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Symmetry and Color Perspectives on Basketmaker Cultural Identities: Evidence

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 Maney Publishing

Symmetry and Color Perspectives on Basketmaker Cultural Identities: Evidence from Designs on
Coiled Baskets and Ceramics
Author(s): Dorothy K. Washburn and Laurie D. Webster
Source: Kiva, Vol. 71, No. 3, Recent Perishables Research in the U.S. Southwest (Spring, 2006),
pp. 235-264
Published by: Maney Publishing on behalf of the Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30246773
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 SYMMETRYAND COLOR PERSPECTIVESON
BASKETMAKERCULTURALIDENTITIES:
EVIDENCE FROM DESIGNSON
COILED BASKETSAND CERAMICS

DOROTHY K. WASHBURN
LAURIED. WEBSTER

ABSTRACT
Basketmakerbasketdesignshavelongbeenconsidered themodelfortheearliest
ceramic
black-on-white designsin thenorthern Southwest. Thisarticle
explores
thispremisefromtheperspectiveofsymmetry analysis. comparethedesign
We
systemsusedto decorate
Basketmaker basketsandceramic bowls,and conclude
thatalthoughsome elementsare shared,Basketmaker III basketweaversand
useddifferent
potters symmetrical layoutsto decorate
theirbasketsand ceramic
Wesuggest
containers. thatsomeofthemoreelaborate andcomplexsymmetries
baskets
foundon lateBasketmaker andotherperishableartifacts
might haveextra-
sourcessouthoftheFourCorners
regional region.

RESUMEN
Pormucho se
tiempo han consideradolosdisefios
delascestasdelperfodoBasketmaker el
modelopara los cerdmicos
diseiios negrosobreblancoen elnortedel
suroeste.
Este artfculo
exploraestapremisa desdela perspectivadelandlisis
de la simetrfa.
Comparamos los
sistemasdediseiioutilizados
para decorarlascestas
y lostazonescerdmicosy concluimos
que aunquehayalgunos elementoscompartidos,lostejedoresde cestasy losalfareros
de Basketmaker III usabandisefiossimitricosdiferentesparadecorarsuscestasy sus
cerdmicos.
recipientes Sugerimos quealgunas delassimetriasmdselaboradas ycomplejas
encontradasenlascestasdeBasketmaker tardfo
yenotros merecedores
artefactos puedan
fuentes
tenert al
extraregionales surdela regi6nFourCorners.

This paperaddresses
thepremise, ofSouthwestern
longa staple archae-
that
ology, Basketmaker
basket
designsservedas source theear-
the for
liestdesigns
onlateBasketmaker Weinvestigate
ceramics. thisissuefroma new
perspective-the ofdesigns
analysis notsimplybytheelements thatcompose
them, butbythewaytheseelements Thisanalytical
areorganized. approach,

KIVA:TheJournal
ofSouthwestern Vol.71,No. 3 (Spring
andHistory,
Archaeology 2006),pp.235-264.
o 2006Arizona
Copyright andHistorical
Archaelological Allrights
Society. reserved. 235

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236 DOROTHY K. WASHBURNAND LAURIED. WEBSTER

whichhas cometo be knownin a shorthand wayas symmetry analysis, describes

thedesignsintermsoftheplanepattern symmetries thatstructure and repeatthe
parts in finite
and one-dimensional designsand two-dimensional patterns.
Thisapproachis preferred notonlybecausethegeometric classesprovide
an objectivewayto describedesignsthatenablestheresearcher to compareas-
semblages,butalso becauseresearch usingthisapproachhas demonstrated that
assemblagesdominatedbyhomogeneousdesignsymmetries correlate withreal
groupsof people who shareculturalcosmologiesand lifeways (Washburnand
Crowe 1988, 2004). This latteraspect-the correlation of patternon material
culturewithideologicalconcepts-liesat theheartof developingmiddle-range
theorythatcan lead us to morerealisticreconstructions ofthepast.Symmetry
analysisis one windowintopastthoughtbecauseithighlights structural consis-
tenciesin pattern thatarevisualmetaphors ofgroupconceptsand activities.
Theunderlying premiseofthisapproachis thattheinstitutionalized social
relationships and cosmologicalprinciplesthatbind groupsof people together
intofunctioning communities areembodiedmetaphorically in designorganiza-
tion (Washburn1999, 2004; Washburnand Crowe2004; see also Guss 1989;
Reichel-Dolmatoff 1996; Roe 1982;Witherspoon and Peterson1995). Thisview
of designas visualmetaphoris illustrated by the researchofSekaquaptewaand
Washburn(2004, 2006), who have shown how Hopi beliefs,community prac-
tices,and social relationships are embeddedin twentieth-century ritualsong
metaphors, as wellas in figurativemetaphors in imageson kivamuralsand Hopi
yellow-ware pottery design.In archaeological contexts,we can see theoperation
oftheserelationships throughcontinuities and changesin designsystems. That
is,populationgroupsthatreflect robust,stable,and well-integrated culturalsys-
temstendto producehomogeneously structured designassemblages. Conversely,
highlyvarieddesignstructure systems reflectculturalgroupsin a stateof devel-
opment,change,disintegration, or transitionto anotherorganization system,as
well as groupsthatareexperiencing an influxofnewpeopleswithdifferent cul-
turalhistories(Washburn 2002).
Usingthismodel,then,we predictthatcontinuity in the Basketmaker-
Pueblo developmental sequence should be marked by linked,sequential,and
in
gradualchanges associatedmaterialculturesystems. Instead,we find(a) vari-
abilityin Basketmaker designsymmetries and colorsystems withinand between
regions,and (b) littlecontinuity in designmotifsand significant in
differences
designstructure betweenlate Basketmaker III basketdesignsand the earliest
black-on-white ceramics.

THE METHODOLOGY OF SYMMETRYANALYSIS

Symmetry descriptionsofdesignstructure
providea replicabledescriptive
system
thatcan be used to compareand contrast
bodies ofdata overwideregionsand

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 CULTURALIDENTITIES
PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER 237

