pilgrims and invad-
ing armies carved their mes sages and symbols on top o f
earlie r prehistoric motifs, revealing a continuity in t he
use o f some symbols over thousands of yP.;irs. Many of
these same symb ols we re repe ated on painted pottery,
and various types of ornaments made fro m shell , bone,
ivory, st one and metal. These various categories o f
preserved mat erials provide a rich repertoire of graphic
design from the prehist oric and protohistoric periods,
but one type of object, the seal, stands out as parti-
cularly important.
The seal is a uniqu e type o f obiect because it was used
bo th as an ornament t hat bore a design, as well as a t ool
to replicate that design or symbol on other su.rfaces.
Archaeologists who study seals usually divide t he m
into two basic types: stamp seals that are pressed

vertically to create a design, and cylinde r seals that are rolled across the
surface of a material to create an endless repetition of a design. Both
stamp and cylinder seals were cre ated and used in diffe rent parts o f
an cie nt South Asia, but tn this essay the fo cus will be on stamp seals of t he
Indus valley region (Figure 2).
Stamp seals can be subdivided into t wo ma jor types based on their
design and possible function: button seals and intaglio (reverse image)
seals. Dutton sea ls are generally decorated with deepl y carved geometric,
flo ral , animal or rarely, human motifs. These obiect s have one or more
perforations t hrough the body of the seal or a kno b (boss) o n the back
with a s mall perforation so that the seal can be worn on a cord or sew n
o nto clothing. These seals were usually made o f soft materials such as
bone, soapstone or terracotta. While it is not certain if t he early button
seal s were ever used for impressing clay, later exa mples were clearly used
to seal containers.
Intaglio or reverse image seals were designed specifically for pressing
into clay, stamping on textiles or foods such as bread, or even on the
human body. They re present a u njque form of graphic design t hat cou ld
be used to create multiple sets of identical images. These could be used
to indicate personal owner ship or control of another object such as
t rade goods. If a seal symbol had a r itual me aning the sacred sign could
be stamp ed on goods for protection or good luck.
These various types of seals were used either as ornaments or as t ools fo r
crea ting designs o n other surfaces, or served as visual symbols to
communicate messages or ideas to the viewer. All communities use
graphic design as a form of communication that can b e expressed non-
verbally and recogni zed by both literate and non-literate viewers. In
addition to thei r non-verbal message some designs may represent one or
m ore verbal expressions. These symbols and th eir various verbal
meanings are used to r einforce and legitimize the social order and the
ideology of a communi ty.
We will now examine the origin and development of design on seals of
t he Greater Indus region. A range of geometric, floral or naturalistic
and narrative motifs wi ll be presented in order to reveal the complexity
of the Indus design reper toire. The prec ise meaning of specific symbols
is difficult to determine as symbols have different meirniugs for different
people and a si ngle symbol may represent many different verb al
expressions. However, it is possible to gain some insight into the general
interpretat ions of an cient symbols by looking at how such symbols have
been used in later cultures in South Asia and othe r world regtons.7•8
BU TT O N S E ALS
Button seals were made from a variety of materials during the Early
Harappan, Harappan and Late Ha rappan pe riods. The most common
material used at t he site of Mehrgarh was terracotta, but a few were made
z 1larappmrlimes (I 900- 130U 1:ct) •nd un m m rl1t• 1•,nJv l11>1<>rn
< of bone as well as soft stone, and o ne seal was made of what appe ars to be
....
<
7. mar ine shell. 9 Another unique example was made from bitumen, a natural
form of tar. Unlike the later seals, whic h have a relatively narrow range of
31 6
H I E llARAP PA P h.~SE (2 600-1900 RCE)
