Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A compost heating solution for a greenhouse in north-eastern Poland

in fall
Maciej Neugebauer *, Joanna Hałacz , Tomasz Olkowski
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Biological waste generated by households, including the organic fraction of municipal solid waste and
Received 12 February 2020 garden green waste, is collected by municipal services and processed. These operations require addi-
Received in revised form tional energy carriers, such as fuel for waste transport. This study proposes a method for on-site
21 July 2020
composing of household waste in line with the zero waste strategy. The largest amount of heat is
Accepted 3 August 2020
generated in the thermophilic phase of the composting process, and in the proposed method, excess heat
Available online 8 August 2020
was used to heat a greenhouse. The proposed solution relies on passive heating without additional
^ as de
Handling Editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bo equipment. The greenhouse was supplied with the heat generated by 136 kg of composted biological
Almeida waste between 19 October and 2 December. An identical, but unheated greenhouse was set up to
determine the efficiency of the proposed heating system. Air temperature, pressure and humidity were
Keywords: measured in both greenhouses. On average, the temperature inside the heated greenhouse was 2.3
C
Compost higher than in the unheated greenhouse and 3.1
C higher than ambient temperature throughout the
Greenhouse heating experiment. The net heat gain from the composted waste was determined with the use of the laws of
Zero waste
thermodynamics at 32.5 MJ. The proposed solution decreased the quantity of biological waste collected
Biological waste
from the household by 136 kg, thus reducing primary energy consumption. The designed solution was
ANN modeling
used to heat the greenhouse in fall. During the thermophilic phase, the temperature inside the heated
greenhouse did not drop below 0
C, whereas below zero temperatures were noted on three occasions in
the unheated greenhouse. Artificial neural networks were used as a tool to predict the temperature
inside a heated greenhouse to predict if temperature would fall below the permissible value.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Technological advancement leads to an improvement in living
standards, in particular in developed countries. The improvement
in the quality of life is accompanied by higher waste production
(Purba et al., 2018), especially municipal solid waste (MSW)
generated by households. According to statistical data, in the EU
alone, households generated 300 million tons of MSW in 2015, and
this figure is expected to increase to 330 million tons by 2020 (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 2013). There is a general scarcity
of cohesive, effective and environmentally-friendly solutions for
collecting and recycling MSW (Moriguchi and Hasimoto, 2015;
Malinauskaite et al., 2017). Highly developed countries implement
technologies for processing waste into renewable energy (Cheng,
* Corresponding author. University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Ocza-
powskiego 2, 10-719, Olsztyn, Poland.
E-mail address: mak@uwm.edu.pl (M. Neugebauer).
2017; Ripa et al., 2017). However, the existing solutions for man-
aging MSW in an environmentally-friendly manner in Poland and
in other European countries appear to be relatively ineffective
(Tanguy et al., 2017; Hoornweg et al., 2012).
The composition of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste
(OFMSW) varies subject to the country of origin, its economic sta-
tus, waste management regulations, industrial development, life-
style and social awareness (Abdel-Shafy and Mansour, 2018).
Municipal solid waste contains approximately 25e30% of paper and
cardboard, 26e35% of organic waste (including food), 5e12% of
metal and glass, 7e18% of plastics, and 2e4% of wood, textiles and
rubber (Anthraper et al., 2018; Edjabou et al., 2017). In Poland, the
total volume of organic waste exceeds 100 kg,year1 per inhabitant
(Kuznia et al., 2015).
According to Eurostat data, 45.7% of waste was landfilled in the
EU in 2016 (Eurostat, 2019). Decomposed landfill waste contami-
nates soil and water, and it is a source of greenhouse gases
(Weigand et al., 2003; Teixeira et al., 2014). Various measures are