timeperiods. Thegeometries andcrystallographic nomenclature thatdescribe

thesymmetries ofrepeated planepatterns are describedin Washburn andCrowe
(1988).Wesummarize onlytherelevant geometries heretoassist thereader in
understanding ourstructural approach todesign. Ofutmost importance isthe
premisethatitistheorganization ofthedesign andnotthemotifs
motifs, them-
that
selves, holdsthecritical information about cultural
relationships. Thus, while
somemotifs occur onbothBasketmaker baskets andceramics, wefocus onthe
waysthese motifsareorganized, foritisthisstructure that, overtime, results inan
archaeological
stratigraphy ofmaterial culture thatappears consistent,homoge-
neous,andcharacteristic ofwhatarchaeologists labela "culture"inprehistory.
there
Briefly, arethree axialcategories ofplanepattern design: (a) finite
designsthatmoveabouta central pointaxis;(b) one-dimensional orbandde-
signsthatrepeat alonga single lineaxis;and(c) two-dimensional patterns that
repeatalongtwo sets of axes.
intersectingAlthough an infinitenumber of finite
designsarepossible, there areonlyseven classesofone-dimensional designs and
seventeenclassesoftwo-dimensional patterns. a
Typically, cultural will
group use
onlya fewclassesto structure
their designs. Figure 1illustrates
the most common
symmetry classes inoursample alongwith examples ofthese symmetries from
basketsandceramics. Given thecomplexity ofthetopic, wedo notexpect the
readertobeabletointerpret allofthesymmetry classesdiscussed herefrom our
brief
introduction. Amoredetailed discussion ofthese symmetry classes canbe
found inWashburn andCrowe (1988).
Thefinite designs inoursample include bothcyclic anddihedral designs.
Cyclicdesignsrotate around a centralpoint, often the center baseofthevessel,
andaredesignated bya C followed bythenumber ofrotations inthedesign.
Thus,a C2 design hastworepeats andrequires two1800rotations toreturn
themotif toitsoriginal position (Figure la), whereas a C3design hasthree re-
peats(Figureib),andsoon.Dihedral designs reflect
across mirror axesthat pass
through thecenter ofthedesign andaredesignated bya D followed bythenum-
berofmirror reflections.AD1 design hasonereflection axisthat passes through
thecenterpoint,subdividing thedesign intotwoequalparts (Figure id),whereas
a D4 designhasreflection linespassing intwodirections perpendicular toeach
otherthrough thecenter, dividing thedesign intofour equalparts (Figure 1f).
One-dimensional designs, commonly calledbanddesigns, usevarious
combinations ofbifold rotation, mirror reflection,and/or glidereflection tore-
peatthe elements along a lineaxis.The most common one-dimensional design
in our sampleis pma2,whichrepeatsbybothmirror reflection
and bifoldrota-
tiontoproducea zigzagdesign(Figureii). Oursamplealso includesdesignswith
p111translation(FigureIg), p112bifoldrotation(Figure2b, rim),pmll vertical
mirror reflection
(Figure1h), and plal glidereflection
(Figure2c, rim).Two-di-
mensionalpattemrns use combinations oftranslation,
rotation,mirror reflection,
and/orglide reflection
to repeatthe patternin twodirections.
Two-dimensional

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238 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

Notation schematic
Symmetry Baskets Ceramics

a) c2 infrequent
-,Ad

b) c3

c),c4

d'1
d) infrequent

P
e) d2 noexamples

d4
f)
g)plll j j infrequent

1
h)pmal

i)pma2

FIGURE1.Mostcommon symmetry inthesample,

classesrepresented withexamples
from baskets
Basketmaker andceramics. Credits:
Symmetry from
illustrations Washburn
andCrowe1988:Figs.2.24,2.25,2.26.Basket adapted
designs from:(b andf)Kidder
andGuernsey 24c
1919:PI. and g; (c) Morrisand Burgh1941:PI.12a;(d,g,h,and i) Tan-
ner1976:Figs.
2.25b,2.27c,d,ande. Ceramic adaptedfrom:
designs (a,e,andi) Reedet
G-55,G-4,G-5;(b andf)Roberts
al. 1998:Figs. 15fand16c;(c)Morris
1929:Figs. 1939:
andLister
PI.203b;(h)Lister 1969:Fig. 8.

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 PERSPECTIVES
ON BASKETMAKER
CULTURAL
IDENTITIES 239

FIGURE2. Designs onBasketmaker flared-

rimcarryingbaskets.a) basketfromSouthTrail
Canyon, Canyon delMuerto, withtwo-color
oriented
vertically Plbmg designonbaseand
oriented
horizontally P'111design onrim;b)
basketfrom Pictograph Cave,Canyon delMuer-
to,withtwo-color oriented
vertically Pma'2'
designonbaseandhorizontally orientedP'112
designon rim;c) basketfrom Grand Gulch with
a colored oriented
vertically C2 designonbase
andhorizontallyorientedPlal design onrim.
Credits:
Figures2a andb adaptedfrom Morris
andBurgh 1941:Figs. 15aandb (UC4972and
UC2558),respectively; Figure2c redrawnby
LaurieWebster from Pepper 1902:8 andfield
sketch(AMNHH/13925).

b
symmetries arepresentin oursample(e.g.,p2,pg,pm,pmg,and thelatter
plbmg,
illustratedas thebase ofFigure2a), buttheyarerare.
Designscan also differin termsof theircolor.Froma symmetry perspec-
tive,ifa designis composedofdifferent elementsofdifferent colorsthatdo not
alternate,thedesignlackscolorsymmetry and is referred
to as a coloreddesign
3a). Incontrast,
(Figure iftworepeated
elements
ofa designarethesameshape,
in coloraroundtherotationalaxisor acrosstheline of reflection,
and alternate
thisdesignexhibits
colorsymmetry
andiscalleda two-color
design 3b,c).
(Figure
A prime(') symbolinthenotation(e.g.,D'I inFigure
id) indicates
theplace-
mentofthecolorreversals
within
a two-color These
design. colordistinctions
are
important,andarecritical
toourarguments inthepaper.
later

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240 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

a b b
FIGURE3. Examples ofcolored andtwo-color
designsonbaskets.
a) baskettraywitha
colored andcyclic
design C4 (?) symmetry.Designhastwocolors,
butelements retain
the
samecolorsequence;b) baskettraywitha two-color andC4' symmetry.
design Design
elementsshowcolorreversal; basket
c) carrying withtwo-color
designanddihedralD'1
symmetry.Designelementsexhibit mirror
reflection
andcolorreversal
acrossthevertical
axis.Credits: 3a andb adaptedfrom
Figures MorrisandBurgh 1941:Figs.16dand13g
(ASMA-21223andUC2454),respectively; Figure adaptedfrom
3c Tanner 1976:Fig.
2.25c(AMNH29.1/8440).

THE STUDY SAMPLE

THE BASKETSAMPLE
Our samplecontains68 completeor nearlycompleteBasketmaker II and Bas-
ketmaker III basketsfromWhiteDog Cave (Guernsey and Kidder1921),Broken
RoofCave (Guernsey1931),and KinbokoCave 1 (Kidderand Guernsey 1919) in
theKayentaarea,GrandGulch(Pepper1902),Canyondel Muerto(Morris1927;
Morrisand Burgh1941),and thePrayerRockDistrict (Morris1980; Morrisand
Burgh1941) (Table 1 on pages242-247, and Figure4). We groupedourbas-
ketsintothreeregions:Kayenta-Monument Valley,GrandGulch,and Canyondel
Muerto-Prayer Rock.We studieddesignson three basketforms:36 flatishcircular
trays,13 low open bowls, and 19 carryingbaskets. Some of the largercarrying
basketsarehat-shaped withflaringrims,and fiveofthesebasketsexhibitdifferent
symmetry structures on theirbasesand rims.One trayalso containstwodifferent
designs,bringing totalnumberofdesignsin oursampleto 74. We classified
the
ourdesignsymmetries usinga plan-viewperspective forthetraysand bowlsand
a side-viewperspective forthe carryingbaskets,as theywould havebeen seen
whenin use orwornon thebody.

Dating the BasketrySample

None of thebasketsin our samplehavebeen directly dated.Based on existing
for
interpretations these sites(e.g.,Gladwin1957:48-51; Matson1991; Morris
1980; Morrisand Burgh1941; Smiley1994), we tentatively considertheWhite
Dog Cave, BrokenRoof Cave, and Kinboko Cave 1 baskets
to date to earlyBasket-
makerII (500 B.C.-A.D.50)1,theBattleCave,Cave2, and possiblytheEastTrail
Canyonbasketsto date to earlyand/orlate Basketmaker II (ca. 500 B.C.-A.D.

