2022 Iitb Ae 410 641 19

Navigation and Guidance
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 1 / 40

PPN Guidance Law
PPN: Guidance command ensuring the angular rate of VM ∝ LOS rate

Guidance command ⊥ missile velocity vector
Complex nonlinear kinematic equations to allow a simple closed-form

solution, except for very simple cases.
Qualitative analysis technique to derive several useful results without actually
solving the kinematic equations.

PPN Guidance Law
Target is non-maneuvering, that is, moving with constant flight path angle.
Reference direction is taken to be same as target heading direction.
Target-centered framework to describe missile’s position w.r.t target.
Engagement kinematics
Vr = ṙ =VT cos(−θ) − VM cos(γM − θ)

Vθ = rθ̇ =VT sin(−θ) − VM sin(γM − θ)
Kinematics can be rewritten as
Vr = ṙ =VT cos θ − VM cos(γM − θ)

Vθ = rθ̇ = − VT sin θ − VM sin(γM − θ)

PPN Guidance Law
As the PPN guidance command is given by
γ̇M = N θ̇ =⇒ γM − γM0 = N θ − N θ0
Using this result, we can write
γM − θ = N θ − N θ 0 + γM 0 − θ
= (N − 1)θ − N θ0 + γM0
= kθ + ϕ0
where k = N − 1, ϕ0 = −N θ0 + γM0 .
Now engagement kinematic becomes
Vr =ṙ = VT cos θ − VM cos(kθ + ϕ0 )

Vθ =rθ̇ = −VT sin θ − VM sin(kθ + ϕ0 )
Relative velocity equations can be expressed in terms of a single variable, that

is, LOS angle θ.
PPN Guidance Law
Using these equations, we get
ṙ Vr (θ) 1 dr Vr (θ)
= ⇒ =
rθ̇ Vθ (θ) r dθ Vθ (θ)
On integration, we get
(Z )
Z Z θ
dr Vr (θ) Vr (θ)
= dθ ⇒ r = r0 exp dθ
r Vθ (θ) θ0 Vθ (θ)
Completely solvable in the closed-form with for values of N = 1 and partially

solvable for N = 2.
Solvable for all values of N by using Mittag-Leffler’s theorem in complex
analysis.
Expression within the integral sign on RHS can be expanded into a uniformly
convergent series of rational functions and integrated.
PPN Guidance Law
Kinematics can be rewritten as
Vr = ṙ =VT cos θ − VM cos(γM − θ)

Vθ = rθ̇ = − VT sin θ − VM sin(γM − θ)
For qualitative analysis, normalized engagement kinematic becomes

Vr
vr (θ) = = cos θ − ν cos(kθ + ϕ0 )
VT
Vθ
vθ (θ) = = − sin θ − ν sin(kθ + ϕ0 )
VT
where vr (θ) and vθ (θ) are the normalized relative velocities, and ν = VM /VT
is the ratio of speeds of missile and target.

PPN Guidance Law
Lemma
If the speed ratio ν > 1 and kν > 1, then the roots of the equations
Vr
vr (θ) = = cos θ − ν cos(kθ + ϕ0 ) = 0
VT
Vθ
vθ (θ) = = − sin θ − ν sin(kθ + ϕ0 ) = 0
VT
alternate along the θ- axis.
If vr (θ) and vθ (θ) are plotted against θ then these curves intersect the θ axis
at alternate points.
Suppose the roots of vθ = 0 and vr = 0 are denoted by θθ1 , θθ2 . . . and
θr1 , θr2 . . .,
θθ1 < θr1 < θθ2 < θr2 < θθ3 . . . < θθi < θri . . .
θr1 < θθ1 < θr2 < θθ2 < θr3 . . . < θri < θθi . . .

PPN Guidance Law

PPN Guidance Law
Lemma
If ν > 1 and kν > 1, and θθ is a root of the equation vθ (θ) = 0 then
dvθ (θθ )
vr (θθ ) > 0.
dθ
If the slope of the vθ curve is negative at one of its roots, then the value of
vr at that point is also negative.
Similarly, if the slope of vθ is positive then the value of vr is also positive.
Shapes of the vr and vθ curves and their relative positions in a qualitative
sense.
Curves are bounded above and below by ±(1 + ν).
Capture is possible from almost every initial condition.

PPN Guidance Law
Case 1: Let the missile be initially at point A.