Tl1 e Harappa l'l1ase is the ma1or period of 11rba11 expansion rl1a1
i> mm11101 ~lv referred to a; 1lie Indus Ci1•ilizario11 or ll.1r.ippa
Culflire. Seal, u•itl1 tlu /11 d11s saipt and 1rn111r.li.11ic ,·a111111g1 of
ammals are 0110 uf tlw hallmarks of rlie /11d11s nties. Huweurr a
wide 11ane_tv of other seals were also med, induding llw>e w1r11
11an·a1il'l' scenes •llC a wrde range ofgeometric motifs. /11 acldi·
rron ro rhe d1scover1 of amial seals, seal impre«imrs lr•ve been
discovered on lumps of unfired or low-fired d!fV- 0 1lrer2vpes of
imp>'e>sions were 11~a de on uanou< , f,apes of clav tableis rlr•I
were subseque11tlv f red 10 Cf'edle pennanent moulded /abler,.
Th ese tablets co111al11 wrlc/lie narTaliue scenes 1/w l1<lr1e 11et1('r
been d1srn11e1·ed on acrnaf seals and 1here[nre m~ y lta11e bee11
mcHlt: w1tl1 wooden ~als tlt.i l tt re no long(T presc ni~d. Due ro rit e!
lark of rareficl record111g du>'mg earlrrr exrauarions at A!olrenJO·
daro a11d ffdra ppa. die detailed chm11ologv a11d co111ex1of111a!1v
of tire seals ext·aua1ed !>v earlier arc11deologi>1> is 1111Jmoum.
However, rite recem excavaliom haue prnuidrd a generdl cl1ro-
1wlogv rliar can be applied IO lheie earl1e1· discuueries.
THE L ATE H ARAT'i'/\ l'fi/\S.E (1900- 1300 BCE)
The Lare HarappJ Pl1J1e r·epre,e11b a lra11>ilio11al period durr11g
wl11d1 ma ~•}' distmct111e fea1111·es of the /11dus <iviliu tion bega11 ro
d1a11ge or disappear: Tir e GJiaggar· Hdkra Rwer be,~an d_rymg up
a11d people mooed w 1he ln<lu> \"all!"f, Ga11ga-Ya1111111a \ ;,II~~ or
ro p~rh ofG111rar. R?g1011al s:rvlesofpo11erv once <lgain enurged
tl1m11glwm rhe grea1cr l11d11s r('gion, reflecring ;i cl1a11ge 111 focm
10 local eronom1r a11d political processes. Sc·a/; willi animal
11w11fo and 'cript rve1·e 110 longer med in rhe l11d11s reg1011 •fl••r
,rro111rcl 1900.i:cr, bi:r geometl"ic and poral nwiifseals rn11m111ed
10 be used 1'1rnugl10u1 1he La1e Harapp.m periocl. Tl1e regional
,._iyb of Lare Harappm 01111011 seal< represent some connnu!ry Ill
geometnc designs from the / ldrdppan 11111es a> well ;i , rhe
1111roducrro11 of new: ymbo/,. Tlw use ofseals w1tl1scrrpl "'"' 1101
rer•iued imtil tlu· e.11jy hisron c perrod 1m1l1 1he im•e11lw11 of rhe
!Jrdf1111i 'ttipl around •HJ() nc T.
Figure 2. Ala/o r <ite., oFllie Grearer In dus Region.
Figure J. MEHRGARll OU TTO:-\ SL\l s
11. "/erracolld bunon seal, 2800 2600 !let (/dm ge er al 1?9'i:
l'latl' J.10, 11).
Ii. Terrdrolla bu11u11 '"al, (/ ar rrge er al 19 95: Pia re 2. J4, e).
c Ten·acorra bwwn ,,.,,1. H OO-JOOO ncr (/a rrige et di /995:
l'lare 9.I fi, al .
d. Bo11e pe11ddn l, H OO-JOO() sr:r ( famge 1995 : l'lare ll.16, r).
e. Tenacol!d bu11011 ,eal.
f. Bone bu11011 ,eal, 1S00-260 () UT (f•nige 1995: l'lare 1.10, p).
Buttou sedL'i uiulr gro•nernc, Jlordl dUd naJTarh.1e motif) Ue,~~n ro
be u<ed in ea1:lv Jl'''liisroric .rgnrnltural srrtlemenh <udr •>
.\lel11;11arl1. r.HOO CCL (Figure 2)!0 0 11</ w n111111ed in u<e
1J1rougl10111 !lie pn,J11stonc and p rn10J1b11>n r perrod.1. ~V al'llrmcl
2800 l<n, the fin1 seals wuh wip1rombmed wirh v.iriou, a111mal
nwrifs were n'edrecJ iu the pl"Oto-urha11 <e1rlr111e111s of Har·appa 11
1
and Relmldrr Dhen. : D1JJ"i11g rhe pe1·i!lcl oFilir Jnd11s Cil'1lr:a1111n
(2600- 1900 CC"F) a rmrle 1•ani:_1V of seals t'omhi11mg 1•ano11>
<le>rgn rnorifo mith l11dus >ertpr Ult'l"l' rreared a11rl med ar la~~e
urban centres '11Cl1 "' .\ lohe111o·daro, I l•rdppa ancl Dholar•ird,
a< well a, ar smaller 1011n1< ,md t•rllag<'<. \\ "iri1 rlie <led111• of rhe
l11clm 1irir<, the /11cl11s ' crrpr clrsapJ>rared, 11111 b11Ho!l '"al<
11!Jllro111 scnpt c o 11111111e cl w bl' U1ed tlrrougl10111 rlre Late
prriocl (c.60rJ 1in ) . Tit<! rnmimuurs J11cl clw1g<'S m >lvle, of
seal< ref.eel (4rgrr soda/, etOJlrlllllC, re/igrom a;rd flOfllrcdf
pmce~<es tlldl u•err gw1g 011 in1l1e l••ger /11d11> re~io11.
 2.
..
Key
• NeoliUYc Sites
• EHiy Ha~pan Sites
• Harappan Site•
~ • Lato Harap,rn Sites
I
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t RAH

./~ I N DIA

......,_,, ARABIAN SEA

. ..
OltCA"
•
........
.. -~---5.o
Klk>lnolers • ,. ..

3a- b.

3c- d.

3e.

