Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid
statics). It is one. of the primary engineering sciences that have important applications in
many engineering disciplines. Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids, and the
number of fluid engineering applications is enormous: breathing, blood flow, swimming,
pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs, engines,
filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few. When you think about it, almost everything on
this planet either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid.

But, What is a Fluid?

What is the difference between a solid and a fluid? We have a general, vague idea of the
difference. A solid is “hard” and not easily deformed, whereas a fluid is “soft” and is easily
deformed (we can readily move through the air). Although quite descriptive, these casual
observations of the differences between solids and fluids are not very satisfactory from
a scientific or engineering point of view.

A closer look at the molecular structure of materials reveals that matter that we
commonly think of as a solid (steel, concrete, etc.) has densely spaced molecules with
large intermolecular cohesive forces that allow the solid to maintain its shape, and to not
be easily deformed.
However, for a matter that we normally think of as a liquid (water, oil, etc.), the
molecules are spaced farther apart, the intermolecular forces are smaller than for solids,
and the molecules have more freedom of movement. Thus, liquids can be easily
deformed (but not easily compressed) and can be poured into containers or forced
through a tube.
Gases (air, oxygen, etc.) have even greater molecular spacing and freedom of motion
with negligible cohesive intermolecular forces and as a consequence are easily deformed
(and compressed) and will completely fill the volume of any container in which they are
placed.
Both liquids and gases are fluids.

Although the differences between solids and fluids can be explained qualitatively on the
basis of molecular structure, a more specific distinction is based on how they deform
under the action of an external load.
"Specifically, a fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted on by
shearing stress of any magnitude."

Shearing stress (force per unit area) is created whenever a tangential force acts on a
surface as shown by the figure in the margin. When common solids such as steel or
other metals are acted on by a shearing stress, they will initially deform (usually a very
small deformation), but they will not continuously deform (flow). However, common
fluids such as water, oil, and air satisfy the definition of a fluid—that is, they will flow
when acted on by shearing stress. Some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty, toothpaste,
and so on, are not easily classified since they will behave as a solid if the applied shearing
stress is small, but if the stress exceeds some critical value, the substance will flow.
Ideal Gas Law
In this text we will consider every gas to behave as an ideal gas.* Such a gas is assumed
to have enough separation between its molecules so that the molecules have no
attraction to one another.
Also, the gas must not be near the point of condensation into either a liquid or a solid
state. From experiments, mostly performed with air, it has been shown that ideal gases
behave according to the ideal gas law. It can be expressed as,
P=ρRT

Kinematic Viscosity
It is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the of the fluid (μ), to its mass density (ρ).
This is denoted by ν, (nu).
ν=μρ, [ ft2/s (stoke) or m2/s ]
A liquid maintains its form because its molecules are attracted to one another
by cohesion. It is this force that enables liquids to resist tensile stress and thereby creates
surface tension in the liquid. On the other hand, if liquid molecules are attracted to those
of a different substance, the force of attraction is known as adhesion, and this force,
along with that of cohesion, gives rise to capillarity.

Surface Tension
The phenomenon of surface tension can be explained by visualizing the cohesive forces
acting on two molecules (or particles) in a liquid, shown in the figure below.

The molecule located deep within the liquid has the same cohesive forces acting on it by
all the surrounding molecules. Consequently, there is no resultant force acting on it.
However, the molecule located on the surface of the liquid has cohesive forces that come
only from molecules that are next to it on the surface and from those below it. This will
produce a net resultant downward force, and the effect of all such forces will produce a
contraction of the surface.
In other words, the resultant cohesive force attempts to pull downward on the surface.
To separate the molecules at the surface requires a tensile force. We call this tensile
force per unit length in any direction along the surface is the surface tension, σ (sigma).

• It has units of N/m, and for any liquid, its value depends primarily upon the temperature.
• The higher the temperature, the more thermal agitation occurs, and so the surface
tension becomes smaller.
Capillarity (Capillary Action)
Capillarity is the behavior of the fluid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall of a fluid in a
capillary is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the
cohesion and adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel.

• If the force of a liquid’s adhesion to the molecules of the surface of its container
is greater than the force of cohesion between the liquid’s molecules, then the liquid is
referred to as a wetting liquid. In this case, the meniscus or surface of the liquid, such
as water in a narrow glass container, will be concave. (Fig.a)
• If the adhesive force is less than the cohesive force, as in the case of mercury, then the
liquid is called a nonwetting liquid. The meniscus forms a convex surface. (Fig,b)

In general, fluids can exert both normal and shear forces on their surfaces of contact.
However, if the fluid is at rest relative to the surface, then the viscosity of the fluid will
have no shearing effect on the surface.
Instead, the only force the fluid exerts is a normal force, and the effect of this force
is called pressure.
From a physical point of view, the pressure of a fluid on the surface is the result of the
impulses exerted by vibrating fluid molecules as they contact and bounce off the surface.

Pressure
 • Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. If force is
distributed uniformly into the area, we can say:

P=ForceArea=FA,(Nm2orPascal"Pa")

• We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The

counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
• Pascal’s Law.