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 PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER
CULTURALIDENTITIES 241

mDURANGO

Rock Piedra
S"

km 4i CNN
j

SMUERTO Shabikeschee

' Village ;

FIGURE 4. Locationsofsitesdiscussedinthestudy.Map adaptedfromReed2000: Fig.

1.1.

400), theGrandGulchand Tseahatsocollectionsto dateto lateBasketmaker II

and Basketmaker III (ca. A.D. 1-750), theObeliskCavebasketsto be earlyBas-
ketmaker III (ca. A.D. 400-600), and theMummyCave,Pictograph Cave,North
TrailCanyon,and SouthTrailCanyonbasketsto dateto Basketmaker III (ca. A.
D. 400-750).
EarlierscholarsobservedthatBasketmaker II designsare typically deco-
ratedonlyin one color,black(Morrisand Burgh1941:32,48; see also Guernsey
and Kidder1921:62). In our sample,thisblack-only patterncharacterizes all of
thebasketsfromWhiteDog Caveand KinbokoCave 1,somefromGrandGulch,
and twofromBattleCave,thelatterfoundtogether withan atlatl.Lackingdirect
dates,we tentatively assign most of the black-only baskets in oursampleto Bas-
ketmaker II. Our sample also contains at leasttwo exceptions to thisblack-only
pattern,a red and black decorated basket from Broken Roof Cave thatwas associ-
atedwithan atlatl,and anotherfromCave 2 in Canyondel Muertofoundwith
a Basketmaker II-stylesquare-toedsandal.We tentatively assignboth of these
basketsto lateBasketmaker II, ca. A.D. 1-400 or450.
Designswithcolorcharacterize Basketmaker III. The earliestdesignsare
"coloreddesigns,"in whichthemotifsareworkedin two colorsbut thecolors
do notalternate (see Figure3a). This,in itself, represents a significant
newdesign
(textcontinues
on page248)

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240 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

24j is
PI.
this this article
Ic, If, this also
1921:PI. 1921: 1921:PI 1921:PI.
1919:PI.
Ii, 13 H/13531 see
Figure Figure PI. 10; 15;
Kidder Kidder Kidder Kidder imagearticle
Figure
reference
also
and andalso and and Guernsey 1931: this
see(A3001)see(A3217) also 1902:8, 1902:8,
and 1g,
b; h; see published
Published
Guernsey
24a, Guernsey
article24c, Guernsey
article 23j; Kidder
Guernsey unpublished
Pepper
76h Guernsey No Pepper
Figure

H/13505,
H/13531
number H/13496
H/12279, H/13929
study. 16-9-10O/A3001,
16-9-10/A2788,
16-9-10/A3000
16-9-10/A2999
14-5-10/A1817
22-13-10/A5572

the
CatalogPM15-11-10/A2457
PMA3217PM PM PM PM H/12290,
AMNH AMNH
AMNH
H/13509,
in

designs Two-color
Symmetry

basket
74 Colored
design X X X

and
One
color X X X X X X

baskets +

Symmetry
class C4 D4 Pma2
D1 Pma2 Pma2 Pma2 Pma2 Pma2
P1ll

Basketmaker
No.
cases 2 2 1 1 1 1 5 1 1
68
area
the II II II II II II II-11 Il-I11
II-11I
of Period BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BMBM
Valley

1
attributes Cave Cave
Cave Cave Cave
Cave
Dog Dog Dog Dog Roof
Gulch
Gulch Gulch
Gulch

Symmetry SiteKayenta-Monument
White White WhiteWhiteKinboko,
Broken
Grand
Grand Grand
Grand
1.

TABLE
Basket
Trays
form

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 PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER
CULTURALIDENTITIES 241

14e 13g 13f

and is
Fig. also
Morris (1658);
29.1/1670 see29.1/1681
1941: 43b 1941:Figs.
1941:Figs. 43d1941:Figs.
12 19;14f 43a 29.1/1671
8, image 2622); 2454),article; image
reference Burgh Burgh Burgh this Burgh
2420); (UC (UC
1902:13
1902:8,
1902: 1927:Fig and
1941:Fig. 1927:Fig.
and and 3b, 1927:Fig.
and
(UC
published 25d 25g 20 published
unpublished unpublished
Published
PepperPepper
Pepper No Morris
Burgh Morris 26g Morris is Morris
Morris
and
unpublished and Figure
is Morris
Morris
andNo

UC UC

2622
numberH/13511
H/13507
H-12275 29.1/858+
29.1/3664 29.1/1658,
29.1/1671; 29.1/1681,29.1/1659
29.1/1672
29.1/4528
UC

CatalogAMNHAMNH AMNH
AMNH AMNH
AMNH 1670;
2420+AMNH AMNH
2454 AMNH
AMNH
AMNH

Two-color
X
Symmetry X X X X

Colored
design X X X X

One
color X X

class Pg'PmlPma'2'
Symmetry C3?Pma2 C3 C4 C4' C5 D'4 P'111

cases 1 1 1
No. 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 1

II-11I
II-11I
II-11 II? I1-111 I1-111 III II-I11
III III
Period BMBMBM BM
BMII BM BM BM BMBM BM

MuertoTrail
Cave Cave Cave Cave
Cave Cave
del East
Gulch
Gulch Gulch
Gulch 2 3,

Grand
SiteGrand Grand
GrandCanyon
Cave
Cave
Canyon Tseahatso Tseahatso Tseahatso
Tseahatso Tseahatso
Tseahatso

Basket
Trays
form

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240 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

25a 26b13a 13b 16d

this this
3a, b,
1
1919:PI.
1921: 1921:PI.
1941:Fig.
1941:Figs.
1941:Fig.1941:Figs.
1941:Figs.
Figure Figure
image Kidder Kidder image
also
referenceBurghBurgh
BurghBurghBurgh
see
also
and and
Guernsey
and andand and and see and
published 25f 25e 26c; published
24g;
Published
No Morris
Morris
and Morris
Morris and Morris
and PI.article
article Guernsey 24i Kidder
Guernsey 76mNo

(continued).
number29.1/1664350467
29.1/8907
350466
A-21223 baskets)
study 2557 16-9-10/A2948
16-9-10/A2906
15-11-10/A2262
22-13-10/A5574
UC USNM
CatalogAMNH AMNH USNMASM PM PM PM PM(both
the
in

X X
designsTwo-color
Symmetry X?

basket
74 Colored
design X X X

and
One
color X X X X

baskets

Symmetry C3'
class P112' C2 C3' C3 C4? C3 D4 Pma2 Pma2

Basketmaker
No.
cases 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 2
68
the III III III III III III II II II II
of Period BMBM BMBM BM BM BM BM BM BM

1
attributes District
MuertoCave Cave
Cave Cave
Cave Cave
del Cave
Cave Cave Cave area Roof
Rock Dog Dog

SiteCanyon
Symmetry Pictograph
TseahatsoObelisk
Prayer Obelisk
Obelisk White WhiteKinboko,
Obelisk Kayenta Broken
1.