At point A, vθ0 = 0 and vr0 < 0. Conditions for a collision course
Missile is on a collision course with the target from the start of the
engagement.
As the target is a non-maneuvering, it continues to travel in a straight line.
Since vθ0 = 0, we have θ̇0 = 0, and so no missile lateral acceleration is
applied.
Missile also continues to travel in a straight line.
Since both the vehicles were initially in a collision course, they continue to be
so, and the engagement ends with the missile capturing the target.

PPN Guidance Law

PPN Guidance Law
Case 2: Let the missile be initially at point B.

At point B, vθ0 < 0 and vr0 < 0
Both r and θ are decreasing initially and continue to do so.
It is impossible for the point to cross the line denoting θθ2 .
This is because vθ is positive on the other side of θθ2 , and this would force
the point back to the side on which B lies.
Missile approaches the target asymptotically along the line θθ2 from the side
on which B lies and the engagement terminates with the missile capturing
the target.
Similarly, if the missile is initially at B ′ , the missile will again capture the
target.
Initial values for B ′ are such that θ increases and r decreases with time.

PPN Guidance Law
Case 3: Consider that the missile is at point C.

vr0 > 0 and vθ0 < 0 at C and hence initially r is increasing and θ is
decreasing till the point crosses θr3 line.
At the exact point of crossing vr = 0 and immediately after crossing vr < 0.
Before crossing θr3 line, r was increasing with time while it decreases after
crossing this line.
Actually, after crossing the θr3 line the point behaves in the same fashion as
B in Case 2.
Missile follows a trajectory that approaches the target asymptotically along
the θr3 line and ultimately captures the target.
Similarly, if the missile is initially at C ′ , the missile will again capture the
target.
Initial values are such that θ increases continuously while r first increases and
then decreases.

PPN Guidance Law
Case 4: Consider that the missile is at point D.

At this point vr0 > 0 and vθ0 = 0
Initially r is increasing while θ remains constant.
This process continues indefinitely since the missile does not apply any lateral
acceleration to change its direction of flight.
Analogous to Case 1, except that here r increases instead of decreasing.
As a result, the missile goes farther and farther away from the target and
cannot capture it.
Note that even here, the point D remains stationary.
Theorem
A missile pursuing a non-maneuvering target and following a PPN law with ν > 1
and kν > 1 will be able to capture the target from all initial conditions except
those for which vθ = 0 and vr > 0.

PPN Guidance Law: Capture Region

PPN Guidance Law: Observations
Always possible to locate the position of the missile and sign of θ̇ from initial
geometry.
To compute final LOS angle, compute θ, nearest to θ0 on either side, for
which vθ (θ) = 0.
Two values of θ: one larger and the other smaller than θ0 .
Select larger one if Vθ0 > 0 and smaller one if Vθ0 < 0.
With a known final LOS angle, the final closing velocity and the directions of
the missile and target velocities relative to the final LOS can be computed.
Miss distance due to lateral acceleration limit in BR and CLOS
Avoids problem of missile lateral acceleration saturation.
Qualitative analysis: unable to obtain time for interception or the trajectory
equations analytically.

PPN Guidance Law: Example
550
Speed ratio ν = = 2.2 > 1, kν = (3 − 1)2.2 = 4.4 > 1.
250
γM0 = 60◦ , θ0 = 30◦ ⇒ ϕ0 = γM0 − N θ0 = 60◦ − 3 × 30◦ = −30◦ .
vr (θ) = cos θ − 2.2 cos(2θ − 30◦ )
vθ (θ) = − sin θ − 2.2 sin(2θ − 30◦ )


At initial time,
vr0 = vr (30◦ ) = −1.039
vθ0 = vθ (30◦ ) = −1.6
As vθ0 < 0, θ decreases till

vθ0 = 12.2◦ where capture
occurs.
At point of interception,
vrf = vr (12.2◦ ) = −1.212
vθf = vθ (12.2◦ ) = 0
Final LOS angle θf = 12.2◦ ,

Vcf = −vrf VT = 303 m/s.
To find the angle η we have vθf = 0, vrf < 0

VT sin 12.2◦ − VM sin η = 0 ⇒ η = 5.512◦ , 174.488◦
Which one is correct answer? η = 5.512◦ .

PPN Guidance Law: Maneuvering Targets
Target is maneuvering, that is, flight path angle changes according to the
target maneuver.
Reference direction is taken to be same as initial target heading direction.
Engagement kinematics
Vr =ṙ = VT cos(γT − θ) − VM cos(γM − θ)

Vθ =rθ̇ = VT sin(γT − θ) − VM sin(γM − θ)
aM
γ̇M =
VM
aT
γ̇T =
VT
Assume that the engagement starts at time t = t0 = 0.

