Albatross

Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large

seabirds related to the procellariids, storm petrels, and diving Albatross
petrels in the order Procellariiformes (the tubenoses). They Temporal range: Oligocene–recent
range widely in the Southern Ocean and the North Pacific.
They are absent from the North Atlantic, although fossil
remains show they once occurred there and occasional
vagrants are found. Albatrosses are among the largest of flying
birds, and species of the genus Diomedea (great albatrosses)
have the longest wingspans of any extant birds, reaching up to
3.7 m (12 ft). The albatrosses are usually regarded as falling
into four genera, but disagreement exists over the number of
species.

Albatrosses are highly efficient in the air, using dynamic

soaring and slope soaring to cover great distances with little
exertion. They feed on squid, fish, and krill by either
scavenging, surface seizing, or diving. Albatrosses are colonial,
Short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria
nesting for the most part on remote oceanic islands, often with
several species nesting together. Pair bonds between males and albatrus)
females form over several years, with the use of "ritualised
dances", and last for the life of the pair. A breeding season can Captured at Midway Atoll
take over a year from laying to fledging, with a single egg laid
in each breeding attempt. A Laysan albatross, named Wisdom, Scientific classification
on Midway Island is the oldest-known wild bird in the world;
Domain: Eukaryota
she was first banded in 1956 by Chandler Robbins.
Kingdom: Animalia
Of the 22 species of albatrosses recognised by the IUCN, 21
are listed as at some level of concern; two species are Critically Phylum: Chordata
Endangered, seven species are Endangered, six species are Class: Aves
Vulnerable, and six species are Near Threatened.[2] Numbers
of albatrosses have declined in the past due to harvesting for Order: Procellariiformes
feathers. Albatrosses are threatened by introduced species, such Family: Diomedeidae
as rats and feral cats that attack eggs, chicks, and nesting
G.R. Gray 1840 [1]
adults; by pollution; by a serious decline in fish stocks in many
regions largely due to overfishing; and by longline fishing. Genera
Longline fisheries pose the greatest threat, as feeding birds are
attracted to the bait, become hooked on the lines, and drown. Diomedea
Thalassarche
Phoebastria
Phoebetria
†Tydea
†Plotornis
†Diomedavus
†Aldiomedes
Identified stakeholders such as governments, conservation
organisations, and people in the fishing industry are all
working toward reducing this bycatch.

Description

Global range density (in red)

Taxonomy and evolution

The "albatross" designation comprises between 13 and 24 species (the number is still a matter of some
debate, with 21 being the most commonly accepted number) in four genera. These genera are the great
albatrosses (Diomedea), the mollymawks (Thalassarche), the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), and
the sooty albatrosses or sooties (Phoebetria). The North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister
taxon to the great albatrosses, while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks.[3]

The taxonomy of the albatross group has been a source of much debate. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy
places seabirds, birds of prey, and many others in a greatly enlarged order, the Ciconiiformes, whereas the
ornithological organisations in North America, Europe, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand retain the
more traditional order Procellariiformes. The albatrosses can be separated from the other Procellariiformes
both genetically and through morphological characteristics, size, their legs, and the arrangement of their
nasal tubes (see below: Morphology and flight).[3]

Within the family, the assignment of genera has been debated for over 100 years. Originally placed into a
single genus, Diomedea, they were rearranged by Reichenbach into four different genera in 1852, then
lumped back together and split apart again several times, acquiring 12 different genus names in total
(though never more than eight at one time) by 1965 (Diomedea, Phoebastria, Thalassarche, Phoebetria,
Thalassageron, Diomedella, Nealbatrus, Rhothonia, Julietata, Galapagornis, Laysanornis, and
Penthirenia).[4]

By 1965, in an attempt to bring some order back to the

classification of albatrosses, they were lumped into two genera,
Phoebetria (the sooty albatrosses, which most closely seemed to
resemble the procellarids and were at the time considered
"primitive" ) and Diomedea (the rest).[5] Though a case was made
for the simplification of the family (particularly the nomenclature),
the classification was based on the morphological analysis by
Elliott Coues in 1866, and paid little attention to more recent studies
and even ignored some of Coues's suggestions.[4] Skeleton of a black-browed albatross
on display at the Museum of
Research by Gary Nunn of the American Museum of Natural Osteology in Oklahoma City,
History (1996) and other researchers around the world studied the Oklahoma, U.S.
mitochondrial DNA of all 14 accepted species, finding four, not
two, monophyletic groups within the albatrosses. They proposed
the resurrection of two of the old genus names, Phoebastria for the North Pacific albatrosses and
Thalassarche for the mollymawks, with the great albatrosses retaining Diomedea and the sooty albatrosses
staying in Phoebetria.[6]