TABLE
Basket
form
Trays Bowls

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 PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER
CULTURALIDENTITIES 241

16b 16e
Mor-
19;26e
8, 1921:PI.
1921:PI.
1941:Figs.
42a42b 1941:Figs.
cover,
image image
1941:Fig, image Kidder
Kidder
reference Burgh Burgh
h, b and and
1902:
Burgh and 1927:Fig. and
1927:Fig.
23g,
and published
published
published 23a,

Publishedris No
Pepper No No Morris Morris Morris
and Morris and 24eGuernsey
Guernsey
24f

1712

number H-12274
H/12288 29.1/8611 29.1/ 350465
29.1/861429.1/1660+
2553 16-9-10/A2998
16-9-10/A2942
CatalogAMNHAMNHAMNH AMNH USNM PM PM
UC AMNH
AMNH

Two-color
Symmetry
X

Colored
design X

One
color X X X X X X X X

Symmetry
class D'2 Pma2 C4 Pma2
C3 C3 Pma2 C4 Base
Pm11*
Base
Pma2*

No.
cases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

III 11-I111 III

II-11I II II Il-11I II-11I II II
Period BM BM BM BMBM BMBM BM BM BM

Muerto District Cave Cave

Cave Cave
Cave
del Cave area
GulchGulch Cave
Gulch Cave Rock Dog Dog

SiteGrand Canyon
GrandGrand Battle
Battle Tseahatso
Tseahatso
Tseahatso
Prayer Kayenta
Obelisk WhiteWhite

Basket
form
Bowls Carry-
baskets
ing

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240 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

Figure
also
see
image image image imageimage
reference
article
1902:8;
published published published this published
published
Published
No No No Pepper
2c, No No

(continued).
number H/13925H/12264
H/13493 H/12291 H/13494, H/13492
study
the
CatalogAMNH AMNH 13495AMNH AMNH
AMNH AMNH
in

designsTwo-color
Symmetry

basket
74 Colored
design X X X X

and
One
color X X

baskets rim rim unk,

rim C2,rim only rim

Symmetry
class Base
Pma2,P1llBase
Pma2,
flared Pma2, PillBase
flared Pill Base
flared P1alBase
flared Base
Pma2 Pma2,
flared
unk

Basketmaker
No.
cases 1 1 2 1 1 1
68
the I-111 Il-I11 II-11 I1-111 I1-111II-I11
of Period BM BM BM BM BM BM

attributes
Gulch
Gulch Gulch Gulch Gulch GulchGulch

Grand
SiteGrand
Symmetry Grand Grand Grand GrandGrand
1.

TABLE
Basket ing
baskets
Carry-
form

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 ON BASKETMAKER
PERSPECTIVES CULTURALIDENTITIES 241

25b 16c 15a 15b

this
Figs.
this Figure
2a, Peabody
also also =
see(8440),1941:Fig. 1941:Figs.
1941:Figs. 1941:Figs.
Figure 1941:Fig.
see PM
image 3c image also
reference Burgh and Burgh
28i-n; BurghBurgh
h
Burgh
see Institution
and
and and and and and article Museum;
published (8441) 28g, 29i;
published frontispiece;
this
Published
No 14a-d
Morris
1darticle
Morris
No Morris articleMorris
and Morris
and and
2b,
Colorado
ofSmithsonian

8443 History,
(miniature) University
number 29.1/8440,
29.1/1581 29.1/1711 =
2645 2340 4972 2558 UCNatural
of
CatalogAMNHAMNH UC UC UC
8441,8442, AMNH UC

Museum;
Museum
State
Two-color
Symmetry X X X X
National
Arizona
the
=
Colored
design X X
now
ASM
One
color X etc.)
Museum,
History;
*,rim rim
1 only
only only only only spacing,
Symmetry PmlBase
class Rim D'1 Rim
PillRim Base
Pma2 Base
Pm'a2'P'bmg
flared Base
P'111 Pma'2'*,
flared
P'112 Natural
National
of
variable
States
No.
cases 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 motifs,
Museum
United
III III III III III III III (extra =
Period BM BM BM BM BM BM BM
American
= USNM
Trail
Muerto Canyon Cave Irregularities
Cave Cave + AMNH
del Cave Cave North University;
2, Trail key:

SiteCanyon Mummy Tseahatso

Mummy Cave
Tseahatso South
Canyon Pictograph oriented;
Harvard
number

Basket
form ing
baskets
Carry- Vertically
* Museum,
Catalog

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248 DOROTHY K. WASHBURNAND LAURIED. WEBSTER

(textcontinued page241)
from
treatment.TheBasketmaker III periodalso witnessed
theappearanceoftrue"two
color"designs,thatis,designswithmotifsofthesameshapethatalso alternate
in color(Figure3b,c). The additionofcolorand especiallytheuse oftwo-color
symmetry representa new levelofcomplexity and sophisticationin design.We
assignthecoloreddesignsin our sampleto late Basketmaker
tentatively II and
Basketmaker III, and thetwo-colordesignsto Basketmaker III. Directdatingof
thesebasketsor betterdatingofthesesitesis neededto further refinethischro-
nology.

The Ceramic Sample

The optimumtestfordetermining iftheceramicdesignswerecopiesof basket
designswould be to comparebasketand ceramicdesignsfromthesame sites
in situationsof stratigraphic contemporaneity or superposition. Unfortunately,
theonlyBasketmaker collectionswe foundwithsufficiently completeexamples
ofbothdecoratedbasketsand pottery werefromtheCanyondel Muerto/Prayer
rockarea.Decoratedceramicsdid notbecomeprevalent in thenorthern South-
westuntilrelatively latein theBasketmaker sequence.Furthermore, most Basket-
makerIII ceramicscomefromopen settings whereunburnedperishables arenot
preserved. In orderto broadenoursampleof lateBasketmaker ceramicdesigns,
we added samplesof contemporaneous black-on-white ceramicsfromadjacent
areasoftheFourComersregion(Table2 and Figure4).
Froma symmetry consideration, thegeographical distribution oftheearly
black-on-white warethatMorris(1927) consideredto be derivedfromBasket-
makerdesigns-variously typedas Chapin Black-on-white, La Plata Black-on-
white,and Lino Black-on-gray-occurs widelythroughout San JuanBasin.
the
Specifically,the earliestLino Black-on-gray ceramicvesselsfromCanyondel
Muertoassociatedwiththebasketsin oursample(i.e.,vesselsAMNH29.1/1692
fromTseahatsoCavewitha pma2design,AMNH29.1/914fromCave 1 witha C2
design,andAMNH29.1/8587fromAntelopeCavewitha C2 design)displaythe
samekindsofdesignsand symmetries as foundinthelargerceramicsamplefrom
sitesadjacentto thethreebasketstudyareas.As we will demonstrate, thesame
regionthatproducedthemostcomplextwo-color basketdesignsalso produced
simpleand rudimentary black-on-white potterydesigns,whichdo notappearto
be derivedfromthesophisticated two-color basketdesignsystem.
The symmetries of 227 bowlswererecordedforthestudy(Table2). Our
ceramicsamplecomesprimarily fromearlyexpeditions to northern NewMexico
and southern Colorado:MittenRocksite14 (Morris1939),Shabik'eschee village
in Chaco Canyon(Roberts1929),LA2501and LA80422 in thesouthern Chuska
Valley(Reedetal. 1998),Morrissites19,22, and 24 alongtheLa PlataRiver(Mor-
ris1939), and sitesin theDurangoarea(Carlson1963; Flora1941;and Gooding
1980), theNavajo Reservoir area (Eddy 1966), and thePiedradistrict (Roberts

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 CULTURALIDENTITIES
PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER 249

of the 228 ceramicdesignsinthe study.