,..
w
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3f. 0""
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3 17
 motifs, the button seals from Mehrgarh reveal a wide range of motifs,
(Figure 3) and most have bee n decorate d with symmetrical designs
radiating from the centre.
Circular or square seals with a cross or stepped cross motif (Figure Jc) are
relatively common and this design continued to be used throughout
later periods in the Indus region (Figures 4a&b). One example has a
swastika motif in the centre combining both the stepped cross motif and
the well known swastika design. During the Harappa phase, st epped cross
motifs were generally made on square seals made with either faience or
fired steatite (FiKures 7a&b) and occasionally on circular seals. This motif
continued to be used during the Late Harappan period at sites such as
Chanhudaro and Mohenjo-d aro (fhukar Period occupation).
The diversity of motifs and materials used in button seals suggests that
they we re made by many diffe re nt people for personal use and that they
must have had many differe nt uses and meanings. Most of these seals were
discovered in the fill in and around houses dating between 3300-2800 BCE
(Mehrgarh, Periods V to Vll}. 13
Swastika and stepped cross butto n seals (Figure 7c) were widely used during
the Harappan phase. No swastika seals have been found from the Late
Harappan phase, but the motif reappears during the early historic period
on sea.ls as well as in decorative motifs on architecture and sculptures.
During the Harappan phase (2600- 1900 BCE) button seals continued to be
used along with many other types of seals, but the range of motifs appears
to have declined. This reduction in motifs during the full urban phase of
the Indus cities could indi cate a widespread uniformity in ideology and
b e liefs as well as some degree o f centralization in the production of seals.
At the end of the Harappan phase, with the disappearance o f writrng and
consequent.ly the p roduction of inscribed sea ls, button se als with many
different types of geometric and floral motifs began to be produced once
again. T he Late Harappan button seals were made of fai e nce or more
commonly of terracotta, a mater ial that was much more widespread in the
Early Harappan than during the Harappan period.
The fact that button sea.ls continued to be used alongside seals with
anima.l motifs and writing suggest s that they served an important parallel
role in legitimizing social order and ideology.
SEALS
In contrast to button seals, with symmetrica.l geometric or fl oral motifs,
seals with writing and animal motifs represent a totally n ew form of
design that was first created during the Kot Di[i phase (2800-2600 BCE)
and continue d to be re fined throughout the Harappa phase (2600-1900
BCE). H The animal symbol is thought to represent a clan or official
positio n in the social o r politi cal hierarc hy of the Indus society. The most
commo n animal symbol is the mythical unico rn, while other animals such
z
< as t he humped bull and e le phant are relatively rare. These animals were
<
L
some times depic te d with an offering stand or feeding trough that may
have been used in sp ecial rituals. A short inscription in the enigmatic
3 18
Figure .J. BUlTO~ SEALS, PIRAK A!'il>
,\lcHRGARH (srrPPE D Cl<OS~ ~IOTH)
a. llroh?e romportmentecl '""'· Pirak, Period
Ill.\.
b. Ten·•cotra b1111011 seal, l'trdh, l'eriod 11.
Tl1!"' 1·rpresell! a 11<1riatio11 of 1/ie sreppecl aoss
motif 011 compan111emecl ;rdls madr of copper
dlld rerracorra bwron seah from tlie ;rrr of
Pii·•k (around 1800- 13'00 cc~). ' Tlie simplte-
1
~rv of tlie de>ig11 u1~y co111nbu1e ro rt< long life,
bur tl1e fan tl1•t orlier ;imple de;1gm disap·
prdred, sugge;t1 rhat rl1i> morif 111~1· l1J11e liacl
specifi< n111al m relig1011< mcanm;;: rliat "'"-'
pa~~t>cldown fi·vM generarwu w genertllitm.
l-1gure 5. II.\ RAPPA OU'ITO~ SEALS,
KOT Dljl l'fRIO::>
D11ri11g tire Kot Diii Pha>e ,,1 l larappa, lnaro11
seals were rnade '"iug soft ~tt1<flite rliat U'd' fl red
ro harden.
a. Sceariu· bllrl!ltt >ea(, 1196-21-W, Kor J)iJi
Pl1asc, <.2SOO r.o.
The geo111erric m(lti{ on rlr;, ,ea/ m~y reprcwm
a form of lwu;e wirli a do11blr·po1111ed roof
Sm11/ar 11wt1(> dl'P found 011 ldrer Harapp<1n ,,eals
(1-i,~llre 18a) as 1rell as 0111111111/ded rabfel\.
h. Siea rire ln111011 seal, H2000-419.'i, Kot Dli1
Phase, c.2800-.;600 nee.
Tl1i1 seal lias • distin crwe motif 1/iar m~\'
n•pre.)enr .)fan or .)1mhursrs and co1151srs of
double: COJJceHtric circle, witl1 a t.'rJHrcil dot,
arra11ged aro1111J d fo11r·pnm1ed >TJr. ll'liilc ii
b possible tl1<11 craftsmen were 111al1ing ,;111ilar
seals rn more rl1a11 one !\or DrJlall >1te, rite
precise 11ature of ma1111farn1re rng,~c;I> that
tliese sea" m~r l1•1ie ber•11 made 111 h1gl~h·
<perialioed wo1k<l1op.< al one or 11110 major
s11e, dlld rradrrl il1ro11gl111ul rl1e 11orrliern
regwns of tire iiiclt1 < \ "a /fey.
frgrrres c&.,d . •I rhm! va n1:1v of burr1111 seal '"'"
carved po1·al 11w11f 011 tlll" Jiont a111.J cll"cle a11d
dot morrfo 1111 1 '1~ bad1. 'I'll<' >l ra lll~ 1.1 wefl [irrcl
1111111 a rhin glazt. ,111d rlw ot>aa/l ,wf•rr » "'!"V
Jlndy >1noorlwcl. The premr dawrg of rl1r.1 seal
i> nor P">sible •ince ii 11••<{01111<( 111 di.111trlied
l~vr1~ ar rlie lup of a 111nuncl ar I Iara pp•.
 ,..
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>
"'
;J
Cl
z:

0
e:
"'_,
<
..."'"'0

..."'
Cl

3 19
 Indus script was gene rally carved above the image, but some signs were SWASTIKA

placed below the image or sometimes on the e dges of the seal. The swa~lika motif is found pJinted on
potterr in tdcsDpotamia from e'"'"' e arlier
The Indus script has not yet been deciphered and yet the linear sequence p"<iods, an<l this m o li f is wi<lr:sprea<l
of signs and t he non-random nature o f their use suggest that these symbols lhroughoul b e world. Howc,er, it>
represent a form of writing. While some symbols such as t he fish, pipal specific mearnng may have been quite
leaf, and the human form, appear to be pictographs, most scholars agree different in each world region. Basc<l on
compari,ons \\ilh later uses in South Asia
that the symb ols were not used as pictographs, but rather as graphemes
in llud<lhist, Jain a1lCI llrahmanic:al rituals,
that represented a spoken word or the symbol of a larger belief or idea.
t he symbol of lhc swastika represents
Various types of diacritics or qualifiers appear to have been used to order o ut o f c haos. The c haos o f the
change the meaning of specific signs and it is thought that these signs world b dh·ided into four quarters and
represent words or syllables that whe n combined together with other t urned either to Lhe right o r t he ldl.
signs would form a meaningful communication in a language that has yet Where t herP. is o rder, there is WP.a lth and

to be dete rmine d .16 This writing system is itself an extremely interesti ng profit, and in South Asia. t he >Wastika i>
associat<'d wi:h good luck and various
form of graphic design and distinctive styles of writing were used on
deities that hringwc<1lth, such "' ( ianesha
different types o f obfec ts . As will be discussed b elow, the style of writing
and Saraswali.
used on seals changed over time, becoming more st andardized and
The swastika was lal"r used by Adol f
precisely carved towards the end of the Harappan phase (2200-1900 fiCE).
Hiller to represent lndo-Aryan cultme
By 1900 BCE, after a pe riod of more than 900 years, seals with writing and
dll cl be came the symbol of lhe Nazi
animal motifs disappea r~d along wit h the elrte communities of the Indus regime. AIU10Jgh Hitle r used it dS a good
cities who used them. luck symbol Leo, t he context of its use has
given the swastika a totallr d ifferent
Impressions made by the square seals wrth both animal motifs and script c.:onnotation in Europ" and th(' Americ.:as,
carry two distinct messages. An illiterate person could see the animal where it is generally taken to rc pr.,sent a
motif and understand the meaning, while a literate person like merchants totdlitarian regime. Thi> example 'hould
and traders, could read the script and understand the details of who be taken as .:1 cautio1h1ry not e lo avoid
pro jec.ting mcdP.rn m ea ning onto ancient
owned the seal or the commodities be ing trade d. Sometimes the clay seal-
symbols w it~.oul taking into acco\mt
ings on goods had more than one seal impression and invariably the animal
cultural, ideo:ogical and social cont exts.
motifs of the earlier seals are obliterated by the later seal impression. This
means that the writing portion of the seal was the most significant feature
Figure 6. Bone bunon >edl, Harapp•, H98-
of the impression and rt did not matter to the merchants and traders if the
350J, Ravi Pliau, c.3'300 1.r.c.
animal motif of some impressions was obscured .
Tlte earlie'I bu11011 seal was fo1111d di rl1e site of
Harappa, romistmg of a {l'agme111ary bone
EAR LY AN I MAL S EA LS seal 1l1a1 m~y represent a swas1ib di•;ign. 10

Figure 7. I larafp• Phase Butron Seals,

Most of the seals found from excavations at large sites such as Mohenjo -
c.2000-1900 r.cr.
daro and Harappa, derive from the later phase of urban occupation ,
:\lost b1111on sezls were made with faie11ce. Tl1e
between 2200-1900 BCE. Recent excavations at Harappa have been able to swasrilta motif was rh e nwsl roumwn form of
recover seals from earlier periods that reveal some stylistic changes in dtcoralion, fo/Jowed ~y rlw srrpped cross a11d
both the animal motifs as well as the writing style.
17 18
• Unfortunat ely, due circle and dor motif<.
a. fa1rnte hur1011 seal, doublc-><epped cross
to the difficulty o f reaching the Early Harappan and initial Harappan
mo11f. H97-JJI.
occupation leve ls, only a few fragmentary examples of the earliest type of
b. Faie11ce bu:to11 <eal, single-stepped cro>.<
animal and script seal have bee n recovered. morrf. N:\1P 52.3015.
l. Faienfe hut:on seal, swa,,tika mori/; I 199-
The earliest seal dat ing to the Kot Diji phase, has an elephant motif but the 3814.
19
uppe r portion is broken so the style of script is not known (Figure 9a) . The
use of the e lephant motif is not very common on Indus seals and only
Figures Sa&b. Srealire seal w11li a ruia<nka moli{
thirty-eight examples are known from Mohe njo-daro (Figure 13) and t en
on one SJdf and a bison motif with script on rhe
examples (including the Early H arapp an one) have been found at Harappa. other face,,\ lo~en;o -daro c2000- 1900 r.n.
In later times the elephant came to be a symbol of great power and e le-
Tim seal was per{Oi'atfcl l•1era!fv so rl1ar a mrd
phants were used to carry gods and rule rs in procession or into battle. wuld be passel rhrough 1l1e <eal. ?v u<ing rhe
cord J.< a ha11dle both Ji1a< 11[ rlie sc•al rordd
In later Indus iconography the bull, particularly the humped zebu (Figure liaue bi>en 11se.I ro maki> impressions.
12) , is o ne o f the most finely carved animal motifs and like the e lephant it
m ay have represented power and authority.