While some agree on the number of genera, fewer agree on the number of species. Historically, up to 80
different taxa have been described by different researchers; most of these were incorrectly identified
juvenile birds.[7]
Based on the work on albatross genera, Robertson and Nunn went
on in 1998 to propose a revised taxonomy with 24 different
species,[4] compared to the 14 then accepted. This expanded
taxonomy elevated many established subspecies to full species, but
was criticised for not using, in every case, peer reviewed
information to justify the splits. Since then, further studies have in
some instances supported or disproved the splits; a 2004 paper
analysing the mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites agreed with
the conclusion that the Antipodean albatross and the Tristan
Phylogenetic relationships of the
albatross were distinct from the wandering albatross, per Robertson
albatross genera, based on Nunn et
and Nunn, but found that the suggested Gibson's albatross,
al., 1996
Diomedea gibsoni, was not distinct from the Antipodean
albatross.[8] For the most part, an interim taxonomy of 21 species is
accepted by ITIS and many other researchers, though by no means all—in 2004 Penhallurick and Wink
called for the number of species to be reduced to 13 (including the lumping of the Amsterdam albatross
with the wandering albatross),[9] although this paper was itself controversial.[7][10]

Sibley and Ahlquist's molecular study of the evolution of the bird families has put the radiation of the
Procellariiformes in the Oligocene period 35–30 million years ago (Mya), though this group probably
originated earlier, with a fossil sometimes attributed to the order, a seabird known as Tytthostonyx, being
found in late Cretaceous rocks (70 Mya). The molecular evidence suggests that the storm petrels were the
first to diverge from the ancestral stock, and the albatrosses next, with the procellarids and diving petrels
separating later. The earliest fossil albatrosses were found in Eocene to Oligocene rocks, although some of
these are only tentatively assigned to the family and none appear to be particularly close to the living forms.
They are Murunkus (Middle Eocene of Uzbekistan), Manu (early Oligocene of New Zealand), and an
undescribed form from the Late Oligocene of South Carolina. The oldest widely accepted fossil albatross is
Tydea septentrionalis from the early Oligocene of Belgium.[11] Diomedavus knapptonensis is smaller than
all extant albatrosses and was found in late Oligocene strata of Washington State, USA.[12] Plotornis was
formerly often considered a petrel but is now accepted as an albatross. It is from the Middle Miocene of
France, a time when the split between the four modern genera was already underway as evidenced by
Phoebastria californica and Diomedea milleri, both being mid-Miocene species from Sharktooth Hill,
California. These show that the split between the great albatrosses and the North Pacific albatrosses
occurred by 15 Mya. Similar fossil finds in the Southern Hemisphere put the split between the sooties and
mollymawks at 10 Mya.[3]

The fossil record of the albatrosses in the Northern Hemisphere is more complete than that of the Southern,
and many fossil forms of albatross have been found in the North Atlantic, which today has no albatrosses.
The remains of a colony of short-tailed albatrosses have been uncovered on the island of Bermuda,[13] and
the majority of fossil albatrosses from the North Atlantic have been of the genus Phoebastria (the North
Pacific albatrosses); one, Phoebastria anglica, has been found in deposits in both North Carolina and
England. Due to convergent evolution in particular of the leg and foot bones, remains of the prehistoric
pseudotooth birds (Pelagornithidae) may be mistaken for those of extinct albatrosses; Manu may be such a
case, and quite certainly the supposed giant albatross femur from the Early Pleistocene[a] Dainichi
Formation at Kakegawa, Japan, actually is from one of the last pseudotooth birds. Aldiomedes
angustirostris was a uniquely narrow-beaked species from the Pliocene of New Zealand.[11][b]

Morphology and flight

The albatrosses are a group of large to very large birds; they are the largest of the Procellariiformes. The bill
is large, strong, and sharp-edged, with the upper mandible terminating in a large hook. This bill is
composed of several horny plates, and along the sides are the two "tubes", long nostrils that give the order

