Solar Energy

Solar Energy Systems

Solar energy systems use the sun's rays for electricity or thermal
energy.
Passive systems are structures whose design, placement, or
materials optimize the use of heat or light directly from the sun.
Active systems have devices to convert the sun’s energy into a more
usable form, such as hot water or electricity.

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Passive Solar Systems
Good passive solar design is based upon the position of the sun.
No mechanical means are used
Use natural systems –
◦ sun
◦ landscaping to heat or cool a building
◦ shades on windows
◦ Natural ventilation

Passive Systems
Passive Solar Space Heating:
Simple and cost effective way to take advantage of the sun’s free, renewable energy and
displace the need for electricity, natural gas, or other active energy systems.
Strategic planning of building location, orientation, and materials provide great control over the
inside temperature.
◦ Installing large south facing windows, planting shade trees, and using Trombe walls, which are made of
absorptive materials that store heat during the day and slowly release it at night, are measures that can
be adopted for new and old buildings alike.
◦ Sunspaces or glass rooms built on the south side of a building can provide up to 60 percent of a home’s
winter heating.

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 Passive Solar Heating
Passive solar heating system absorbs and
stores heat from the sun directly within a
structure without the need for pumps to
distribute the heat.

Passive Solar Collectors

Passive solar collectors include
◦ South facing windows
◦ Adobe walls used for heat storage
◦ Flagstone floors used to heat
◦ Summer cooling vents in the roof
◦ Drying your clothes on a line in the backyard

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Active Solar Systems
About 20% efficient
Use pumps, solar cells, photovoltaic (PV) systems and other technologies to generate electricity.
◦ PV systems – used in signal lights, calculators, wrist watches, residences and electric utilities

Some systems produce high‐temperature water for industrial applications; or steam to run
turbines.
◦ Usually requires use of mirrors, lenses, heliostats

Active Systems
Active Solar Space Heating:
In an active solar space heating system, a collector holding a heat‐transfer medium such as air or
liquid captures the sun’s thermal energy, which is then distributed through the building via
electric fans or pumps.
Solar water heaters (active) produce thermal energy to heat water for households, commercial
entities, and swimming pools. Solar water heaters typically need a backup conventional gas or
electric water heater to account for cloudy days or unusually high water demand.
Solar water heaters consist of two parts: a solar collector and a storage tank. In warm climates,
collectors heat water directly, but in cold climates, a denser fluid is heated and then transported
to a water tank where it heats the water indirectly.
The heater can be built to use an active or passive system for circulating warmed fluid
depending on climate and the time of day when water demand is highest.

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 Heat to house
(radiators or
forced air duct)

Pump
Heavy
Superwindow insulation
Superwindow
Stone floor and wall for Heat
heat storage exchanger

PASSIVE ACTIVE
Hot
water
tank

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Active Systems
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, or solar cells, are an active system in which small panels faced with
semiconducting material turn sunlight into electricity.
Solar cells, usually made of silicon but potentially other polycrystalline thin films, generates a
direct current when sunlight hits the panel.
PV systems may or may not be connected to the electric transmission grid. PV systems linked to
the transmission grid can supplement utilities’ energy supply during daylight hours, which
normally include the peak energy demand periods.
Independent PV cells can power a variety of individual items, from personal calculators and
streetlights to water pumps on ranches and remote settlements far from power lines.
Utility‐scale PV installations have been constructed although energy production is limited to
daylight hours and they generally have higher upfront costs than fossil fuel plants.

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Producing Electricity with Solar Cells

• Solar cells can be

used in rural villages
with ample sunlight
who are not
connected to an
electrical grid.

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 • Photovoltaic (PV) cells can provide electricity for
a house of building using solar‐cell roof shingles.

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Active Systems
Concentrated solar power (CSP) is an active system distinguished from other solar energy
systems by its ability to function as a utility‐scale power plant.
CSP uses fields of mirrors to concentrate solar energy into channels holding heat‐responsive
fluid.
The high temperatures excite the fluid to a point where it powers a turbine or engine, which in
turn runs an electric generator.
Without storage facilities, CSP systems can generate electricity for about eleven hours on a
sunny summer day.
A CSP system that uses oil or molten salt as a medium in the heat‐transfer process can retain the
thermal energy in thermos‐like tanks for use when sunlight is not available.
Another option hybridizes CSP with natural gas boilers, which heat the fluid when the sunlight
cannot. Existing natural gas and coal power plants can be retrofitted with CSP technology.