Flight path angle of target, with constant maneuver aT , at time t = t
aT aT
γT = t = avT t, avT =
VT VT
Engagement dynamics can also be written as
Vr = ṙ =VT cos(θ − avT t) − VM cos(γM − θ)

Vθ = rθ̇ = − VT sin(θ − avT t) − VM sin(γM − θ)
As the PPN guidance command is given by
γ̇M = N θ̇ =⇒ γM − γM0 = N θ − N θ0
Using this result, we can write
γM − θ =N θ − N θ0 + γM0 − θ
=(N − 1)θ − N θ0 + γM0
=kθ + ϕ0
where k = N − 1, ϕ0 = −N θ0 + γM0 .
Now engagement kinematic becomes
Vr =ṙ = VT cos(θ − avT t) − VM cos(kθ + ϕ0 )

Vθ =rθ̇ = −VT sin(θ − avT t) − VM sin(kθ + ϕ0 )
Relative velocity equations can be expressed in terms of both LOS angle θ

and time t.
For qualitative analysis, the normalized engagement kinematic becomes
Vr
vr (θ) = = cos(θ − avT t) − ν cos(kθ + ϕ0 )
VT
Vθ
vθ (θ) = = − sin(θ − avT t) − ν sin(kθ + ϕ0 )
VT
where vr (θ) and vθ (θ) are the normalized relative velocities and ν = VM /VT
is the ratio of speeds of missile and target.
Lemma
For a given time t = t1 , if ν > 1 and kν > 1, then the roots of the equations
Vr
vr (θ, t1 ) = = cos(θ − avT t1 ) − ν cos(kθ + ϕ0 ) = 0
VT
Vθ
vθ (θ, t1 ) = = − sin(θ − avT t1 ) − ν sin(kθ + ϕ0 ) = 0
VT
alternate along the θ- axis.
Results is similar to the non-maneuvering target case.

Only difference is that here value of t is kept constant when roots of vr and
vθ along θ axis are being computed.
Time t does not play any role in the non-maneuvering target case since the
position of the roots did not change with time.


Lemma
For a given time t = t1 , if ν > 1 and kν > 1, and θθ is a root of the equation
vθ (θ, t1 ) = 0 then
dvθ (θθ , t1 )
vr (θθ , t1 ) > 0.
dθ
Note that the time t is a constant here.

Curves are similar to non-maneuvering target case but for a given constant t.
As time t changes, the roots of these equations will also shift.
How these roots behave with change in time t?

Assume that θθ is a root of vθ (θ) = 0 for a given time t.

− sin(θθ − avT t) − ν sin(kθθ + ϕ0 ) = 0
From the above equation, we have

θθ − sin−1 [−ν sin(kθθ + ϕ0 )]
t=
avT
Suppose θθ = 30◦ , k = 2, ν = 3, ϕ0 = 115, avT = 0.1 then

θθ − sin−1 [−ν sin(kθθ + ϕ0 )]
t= = 7.88
avT
If θθ = 15◦ with other parameters same then

ν sin(kθθ + ϕ0 ) = 1.72 ⇒ t has no Solution
Roots of vθ (θ) = 0 occur only at certain points or region on the θ axis.

Can we identify the regions where the roots lie?Yes

1 1 1
| sin(kθθ + ϕ0 )| ≤ ⇒ − ≤ sin(kθθ + ϕ0 ) ≤
ν ν ν
We know that sin−1 (−x) = − sin−1 (x) and

−a ≤ sin x ≤ a ⇒ −a ≤ − sin x ≤ a
⇒ −a ≤ sin(nπ + x) ≤ a, ∀ n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
With this relation,
1 1
− ≤ sin(nπ + kθθ + ϕ0 ) ≤ ∀ n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
ν ν
−1 1 1
⇒ − sin ≤ nπ + kθθ + ϕ0 ≤ sin−1
ν ν

1 1 nπ + ϕ0 1 1
⇒ − sin−1 ≤ θθ + ≤ sin−1
k ν k k ν
nπ + ϕ0
On defining θn0 = − , we have
k

1 1 1 1
− sin−1 ≤ θθ − θn0 ≤ sin−1
k ν k ν

1 1 1 1
⇒ θ n0 − sin−1 ≤ θθ ≤ θn0 + sin−1
k ν k ν
For different values of n, this inequality produces different intervals in the θ

axis inside which the roots of vθ lie.
Root of vθ as t changes, remains within its appropriate interval.