A southern royal albatross: Note the
large, hooked beak and nasal tubes.
its former name (Tubinares, or tubenoses). The tubes of all
albatrosses are along the sides of the bill, unlike the rest of the
Procellariiformes, where the tubes run along the top of the bill.
These tubes allow the albatrosses to measure the exact airspeed in
flight; the nostrils are analogous to the pitot tubes in modern
aircraft. The albatross needs accurate airspeed measurement to
perform dynamic soaring. Like other Procellariiformes, they use
their uniquely developed sense of smell to locate potential food
sources, whereas most birds depend on eyesight.[14] The feet have
no hind toe and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The
legs are strong for the Procellariiformes, making them and the giant
petrels the only members of that order that can walk well on
land.[15]

Albatrosses, along with all Procellariiformes, must excrete the salts they ingest in drinking sea water and
eating marine invertebrates. All birds have an enlarged nasal gland at the base of the bill, above their eyes.
This gland is inactive in species that do not require it, but in the Procellariiformes, it acts as a salt gland.
Scientists are uncertain as to its exact processes, but do know in general terms that it removes salt by
secreting a 5% saline solution that drips out of their noses or is forcibly ejected.[16]

The adult plumage of most of the albatrosses is usually some

variation of dark upper-wing and back with white undersides, often
compared to that of a gull.[15] The extent of colouration varies: the
southern royal albatross is almost completely white except for the
ends and trailing edges of the wings in fully mature males, while
the Amsterdam albatross has an almost juvenile-like breeding
plumage with a great deal of brown, particularly a strong brown
band around the chest. Several species of mollymawks and North
Pacific albatrosses have face markings like eye patches or have
Taking off is the most energetically
grey or yellow on the head and nape. Three albatross species, the
demanding part of an albatross's
journey, requiring the use of flapping
black-footed albatross and the two sooty albatrosses, vary
flight to provide thrust as well as lift.
completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely dark
brown (or dark grey in places in the case of the light-mantled
albatross). Albatrosses take several years to get their full adult
breeding plumage.[3]

The wingspans of the largest great albatrosses (genus Diomedea) are the largest of any bird, exceeding
3.40 m (11.2 ft), although the other species' wingspans are considerably smaller at, down to 1.75 m
(5.7 ft).[17] The wings are stiff and cambered, with thickened, streamlined leading edges. Albatrosses travel
long distances with two techniques used by many long-winged seabirds - dynamic soaring and slope
soaring. Dynamic soaring involves repeatedly rising into wind and descending downwind, thus gaining
energy from the vertical wind gradient. The only effort expended is in the turns at the top and bottom of
every such loop. This maneuver allows the bird to cover almost 1,000 km/d (620 mi/d) without flapping its
wings. Slope soaring uses the rising air on the windward side of large waves. Albatross have high glide
ratios, around 22:1 to 23:1, meaning that for every metre they drop, they can travel forward 22 m (72 ft).[3]
They are aided in soaring by a shoulder-lock, a sheet of tendon that locks the wing when fully extended,
allowing the wing to be kept outstretched without any muscle expenditure, a morphological adaptation they
share with the giant petrels.[18]

Albatrosses combine these soaring techniques with the use of predictable weather systems; albatrosses in
the Southern Hemisphere flying north from their colonies take a clockwise route, and those flying south fly
counterclockwise.[15] Albatrosses are so well adapted to this lifestyle that their heart rates while flying are
close to their basal heart rate when resting. This efficiency is such
that the most energetically demanding aspect of a foraging trip is
not the distance covered, but the landings, take-offs and hunting
they undertake having found a food source.[19] A common
assumption is that Albatrosses must be able to sleep in flight,
although no direct evidence has ever been obtained.[20]

This efficient long-distance travelling underlies the albatross's

success as a long-distance forager, covering great distances and Albatrosses range over huge areas
expending little energy looking for patchily distributed food of ocean and regularly circle the
sources. Their adaptation to gliding flight makes them dependent globe.
on wind and waves, but their long wings are ill-suited to powered
flight and most species lack the muscles and energy to undertake
sustained flapping flight. Albatrosses in calm seas rest on the ocean's surface until the wind picks up again,
as using powered flight is not energetically worthwhile, though they are capable of flight to avoid
danger.[21] The North Pacific albatrosses can use a flight style known as flap-gliding, where the bird
progresses by bursts of flapping followed by gliding.[22] When taking off, albatrosses need to take a run up
to allow enough air to move under the wing to provide lift.[15]