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123613
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613
undertaken to combat the growing stream of MSW in line with the
sustainable development guidelines of the United Nations Com-
mittee on Environment and Development. Sustainable develop-
ment is defined as development that meets the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs (WCEDO, 1987). Economic,
environmental and social factors have to be balanced in equal
harmony to achieve true sustainability (UN Prototype, 2009;
Glushkov et al., 2018).
The effectiveness of MSW management is largely determined by
the waste collection strategy. Additional energy is required to
maintain waste collection systems (Neugebauer, 2017), and com-
munity members have to be convinced that waste sorting delivers
tangible results. Waste management poses a less critical problem in
highly developed countries (such as Sweden) (So € rme et al., 2019)
which are characterized by higher levels of environmental aware-
ness. However, waste is managed less effectively (or not at all) in
many countries of the world, which exerts a negative impact on the
natural environment (Moghadam et al., 2009; Czekała, 2018). In
many countries, MSW and OFMSW are collected together and
transported to landfills (Awasthi et al., 2014; Sukholthman and
Sharp, 2016).
The zero waste strategy delivers numerous benefits for local
authorities who are responsible for waste management, and it has
important environmental implications. However, this strategy re-
quires considerable community participation, which is why its
implementation is fraught with numerous problems, even in
countries with high levels of environmental awareness (Arantes
et al., 2018; Zaman and Ahsan, 2019).
Landfilling is the most popular solution for managing waste, and
the remaining waste is processed with the use of various methods,
including incineration or waste burning directly in landfills (Hottle
et al., 2015). Up to 80% of the energy contained in waste can be
recovered in modern incineration plants. However, complex and
expensive gas scrubbing systems are required to minimize the
emissions of harmful volatile substances (Smith and Aber, 2018;
Awasthi et al., 2019). Municipal solid waste has low energy value
(Song et al., 2013; Yaliwal et al., 2016), and its management poses
numerous environmental, economic and technological challenges.
For this reason, MSW is not and will never be a competitive source
of energy relative to hydrocarbon fuels (Tan et al., 2017; Tabakaev
et al., 2017).
Waste can also be processed in biological treatment plants.
Organic compounds in MSW are decomposed by aerobic and
anaerobic bacteria, and the entire process is expensive and time-
consuming. Biological treatment plants have considerable space
requirements, and some types of waste require preliminary pro-
cessing before biological decomposition (Eckenfelder and
O’Connor, 2013). Wet oxidation is a promising alternative which
is characterized by higher processing speed, lower greenhouse gas
emissions and a smaller impact on the environment (Hii et al.,
2014; Bertanza et al., 2015). Wet oxidation requires less energy,
and the treated waste has to be separated and initially processed.
This method is generally used to reduce the quantity of waste and
recover resources (Lu et al., 2011; Baroutian et al., 2013). Anthraper
et al. (2018) demonstrated that solid waste that cannot be recycled
can be effectively degraded by wet oxidation (Udugama et al.,
2017).
Composting is a highly effective and undervalued waste man-
agement technique. Waste can be composted on a small scale in
households as well as on a larger scale in municipal composting
plants. During this natural process, organic matter is decomposed
by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen. Small quantities of
organic waste are much easier to compost. Composted organic
waste is stable and can be used as fertilizer, provided that it is free
of biological and chemical contaminants (Chew et al., 2019).
Organic waste can be composted in households in small com-
posting bins. This solution can decrease the waste stream and
reduce the costs associated waste collection, transport and pro-
cessing. Household composting also contributes to environmental
protection by decreasing the emissions of greenhouse gases that
are released during fertilizer production. Composted organic waste
can be used as natural fertilizer, which minimizes pesticide
contamination in soil (Faaji, 2006). On-site composting also has
important social implications. Residents learn to manage waste
responsibly, and they become more aware of the environmental
impact of waste, which contributes to community participation in
waste management. The end products of composting are mature
compost which constitutes excellent natural fertilizer, gases - car-
bon dioxide and, in some cases, ammonia. Heat generated during
composting, especially in the thermophilic phase, can be used for
various purposes. Presently, the generated heat is usually lost