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Active Systems ‐ Trough systems
Parabolic‐trough systems concentrate the sun's energy
through long rectangular, curved mirrors.
The mirrors are tilted toward the sun, focusing sunlight on
a pipe that runs down the center of the trough. This heats
the oil flowing through the pipe. The hot oil then is used to
boil water in a conventional steam generator to produce
electricity.
Individual trough systems currently can generate about 80
megawatts of electricity, enough to power a city of 110,000
people.
Often these systems are “hybridized” with fossil fuels to
produce power 24 hours a day.
The first parabolic trough solar power plant became
operational in 1984, and continues to provide power today.

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Parabolic Collectors

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Parabolic Collectors

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Parabolic Trough Collectors

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CSP
A dish/engine system uses a mirrored dish (similar to
a very large satellite dish). The dish‐shaped surface
collects and concentrates the sun's heat onto a
receiver, which absorbs the heat and transfers it to
fluid within the engine. The heat causes the fluid to
expand against a piston or turbine to produce
mechanical power. The mechanical power is then
used to run a generator or alternator to produce
electricity
(NREL.com)

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 Schematic diagrams of concentrating solar
power with different types of collectors:
(A) parabolic trough,
(B) disk/engine,
(C) linear Fresnel, and
(D) heliostats and central receiver

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World’s Largest Concentrated Solar

Power Plant ‐ Dubai
 Estimated capacity of 700 megawatts.
 The project will comprise the world’s
tallest solar tower of 260 meters.
 The solar power plant will cover 3,750
hectares‐ i.e. equivalent to 4,500
football fields.
 Solar heat will be stored in molten salt.
Once needed, the heated salt will be
pumped out of storage and used to boil
water to make steam. When the salt
has cooled, it can then be recycled and
used again.

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Passive Solar Design
Passive solar design uses seasonal changes in the path of the sun to create structures that are
heated by natural means.
The earth rotates once each day about an axis that is tilted 23.5° with respect to its orbit around
the sun.
The direction of tilt remains fixed as the earth moves, thus changing the earth’s orientation with
respect to the sun.
The direction and tilt are what creates seasons. When the hemisphere is tilted towards the sun,
the days are longer and warmer. When the hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, the days are
shorter and colder.
◦ The hemisphere tilted toward the sun experiences summer.
◦ The hemisphere tilted away from the sun experiences winter.
◦ The seasons spring and fall occur when tilt is parallel to the orbital direction.
◦ Spring and fall equinoxes occur when there is no hemisphere tilt toward or away from the sun.

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Seasonal Sun Paths

Rhcastilhos [Public domain]. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seasons.svg

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Building Design Benefits from Knowing the Altitude
of the Sun
The winter sun is relatively low in the sky, and light comes almost entirely from the south.

USGS [Public domain]. Retrieved from https://landsat.usgs.gov/landsat‐7‐data‐users‐handbook‐section‐5

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Passive Solar Design
Best known for capturing the warmth of the sun in the winter months and preventing unwanted
heat gain in the summer.
Can help cool buildings in the summer by establishing sun‐induced ventilation
Provides the ability to reduce energy use, which in turn will reduce the impact on the
environment
◦ Will allow for smaller heating, ventilation and cooling units
◦ Provides some insurance against spikes in utility costs
◦ Reduces lighting needs and costs

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Passive Solar Design Elements

Element Examples
Aperture Windows, cavity opening
Wall or floor, black metal baffle
Heat absorbing surface
barrel, dark hoses or pipes
Thermal mass Concrete, stone, brick, sand, water

Arrangement and coloration of interior panels. Surface

Heat distribution conduction and radiation, vents or ducts, interior windows
and doors

Roof eaves and awnings, landscaping, window

Control mechanisms
coatings/coverings/ sunscreens, pergolas

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 Aperture
Windows are the most common form.
The correct size, number and type of window depends on climate.
For climates that need heating, a southern exposure and windows that have large solar heat
gain coefficients (SHGCs) is recommended.
◦ SHGC: A value between 0 and 1 that measures the fraction of the sun’s heat passing through a window.