The dynamic soaring of albatrosses is inspiring to airplane designers; German aerospace engineer Johannes
Traugott and colleagues have charted the albatross's nuanced flight pattern and are looking for ways to
apply this to aircraft, especially in the area of drones and unmanned aircraft.[23]

Distribution and range at sea

Most albatrosses range in the Southern Hemisphere from Antarctica

to Australia, South Africa, and South America. The exceptions to
this are the four North Pacific albatrosses, of which three occur
exclusively in the North Pacific, from Hawaii to Japan, California,
and Alaska; and one, the waved albatross, breeds in the Galápagos
Islands and feeds off the coast of South America. The need for
wind to enable gliding is the reason albatrosses are for the most part
confined to higher latitudes; being unsuited to sustained flapping Three birds on Midway Atoll, 1958
flight makes crossing the doldrums extremely difficult. The
exception, the waved albatross, is able to live in the equatorial
waters around the Galápagos Islands because of the cool waters of the Humboldt Current and the resulting
winds.[3]

Why the albatrosses became extinct in the North Atlantic is unknown for certain, although rising sea levels
due to an interglacial warming period are thought to have submerged the site of a short-tailed albatross
colony that has been excavated in Bermuda.[13] Some southern species have occasionally turned up as
vagrants in the North Atlantic and can become exiled, remaining there for decades. One of these exiles, a
black-browed albatross named Albert has been observed travelling to gannet colonies in Scotland for at
least 50 years in an attempt to breed.[24][25] Another black-browed albatross nicknamed Albie has been
frequently observed across Northern Europe since 2014, and is also believed to be searching for a mate,
having been recorded from Germany, Scandinavia and RSPB Bempton Cliffs in Yorkshire, England.[26]

The use of satellite tracking is teaching scientists a great deal about the way albatrosses range across the
ocean to find food. They undertake no annual migration, but disperse widely after breeding; Southern
Hemisphere species often undertake circumpolar trips.[27] Evidence also exists of separate ranges for
different species at sea. A comparison of the foraging niches of two related species that breed on Campbell
Island, the Campbell albatross and the grey-headed albatross, showed the Campbell albatross primarily fed
over the Campbell Plateau, whereas the grey-headed albatross fed in more pelagic, oceanic waters.
Wandering albatrosses also react strongly to bathymetry, feeding only in waters deeper than 1000 metres
(3000 ft); so rigidly did the satellite plots match this contour that one scientist remarked, "It almost appears
as if the birds notice and obey a 'No Entry' sign where the water shallows to less than 1000 [metres]"
(3000').[3] Also, evidence shows different ranges for the two sexes of the same species; a study of Tristan
albatrosses breeding on Gough Island showed that males foraged to the west of Gough and females to the
east.[3]

Diet

The albatross diet is predominantly cephalopods, fish, crustaceans,

and offal (organ meat),[15] although they also scavenge carrion and
feed on other zooplankton.[15] For most species, a comprehensive
understanding of diet is known for only the breeding season, when
the albatrosses regularly return to land and study is possible. The
importance of each of these food sources varies from species to
species, and even from population to population; some concentrate
on squid alone, others take more krill or fish.[28] Of the two
Light-mantled albatrosses regularly albatross species found in Hawaii, one, the black-footed albatross,
dive to feed, and can dive to below takes mostly fish, while the Laysan feeds on squid.[15]
12 m (39 ft).
The use of data loggers at sea that record ingestion of water against
time (providing a likely time of feeding) suggests that albatrosses
predominantly feed during the day. Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that
many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive, and include midwater species likely to be
beyond the reach of albatross, suggesting that, for some species (like the wandering albatross), scavenged
squid may be an important part of the diet. The source of these dead squid is a matter of debate; some
certainly comes from squid fisheries, but in nature it primarily comes from the die-off that occurs after squid
spawning and the vomit of squid-eating whales (sperm whales, pilot whales, and southern bottlenose
whales).[29] The diet of other species, like the black-browed albatross or the grey-headed albatross, is rich
with smaller species of squid that tend to sink after death, and scavenging is not assumed to play a large
role in their diet.[3] The waved albatross has been observed practising kleptoparasitism, harassing boobies
to steal their food, making it the only member of its order to do so regularly.[30]