32 0
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32 1
 UNICORN SEA LS
During the middle of the Harappan period (c. period 38, 2450-2200 oci:)
the first examples of seals with the mythical tmicorn motif are found
(Figure 10a). The uni corn is a mythical animal created by the Indus people
and a symbol that disappeared from the iconography of South Asia after
the end of the Harappa period when the ruling elites of Indus cities disap-
peared along with their writing. Unicorn seals carried t o Mesopotamia by
Indus merchants may have spread the idea of the unicorn to the Near East
from which it eventually reached the Mediterranean and fi nally spread
into Europe. While some scholars continue to refer to this image as a bull
seen from the side, several three-dimensional figurines of unicorns have
been found at sites such as Harappa, Mohenio-daro and Chanhudaro 21 and
there is no reason to suggest that the seal images represent anything hut a
mythical animal. The unicorn is the most common motif found on Indus
seals and is fou nd at almost every major Indus site.
The unicorn motif is usually thought to represent a male animal since some
unicorns are depkted with what app ear to be testicles, as is t he case with
some o f the humped bull seals (Figure 12), hut generally t his detail is not
carved very clearly. As with the hull and elephant, t he unicorn must have
represented a very powerful and widespread community. Unlike the use of
the bull and e lephant figure, t here were no living animals to perpetuate t he
use of this type of image after the Indus elites lost power, and the symbol
was not adopted by later political or religious communities.
Studies of t he uni corn and oth e r animal seals from Harappa and
comparisons with Mohenjo-daro and other sites, suggest t hat each of the
mator cities had distinct seal-carvingworkshops. 22 ·23 In addition the way in
which the script is carved appears to change over time. In earlier seals
(Harappa Period 3B, 2450- 2200 BCE) , the script symbols are often
crowded towards the left or over the head of the animal (Figure IOa) .
During the m iddle phases at Harappa (Late Period 3B, c.2200 BCE), the
script appears to become more regular and evenly spaced, but the
orientation of each sign is stiU no t standardized (Figu res 10b&.c). The latest
seals (2200-1900 ncE) have th e most rigid form of script with very evenly
spaced signs that run horizontally along the top o f t he seal, with no
c rowding over the head of the animal figure (Figure 1Od). These signs are
also very deeply incised and orient ed perpendic ular to the line of text.
This same type of rigid carving is seen on long rectangular seals that are
found only during the last part o f the Harappan phase (2000- 1900 ucE).
O TH ER AN I M AL M OTIFS
If the pattern of script incising see n t hrough initial studies at Harappa can
be confirmed , it may be possible to bring some c hronological order to t he
hundreds of seals recovered fro m earlier excavations at both Mohenjo-
"'"'>- daro and Harappa. For examp le, the elephant seals fro m Mohenio-daro
0 a. Elepl1a111 ;eal wrrl1 .cripr, MD 1151Ni\11'50.271.
z (Figure 13) reveal distin ct styles of carving both the elephant figure as well
"'
"' as the script.
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z While t he script on seals was usually placed in a single li ne above the
< fi'om use), whilt tire next seal (Frgure J3b) has script ca111mg 1lr•t rs vc_rv
:t
~ animal mot if (Figure 13a), some examples have two or more lines of script
z
0 and sometimes the signs are placed one ab ove the othe r in or ie ntations
322
Figure 9. fa1jv Harappa11 a11d H•rappan ><·al~.
a. U11fm1shed Eltpl1a111 ;eal, sream•. H20<J0-4474, Kor Diii l'hase,
2800-260() DCE.
The carvmg 011 rite eai:_lv Harappan elephanr moll{ rs 'l"''e <rude
compared 10 the tlega111 lines of rhe later seals bur all tire basic feature<,
of tnJHk and ni>ks are clearjy indirared. it is possible 1ha1 il1is broken seal
was a praruce p.ece, and since rt was neuer fi1·ed II m~v liave been
intentiona!lv broken and discarded.
b. Broken Bull >l'al, srearite, 1190-1600, llarappa Phase, Petiod JA,
2600-2450 BCF.
This other ear:lv example of an animal motif carumg found from
Hal<!ppa 1< aho fragmentary. Ii reueals slrarp lines for rite bo~y of tlte
<111imal farnrg In tire rigl11 (left wlien impressed inro cl~v), u1l1ich m~y
be some~ vpt of bull.
Figure 10. U:-llCOR~ SEALS Srearrre, Harappa.