Windows on the east, west and north sides should have low SHGCs because they are primarily
illuminated in the summer when heat gain is not wanted.
Windows need low‐E (low emissivity) coatings.
◦ Low‐E windows limit the passage of heat by radiation.
◦ Block interior heat from leaking to cold (winter).
◦ Block exterior heat from entering cool interior (summer).

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Heat‐Absorbing Surface and Thermal Mass

Heat‐absorbing surface
◦ Surface the sunlight hits after it has passed through aperture
◦ Dark‐colored surfaces perform better by preventing sunlight from
reflecting back out the aperture.
◦ The floor surface could be tile or a dark paint.
◦ Surface of a barrel possibly holding water

Thermal mass
◦ Allows radiant heat collected during the day to be stored and
released gradually at night
◦ The amount of thermal mass required depends on the required
amount of heat that needs to be absorbed during the day and the
length of time to disperse.
◦ Barrel of water (Water has highest specific
heat of 1)

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Heat Distribution
An effective design requires a means to deliver heat evenly throughout the
house. This is accomplished by:
◦ Radiation from warmed surfaces
◦ Convective air movements through windows, doors or vents
◦ Directly by conduction across materials

A true passive design would incorporate an open floor plan relying on natural
conduction, convection and radiation.
Buildings with many isolated rooms rely on mechanical means for even heat
distribution.

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Control Mechanisms
Control mechanisms regulate when and how much solar energy enters a structure.
The most common mechanisms in passive design are awnings and roof eaves.
The size of the windows and geometry of the eaves and awnings determine when sunlight
enters.
Awnings work well because they can be positioned in the winter to let sun in and repositioned in
the summer.
Deciduous trees positioned to block sun
Window coverings in cold climates
require the shade on the inside
and in warm climates require
the shade on the outside.

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Direct Gain
Solar irradiation directly penetrates into the building and
is stored.
South‐facing windows are most practical in cold climates,
incorporated with good glazing.
Thermal mass should be at a minimum of 5 times greater
than aperture.
Thermal mass is decided in design process and cannot be
estimated.
If the floor is the primary thermal mass, it should be dark
in color while walls and ceilings are light in color. The floor
will absorb; whereas, the walls will reflect.
If walls are used for storage, then they should be a dark
color.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare [CC BY NC SA 2.0]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/mitopencourseware/3359470269

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Indirect Gain Systems
Solar irradiation is collected, stored, and distributed using thermal storage materials like a
Trombe wall.
Heat an exterior surface to the living space and use natural forms of heat transfer to maintain
temperature. These systems include thermal storage walls and thermosiphon.
Thermal storage walls (Trombe wall)
◦ Thickness and conductivity of the wall is critical: It must be massive enough to absorb and sufficiently
conductive.
◦ Composed of concrete, adobe or other masonry products
◦ Selective coatings on trombe can improve solar absorption.
◦ The wall will prevent the sunlight from directly illuminating the room.
◦ Most effective in climates where it has daily sunlight (desert)

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Thermosiphons
A form of indirect gain that relies on sunlight and
natural convection to move air without mechanical
assistance
Can either warm or cool depending on the system
Solar energy heats an absorbing surface that will
warm the surrounding air. The hot air rises, drawing
in cold air and creating a convective loop.
A closed loop system draws cool air from a building,
warms it, and returns it to the building.
An open loop system draws air from the exterior; a
solar chimney would operate on this premise.

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Isolated Gain
In this system, solar irradiation is collected in an area of
the building that can be open or closed off selectively.
The sun directly heats a space through southern
exposures.
The space shares its warmth either by conduction,
utilizing a wall or convective currents.
Thermal mass or barrels of water help to moderate
temperature swings.
Due to the construction of rooms, the structure will
experience large temperature swings from day to night.
Control may be as simple as closing a door.

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Summary
The basic aim of PSES is to maximize solar heat gain in winter and
minimize heat gain in summer.
 Orientation of the building is kept with the long axis running east to west.
 Glass is used and its size and orientation are chosen to maximize solar heat
gain in winter and minimize heat gain in summer.
 Overhangs are sized south facing to shade windows in summer and allow
gains in winter
 Thermal mass is stored either in walls or floors for heat storage.
 Daylight should be used to provide lighting.