Until recently, albatrosses were thought to be predominantly surface feeders, swimming at the surface and
snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents, predators, or death. The deployment of
capillary depth recorders, which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird, has shown that
while some species, such as the wandering albatross, do not dive deeper than a metre, some species, such
as the light-mantled albatross, have a mean diving depth of almost 5 m (16 ft) and can dive as deep as
12.5 m (41 ft).[31] In addition to surface feeding and diving, they have also been observed plunge diving
from the air to snatch prey.[32]

Breeding and dancing

Albatrosses are colonial, usually nesting on isolated islands; where colonies are on larger landmasses, they
are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions, like the colony on
the Otago Peninsula in Dunedin, New Zealand. Many Buller's albatrosses and black-footed albatrosses nest
under trees in open forest.[33] Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the
mollymawks (black-browed albatross colonies on the Falkland Islands have densities of 70 nests per
100 m2 ) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual
nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses. All albatross
colonies are on islands that historically were free of land mammals.
Albatrosses are highly philopatric, meaning they usually return to
their natal colony to breed. This tendency is so strong that a study
of Laysan albatrosses showed that the average distance between
hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory
was 22 m (72 ft).[34]

Albatrosses live much longer than other birds; they delay breeding
for longer and invest more effort into fewer young. Most species
survive upwards of 50 years, the oldest recorded being a Laysan
albatross named Wisdom that was ringed in 1956 as a mature adult Wandering albatross male courting a
and hatched another chick in February 2021, making her at least 70 female with sky-pointing, clucking,
years old. She is the oldest confirmed wild bird and the oldest and wing-spreading rituals.
banded bird in the world.[35][36]

Albatrosses reach sexual maturity slowly, after about five years, but even once they have reached maturity,
they do not begin to breed for another few years (even up to 10 years for some species). Young
nonbreeders attend a colony prior to beginning to breed, spending many years practising the elaborate
breeding rituals and "dances" for which the family is famous.[37] Birds arriving back at the colony for the
first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatross language, but can neither "read"
that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately.[15]

The repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such as preening,
pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (such as the sky-call).[38]

Albatrosses are held to undertake these elaborate and painstaking

An albatross chick at Northwestern
Hawaiian Islands Marine National
Monument, Midway Atoll
after several years of breeding failure.[3]
rituals to ensure that the appropriate partner has been chosen and to
perfect partner recognition, as egg laying and chick rearing is a
huge investment. Even species that can complete an egg-laying
cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years.[3] The
great albatrosses (i.e. wandering albatross) take over a year to raise
a chick from laying to fledging. Albatrosses lay a single
subelliptical[17] egg, white with reddish-brown spots,[33] in a
breeding season; if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally
broken, then no further breeding attempts are made that year. The
larger eggs weigh from 200 to 510 g (7.1 to 18.0 oz).[33] The
"divorce" of a pair is a rare occurrence, due to the diminished
lifetime reproductive success it causes, and usually happens only

All the southern albatrosses create large nests for their egg, using grass, shrubs, soil, peat, and even penguin
feathers,[33] whereas the three species in the North Pacific make more rudimentary nests. The waved
albatross, though, makes no nest and even moves its egg around the pair's territory, as much as 50 m
(160 ft), sometimes causing it to lose the egg.[39] In all albatross species, both parents incubate the egg in
stints that last between one day and three weeks. Incubation lasts around 70 to 80 days (longer for the
larger albatrosses), the longest incubation period of any bird. It can be an energetically demanding process,
with the adult losing as much as 83 g (2.9 oz) of body weight a day.[40]
After hatching, the chick, which is semi-altricial,[17] is brooded and
guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend and
thermoregulate itself. During this period, the parents feed the chick
small meals when they relieve each other from duty. After the
brooding period is over, the chick is fed in regular intervals by both
parents. The parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long
foraging trips, providing meals that weigh around 12% of their
body weight (around 600 g, or 21 oz). The meals are composed of
fresh squid, fish, and krill, as well as stomach oil, an energy-rich
food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items. This oil is
created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from
digested prey items by most Procellariiformes, and gives them their
distinctive musty smell.[41] Black-browed albatross preening its
chick (New Island, Falkland Islands).
Albatross chicks take a long time to fledge. In the case of the great Albatrosses brood young chicks until
albatrosses, it can take up to 280 days; even for the smaller they are large enough to
albatrosses, it takes between 140 and 170 days.[42] Like many thermoregulate.
seabirds, albatross chicks will gain enough weight to be heavier
than their parents, and prior to fledging, they use these reserves to
build up body condition (particularly growing all their flight feathers), usually fledging at the same weight
as their parents. Between 15 and 65% of those fledged survive to breed.[33] Albatross chicks fledge on their
own and receive no further help from their parents, which return to the nest after fledging, unaware their
chick has left. Studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour, a
genetically coded navigation route, which helps young birds when they are first out at sea.[43]