attributes
TABLE 2. Symmetry

Rock
Prayer Piedra
MittenRock, District/ Durango
Sym- Canyon
del Shabik'-Navajo area(Animas
metryMuerto, La Plata eschee ReservoirValley,
Blue
class Chuskaarea Valley Village area Mesa,Ignacio) Total %
Finite
C1 2 1 6 9 4.0%
C2 17 11 9 8 37 82 36.1%
C3 2 3 4 9 4.0%
C4 2 4 6 2.6%
C6 2 2 0.9%
D1 3 3 1.3%
D2 1 4 9 45 59 26.0%
D3 1 1 3 5 2.2%
D4 1 11 12 5.3%
D5 4 4 1.8%
D6 3 3 1.3%
TotalFinite
20 19 12 21 122 194 85.5%

One-dimensional
Pill 5 5 2.2%
Pml1 1 1 3 5 2.2%
P112 1 1 0.4%
Pma2 2 2 2 10 16 7.1%
Plml 1 1 0.4%
Totalone-dimensional
2 3 1 4 18 128 112.3%
Two-dimensional
P2 2 2 0.9%
Pmg 3 3 1.3%
Totaltwo-dimensional
o 0o 0o o5 I5 I 2.2%
Total 22 22 13 25 145 227 100.0%

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250 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

1930) (Figure4). We limitedour ceramicsampleto one form,bowls,because

thiswas theprevailing ceramicformused in theregionduringBasketmaker III
and also providesthemostanalogousdesignfieldto thebasketry bowls.Aswith
thebaskets,we onlyincludeddecoratedpottery vesselsin our samplethatwere
sufficientlycompleteto enableclassification
ofthedesignstructure.
WhentheBasketmaker complexwas first defined,ceramicswereknownto
be associatedonlywithlate Basketmaker complexes.Morerecently, archaeolo-
gistshave founddecorated brownware pottery datingto ca. A.D. 550 (Reed et
al. 2000:209-211;see also Gladwin1957:42-43). Unfortunately, wholevessels
of thisearlytypeare so rarethatwe cannotyetstudytheirdesignsymmetries.
Although thesymmetry and colorofa designon one brownware bowlfromObe-
liskCave (Morris1980: Fig 30e) resemblelaterAbajo wares,thisis a separate
issuefromthebasket-to-whiteware transition.

SYMMETRYAND COLOR ANALYSISOF BASKETMAKER

BASKETSAND CERAMICS
II AND BASKETMAKER
BASKETMAKER III BASKETDESIGN
Ouranalysisindicatesthatno unifieddesignsystem characterizedtheentirespan
of Basketmaker II and Basketmaker III. In fact,we observe(a) a lackof internal
homogeneity in some locationallydiscreteassemblages;and (b) differences in
designstructures and color symmetries betweenregions.Basketmaker andII III
basketdesignsdiffer in severalkeyfeatures.
Figures5 and 6 showthecolorand designsymmetries ofoursampleofbas-
ketsfromtheKayenta-Monument Valley,GrandGulch,and Canyondel Muerto-
PrayerRockregions.The early(BM II) Kayenta-Monument Valleyassemblageis
dominatedbyblack-only baskets,whereastheGrandGulchassemblage(lateBM
II-BMIII) containsnearlyequal proportions ofblack-only and coloredexamples.
Nearlyall of our two-colorbasketry designscome fromtheeasternpartof the
studyarea at Canyondel Muertoand the PrayerRockDistrict(late BM II-BM
III), wheretheuse ofelaboratetwo-color symmetries, especiallyon thelargehat-
shapedcarrying baskets withflared rims, became a highlydevelopedart(Figure
2a, b). The only true two-color baskets in our samplefromthewestern partofthe
study area aretwo basket traysand a basket bowl from Grand Gulch, witha
one
simpletwo-dimensional (pg')pattern ofopposedduckmotifs, one witha simple
zigzag(pma'2')design,and one witha morecomplexfinite D'2 design.Although
mostoftheGrandGulchflared-rim carrying basketshavecoloreddesigns,they
do notexhibittwo-color symmetry (e.g.,Figure2c).
In termsof theiraxial arrangements, Basketmaker II basketpatternsare
dominatedbytwodistinct axialcategories-finite and banddesigns.Asshownin
table1 and Figure5a,theone color(black-only) Basketmaker II assemblagefrom

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 CULTURAL
ON BASKETMAKER
PERSPECTIVES IDENTITIES 251

distributionof designs on 15 Kayentaand MonumentValleybaskets

Symmetry
by coloringsystem.

II 6

5
O Two-color
a
4- 4 0 Colored
O
I Blackonly
E 3

0
C2 C3 C4 D1 D2 D3 D4 pill p112 pma2 pmll pg

Symmetryclass

distribution
FIGURE5A. Symmetry ofdesigns
bycoloring
system. andMonu-
Kayenta
mentValley.

distributionof designs on 19 GrandGulchbaskets by coloringsystem.

Symmetry

14

12

N 10
N0II

3 Two-color
E Colored
MBlackonly

C2 C3 C4 D1 D2 D3 D4 p111 p112 plal pma2 pmll pg

class
Symmetry

FIGURE5B. Symmetry
distribution
ofdesigns
bycoloring Grand
system. Gulch.

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252 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

distributionof designs on 29 Canyondel Muertoand 5 PrayerRock

Symmetry
baskets by coloringsystem.

5-
-o
M Two-color

0 4 Colored
i N Black only

FIGURE5C. Symmetrydistribution
ofdesigns
bycoloring
system. delMuerto
Canyon
andthePrayer
RockDistrict.

distributionof designs on 15 Kayentaand MonumentValleybaskets

Symmetry
by basket form.

N
EBlack-only trays
0 Coloredtrays
4I MBlack only bowls
0o L Black-only baskets
carrying
33
E
z
-
2

0
C2 C3 C4 D1 D2 D3 D4 pill p112 pma2 pmll pg
class
Symmetry

FIGURE6A. Symmetry
distribution bybasket
ofdesigns form. andMonument
Kayenta
Valley.

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 PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER
CULTURALIDENTITIES 253

distribution
Symmetry of designs on 19 GrandGulchbaskets by
basketform.

14

12
N
N
o10 0 Black-only
trays
IA F2Coloredtrays
8 ElTwo-colortrays
C ESBlack-onlybowls
4, 6 f Two-colorbowls
.0 0 Black-only baskets
carrying
E 4 OlColoredcarrying
baskets
z
2

0 0 0
0-
,z ~ ~6 ~ a o
'
~g
class
Symmetry

ofdesignsbybasketform.GrandGulch.
distribution
FIGURE 6B. Symmetry

theKayentasiteofWhiteDog Cavecontainsexamplesofbothone-dimensional
(pma2)andfinite(C3, C4,D1, andD4) designs.Theblack-only assemblages from
Canyondel Muertoand thePrayerRockDistrictalso containone-dimensional
(pmll and pma2)as well as finite(C3 and C4) designs(Figure5c). In contrast,
theblack-only assemblagefromGrandGulchcontainsonlyone-dimensional de-
signs(pma2,p111,and pmll) (Figure5b). Ifwe arecorrect in ourassumptionthat
all or mostoftheseblack-only basketsdateto Basketmaker II, thentheprincipal
symmetry system widelysharedacrosstheentireBasketmaker II landscapeis the
simple,one-dimensional zigzagdesign,pma2.
By Basketmaker III, basketdesignsat GrandGulch,Canyondel Muerto,
and thePrayer RockDistrict wereincreasinglyhomogeneouswithineach region
in termsof theirmotifcomplexity, symmetrical layout,and coloring.Butstill
therewereregionaldifferences. Exceptforone basketbowl withD'2 symmetry
and the base of a carrying basketwithC2 symmetry, basketmakersin Grand
Gulchdecoratedtheirbasketswithone-dimensional designsregardless of form
(Figure6b). In contrast,basketmakersin CanyondelMuertoandthePrayer Rock
Districtpreferred cyclicdesigns(C3 and C4) on theirtraysand bowls,and either
dihedral(D'1) designson thebasesorone-dimensional (p111,p112,pmll,pma2)
designson thebasesand rimsoftheircarrying baskets(Figure6c).
The fullgloryof thecoloredand two-colordesignsis expressedon three

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254 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

distributionof designs on 29 Canyondel Muertoand

Symmetry
5 PrayerRockbaskets by basket form.