(Neugebauer, 2018). The development of an effective and low-cost
method for recovering heat from composted waste would
contribute to the popularity of composting in households. At pre-
sent, heat produced by waste that is composted both in households
and in municipal composting plants is regarded as a waste product
and is not recovered (Thanopoulos et al., 2018; Zabi _  ski et al.,
n
2015).
Various compost heating systems have been proposed, but all of
them rely on composting mixtures where manure (from horses,
cows and other animals) is the main component. In these systems,
heat is transferred by a hydraulic medium in closed system of pipes
(usually water) and pumps (Brown, 2014). This study proposes an
innovative solution for convective transfer of heat from compost to
a greenhouse. Municipal waste (OFMSW) is used as a substrate in
the composting bin, which is also a novel concept. An effective
composing system and a robust methodology for calculating the
amount of generated heat would be highly useful for practitioners.
A simple and low-cost solution for composting organic waste
without the need for additional equipment would contribute to the
attractiveness and popularity of household composting, thus
reducing the volume of municipal and green waste that is collected
from households.
The described solution addresses yet another important prob-
lem, namely greenhouse heating. The demand for energy in a
greenhouse is determined by various factors, including the optimal
temperature for growing different crops, local climate and the
structural design of a greenhouse. Various methods have been
proposed for modeling the energy balance in greenhouse produc-
tion (Shen et al., 2018; Hedau et al., 2014; Esen and Yuksel et al.,
2013). This is an important consideration because the energy
required to heat a greenhouse accounts for up to 70% of production
costs (Hołownicki et al., 2013). Environmental factors should be
taken into consideration in the process of developing effective so-
lutions for decreasing energy-related costs. These requirements
have increased the popularity of renewable energy sources for
greenhouse heating. Most large-scale solutions rely on geothermal
energy (Lund and Falls, 2012). These systems are characterized by
low cost and a minimal environmental impact (Ahamed et al., 2019;
Anifantis et al., 2016). Solar energy has also been proposed as a
source of heat for greenhouses. The unpredictable nature of solar
energy was a serious drawback, but advanced solutions for storing
solar energy have significantly increased the popularity of these
solutions. However, batteries for solar energy storage have limited
capacity and lifespan (Hassanien et al., 2016). The most effective
systems developed in recent years convert solar energy to
hydrogen gas, which implies that energy can be generated with the
use of fuel cells (Pascuzzi et al., 2016). Hydrogen gas can also be
produced in other processes, including biomass pyrolysis and
 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613
biological methane fermentation (Go mez et al., 2011). Hydrogen
gas systems for greenhouse heating and hybrid systems that rely on
a combination of renewable energy sources are presently being
researched and tested (Xu et al., 2020; Anifantis et al., 2018;
Yildirim et al., 2018).
Regardless of the proposed innovative solutions, most green-
houses rely on local sources of energy, not only commercially
available energy, but also manure and compost of varied origin.
System development costs and the availability and efficiency of
energy sources are the key considerations, in particular in small
greenhouses in individual farms and home gardens. For this reason,
non-commercial sources of energy should be investigated to pro-
vide investors and greenhouse owners with extensive information
about alternative solutions that are best suited to local conditions
and limitations, generate the highest profits, and best meet local
needs.
A review of the literature has revealed a general scarcity of
published studies into the energy efficiency of OFMSW and GGW
composting for greenhouse heating without additional equipment
such as heat exchangers, water tanks or piping (Smith et al., 2017).
This study aims to fill in this knowledge gap by evaluating the ef-
ficiency of biowaste composting (OFMSW and GGW) for green-
house heating without the involvement of additional equipment.
Composting is a passive process where the parameters of the
generated heat cannot be controlled. As a result, the temperature
inside a greenhouse heated with compost can fall below the desired
minimum, which is most probable during the transition from the
thermophilic to the mesophilic stage of composting. This study
proposes a model for predicting the temperature inside a green-
house to minimize the above risk. The model was developed based
on artificial neural networks (ANNs) which are used to model
complex nonlinear processes and to predict changes in physical and
economic variables over time (San and Maulik, 2018; Chai et al.,