Hybridization is rare in albatrosses, largely due to the low incidence of breeding-site vagrancy.[44]

Etymology

The name "albatross" is derived from the Arabic al-qādūs or al-ḡaṭṭās (a pelican; literally, "the diver"),
which travelled to English via the Portuguese form alcatraz ("gannet"), which is also the origin of the name
of the former prison Alcatraz. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that the word alcatraz was originally
applied to the frigatebird; the modification to albatross was perhaps influenced by Latin albus, meaning
"white", in contrast to frigatebirds, which are black.[15] They were once commonly known as goonie birds
or gooney birds, particularly those of the North Pacific. In the Southern Hemisphere, the name mollymawk
is still well established in some areas, which is a corrupted form of malle-mugge, an old Dutch name for the
northern fulmar. The name Diomedea, assigned to the albatrosses by Linnaeus, references the mythical
metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds. Finally, the name for the
order, Procellariiformes, comes from the Latin word procella meaning "a violent wind" or "a storm".[45]

In culture

Albatrosses have been described as "the most legendary of all birds".[42] An albatross is the central emblem
in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, representing the innocence and beauty of
God's creation. The albatross metaphor is derived from this poem; someone bearing a burden or facing an
obstacle is said to have "an albatross around his neck", the punishment given to the mariner who killed the
albatross. A widespread myth holds that sailors believe shooting or harming an albatross is disastrous, due
in part to the poem; in truth, sailors regularly killed and ate them,[24] as reported by James Cook in 1772.
However, other sailors reportedly caught the birds but let them free again, possibly believing that
albatrosses were the souls of lost sailors,[46] so killing them would bring bad luck.[47] The head of an
albatross being caught with a hook is used as the emblem of the
Cape Horners, i.e. sailors who have rounded Cape Horn on
freighters under sail; captains of such ships even received
themselves the title "albatrosses" in the Cape Horners'
organisation.[47]

A captive albatross tormented by jeering sailors is also a metaphor

for the social travails of the sensitive poète maudit in Charles
Baudelaire's poem L'Albatros:
An 1837 woodcut from the journal O
Panorama
Le Poète est semblable au prince des nuées

Qui hante la tempête et se rit de l'archer;

Exilé sur le sol au milieu des huées,

Ses ailes de géant l'empêchent de marcher.

(Translation: The poet is like this prince of the clouds, who haunts the storm and mocks the archer; but
exiled on earth surrounded by jeers, his giant wings make him helpless to walk.)

In golf, shooting three under par on a single hole has been termed scoring an "albatross", as a continuation
on the birdie and eagle theme.[48]

Non-European mythologies

The Māori used the wing bones of the albatross to carve flutes.[49] In Hawaiian mythology, Laysan
albatrosses are considered aumakua, being a sacred manifestation of the ancestors, and quite possibly also
the sacred bird of Kāne.[50] Japanese mythology, by contrast, refers to the short-tailed albatross as ahodori,
"fool bird", due to its habit of disregarding terrestrial predators, making it easy prey for feather
collectors.[51]

Birdwatching

Albatrosses are popular birds for birdwatchers, and their colonies are popular destinations for ecotourists.
Regular birdwatching trips are taken out of many coastal towns and cities, such as Monterey, Dunedin,
Kaikōura, Wollongong, Sydney, Port Fairy, Hobart, and Cape Town, to see pelagic seabirds. Albatrosses
are easily attracted to these sightseeing boats by the deployment of fish oil and burley into the sea. Visits to
colonies can be very popular; the northern royal albatross colony at Taiaroa Head in Dunedin, New
Zealand, attracts 40,000 visitors a year.[3]