Assume that θr is a root of vr (θ) = 0 for a given time t.

cos(θr − avT t) − ν cos(kθr + ϕ0 ) = 0
From the above equation,

θr − cos−1 [−ν cos(kθr + ϕ0 )]
t=
avT
We know that solution can be obtained only if
1 1 1
| cos(kθr + ϕ0 )| ≤ ⇒ − ≤ cos(kθr + ϕ0 ) ≤
ν ν ν
π
Using relation sin + x = cos x, we get
2
1 1
− ≤ sin(π/2 + kθr + ϕ0 ) ≤
ν ν
−1 −1
We know that sin (−x) = − sin (x) and
−a ≤ sin x ≤ a ⇒ −a ≤ sin(mπ + x) ≤ a, ∀ m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
With these relations,

1 π 1
− ≤ sin mπ + + kθr + ϕ0 ≤ ∀ m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
ν 2 ν
−1 1 π −1 1
⇒ − sin ≤ mπ + + kθr + ϕ0 ≤ sin
ν 2 ν

π 1 π 1
⇒ − sin−1 ≤ (m + 1)π + kθr + ϕ0 ≤ + sin−1
2 ν 2 ν
Define n = m + 1 then

π −1 1 π −1 1
− sin ≤ nπ + kθr + ϕ0 ≤ + sin
2 ν 2 ν

1 π 1 1 π 1
⇒− − sin−1 ≤ θ r − θ n0 ≤ − sin−1
k 2 ν k 2 ν

π 1 1 π 1 1
⇒ θ n0 + − sin−1 ≤ θ r ≤ θ n0 + + sin−1
2k k ν 2k k ν

For different values of n, this inequality produces different intervals in the θ

axis inside which the roots of vr lie.
These intervals have the same span as the intervals in which the roots of vθ
π
occur and are shifted from them by an angle of .
2k
Location of these sectors depend only on the initial conditions and the
navigation constant and not on target acceleration.
π
Sectors Sθ and Sr are centered around θn0 and θn0 + , respectively.
2k
Angular spread of each sector depends
only
on the velocity
ratio and the
2 −1 1
navigation constant and is given by sin .
k ν
π
Angular separation between the centerline of two adjacent sectors: .
√ 2k
These sectors do not overlap if ν > 2. How?

Define sectors as
Sθ+ = {θ : for some real t, vθ = 0, vr (θ, t) > 0}

Sθ− = {θ : for some real t, vθ = 0, vr (θ, t) < 0}
Sr+ = {θ : for some real t, vr = 0, vθ (θ, t) > 0}
Sr− = {θ : for some real t, vr = 0, vθ (θ, t) < 0}
Theorem
√
A missile pursuing a maneuvering target, and following a PPN law with ν > 2
and kν > 1 will be able to capture the target from all initial conditions lying
outside the Sθ+ sector.

Sθ+ sector essentially has properties similar to the line vθ = 0 and vr > 0 in
the non-maneuvering case.
Sector reduces to a line when the missile does not maneuver.
Unlike non-maneuvering cases, it is possible for a missile to capture a target,
even from inside the Sθ+ sector.
Theorem
If the initial missile position is inside Sθ+ sector and
√
ν> 2
2VT VT
N >2+ p 2 >1+
VM − VT 2 VM
|a |
|θ̇0 | > p T
(N − 2) VM 2 − V 2 − 2V
T T
the missile will leave the Sθ+ sector and intercept the target.

PPN Guidance Law: Capture Regions
√ √
N > 1 + 1/ 2, γ = 2 N > 2, γ = 1
√ √
1 ≤ N ≤ 1 + 1/ 2, γ = 1/(N − 1) 1 ≤ N ≤ 1 + 1/ 2, γ = 1/(N − 1)
Note aT is nowhere used in finding Why capture region is different from that
capture region for maneuvering targets. of maneuvering targets?
LOS Guidance
Philosophy: If the missile remains on the line joining the launch platform
and the target, then it eventually must hit the target.
⇒ By its very nature, LOS guidance is a three-point guidance.

LOS Guidance
Assumptions: VT , γT , and VM are constants.