2019).
The aim of this case study was to provide empirical evidence
that greenhouses in north-eastern Poland can be effectively heated
in fall with heat generated by compost, and to determine the heat
generation capacity of compost based on heat transfer between the
composted waste and air in the heated greenhouse. The present
findings will also have practical applications in other locations with
a similar climate.
2. Research objectives
The aim of this study was to determine whether:
 a greenhouse can be effectively heated by composing biological
waste inside the greenhouse,
 OFMSW and GGW can be effectively composted to generate
heat, thus reducing the quantity of landfilled waste,
 the temperature inside the greenhouse can be predicted with
the use of a prognostic model.
The present experiment involved the following tasks:
1. Two identical greenhouses were built and operated in the same
environmental conditions.
2. A compost pile composed solely of OFMSW and GGW was
placed inside one greenhouse.
3. Temperature and humidity were measured inside both green-
houses and outdoor temperature was monitored during the
experiment.
4. The quantity of the generated heat was calculated to validate the
research hypothesis.
3
5. A neural network was developed to predict the temperature
inside the greenhouse.
The proposed heating solution was passive, and the amount of
generated heat could not be controlled. External sources of energy
were not used.
3. Materials and methods
Two identical polytunnel greenhouses supported by 5 PVC pipes
(separated by a distance of 0.55 m) were built. The location, di-
mensions and orientation of the greenhouses are presented in
Fig. 1a. Both greenhouses were covered with transparent foil with a
density of 150 g$m2. The greenhouses had identical dimensions.
They were built in an open area with identical insolation conditions
and the absence of overhead structures or objects that could cast a
shadow. Identical conditions were maintained in both greenhouses
before the experiment. Both greenhouses were aired over the same
period of time to guarantee identical initial conditions. Due to
identical greenhouse dimensions, location and structure as well as
identical initial conditions, it was assumed that heat loss (caused by
wind, structural gaps, etc.) and heat gain (such as solar gain)
resulting from the transfer of heat between the greenhouse and the
environment was identical for both greenhouses. The greenhouses
were not equipped with a ventilation system, and air could be
exchanged only by opening the doors. The greenhouses remained
closed during the experiment, and only the heated greenhouse was
opened to add biological waste to the compost bin. The dates on
which the compost bin was filled are given in Table 1. The differ-
ences between the indoor temperature of the monitored green-
houses resulted from the generation of heat by composted waste.
A composting bin with external dimensions of 0.6  0.6  0.8 m,
wall thickness of 3 cm, and volume of 250 dm3 was placed in the
center of greenhouse A. The size of the composing bin was selected
to accommodate the prepared quantities of biowaste. Greenhouse B
was not heated. In each greenhouse, temperature was measured at
three points 40 cm above ground level which corresponds to
average plant height. Temperature was measured with Dallas
DB18b20 sensors (with an accuracy of±0.5
C) and a measurement
system compatible with the Arudino platform. Relative humidity
was measured with the HTU21D sensor (with an accuracy of±2%),
and pressure was measured with the BMP280 sensor (with an ac-
curacy of±0.12 hPa). The location of each sensor inside the green-
house is presented in Fig. 1b. Measurements were performed every
hour. The recorded value was the arithmetic mean of five mea-
surements conducted every 15 s. Data were stored on an SD card.
The experiment was conducted between 19 October and December
3, 2018.
On October 19, 2018, green garden waste (GGW) and kitchen
waste as OFMSW were placed in the compost bin in greenhouse A.
Dried flowers from the garden (Phlox paniculata) were placed at the
bottom of the composting bin to improve aeration, and mature
compost was placed in layers between organic waste as the inoc-
ulating agent. The composted organic waste comprised kitchen
waste (as a component of OFMSW) and fallen leaves. The experi-
ment began on a rainless day, and the leaves were dry. All leaves
originated from the trees growing in the same garden. To create
supportive conditions for composting, 20 dm3 of water was added
to the bioreactor. The composting bin was completely filled. On
October 27, 2018, the height of the compost pile decreased by 28 cm
(its volume was reduced by 90.9 dm3), and organic waste was
added to the bin. Organic waste was also added on November 4,
2018 when the height of the pile decreased by 23 cm (75 dm3) and
on November 11, 2018 when the height of the pile decreased by
18 cm (58.5 dm3). Water was also added in the amount of 3 dm3 on
4 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613