8
M7
66
5
0 Black-only
trays
Coloredtrays
IA [2
[3Two-colortrays
MBlack-onlybowls

0 N P Coloredbowls
E
Z 2
S Black-only
carryingbaskets
OLColoredcarryingbaskets
E Two-colorcarryingbaskets

class
Symmetry

distribution
FIGURE6C. Symmetry ofdesigns
bybasket
form. delMuerto
Canyon and
RockDistrict.
thePrayer

Basketmaker III carrying basketsfromCanyondel Muertoand sevenfromGrand

Gulch(Figure2). Theselargehat-shaped basketswithflaring rimshavetwozones
of decoration, one on theconicalbase and theotheraroundtherim.Regional
differencesarefoundin layout.Nearlyall theGrandGulchbase designsarear-
rangedhorizontally (theone we illustrate in Figure2c is an exception),
whereas
thosefromCanyondel Muertoarearranged Moreover,
vertically. althoughvirtu-
allyall GrandGulchbasketrimdesignsmovein one-dimensional panels,only
one of the Canyondel Muertocarrying basketrimdesignsexhibitsa paneled
design.Perhapsmostimportantly, althoughmostcarrying basketdesignsfrom
both regionsare workedin black and red,the designelementson the Grand
Gulchbasketsdo notalternate in color("coloreddesigns"),whereasthosefrom
CanyonDel Muertoexhibittruetwo-color symmetry ("two-color designs").
Furthermore, thediversity in theCanyondel Muertoassemblageseemsto
reflectexperimentation in layout,withsimilarkindsof coloredand two-color
arrangements appearingin different layoutpositionson different basketforms.
Indeed,severalbasketsfromTseahatsoCaveand Pictograph Cavedo notdisplay
a perfectalternation of shape and color (e.g.,UC 2420, UC 2557, and AMNH
29.1/1660). These examplesaresignificant becausetheymayrepresent theprod-

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 PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER
CULTURALIDENTITIES 255

uctsoflocal individuals who attempted to copynewdesignsystems brought into

thearea.In ourpresentbasketsample,thishighlysophisticated two-color design
systemis restrictedto sitesin theCanyondel Muerto-Prayer Rockregion.
Indeed,we observethatthecomplexity ofmotifs, motifalteration,
color-
ing,and designsymmetry arrangements foundon manybaskets-thecarrying
basketsfromCanyondel Muerto,foursmall,flat-bottomed carryingbaskets
fromMummyCave,severaltraysfromTseahatsoand ObeliskCave,and a bas-
ketrybowl fromGrandGulch-are strikingly similarto thetwo-colordesigns
decorating Basketmaker III twined sandal soles, aprons,and tumplinesfrom
sitesin Canyondel Muertoand thePrayerRockDistrict(see Hays-Gilpin et al.
1998). The fact thattwo-color also
symmetry appears on some simplypatterned
Basketmaker II twinedbags (but notbaskets)fromtheKayentaregion(Guern-
seyand Kidder1921:Pls.26, 28) indicatesthattheuse of two-colorsymmetry
was not entirely confinedto Basketmaker III or to theCanyondel Muertoand
PrayerRockareas.The importantpoint,however,is thatall of thesedesigns
differconsiderably in theirsymmetry and coloringfromthe earliestblack-on-
whiteceramicdesigns.

BasketmakerIII Ceramic Design

Table2 and Figure7 showthesymmetry distributionoftheceramicsin oursam-
ple.Earlywhitewarewaspredominantly decoratedbyfinite designs,withC2 and
D2 symmetries themostcommondesignstructures. Oftenthesefinite designsare
composedarounda centralpointin thecenterbase of a steep-sided bowl.This
pointofrotationis oftenonlyimplied,as in Figurela, inwhichtwocurvedunits
pendantfromtherimappearto rotatearoundan unmarkedcenterpoint,pro-
ducinga C2 design,and in Figureic, wherefourunitsarependantfromtherim
and rotatearoundan unmarkedcenter, producing a C4 design.In otherdesigns,
smallcirclesin thecenterbase appearas anchorsforbandsofmotifsthatextend
fromtherimto thecenter, as in Figureib, a C3 design,or throughwhichmirror
reflection
linespass,as in Figurele, a D2 design.The motifsarranged bythese
are
symmetries composed ofsmall and numerous elements in
opposed rotation
or reflection
thathangfromtherimlineor are"suspended"midairon thevessel
wall,backgrounded bymuchemptyspace(Figurela, c,e). Othermotifsspanthe
distance therimtothecenter
from base(Figure
1f).Themotif is lim-
repertoire
ited,consisting of "fringed"
principally lines,dottedareasenclosedbylines,and
solidtriangles
attached
tozigzagsorstepped
lineseries.
Oftenthesamedesigns
on
appear pottery froma of
number different In
sites. the
short, earliest
black-on-
whiteceramicdesigns a
displayhighlyhomogeneous designsystem isfound
that
throughout theSan JuanBasin,suggestingthattheSan Juanitselfand adjacent
tributaries
and associatedarablelandsplayedan important
rolein thespreadof
theseearlyfarmingpeoplesand thusin thehomogeneity oftheceramicdesign
system.

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256 DOROTHYK.WASHBURN
AND LAURIED. WEBSTER

Distributionof designs on 227 BasketmakerIII Black-on-white

Symmetry
ceramicbowls.

90
80

70
N
O PrayerRock,MittenRock,Canyon
II 60 del Muerto,Chuskaarea
1 La PlataValley

2rShabik'escheeVillage
40

30 01PiedraDistrict/Navajo
Reservoir
area

Z 20- 2 N Durangoarea (AnimasValley,Blue

Mesa, Ignacio)

class
Symmetry

distribution
FIGURE7. Symmetry ofdesigns IIIblack-on-white
onBasketmaker ceramic
bowls.