Distance from the launch platform to the missile is LM = r, and that from
missile to target is M T = R.
In the ideal case, missile M should always be on the LOS between the launch
platform and the target.
In LOS guidance, LOS refers to LOS between points L and T , unlike in
pursuit guidance analysis where LOS was between missile and target.
Engagement dynamics
ṙ = Vr = VM cos(γM − θ)
rθ̇ = Vθr = VM sin(γM − θ)
Ṙ = VR = VT cos(γT − θ) − VM cos(γM − θ)
Rθ̇ = VθR = VT sin(γT − θ) − VM sin(γM − θ)

LOS Guidance
We can rewrite the LOS rate as below

VM sin(γM − θ) VT sin(γT − θ) − VM sin(γM − θ)
θ̇ = =
r R
By using some mathematical manipulations,
VT sin(γT − θ)
θ̇ =
r+R
On equating expressions for LOS rate, we obtain
VT sin(γT − θ) VM sin(γM − θ)
=
r+R r
⇒ (R + r)VM sin(γM − θ) = rVT sin(γT − θ)

LOS Guidance
Using differentiation, we get

(Ṙ + ṙ)VM sin(γM − θ) + (R + r)VM cos(γM − θ) γ̇M − θ̇ =
ṙVT sin(γT − θ) + rVT cos(γT − θ)(−θ̇)

aM
(Ṙ + ṙ)VM sin(γM − θ) + (R + r)VM cos(γM − θ) − θ̇ =
VM
ṙVT sin(γT − θ) + rVT cos(γT − θ)(−θ̇)
Ṙ + ṙ = VT cos(γT − θ).
On substituting for Ṙ + ṙ and ṙ, we get
VM VT cos(γT − θ) sin(γM − θ) + (R + r)aM cos(γM − θ)

−VM VT sin(γT − θ) cos(γM − θ) =
VT VM cos(γM − θ) sin(γT − θ) − VM sin(γM − θ)VT cos(γT − θ)

LOS Guidance
On simplifying, we get
(R + r)aM cos(γM − θ) = 2VT VM [cos(γM − θ) sin(γT − θ)

− sin(γM − θ)VT cos(γT − θ)]
= 2VT VM sin(γT − γM )
For ideal implementation of LOS guidance, missile lateral acceleration
2VT VM sin(γT − γM )
aM =
(R + r) cos(γM − θ)
Reference
1 D. Ghose, Lecture notes on Navigation, Guidance and Control, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore.

2022 Iitb Ae 410 641 19

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Navigation and Guidance

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 1 / 40

PPN: Guidance command ensuring the angular rate of VM ∝ LOS rate

Complex nonlinear kinematic equations to allow a simple closed-form

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 2 / 40

Vr = ṙ =VT cos(−θ) − VM cos(γM − θ)

Kinematics can be rewritten as

Vr = ṙ =VT cos θ − VM cos(γM − θ)

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 3 / 40

As the PPN guidance command is given by

Using this result, we can write

Vr =ṙ = VT cos θ − VM cos(kθ + ϕ0 )

Relative velocity equations can be expressed in terms of a single variable, that

Using these equations, we get

Completely solvable in the closed-form with for values of N = 1 and partially

Kinematics can be rewritten as

Vr = ṙ =VT cos θ − VM cos(γM − θ)

For qualitative analysis, normalized engagement kinematic becomes

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 6 / 40

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 7 / 40

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 8 / 40

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 9 / 40

Case 1: Let the missile be initially at point A.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 10 / 40

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 11 / 40

Case 2: Let the missile be initially at point B.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 12 / 40

Case 3: Consider that the missile is at point C.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 13 / 40

Case 4: Consider that the missile is at point D.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 14 / 40

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 15 / 40

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 16 / 40

vr (θ) = cos θ − 2.2 cos(2θ − 30◦ )

vθ (θ) = − sin θ − 2.2 sin(2θ − 30◦ )

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 18 / 40

vr0 = vr (30◦ ) = −1.039

vθ0 = vθ (30◦ ) = −1.6

As vθ0 < 0, θ decreases till

vrf = vr (12.2◦ ) = −1.212

Final LOS angle θf = 12.2◦ ,

To find the angle η we have vθf = 0, vrf < 0

Which one is correct answer? η = 5.512◦ .

Vr =ṙ = VT cos(γT − θ) − VM cos(γM − θ)

Assume that the engagement starts at time t = t0 = 0.

Engagement dynamics can also be written as

Vr = ṙ =VT cos(θ − avT t) − VM cos(γM − θ)

As the PPN guidance command is given by

Using this result, we can write

Now engagement kinematic becomes

Vr =ṙ = VT cos(θ − avT t) − VM cos(kθ + ϕ0 )

Relative velocity equations can be expressed in terms of both LOS angle θ

Results is similar to the non-maneuvering target case.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 24 / 40

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 25 / 40

Note that the time t is a constant here.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Navigation and Guidance 26 / 40

Assume that θθ is a root of vθ (θ) = 0 for a given time t.

From the above equation, we have

Suppose θθ = 30◦ , k = 2, ν = 3, ϕ0 = 115, avT = 0.1 then

If θθ = 15◦ with other parameters same then