Fig. 1. a) Polytunnel greenhouses e dimensions in [m]. b) Location of measurement sensors inside the greenhouses.

Table 1
Composted biological waste.

Date Weight Volume

[kg] [dm3]

October 19, 2018 Dried flowers (Phlox paniculata) 2.40 25.00

Mature compost 28.80 40.00
Dried leaves from apple (Malus), plum (Prunus), pear (Pyrus) and magnolia (Magnolia) trees 18.40 160.00
KW 14.20 20.00
Total 63.80 245.00
October 27, 2018 KW 10.80 15.00
Decrease in volume by 90.9 dm3 Wet leaves (Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, Magnolia) 18.60 70.00
Total 29.40 85.00
November 4, 2018 KW 9.80 13.00
Decrease in volume by 75 dm3 Wet leaves (Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, Magnolia) 16.20 60.00
Total 26.00 73.00
November 11, 2018 KW 6.70 10.00
Decrease in volume by 58.5 dm3 Wet leaves (Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, Magnolia) 10.20 40.00
Total 16.90 50.00
Sum total 136.10 453.00

November 11, 2018. The composted biological waste was weighed greenhouse, thus confirming the preliminary assumption that the
with the use of the TP60/1 scale (with an accuracy of±20 g). The described solution can be used to heat a greenhouse.
weight and volume of the composted waste on different days of the Changes in relative humidity in both greenhouses are presented
experiment are presented in Table 1. in Fig. 3. Relative humidity was higher in the heated than in the
unheated greenhouse. An increase in humidity could be undesir-
4. Determination of the heat generation capacity of the able because higher humidity could increase the risk of pathogen
compost heater proliferation and plant infection. Further research is needed to
verify this observation.
The average temperature measured inside greenhouse A The amount of heat generated by compost during the experi-
(heated) and greenhouse B (unheated) as well as ambient tem- ment was determined based on the laws of thermodynamics for
perature are presented in Fig. 2. Humidity in the heated and the moist air. The humidity ratio was calculated in terms of kilograms
unheated greenhouse is presented in Fig. 3. The dates on which of H2O per kilogram of dry air according to formula (1):
organic waste was added to the compost bin are marked with red
arrows.


Changes in greenhouse temperature are presented in Fig. 2. In f,PAS kgH2 O
X ¼ 0:622, (1)
the first three days of the experiment, temperature inside both P  f,PAS kg PS
greenhouses was similar and only somewhat higher than outdoor
temperature (in particular during the day). After 22 October, the where:
temperature inside the heated greenhouse increased by several
degrees relative to the unheated greenhouse. The temperature X e humidity ratio [kgH2O$kgPS1],
difference was maintained until 24 November, and it was particu- f e relative air humidity [-],
larly pronounced on days with lower ambient temperature (and P e barometric pressure [Pa],
lower solar irradiation) and at night. The above observation initi- PAS e partial pressure of water vapor [Pa].
ates that despite its small size and the absence of additional
equipment for transporting heat, the heat generated by the The enthalpy of moist air was calculated with the use of formula
compost pile increased the temperature inside the heated (2):
 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613 5

Fig. 2. Temperature inside the heated and unheated greenhouse during the experiment. The dates on which organic waste was added to the compost bin are marked with red
arrows. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 3. Humidity inside the heated and unheated greenhouse during the experiment. The dates on which organic waste was added to the compost bin are marked with blue arrows.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