a. H90 -1618, Period JD? 2450-2200 nn.
b. H87-262, Period JC, 2200-1900 BCE.
c. 1196-273'6. Period JC, 2450-2200 DCE.
d. H99-4064, late J'mod 3'C, 2450-2200 tJG.
Tire Indus umm rn was clepined as " sle11der-1wched bou111e, with lo11g
rufred tail and lioove• with ferlocks. A single horn emerged from 1l1e
top rear of rite slmll and arched graceft1!lv oue» rhe from of rite liead,
endilrg in a11 upward poinr. The head is usuaUv depined with rhe snout
raised as if11 was inhaling or makmg a drspl~y of do111ma11ce overotl,.r
ammals. ,\Inst trnirnni figu res ltdt•e a dist 111c1111e couer draped ouer the
fo requai·tns that m~y mdica1e a blanker or l1arnes; or pos<i~ly the
saot'ed pipal leaf Tire neck is often slwwn with multiple collars and tlu
horn is sometimes incised to reueal a feathe red or ribbed design .
Unicorn figures are usuayy carved facing to tlie riglu (left when
impr·cssed) wirlr a rlrnal offering stand 111<11 some scholars imerpret as
24
an incense burner or a container for l1old111g a sacred li<juid; this
;tdnd is found almosr rxclusiueJy w1rl1 unicorn motifs. The proportions
of tire unicorn are not standard and some are rarurd wrrl1 short stubby
legs. while orhns lraue well-pmportioned legs, arched nech and
narrow bo~v. As i.< common wnh rattle, a long remnant u111brl1cal cord
or dibble is seen lrangi>tg from tire 1mclerbe[ly.
Frgtire 11. l/11iwnr pendant, unfired slf'alire, ,\lohe1110-daro, NMP
50.125.
A rare example of a unicorn pendanr f mn .\ lohen111-daro slrows the
a11lmal with • womb or l1id11!'v·shaped _symbol in rfa be!lv. ·nw {igt<re is
ai>o famed ~v d more elaboratr form of rlris w11111b->haped morif. A pipal
leaf morif rs lnd;ed on rlie rump and shoulder, which may 111dicare rl1.11
rite couerlet on the un irorn figure> m~v 111 fa<" I represr111 d ~1vk<'d pipal
leaf. wl1iclr wa; 3 sacred _svmbol of rlie Indu; people. Tiu· ritual uflerr11g
sldl1d is placed io font of tire nnrcom.
Figure 12. Bull ,.al, steatile, :\lohen;o-daro , 1\':\ ll' 50.136.
The J111eJv earned hwn ped zebu 111.ay haw represe111ed gre.ir power and
aurlinr!tv· The ca ruing 11{ tire '\" sl1aped mi pt is slrglrUv curved wl1ile in
laterexanrpl., the shape rs mo1·e »01111cled 'll' a11d.svmme1tiral.
Ftgt<re /J. Eleplrant seals, ;iearire, ·llohen10-daro.
b. [/epl1a1u .real rvith sc1ipr, MD 1152 L P-902.
The proposed tarhe.-t se,11 (figure Ila) Ira.< rdauu~ly n•rrow and less
angular raruing with 11·regtda1· onenldlio11 (1alrn1g into acro11111 tlie wea•·
1igid wi1h all 1l1e signs being carved ar tl1e same rela111>e >1<:e and placed
cin a horiw11td l line u>rtlr perpendicular 11rie11ta1io11.
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 that do not correspond to normal writing patterns (Figure 1). The comb-
like design on this se al with a three-headed animal is normally oriented
ve rtically, but in this seal it is placed horizontally. The apparently
haphazard position of the writi ng may have specific me anings for t he
ancient Indu s elites, or conversely they could be due to later text
additions. While some sch olars have suggested that seal car ve rs may
have been illiterate and did not understand the proper sequence or
orientation of signs, it is highly unlikely that people who we re carving
suc h import ant obiects would be ignorant of the meaning or proper
orientation of signs.
SEAL S WITH COMP O SIT E AN IMAL M O TIFS
While most Indus seals depi cted only one animal, some seals combined
two or mo re animals to create composite figures, sometimes with
multiple heads (Figure 1) and in other cases with composite bodies made
from many different animals (Figure 16). Composite animals may represent
complex philosophical or religious ideas. The atte mpt to represent these
concepts visually is quite remarkable and since we cannot hope to be able
to unravel the specific meaning of these images without deciphering the
Indus script it is best to simply describe the images.
N ARRATI V E A N D YO G I SEA L
During the later part of the Harappan period, a distinct category of
narrative seals and seals with ritual images begin to be c reated (Figures
16&J7). The edges of these seals are often heavily worn, indicating that
they too were also used to impress into clay, possibly by rulers or ritual
spe cialists, but no clay seal impressions have been discovered yet. The
need for narrative sea ls and depiction s of ritua l images suggests that
there was some pressing need to promote specific ideologies in t he