Threats and conservation

In spite of often being accorded legendary status, albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct
pressure from humans. Early encounters with albatrosses by Polynesians and Aleuts resulted in hunting and
in some cases extirpation from some islands (such as Easter Island). As Europeans began sailing the world,
they, too, began to hunt albatross, "fishing" for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for
sport.[52] This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for Australia, and only died down when
ships became too fast to fish from, and regulations forbade the
discharge of weapons for safety reasons. In the 19th century,
albatross colonies, particularly those in the North Pacific, were
harvested for the feather trade, leading to the near-extinction of the
short-tailed albatross.[15]

Of the 22 albatross species recognised by IUCN on their Red List,

15 are threatened with extinction, that is, Critically Endangered
(Tristan albatross and waved albatross), Endangered (7 species), or This black-browed albatross has
Vulnerable (6 species).[2] Six further species are considered as Near been hooked on a longline.
Threatened and only one of Least Concern.[2] One of the main
threats is commercial longline fishing, as the albatrosses and other
seabirds—which will readily feed on offal—are attracted to the set bait, become hooked on the lines and
drown. An estimated 100,000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion. Unregulated pirate fisheries
exacerbate the problem.[53][3][54] A study showed that potentially illegal longline fishing activities are
highly concentrated in areas of illegally-caught fish species, and the risk to bycatch albatrosses is
significantly higher in areas where these illegal longline fishing vessels operate.[55]

On Midway Atoll, collisions between Laysan albatrosses and aircraft have resulted in human and bird
deaths, as well as severe disruptions in military flight operations. Studies were made in the late 1950s and
early 1960s that examined the results of control methods such as the killing of birds, the levelling and
clearing of land to eliminate updrafts, and the destruction of annual nesting sites.[56] Tall structures such as
traffic control and radio towers killed 3000 birds in flight collisions during 1964–1965 before the towers
were taken down. Closure of Naval Air Facility Midway in 1993 eliminated the problem of collisions with
military aircraft. By 2008, it was noted that reduction in human activity had helped reduce bird deaths,
though lead paint pollution near military buildings continued to poison birds by ingestion.[57] Albatross
plumes were popular in the early 20th century. In 1909 alone, over 300,000 albatrosses were killed on
Midway Island and Laysan Island for their plumes.[17]

Another threat to albatrosses is introduced species, such as rats or feral cats, which directly attack
albatrosses or their chicks and eggs. Albatrosses have evolved to breed on islands where land mammals are
absent and have not developed defences against them. Even species as small as mice can be detrimental; on
Gough Island, the chicks of Tristan albatrosses are attacked and eaten alive by introduced house mice.[58]
Introduced species can have other indirect effects; cattle overgrazed essential cover on Amsterdam Island,
threatening the Amsterdam albatross; on other islands, introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat.[3]

Ingestion of plastic flotsam is another problem, one faced by many

seabirds. The amount of plastic in the seas has increased
dramatically since the first record in the 1960s, coming from waste
discarded by ships, offshore dumping, litter on beaches, and waste
washed to sea by rivers. It is impossible to digest and takes up
space in the stomach or gizzard that should be used for food, or can
cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly. Studies of birds in
the North Pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in
declining body weight and body condition.[59] This plastic is The remains of this Laysan albatross
sometimes regurgitated and fed to chicks; a study of Laysan chick show the plastic ingested
albatross chicks on Midway Atoll showed large amounts of before death, including a bottle cap
ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks and lighter.
killed in accidents. While not the direct cause of death, this plastic
causes physiological stress and causes the chick to feel full during
feedings, reducing its food intake and the chances of survival.[60]
Scientists and conservationists (most importantly BirdLife International and their partners, who run the
Save the Albatross campaign) are working with governments and fishermen to find solutions to the threats
albatrosses face. Techniques such as setting longline bait at night, dyeing the bait blue, setting the bait
underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines, and using bird scarers can all reduce the seabird
bycatch.[61] For example, a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen in New Zealand
successfully tested an underwater setting device for longliners, which set the lines below the reach of
vulnerable albatross species.[62] The use of some of these techniques in the Patagonian toothfish fishery in
the Falkland Islands is thought to have reduced the number of black-browed albatrosses taken by the fleet
between 1994 and 2004.[63] Conservationists have also worked on the field of island restoration, removing
introduced species that threaten native wildlife, which protects albatrosses from introduced predators.