h i
i ¼ cB , t þ ðcA , t þ r0 Þ,X kJ , kg1
where:
t e temperature inside the polytunnel [
C],
cB e specific heat capacity of dry air [kJ$kg1$K1],
cA e specific heat capacity of water vapor [kJ$kg1$K1],
r0 e heat of vaporization of water, which is determined by air
temperature [kJ$kg1].
The calculations were performed for constant values of air vol-
ume and pressure in both greenhouses. It was assumed that heat
loss and solar heat gain would be identical in both polytunnels. The
greenhouses had identical external dimensions and were posi-
(2)
tioned in the same location (with identical weather conditions and
soil thermal properties); therefore, the heat generated during
composting would account for the entire difference in temperature
between the compared greenhouses. The generated heat was
determined with the use of formula (3):
DQ ¼ V,r,Di ¼ V,r1 ,i1  V,r2 ,i2 ¼
¼ V , r1 , f cB , t1 þ ðcA , t1 þ r01 Þ , X1 g  V , r1 ,f cB , t2
ptþ ðcA , t2 þ r02 Þ , X2 g½kJ (3)
where:
6 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613
DQ e difference in the specific heat capacity of air between the
heated and unheated greenhouse, which is equal to the amount
of heat transferred from the compost to air inside the
greenhouse,
Di e difference in air enthalpy between the heated and un-
heated greenhouse [kJ$kg1],
i1; i2 e air enthalpy in the heated and the unheated greenhouse,
respectively, calculated according to formula (2 k) [kJ$kg1],
V e polytunnel volume [m3],
r1; r2 e air density in the heated and unheated greenhouse,
respectively [m3$kg1],
t1; t2 e temperature in the heated and unheated greenhouse,
respectively [K],
X1; X2 e humidity in the heated and unheated greenhouse,
respectively, calculated according to formula (1 k) [kgH2O$
kgPS1],
Temperature, barometric pressure and relative humidity were
measured instrumentally. Air density, heat of vaporization of water,
and partial pressure of water vapor are influenced by air temper-
ature; therefore, they were determined based on thermodynamic
tables for the temperatures measured inside polytunnels. The
specific heat capacity of dry air cB was set at 1.006 [kJ$kg1$K1],
and the specific heat capacity of water vapor cA was set at 1.862
[kJ$kg1$K1].
The change in the amount of generated heat, expressed by the
ratio of thermal energy to time, was calculated with the use of
formula (4), and instantaneous heat generation was calculated with
the use of formula (5):
DQn’
DPn ¼ ½W
DTn
Pn ¼ Pn1 þ DPn ½W
where:
DPn e change in the amount of heat generated in the nth time
interval,
Pn e heat generated in the nth time interval,
Pn-1 e heat generated in the previous time interval,
DQ’n e change in thermal energy in the nth time interval,
equivalent to Qn - Qn-1,
DTn e time elapsed between interval nth and the previous (n-1)
time interval [s].
The net heat gain from the bioreactor is presented in Fig. 4.
The heat transferred from compost to air inside the greenhouse
was calculated with the use of formula (6):
X
n
Qn ¼ DQn’ ½J
i¼1
where:
Qn e heat transferred to air inside the greenhouse from the
beginning of the experiment to the nth time interval.
The proposed model and the performed calculations are based
on the laws of thermodynamics. Therefore, the results reflect
changes in the energy of air inside the heated greenhouse, and they
can be used to calculate the amount of heat recovered (heat gain)
from compost for indoor heating. The amount of heat transferred to
air inside the greenhouse during the experiment is presented in
Fig. 5.
The calculations were performed based on the measured dif-
ferences in temperature inside both greenhouses; therefore, the
results illustrate the real rate of changes in energy inside the
greenhouse.
5. Modeling the heating process using ANN
In the next step of the study, artificial neural networks (ANN)
were used to develop a model of the heating process. The model
predicted the temperature inside the heated greenhouse over a
period of 10 h. The optimal temperature inside a greenhouse was
determined based on consultations with potential users. Green-
house users should be aware that the modeled temperature can
decrease below the threshold value, in which case, they should
switch to alternative sources of heat.
Data were modeled with the use of an ANN in the Statistica 13
package. The input variables were: composting time in hours,
outdoor temperature, temperature and humidity inside the heated
and unheated greenhouse. The output variable was the tempera-
ture inside the heated greenhouse after 10 h of heating. Data were
divided into two sets: a training set and a test set which was not
used for ANN training. The test set was composed of the data
collected on 27 November (24 measurements). Test set data were
removed from the training set and were used to verify the accuracy
of ANN predictions.
Multi Layer Perceptron (MPL) networks with different numbers
of neurons in hidden layers were used to create ANN models. Five
hundred ANN were tested, and five networks with the smallest
learning errors were retained for further analysis. The relationship
between temperature in the heated greenhouse and composing
time (input variables) vs. the predicted temperature after 10 h of
(4)
heating (output variable) is presented graphically in Fig. 6.
The temperature inside the heated greenhouse was predicted
(5) for 27 November with the use of the five retained AANs. The results
are shown in Fig. 7.
The root mean square error (RMSE) of the modeled data was
calculated for all analytical dates with the use of equation (7):
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pn 2
i¼1 ðti real  ti mod Þ
RMSE ¼ (7)
n
where:
ti real e temperature measured inside the greenhouse,
ti mod e modeled temperature inside the greenhouse (by
different ANNs),
n e number of measurements (sample size).
The RMSE values calculated for all ANNs are presented in
Table 2.
(6)
6. Results and discussion
The results of measurements and calculations were analyzed to
formulate the following observations. The thermophilic phase of
the composting process, during which excess heat is transferred to
ambient air, began on 21 October at 3 p.m. The first measurable
difference in temperature between the heated greenhouse and the
unheated greenhouse was determined at 1.28
C, and it continued
to increase during successive measurements. The moment when
the temperature difference between the compared greenhouses
decreased below 0.5
C was regarded as the end of the thermophilic
phase. The above took place on 25 November at midnight. The
thermophilic phase lasted 37 days, and its duration was similar to
 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613 7

Fig. 4. Net heat gain from the bioreactor during the experiment.