context of the large urban ce ntres. It is possible that these seals reflect
a legitimation crisis where the ruling elites and ritual leaders needed to
promote a unifying ideology in an urban conte xt that may have been
populated by people from many different regions of the no rth-western
subcontinent. Many of these narratives are repeated in slightly modified
versions on different sizes of seals, and the fact that the same scenes are
found on seals at most of the largP.r urban centres indicates that the
r~ling elites of these cities were loosely unite d through common
religious traditions.
LON G RE CTANGULAR SEALS
Towards the end of the Harappan period, around 2000-1900 BCE, a new
type of rec tangular inscribe d seal was developed that had only script and
no animal motif (Figures 18a&:.h) . Impressions using these seals were made
directly below each other so as not to obliterate the writing of the
earlier impression. The abse nce of animal motifs could indicate that
z 'J 900 ll<:E l1avi11g 01!!;• serfpt. The absence of animal 1>1ot1fs
< these rectanguJar seals were simply bure aucratic devices with no rit ual
~
z
me aning, o r they could represe nt a ne w group of people who did not
c adhere to the symbols of Indus animals seen on sq uare sea ls. However,
324
F1g111» 14. \later ouffalo seal, sieanw.•ltohen10-daro, .II.II
50.279.
F1g11re 15. l111fi11iihed sreame unicorn <eal. llarappa, H.I(
61, 54.5309.
\t'lien >eal Cdrue1~ made murakes rl1e seal was dew·!'ved or
rlie wnr111g obl11emred as 1> see11 on tius unfinislie<I ,••1from
Harappa. Th!S seal deai:ly sliows rltar rwo sigm wen• <ct·•ped
our, b11t ir h nor known •f rl1!'v were wnrren 111co1Tec~h· or if
rl1~y were removed for 01l1er reasons. Tlie seal Wd> 11e11er
fired and rlll!refur. 11el1e 1· came mro use.
Figuo·e 16. Namnit•e seal wi1l1 worsl11p scene, srea1ire,
,\fohen/o-daro, NMP 50.295.
One of rhe mosl spectacular examples of a na1nriue .ral
sl1ows a de~y emerging fi·om rlie sacred pipal rree, rl1a1 wlie11
impressed would l1aue been ro tl1e nghr. T11e homed de!ry
either male or fe1,1 a/e, is looking down 011 a /111eeli11g male
wonliippn whost hair is tied in a b1111 on the bMk of rhe
l1ead, as is seen on stone sculprures fi·o111 ,\!ol.e111o·dJro.
This worshipper appeat-s to be prcscmi11g an oj]eri11g of a
lnmian liead (•/so wirh liair tied in a bun), placed 011 a
small stool. A giant ram with human face stands behind die
fmeel111g {r11,11re, and a prorcS>ion o(seuen figu res is sl1ow11 a1
rlie bortom of tl1e compos111011. The figures, either 111<1/e or
female, wea1· a single plumed headdres>, bangles on borl1
anm and long ,/mi>. Seuerrll sn-ipr .11gns are interspeiwd
wirli r/1e figures along the rop of rl1e >eal, dlld a sin,~le s1g11 is
place<I al rhe bas• of rhe tree. This sce11e my reprcsenr a
special 1it1•al sacrifice to a deity, and rhe edges of the seal are
heau~y worn, sugges1i11g tliar rlie seal was pressed mro cl~v
ro tnate sealmgs ~1irl1 tl1is scene.
Figure 17. fogi sezl, slearite, A!ohenjo-dai·o, .'>Ml' 50.296
Another i111porranr .rvpe of nrual seal depi<1s a nude de~ry,
po.m ~ly male, wit/1 tl1ree faces, sra1ed ituogic position 011 a
throne, Wl'aring ba11gh« 1>11 both anns and an elaborate
lieaddres<. Fwe sig m of rlw l11d11< scripr appear nn e11hei·
side of rhe liedC.:d1·ess, wl1id1 is made of rwo outward
pl'O;emng b11f[alo ~ryle nm1ecl horns, with two upward
projecting poi11H. A single branch w11li three pipal leaves
rises from rhe m·d<lfe of rlie f1eaddress. Tl1e figure wears
set'<'>l bangles Oil rlie lefr .irm rnd ;1x Oil rl1e right, wirl1 rlie
liands resting 011 rlie lmees. Tl1e heels are pre"e<I wgether
u11der rite gm111, and rlie feel pro1ecr b.erond rl1e edge of rl1e
rltrone. Tl1e feet of the 1lirolle are earned with the l1oof of a
bouin• as on rlie bull and ui11corn seals. Alllwugh rhe seal
l1as nor been exrmsiv<:!J used ro impreS> cl!'_y, orlier seals
wrrl1 similar 111or1fs liaue been found with hea.,~ly rounded
edge> fi"om repeated use, am/ numerous nwulded example,
of rl1is .fYPe o[ yogic figure haue been fmmd 011 rablet< fr·om
all ma;or flldu; sires.
Figure l8a. Lollg recrangular seal, sreatite, Atolie1110-daro,
NA!P 50.349
figu re ISb . Long rectangular seal, sreame, ,\fohcnro-daro,
N:llP50.JJ5
The long rectanRular seal was developed dround 2000-
could ind1care rl1at these were s11n1~ly bureauu-alir detirces
with 110 rirnal nirdning, or rl19 could represent d group of
people wl10 die/ not adhere ro!vmbols of Indus <mimah.
14- 15.