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Solar Energy Intensity
Energy from our sun ~1372 𝑊/𝑚 is filtered through the atmosphere and is received at the
surface at ~1000 watts per square meter or less; average is 345 𝑊/𝑚
Air, clouds, rain, and haze reduce the received surface energy
Capture is from heat (thermal energy) and by photovoltaic cells yielding direct electrical energy

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Active Solar Energy System

PV cells concept was discovered in 1839 by French scientist Edmund Becquerel and is known as
the photovoltaic effect.
The PV effect was first studied in solid like selenium in 1870.
PV was recognized as an important source of space power in the 1950s,
Terrestrial PV development began in response to the 1970s oil crises.
Concern for the environment, as well as global efforts to seek indigenous sources of energy,
drives the investment in PV research and deployment.
Today, PV is a several‐billion‐dollar industry worldwide. These include large, multi‐megawatt
installations feeding into the utility grid, kilowatt rooftop systems supplying power to a home or
business, and single 50‐ or 100‐W PV modules on homes in developing countries.

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 Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and
that of an insulator
Its resistivity decreases with increasing temperature and therefore its conductivity increases.

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Semiconductor Materials
More common semiconductor materials are
shown in blue.
A semiconductor can be either of a single
element, such as Si or Ge, a compound, such
as GaAs, InP or CdTe, or an alloy, such as
SixGe(1‐x) or AlxGa(1‐x)As, where x is the
fraction of the particular element and ranges
from 0 to 1.

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Doping
Doping: Change in carrier concentration  change in electrical properties
Donor - doping Acceptor - doping

• add an extra electron • add an extra hole

• number of e- > number valence e- • number of e- < number valence e-
• n – type dopant • p – type dopant

p-type doping
n-type doping

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Solar Cell
Solar cells are semiconductor devices that produce electricity from sunlight via the photovoltaic
effect.
Sunlight strikes the cell, photons with energy above the semiconductor bandgap impart enough
energy to create electron‐hole pairs.
A junction between dissimilarly doped semiconductor layers sets up a potential barrier in the
cell, which separates the light‐generated charge carriers.
This separation induces a fixed electric current and voltage in the device. The electricity is
collected and transported by metallic contacts on the top and bottom surfaces of the cell.

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Principle of PV Cell
A thick layer of silicon has a small amount of boron added to it, which gives it a tendency to
attract electrons. It is called the p‐layer because of its positive tendency.
An ultra thin layer of silicon has a small amount of phosphorous added to it, giving it an excess
of free electrons. This is called the n‐layer because it has a tendency to give up negatively
charged electrons.
An electrical field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two materials are in
contact, called the P‐N junction.
Sunlight is composed of photons. These photons contain different amounts of energies
corresponding to various wavelengths of light. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be
absorbed, reflected, or pass through these cells. Absorption of photons in solar cell results in the
generation of an electron hole pair. This generation of electron hole pairs result in the
generation of a voltage, which can drive the current in an external circuit.

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A photon incident on the p‐n junction liberates an electron
◦ photon disappears, any excess energy goes into kinetic energy of electron (heat)
◦ electron wanders around, and might stumble into “depletion region” where electric field exists
(electrons, being negative, move against field arrows)
◦ electric field sweeps electron across the junction, constituting a current
◦ more photons  more electrons  more current  more power
photon of light
Si doped with
electric field n-type silicon
phosphorous, e.g.

Si doped with
boron, e.g.
p-type silicon liberated electron

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Without a path for the electrons to flow out, charge would build up and end up canceling
electric field
◦ must provide a way out
◦ direct through external load
◦ PV cell acts like a battery

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 49

Efficiency and Solar Cell Cost

Under laboratory conditions and with current state-of-the-art technology, it is possible to
produce single crystal silicon solar cells close to 25% efficient. However, commercially
mass produced cells are typically only 13-14% efficient.
The overriding reason for this difference in efficiency is that the research techniques
used in the laboratory are not suitable for commercial production within the photovoltaic
industry and therefore lower cost techniques, which result in lower efficiency, are used.
The more efficient a PV module is, and thus the more cost effective it becomes, the
more attractive photovoltaics will be as an electricity source for both domestic and
industrial use. The impact of module efficiency on electricity cost is shown in the figure
below.