Fig. 5. Heat energy transferred to air inside the greenhouse during the experiment.

that reported by Neugebauer (2018) where the thermophilic phase
lasted 41 days.
During the thermophilic phase, the temperature inside the
heated greenhouse did not drop below 2
C, whereas the lowest
temperature inside the unheated greenhouse in the analyzed
period was determined at 2.15
C on 17 November.
The addition of organic waste to the bioreactor on 27 October, 4
November and 11 November did not influence the temperature
difference between the compared greenhouses. The results pre-
sented in Fig. 3 clearly indicate that the amount of generated heat
increased after each addition of organic waste e by more than 220%
on 27 October and by approximately 250% on 4 November. The
amount of generated heat did not increase after the addition of
organic waste on 11 November (Fig. 3).
In the analyzed period, the average net heat gain (i.e. thermal
energy that was used to heat air inside the greenhouse) was
determined at 8.36 W, whereas the amount of heat that was
captured by air in the heated greenhouse was estimated at 32.5 MJ
with the use of formula (6).
The thermal efficiency of a compost heater in a greenhouse was
calculated based on the amount of heat generated by 1 kg of
compost in other studies. This parameter was determined at
8 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613

Fig. 6. Predicted temperature in the heated greenhouse.

Fig. 7. Temperature predicted by different ANNs for the heated greenhouse on 27 November.

Table 2
RMSE values.