In the 17th century, the French mathematician Blaise Pascal was able to show that the
intensity of the pressure acting at a point in a fluid is the same in all directions.

• Other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar
and standard atmosphere.

1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa

Absolute and Gage Pressure

If a fluid such as air were removed from its container, a vacuum would exist and the
pressure within the container would be zero. This is commonly referred to as zero
absolute pressure.
Any pressure that is measured above this value is referred to as the absolute
pressure, Pabs. For example, standard atmospheric pressure is the absolute pressure that
is measured at sea level and at a temperature of 15°C. Its value is
Patm = 101.3 kPa

Any pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure is called the gage
pressure, Pg, because gages are often used to measure pressure relative to the
atmospheric pressure.
The absolute pressure and the gage pressure are therefore related by:

Pabs = Patm + Pg

Realize that the gage pressure can either be positive or negative.

For example, if the absolute pressure is Pabs = 301.3 kPa, then the gage pressure becomes

Pg = 301.3 kPa - 101.3 kPa = 200 kPa.

Likewise, if the absolute pressure is Pabs = 51.3 kPa, then the gage pressure is

Pg = 51.3 kPa - 101.3 kPa = -50 kPa

(a negative value producing a suction, since it is below atmospheric pressure)

In this text we will always measure the gage pressure relative to standard atmospheric
pressure; however, for greater accuracy the local atmospheric pressure should be used,
and from that the local gage pressure can be determined. Also, unless otherwise stated,
all pressures reported in the text and in the problems will be considered as gage
pressures. If absolute pressure is intended, it will be specifically stated or denoted as, for
example, 5 Pa (abs.).
Barometers
A barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure.
A simple barometer consists of a tube more than 30 in (762 mm) long inserted in an
open container of mercury with a closed tube end at the top and an open tube end at
the bottom and with mercury extending from the container up into the tube.
Mercury rises in the tube to a height of approximately 30 in (762 mm) at sea level. In as
much as the tube is longer than 30 in, there will be a vacuum (pressure near absolute
zero) above the mercury in the tube(Pt.A). The only pressure causing the mercury to rise in
the tube is that of the atmosphere; and, of course, the amount the mercury rises varies
with the applied atmospheric pressure.

The level of mercury will rise and fall as atmospheric pressure changes; direct reading of
the mercury level gives prevailing atmospheric pressure as a pressure head (of mercury),
which can be converted to pressure, if desired.

Manometers
A manometer is a simple and inexpensive device for measuring pressure and pressure
difference. It is usually bent to form a U-tube and filled with a liquid of known specific
gravity. The surface of the liquid will move in proportion to changes in pressure.
The following are the three types of manometers:

Piezometer
Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is tapped into the wall of pressure
conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. Though effective in many purposes, the
piezometer is not practical to use in lighter liquids with large pressure and cannot be
used to measure gas pressure.

Open Manometer
Open manometer is a tube bent into a U-shape to contain one or more fluids of different
specific gravities. It is used to measure pressure. An example of the open manometer is
shown below.
Differential Manometer
Differential manometer cannot measure pressure but can measure pressure difference.
Frequently in hydraulic problems, the difference in pressure is more useful information
than the pressure itself.

Steps in Solving Manometer Problems

Ordinarily, it is easier to work in units of pressure head rather than pressure for solving
any manometer problem.

1. Draw a sketch of the manometer approximately to scale.

2. Decide on the fluid of which head is to be expressed. Water is more desirable.
In most cases, we suggest using the head in water even if there is no water in
the system.
3. Starting at a point of know pressure head, number in order the levels of
contact of fluids of different specific gravities.
4. Proceed from level to level, add pressure head in going down and subtract
pressure head in going up with due regard to the specific gravity of the fluids.

he hydraulic system uses fluids usually oil to accomplish significant work (lifting heavy
loads, turning a shaft, drilling precision holes, car jacks, car brakes, etc.) with a minimum
investment in mechanical linkage through the application of Pascal’s law, which states:
"Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished throughout the
fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right angles to its
interior surfaces and equally upon equal areas ."

As we have said above, pressure in fluids is caused by particle collisions with

themselves and the surface of a container. These collisions cause a net force at
right angles to all surfaces the fluid is in contact with. Thus the equation is
Pressure equals Force over Area.
P=Force Area=FA; Nm or Pa
The diagram above illustrates the idea of using a hydraulic system to apply a small force
to produce a large force.
In this drawing, two pistons (brown) fit into two glass cylinders filled with oil (yellow) and
connected to one another with an oil-filled pipe. If you apply a downward force to one
piston (the left one in this drawing), then the force is transmitted to the second piston
through the oil in the pipe. Since oil is incompressible, the efficiency is very good --
almost all of the applied force appears at the second piston. The great thing about
hydraulic systems is that the pipe connecting the two cylinders can be any length and
shape, allowing it to snake through all sorts of things separating the two pistons. The
pipe can also fork, so that one master cylinder can drive more than one slave cylinder if
desired.
Remember
P=FA
Therefore,

P1=F1(input)A1andP2=F2(output)A2
But,

P1=P2, because the pressure at any given moment in time is the same throughout the
hydraulic system.
Thus,
F1(input)A1=F2(output)A2