RelationshipsBetween BasketmakerIII
Basketand Ceramic Design
Thus far we haveexamined thenatureofBasketmaker II and Basketmaker III bas-
ketrydesignsand theearliestblack-on-white ceramicdesignsfromtheperspec-
tiveof structuralanalysis.We now revisitthewidelyheld belief,first proposed
by Morris(1927) in his overviewof earlyAnasazipottery, and reiterated again
byMorrisand Burgh(1941:31,48), thatthedesignson theearliestpottery in the
northern Southwest werecopiedfrombasketdesigns.Morerecently, Hays-Gilpin
(Hays 1992; Hays-Gilpin et al. 1998; Robinsand Hays-Gilpin 2000:244) has ex-
aminedthisquestionfromthepointofviewof motifsimilarity and concluded
thatwhereasBasketmaker ceramicdesignsare not "directcopies"of basketde-
signs,as Morrisand Burghoriginally claimed,theyarehighlysimplified, reduced
versions(see also Ortman2000).
Based on the resultsof our study,althoughwe concurwithMorrisand
Burghand Hays-Gilpin thatsome designelementsare shared,we would argue
thatBasketmaker basketweaversand pottersused different symmetricallayouts
and coloringsystems to decoratetheirbasketry and ceramiccontainers, and that
thisdifferencehas important implicationsfortheoriginsofthegroupswho made

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 PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER
CULTURALIDENTITIES 257

theseearlybasketsand ceramics. Whenwe contrast thestructural systems ofBas-

ketmaker basketand ceramicdesigns(i.e.,theuse offiniteand one-and two-di-
mensionalsystems forthetwomedia),we findtwodramatically different design
systems in use (Figure8a). First, theaxialsystems aredifferent.Whereasonly12
percentoftheearliestblack-on-white ceramicsin oursampleexhibituse ofone-
dimensionaldesigns,focusingespeciallyon pma2zigzagsymmetry, 54 percent
ofour Basketmaker basketdesignsareorganizedas one-dimensional bands.Al-
though some of thisdifference can be attributed to the predominance ofpma2
symmetry in the black-only baskets of Basketmaker II,pma2persists as an impor-
tantbasketsymmetry wellintoBasketmaker III forall colorsystems (Figure8a).
In addition,morethan85 percentoftheceramicdesignsarefinite, comparedto
43 percentofthebasketdesignswhenall colorsystems arecombined.
Ifwe limitour analysisto designson a commoncontainerform-bowls
and trays-wealso findlayoutdifferences. The designson theceramicbowlsare
pendentfromthe rimand usuallylackbandinglinesin thebase,whereasthe
designson thelow basketbowlsand traystypically arearranged in finiteangled
swirlsthatextendbetweenbandinglinesaroundthebase and rim(Figure1).
Althoughsmallcirclesappearin thecenterbottomofsome pottery bowls,they
arerarely usedas pointsforanchoring thedesigns,as is thecasewiththebasketry
traysand bowls.Froma symmetry perspective, whereasboththepottery and bas-
ketsfromthe PrayerRockDistrictand Canyondel Muertoare decoratedwith
finitecyclicdesigns,theceramicbowlsareoverwhelmingly organizedbyC2 sym-
metry (Figure7), whereas the vast majority of basket tray bowlsarebasedon
and
C3 and C4 symmetries (Figure6c). Only one basket tray(and no basketbowls)
fromour Canyondel Muerto/Prayer Rocksampleuses C2 symmetry. Thus,the
only real commonalities between the ceramic bowl designs and the basket bowl
and traydesignsfromthePrayerRockDistrictand Canyondel Muertoare the
basic cycliclayoutand the use of a fewcommonelements,such as "fringed"
triangles.Thesesymmetry differences areevenmorepronouncedifwe disregard
the black-onlyBasketmaker II basketsand comparetherelativesymmetries of
justthecoloredand two-color basketswiththeblack-on-white ceramicdesigns
fromall regions(Figure8b).
Anotherdifference involvesthecolorsymmetry ofthesedesigns.Whereas
theearliestblack-on-white ceramicdesignsareonlyone color,thatis,blackmo-
tifspaintedon a grayto whiteclaysurface, nearlyall ofwhatwe interpret as late
Basketmaker II and Basketmaker III basketdesignsare decoratedwithtwocol-
ors-eitheras truetwo-colored designs(45%), wherethesame motifsalternate
in different colors,or as colored designs(55%), wheretwocolorsareused in the
design but do not alternate.Although a secondcolor,fugitive red,is foundon the
exteriors ofsomeearlyblack-on-white ceramics, itwas neverusedto createblack
and redmotifson theinteriors, ifindeedthiswas technologically possible.
In sum,theseearlysimplefiniteBM III ceramicdesignscontrast markedly

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258 DOROTHY K. WASHBURNAND LAURIED. WEBSTER

of designs on all classes of Basketmakerbaskets and

Relativesymmetry
ceramicsin sample.

--------------
60%
50%

40%

0 Blackonlybaskets
ElColoredbaskets
30%
O Two-colorbaskets
ceramic!
F2Black-on-white
20%

10%

0%

class
Symmetry

FIGURE8A. Relative ofdesigns

symmetry onallclassesofBasketmaker
baskets
and
insample.
ceramics

of designs on colored and two-color baskets vs. black-on-

Relativesymmetry
whiteceramicbowls.
40%

35%

30%

25%

0 Colored
andtwo-
20% colorbaskets
92Black-on-white
15% ceramics

10% . . . . .

5%
u
f"1) U U U 0
0EI
f"0 0A
m f
CLCL-4 E
a CL 06 C

class
Symmetry

FIGURE8B. Relative ofdesigns

symmetry oncolored
andtwo-color vs.black-
baskets
on-white
ceramicbowls.

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 CULTURALIDENTITIES
PERSPECTIVESON BASKETMAKER 259

withthecomplex banded andcoloring

designs systemsonBMIIIbasketry trays
andtherimbandsofcarrying baskets
from Canyon Muerto
del andthePrayer
Rock aswellasthesandals,
District, aprons, andtumpline from
straps thesesame
sites.
Thesebasketry andtextile
designstypifya coloredandtwo-color Basket-
maker designsystem tobeunique
thatappears totheFourCorners region,2one
notreported from BasketmakercavesintheDurango, Grand Gulch, orKanab
Wemakemuch
areas. ofthese
differences
incoloringsystemsbecauseitrequires
a certain of and to a
degree sophisticationplanningproducedesign consis-that
tentlyalternates
inbothshapeandcolor. Theelaborate two-colorsystemthat
thebasket
characterizes andlarge
trays carrying baskets
oftheBasketmaker III
period wasdearly notthemodelforthedesigns oftheearliest
black-on-white
painted ceramicsintheSanJuan Basin.Although thesymmetry ofa design on
a brownware bowlfrom ObeliskCave(Morris 30e)andmotifs
1980:Fig. on
sherds oftherecentlyidentified
brownware Tohatchi
type, Red-on-brown (Reed
etal.2000),resemble someoftheearlyblack-only andcoloredtraysandbowls
from theCanyon delMuerto, Rock,
Prayer andKayenta a larger
regions, sample
ofcomplete decorated brownwarevesselsandbetterdatesforthesebaskets are
needed tofullyexplorethese
relationships.
CONCLUSIONS
From
ourexamination
ofthedifferent
design usedtodecorate
systems Basket-
makerII and Basketmaker
III basketsand Basketmaker
III pottery,
we suggest
thatthedevelopment ofearly intheU.S.Southwest
societies
agricultural was
nota wholly indigenous but
process ratherone involvinga number ofdiffer-
entpeoples moving intothearea,eachcharacterizedbytheir ownbasicdesign
system.Thesymmetry andcoloringdifferences
between assemblages that
suggest
multiplegroups ofvarying andsocialandpolitical
ancestry, were
organization,
theresources
exploiting ina number ofdifferent
environmental zonesalongand
adjacenttotheSanJuan River.
Wefollow earlierresearchers
(e.g.,Matson1991;
Morris andBurgh 1941)intracing someaspects oftheBasketmaker to
lifeway
regionswellbeyond theclassic
FourCorners homeland, andsuggest thatthese
different
designassemblages andcolorsymmetries mightreflectthefootprints
of
different
groupsmoving ontotheColorado Plateau.
In thisstudy,wehaverevisited pastideasregardingthein-situdevelop-
ment ofdesign evolution intheSouthwest witha newanalytical approachand
hypothesisof how culturalgroupsare marked bydesign structures.
From this
we
perspective,suggest thatwhereas some of thesedeveloping agriculturalists
werelongterm inhabitants-such asthose decoratingtheir
baskets with
theearly
andwidespread one-dimensionalpma2 zigzagpatternthatoccurs atallBasket-
maker inoursample-others
IIsites wereimmigrants fromregions more distant
fromtheFourCornersarea.Wespecifically thattheelaboratecoloredand
suggest
two-color
symmetry
systems appearingon thebeautiful
Basketmaker III basketry