One important step towards protecting albatrosses and other seabirds is the 2001 treaty, the Agreement on
the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by
thirteen countries, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, France, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, South
Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Uruguay.[64] The treaty requires these countries to take specific
actions to reduce bycatch, pollution and to remove introduced species from nesting islands.[65]

Species
Since 1996, albatrosses have been divided into four genera. The number of species is a matter of debate.
The IUCN and BirdLife International recognise 22 extant species (listed below),[2] ITIS recognise 21 (the
22 below minus T. steadi),[66] and a 2004 paper proposed a reduction to 13 (indicated in parentheses
below), comprising the traditional 14 species minus D. amsterdamensis.[9]
 Image Genus
Diomedea Linnaeus, 1758 Great
albatrosses
Phoebastria Reichenbach, 1853 North
Pacific albatrosses
Thalassarche Mollymawks
Phoebetria Reichenbach, 1853 Sooty
albatrosses
See also
List of albatross breeding locations
Living species
Wandering albatross (D. exulans)
Antipodean albatross (D. (exulans)
antipodensis)
Amsterdam albatross (D. (exulans)
amsterdamensis)
Tristan albatross (D. (exulans)
dabbenena)
Northern royal albatross (D.
(epomophora) sanfordi)
Southern royal albatross (D.
epomophora)
Waved albatross (P. irrorata)
Short-tailed albatross (P. albatrus)
Black-footed albatross (P. nigripes)
Laysan albatross (P. immutabilis)
Black-browed albatross (T.
melanophris )
Campbell albatross (T. (melanophris)
impavida)
Shy albatross (T. cauta)
White-capped albatross (T. (cauta)
steadi)
Chatham albatross (T. (cauta) eremita)
Salvin's albatross (T. (cauta) salvini)
Grey-headed albatross (T.
chrysostoma)
Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross (T.
chlororhynchos)
Indian yellow-nosed albatross (T.
(chlororhynchos) carteri)
Buller's albatross (T. bulleri)
Sooty albatross (P. fusca)
Light-mantled albatross (P. palpebrata)
Notes
a. Gelasian, formerly Late Pliocene
b. The articles on Diomedea, Phoebastria, and Thalassarche contain more data on fossil
species of living albatross genera.

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123–146. Bibcode:1995MarER..40..123S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995MarER..4
0..123S). doi:10.1016/0141-1136(94)00140-K (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0141-1136%289
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Albatross chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995." (http://www.mindfully.org/
Plastic/Ocean/Albatross-Plastic-Ingestion1997.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
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64. Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. "Parties To ACAP" (http://www.a
cap.aq/resources/parties-to-acap). Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and
Petrels. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
65. ACAP (2009). "Amended, Third Session of the Meeting of the Parties" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170622193600/http://www.acap.aq/instruments/download-document/1191-acap-ag
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66. "Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)" (https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/Sin
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External links
"Diomedeidae" (https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&searc
h_value=174514). Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
HANZAB complete species list (https://web.archive.org/web/20070927161254/http://www.bir
dsaustralia.com.au/hanzab/HANZAB_spp_list.pdf) (Handbook of Australian, New Zealand
and Antarctic Birds.)
BirdLife International Save the Albatross campaign (https://web.archive.org/web/200708070
81411/http://www.birdlife.org/action/campaigns/save_the_albatross/)
The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (http://www.acap.aq/)
(ACAP)
Albatross: Don Roberson's family page (http://www.montereybay.com/creagrus/albatrosses.
html)
Tracking Ocean Wanderers (http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/seabirds/tracking
_ocean_wanderers.pdf). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110524235605/http://www.
birdlife.org/action/science/species/seabirds/tracking_ocean_wanderers.pdf) 24 May 2011 at
the Wayback Machine The global distribution of albatrosses and petrels: Results from the
Global Procellariiform Tracking Workshop, 1–5 September 2003, Gordon's Bay, South
Africa. BirdLife International
Albatross videos (http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/albatrosses-diomedeidae) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20160314030538/http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/albatrosses-diomedeida
e) 14 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine on the Internet Bird Collection
"Recovery plan for albatrosses in the Chatham Islands 2001–2011" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20080414153000/http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/TS
RP42.pdf) (PDF). Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. 2001. Archived
from the original (http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/TSRP42.
pdf) (PDF) on 14 April 2008.
Texts on Wikisource:
"Albatross". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"Albatross". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
"Albatross". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Albatross". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.

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