16-17.

18a.

18b .

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325
 the discovery of b oth types of seals within the same house at Harappa
indica tes that they were sometimes used by the same household.
Furthermore, the technique of incising the script and its overall layout
is identical on both types of seals and suggests that both were being
made by th e same workshops and possibly by the same craftsmen.

CONCLUSION

\Vhile there is clearly much more to discuss regarding the graphic design
e lements of seals, the preceding examples indicate that Indus sea l
craftsmen had a highly complex repertoire of motifs and mu ltiple options
on how to arrange them. Two distinct types of seals, the button seal and
the intaglio or reverse impression seal were created for distinct purposes.
One may have been use d more widely and over a longer period of time to
indicate ideology, while the seals with animal motifs and script were
limited to more economic and political use. The use of different type of
seals by people living in the same house suggests that elite merchants
were involved in multiple transactions that required the use of different
type of seals. Finally, it is clear that much work still re main s to be done to
better understand the range of different motifs and their overall
chronology. The other area that needs considerab le investigation is the
mu Ltiple meanings of symbols that were used in the periods after the e nd
of the Indus cities. While it is not necessary to project these later
meanings back onto the Indus people, t he symbols do reflect a legacy that
needs to be investigated more fully.

REFERENCES

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2. JA RRIGE, c., JARRIG E, J.-F., MEADOW, R. H . AND QUJVRON, G. Eds. Mehrgarh Field
Reporrs 1975-1985- From Neolithic to the h1d11s Ciuiliuition. Department of Culture
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1995.

3. KENOYER, J.M. AND MEADOW, R.H. The Ravi Phase: A New Cultural Manifestation
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s. BEDNARIK, R.G . 'The Development of Indian Rock ArtStuclies since Independence'.

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6. HASAN, u. Treasures from the Past: Rock Art of the Eras-Koh Mountains and the
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326
 8. KENOYER, (.M. Ideology and Legitimation in the Indus State
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9. JARRIGE, C., JARR!GE, [.- F., MEA DOW, R.H . AND QU IVRON, G.
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10. JARRIGI!, f.-F.' Mehrgarh: Its Place in t he Development of

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l l. KENOYER, f.M. AND M EADOW, R . H . The Ravi Phase: A New

Cultural Manifestation at Harappa, op. cit .

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13. )ARR!G E, C., JARR!GE, J.·F., M EADOW, R.H. AND Q UIVRON, G.

Eds. Mehrgarh Field Reports 1975-1985, op. cit.

14. KENOYER Artcienr Cities ofthe Indus Val/9 Ciullil.atio11, op. cit.

15. JARR! GE, J.-F. AN D ENAULT, f.-F., Fouilles De Pirak-

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17. MEADOW, R.H. AND KENOilR, J.M. 'Excavations at Harappa

1994-1995: New perspectives on the Indus Script , craft
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New Delhi , 1997 (pp. 139-172).

18. KENO YER, J.M. AND MEADOW, R.H. 'New Inscribed Ob jects
from Harappa' Lahore Museum Bulletin IX (1 (1996)): 1-20.
Lahore, 1997.

19. MEADOW, R.H. AND KENOYER, [. M. ' Recent Discoveries and

Highlights from Excavations at Harappa: 1998-2000.' INDO-
KOKO-KENKYU Indian Archaeological S1udies 22: 19-36. 2001.

20. KENOYER, J. M. AND MEADOW, R.H. The Ravi Phase: A New

C ultural Manifestation at Harappa, op. cit.

21. KENOYER, J.M. Ancient Cities ofthe Indus Vall9 Civilizatio11, op. cit.

n. RISS MAN, P.C. The Organization of Seal Production in the

Harappan Civilization. In Old Problems and New PerspecHves in
cheArchaeologyofSouthAsia. Edited by J.M. Kenoyer. Wisconsin
Archaeological Reports, Madison, \VI. 1989 (pp. 159-170).

23. FRANKE-VOGT, u. Die C.!Jphic Aus Mohenjo-daro . Verlagg

Philipp von Zahem, Mainz am Rhein, 1991.

24. MA HAD EVAN, 1. 'The Cult Obiect on Unicom Seals: A Sacred

Filter?' Puratattva (13-14): 165-186. 1985.

>-
The author admowledges the Goveniment of Pakistan, Department of "'_,_,
Archaeology and rhe numerous curators at the Harappa Museum for <
:>
facilitating the continued work at Harappa. Special thanks to the col- "'
:>
0
leagues who participated in the research at Harappa and l1ave helped to z
collect and an'!!Y<e dara. And to f.-F. Tarrige and C. /arrige for use of ::;;:
0
images of seals from their excavations at Mehrgarl1. The author's ongoing ..."'
ILLUSTRATI ONS research at Harappa and the Indus Vall9 Civiltzation has bee11 supported "'_,
<
All photograplis takc11 ~ f· Mark KenV'er or
£y 11umerousorga:niutions: the National Science Foundation, the National
Endowment for the Humanities, the NaHonal Geographic Soeie_9', the
..."'"'0
Rid1ard Meadow and courte~y of the Depart- z
Smirlisonian lnstitutio11, the American Sd1ool of Prehistoric Research ()
ment of Arcl1aeology and Museums, Couern-
(Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard Univers!!Y), "'"'0
ment of Pakistan and Harappa Archaeological ....
the Univers!!;Y ofWisconsin, www.HARAPPA.com &private donors.
Research Pro;ecr. ...
:i:

327