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260 DOROTHY K. WASHBURNAND LAURIED. WEBSTER

trays,carryingbaskets,sandals,tumplines, and apronsfromCanyondel Muerto

and the PrayerRockDistrictmighthave extra-regional sourcesextending well
beyondthe areasimmediately adjacentto the FourComers.Whereassome of
the simplercoloreddesignsdearlyevolvedfromtheirblack-only predecessors,
the moreelaboratecoloredand two-colored designsseem to appearsuddenly
andwithoutprecedent intheFourComersas partofa highlycomplex,internally
consistentdesignsystemappliedto a variety ofperishablemedia,one thatdoes
notappearto reflect thebeginning stagesof an evolvingdesignsystem and con-
trastssharplywiththerudimentary and nascentdesignsystemof simplefinite
C2 and D2 designsfoundon theearliestblack-on-white ceramics.We notethat
theseelaboratecoloringsystems and thetwo-dimensional designsfoundon the
baskets,twinedsandals,and tumpbandsarenottheonlyinstanceof non-local
designsin thearea.Washburn(2006) has notedanothernon-localtwo-dimen-
sionaldesignsystem on PuebloI Abajo Red-on-orange ceramics.
Kidderand Guemsey(1919) observedgeneralsimilarities amongthema-
terialcultureof Basketmaker II and areasas distantas Californiaand northern
Mexico.Theirobservation that"thebasketry bearsa strongresemblance to that
ofCalifornia.. ." (1919:210)is reinforced by thesubstantial of
quantities Pacific
coastshell,especiallyabalone,foundin Basketmaker II assemblages, indicating
strongtieswiththewest.AtWhiteDog Cave,theyfoundtwobasketbowlswith
residue,suggesting thebasketsmighthavebeenusedto boil food(Guemseyand
Kidder1921:61),a California practice. Kidderand Guernsey (1921:62) concluded
thatthebasket"artas a whole seemsto finditsnearestparallelin thatof the
centraland northern Californiatribes.In technic. .. thebasketsmostclosely
resemblethoseof the Paiute."Lookingtowardthe south,theynotedthatthe
cavesof Coahuila in northern Mexicoalso producedatlatlsand some textiles
analogous to Basketmaker examples(Kidderand Guernsey1919:211;Guernsey
and Kidder1921:65).Indeed,manyitemsof materialculturein Basketmaker II
assemblages have analogues in both the Great Basin and northern Mexican cul-
tures,suggesting a widespreadhuntingand gathering cultureadaptedto a semi-
aridplateauenvironment. Matson(1991, 2001) has arguedthatthiscommon
culturespreadthroughout theregionata veryearlydate,and identifies migration
as a primary mechanismforthe northern spreadof agriculture duringBasket-
makerII. Our studysuggeststhatthesepopulationmovements continuedwell
intoBasketmaker III.
Thus far,the closestparallelswe have foundto the elaboratetwo-color
Basketmaker III designsaretheones used to decorateEarlyFormative Loma or
Chalchihuites twined(?) textilebands fromDurango,Mexico(Foster2000:Fig.
12.10), and some undated,but probablyearly,looped textilesfromCoahuila,
closetotheDurangoborder(Taylor1948:Pl.1;Johnson1977:99-101).Although
theydifferfromthe Basketmaker designsin theirspecificmotifs,manyof the

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 ON BASKETMAKER
PERSPECTIVES CULTURAL
IDENTITIES 261

decoratedtextilesfromnorthernMexicoareespeciallysimilarin havingmotifs
withcolorchangesacrossmirror lines,likethebasketdesignillustrated
reflection
in Figure3c. TheseDurangoand Coahuila designsexhibittruetwo-colorsym-
metry,and as notedbyWalterTaylor(1948:160), differ considerablyfromthe
one-colordesignsfoundon the Basketmaker II basketsfromWhiteDog Cave.
Thesecomplextwo-color designsmayexemplify thekindsofdesignassemblages
thataccompaniedthespreadofsouthernideasorpeoplesintotheFourComers
regionin theearlycenturies
ofthefirst
millennium A.D.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
WethankLoriPendletonandAnibalRodriguez oftheDepartment ofAnthropol-
ogyoftheAmerican MuseumofNaturalHistory fortheirvaluableassistancewith
theGrandGulch,Canyondel Muerto,and Prayer Rockcollections.A versionof
thispaperwas originally
presentedin 2003 at the 68thAnnual Meetingof the
for
Society American Archaeologyin Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

NOTES
1. Recent
AMSdatesbyJoanColtrain (personalcommunication) onbonecollagen
from
extracted 30 burials
from White DogCave,Kinboko Canyon Cave1,Sayod-
Cave,andtwoother
neechee BMII cavesintheMarsh Passareaproduceda date
of
range 499 B.C.-A.D.
53 at2 The
sigma. range fortheoldestdatedburial
from
WhiteDogCave was481-202 B .C.,andforthe was
youngest 389-174B.C.The
for
range theoldest
from Kinboko Cave 1 was396-200B.C.,and for
theyoung-
estwas 172 B.C.-A.D.51.We aregrateful to Coltrainand herco-researchers, Joel
Janetskiand Shawn W. for
Carlyle, allowingus to citetheirunpublishedfindings.
An articlebytheseauthors,"Stableand Radio-isotope Chemistry ofWestemBas-
ketmaker Burials:Implications forEarlyPuebloanDietsand Origins," is currently
underreviewforAmerican Antiquity.
2. Giventhatnumerouscarbonizedand a fewunburnedexamplesoffinely twined
sandalsand otherperishables areknownfromBasketmaker III and PuebloI sites
in theTsegi,Chinle,La Plata,and Doloresdrainages, theeasternslope ofthe
ChuskaMountains, MesaVerde,and severalotherareasoftheFourComersregion
et al. 1998: tables 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4), itis likelythatthegroupsof
(see Hays-Gilpin
people who made thesecomplexcoloredand two-colored designsonceextended
wellbeyondCanyonde Chelly/del Muertoand thePrayer RockDistrict intonorth-
easternArizona,northwestern New Mexico,southeastern Utah,and southwestern
Colorado.In thisarticle,we consideronlybasketdesigns.To determine theextent
and spreadofthiscomplexdesignsystem, a comprehensive survey ofall Basket-
makerdecoratedperishables is needed.

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262 DOROTHY K. WASHBURNAND LAURIED. WEBSTER

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DOROTHY K. WASHBURN
inAnthropology
BureauofAppliedResearch
ofAnthropology,
Department ofArizona
University
dkwashbum@worldnet.att.net

LAURIED. WEBSTER
ofAnthropology,
Department ofArizona
University
Lwebsterl@mindspring.com

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