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PV Cell Characterization criterion:
Thickness:
◦ Conventional – thick cells (200 ‐ 500 μm)
◦ Thin film (1 – 10 μm). Tend to be less costly than conventional (think) cells but they also tend to be less reliable and efficient.

◦ Crystalline configuration:
◦ Single crystal
◦ Multicrystalline: cell formed by 1mm to 10cm single crystal areas.
◦ Polycrystalline: cell formed by 1μm to 1mm single crystal areas.
◦ Microcrystalline: cell formed by areas of less than 1μm across.
◦ Amorphous: No single crystal areas.

◦ p and n region materials:

◦ Same material: homojunction (Si)
◦ Different material: heterojunction (CdS and CuInSe2)

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PV Cells Technologies
Uni‐Solar solar shingle

BP SX170B Polycrystalline BP SX170B Monocrystalline

Uni‐Solar Laminate PVL‐136

Amorphous

Mitsubishi PV‐TD 190MF5

Multicrystalline
PV Modules at ENS

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 PV Cells Technologies

• Thick film fabrication techniques:

• Czochraski’s (CZ): for single‐crystal silicon. Costly.
• Float zone process (FZ): also for single‐crystal silicon. Costly
• Ribbon silicon
• Cast silicon: for multicrystalline cells. Less costly.

• Thin film
• Can be used embedded in semitransparent windows.
• Techniques:
• Amorphous Silicon: can achieve higher efficiencies (in the order of 42% thanks to the
multijunction (different multiple layers) in which each layer absorb photons with
different energy.
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): relatively high theoretical efficiency (29 %) which is not
significantly affected by temperature. Less sensitive to radiation. Gallium makes this
solution relatively expensive.
• Gallium Indium Phosphide (GaInP): similar to GaAs.
• Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): Issue: Cd is a health hazard (it is very toxic).
• Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS or CuInSe2): relatively good efficiency)
• Silicon Nitrade (N4Si3)
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Monocrystalline Silicon (mono‐si)

Also called crystalline silicon
Made out of high grade silicon ingots that are cylindrical in shape
◦ Their edges are cut
◦ Have a even coloring and a
uniform look

These panels tend to cost

more but have higher
efficiency and longer life
◦ Example: SunPower E20
series with 20% efficiency

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Image: http://solargaincommercial.com.au/sites/default/files/sunpower‐solar‐power‐module.png

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Polycrystalline Silicon (p‐Si) or Multi‐
cyrstalline Silicon (mc‐Si)
Oldest of the commercial PV panels
Silicon is melted and poured into square molds
◦ Result is square wafers, with no side cuts

Advantages are that they are less

expensive, and result in less waste
Disadvantage is efficiency is lower
(13‐16%); more speckled
appearance

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Thin‐Film Solar Cells

Thin‐film solar cells are created by depositing one or more layers of material onto the substrate
◦ Examples include amorphous silicon (a‐Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper
indium gallium selenide (CIS)

Advantages are that they are simple to mass produce, have a uniform appearance,
and can be flexible
◦ 4–8% efficient
◦ cheapest per Watt

Disadvantages are they are not

very efficient, and may
degrade faster

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How good can it get?
Silicon is transparent at wavelengths longer than 1.1 microns (1100 nm)
◦ 23% of sunlight passes right through with no effect

Excess photon energy is wasted as heat

◦ near‐infrared light (1100 nm) typically delivers only 51% of its photon energy into electrical current
energy
◦ roughly half the electrons stumble off in the wrong direction
◦ red light (700 nm) only delivers 33%
◦ blue light (400 nm) only delivers 19%

All together, the maximum efficiency for a silicon PV in sunlight is about 23%
◦ defeating “recombination loss” puts the limit in the low 30’s %

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Silicon Photovoltaic Budget

Only 77% of solar spectrum is absorbed by silicon
Of this, ~30% is used as electrical energy
Net effect is 23% maximum efficiency

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PV Material Efficiencies
Various PV materials and technologies produce different efficiencies.