Type of ANN MLP 4-16-1 MLP 4-15-1 MLP 4-19-1 MLP 4-21-1 MLP 4-13-1

RMSE 9.962529 5.612239 5.442140 25.796687 24.284362

0.62 MJ,kg1 by Chambers (2009) and at around 2 MJ,kg1 by the calculated thermal efficiency is a net value that does not ac-
Smith et al. (2018). The above values were averaged to produce count for the loss of heat from the heated greenhouse to ambient
1.3 MJ,kg1, which indicates that the thermal efficiency of the air. This parameter has important practical implications because it
analyzed bioreactor was only 18%. However, it should be noted that can be used to predict the amount of heat that can be supplied by
 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613
the proposed solution and the corresponding increase in air tem-
perature inside the greenhouse. Net heat gain is a much more
important parameter for greenhouse users because it indicates that
around 239 kJ of net heat can be obtained from 1 kg of compost to
heat the greenhouse. Heat loss will be analyzed in the second part
of the paper.
At the end of the experiment, the produced compost was left to
mature for six months (until spring 2019). Due to low winter
temperatures in Poland, around ¼ (specific volume) of the compost
pile (external layer) required further maturing. The remaining
(mature) compost was used as fertilizer in the greenhouse in
spring.
The selected ANNs effectively modeled the process of green-
house heating with compost. The data presented in Fig. 6 indicate
that the relationship between indoor temperature and composting
time vs. the predicted temperature after 10 h of heating was
modeled correctly. The predicted temperature decreased in suc-
cessive hours of the composting process. At the same time, the
value of the 10-h prediction increased with a rise in current
greenhouse temperature. In practice, the ability of an ANN to pre-
dict instantaneous values based on input data plays a more
important role than the general model. The data presented in Fig. 7
indicate that all five ANNs predicted that the temperature inside
the heated greenhouse would decrease below 4
C on 27 November
(data for 27 November were not used to teach ANNs). The tem-
perature decrease predicted by two ANNs, MLP 4-16-1 and MLP 4-
13-1, was too rapid (5 h before the instrumentally determined
decrease), whereas the temperature predicted by MLP 4-21-1 and
MLP 4-13-1 exceeded the measured temperatures in the evening
and at night. However, networks MLP 4-15-1 and MLP 4-19-1 were
characterized by the smallest RMSE errors and produced suffi-
ciently reliable predictions based on which greenhouse users can
effectively control greenhouse temperature and switch to alterna-
tive heating systems if required.
The proposed solution has the following advantages:
1. The composting system does not require external energy
sources.
2. The system is easy to build and operate.
3. Biological waste can be managed on-site.
The described solution has the following weaknesses:
1. The compost bin occupies 10% of greenhouse area.
2. The amount of generated heat cannot be controlled.
3. The composition of composted biowaste cannot be modified to
increase heating efficiency.
Further research is needed in different types of greenhouses to
maximize the above advantages, reduce the identified limitations
and maximize heating efficiency in various locations. The following
problems should be addressed in the future:
1) The location, type and size of the composting bin should be
optimized to ensure the deployed solution does not compro-
mise normal gardening operations inside the greenhouse.
2) The composition of the composted substrate should be carefully
selected to obtain a C:N ratio of 25e35. Substrates with the
optimal C:N ratio are characterized by the highest composting
rate and the shortest composting time, which maximizes heat
recovery within a shorter period of time. The amount of
generated heat and the duration of heating can be controlled by
modifying the C:N ratio of composted matter within permissible
limits.
9
3) An algorithm or a formula for calculating the optimal volume
and composition of composted waste should be developed to
raise the temperature inside differently sized greenhouses (and
different seasons) to the required level.
As regards points 2 and 3, the aim of the study was to reduce the
quantity of landfilled waste and to fully manage biological waste
(OFMSW and GGW) on-site. The composting rate can be controlled
by modifying the C:N ratio of the substrate. As a result, selected
waste fractions could be in short supply, whereas other types of
waste will not be managed on-site, which prevents the achieve-
ment of zero-waste goals.
The results of the present experiment provide “qualitative” ev-
idence that biowaste can be effectively composted to heat a
greenhouse in fall. The proposed model can be used to calculate the
amount of generated heat. Therefore, new algorithms should be
developed to provide “quantitative” evidence that the proposed
solution can be effectively deployed in other climates.
7. Conclusions
The thermal efficiency of a compost heater in a greenhouse was
evaluated, and net heat gain, i.e. heat transferred to air in the
heated greenhouse, was calculated. The composted organic waste
comprised 136 kg of OFMSW and GGW. The research goals were
achieved:
1. The proposed solution decreased the quantity of organic waste
collected from the household by 136 kg during the 6-week
experiment.
2. Organic waste was composted on-site in a greenhouse in
accordance with the zero waste strategy.
3. Heat generated during the thermophilic phase of the com-
posting process was used to heat the greenhouse. During the
experiment (OctobereNovember 2018, north-eastern Poland),
the temperature inside the heated greenhouse did not drop
below 2
C, whereas below-zero temperatures were noted
several times in the control (unheated) greenhouse.
4. The described heating solution is simple, and it does not require
additional equipment (such as a pump or coiled pipes) that
would require servicing and energy.
5. The thermal efficiency of the proposed solution was determined
at 18% relative to the values given in the literature (amount of
heat generated by 1 kg of compost).
6. The produced compost (¾ of the specific volume of compost was
mature in spring) was used as fertilizer in the greenhouse.
7. The amount of heat transferred to air inside the greenhouse was
calculated with the use of the laws of thermodynamics at
32.5 MJ (heat generated by 136 kg of compost in the course of 37
days).
8. A carefully selected ANN with a low modeling error calculated
based on real data is a robust tool for predicting the temperature
inside a greenhouse. In this study, temperature was modeled
over a period of 10 h, but a longer modeling period can be used.
The predictions were reliable, and based on these results,
greenhouse users can switch to other sources of heat to prevent
the temperature inside the greenhouse from decreasing below
the optimum for growing specific crops.
9. The results of the case study conducted in north-eastern Poland
indicate that biological waste can be effectively composted to
heat a greenhouse in other locations with similar environmental
conditions (climate and season).
The study proposed a method for calculating net heat gain from
compost (without accounting for the heat lost to ambient air) based
10 M. Neugebauer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123613
on the difference in temperature between two identical green-
houses. The greenhouses were situated next to each other; one
greenhouse was heated, and the other was not. The proposed
method and the calculated amount of heat generated by 1 kg of
compost provide valuable information for persons who would like
to apply a similar solution in their gardens. The discussed method
can be used to determine net heat gain per 1 kg of compost for
heating a greenhouse (239 kJ$kg1 in this study). The described
solution not only demonstrated that a greenhouse can be heated by
composting, but also that biological waste can be effectively
managed on-site. In this study, the amount of biological waste that
is normally transported off-site was reduced by 136 kg. The pre-
sented solution should be popularized to minimize the use of pri-
mary energy (from fossil fuels) for collecting, transporting and
decomposing household waste (OFMSW) in municipal composting
plants. The developed method would deliver the greatest envi-
ronmental benefits in locations where biological waste is landfilled.
In the future, the developed model will be validated in a green-
house where the heat generated by composting will be used to
prolong the growing season in fall. The required amount of OFMSW
and GGW will be determined with the described method by
calculating the rate of heat generation from compost based on the
minimum temperature requirements of selected crops (such as
tomatoes). The hypothesis postulating that the heat generated by
composting can prolong the growing season inside a greenhouse
will be verified.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Maciej Neugebauer: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing -
original draft, Writing - review & editing. Joanna Hałacz: Writing -
original draft, Data curation. Tomasz Olkowski: Investigation,
Resources.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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