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Solar PV Prices Have Recently Dropped

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Solar PV Prices Have Recently Dropped

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The p‐n Junction Diode
Can apply a voltage Vd and get a current Id in one direction, but if you try to reverse the voltage
polarity, you’ll get only a very small reverse saturation current, I0

• Diode voltage drop is about 0.6 V when

conducting

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The p‐n Junction Diode

Voltage‐Current (VI) characteristics for a diode

𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 / 1

𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 . 1 at 25°C

k = Boltzmann’s constant
1.381x10‐23 [J/K]
T = junction temperature [K]
Vd = diode voltage
Id = diode current
q = electron charge 1.602x10‐19 C
I0 = reverse saturation current

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR PV CELLS
The Simplest Equivalent Circuit:
A simple equivalent circuit model for a PV cell consists of a real diode in parallel with an ideal
current source. The ideal current source delivers current in proportion to the solar flux to which
it is exposed.

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The Simplest Equivalent Circuit:

There are two conditions of particular interest
The current that flows when the terminals are shorted together (the short‐circuit current, ISC)
The voltage across the terminals when the leads are left open (the open‐circuit voltage, VOC)

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Circuit Models of PVI Cells
From KCL, 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼, and the current going to the load is the short‐circuit current minus diode
current
/
I
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 −1
+
Setting I to zero, the open circuit voltage is
Id +
𝑉 ln 1 ISC Vd VLoad
At 25℃, The equations simplify to
.
-
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 −1 and -
𝑉 0.0257 ln 1

Short‐circuit current, 𝐼 , is directly proportional to solar irradiation,

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Example
The I–V Curve for a PV Cell. Consider a 150 cm2 PV cell with reverse
saturation current I0 = 10−12 A/cm2. In full sun, it produces a short circuit current
of 40 mA/cm2 at 25◦C. What would be the short-circuit current and open-circuit
voltage in full sun and again for 50% sun. Plot the resulting I–V curves.

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71

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Effect of irradiance on solar cells

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Series Simple Equivalents

The simple equivalent circuit of a string of cells
in series suggests that virtually no current can
flow to the load if any cell is in the dark
(shaded). A more complex model can deal
with this problem.

It is true that shading has a big impact on solar

cell power output, but it is not as dramatic as
this suggests! Otherwise, a single shaded cell
would make the entire module’s output zero.

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PV Equivalent Circuit with RP
A more accurate model includes a leakage resistance 𝑅 in parallel with the current source and the
diode. 𝑅 is large, ~ 𝑅 100𝑉 /𝐼 for a cell to have less than 1% loss due to parallel resistance

From KCL, I 𝐼 𝐼 –𝐼

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

For a large cell, 𝐼 might be around 6 A and VOC about 0.6 V, which says its parallel resistance should
be greater than about 10 Ω.

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PV Equivalent Circuit with RP

A more accurate model includes a leakage resistance 𝑅 in parallel with the current source and the
diode. 𝑅 is large, ~ 𝑅 100𝑉 /𝐼 for a cell to have less than 1% loss due to parallel resistance

From KCL, I 𝐼 𝐼 –𝐼

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

For a large cell, 𝐼 might be around 6 A and VOC about 0.6 V, which says its parallel resistance should
be greater than about 10 Ω.

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 77

PV Equivalent Circuit with RS

An even better equivalent circuit will include series resistance as well as parallel resistance due
to contact between cell and wires and some from resistance of the semiconductor.

From KVL: 𝑉 𝑉 𝐼⋅𝑅 and

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 =𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 −1 =(𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 −1

For a cell to have less than 1% losses due to the series resistance, 𝑅 will need to be less than about
𝑅 0.01𝑉 /𝐼
which, for a large cell with 𝐼 = 6 A and 𝑉 = 0.6 V, would be less than 0.001Ω.

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Generalized PV Equivalent Circuit

An even better equivalent circuit will include series resistance as well as parallel resistance due
to contact between cell and wires and some from resistance of the semiconductor. Series
resistance drops some voltage (reduces output voltage)
From KVL: 𝑉 𝑉 𝐼⋅𝑅 and

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 −1

No explicit solution for V

.
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑒 −1

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 81

Standard Equivalent Circuit Model

Where does the power go?

Series
Rs

(minimize)

Ideal Diode Shunt

Photocurrent Rp
(maximize)
source
Load

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