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1988

Teaching strategies for developing a positive self-concept in

elementary school children
Judith Hostetter
University of Northern Iowa

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Teaching strategies for developing a positive self-concept in elementary school
children

Abstract
This is a fast paced, continuously changing, technological world. The daily papers are filled with crises
and social problems. Will the children, who are being educated today, be prepared for the future? Will the
skills and knowledge be outdated and of little or no use in the future? Are they being prepared to be happy,
productive adults?

This open access graduate research paper is available at UNI ScholarWorks: https://scholarworks.uni.edu/grp/2577
Teaching Strategies for Developing a Positive

Self-Concept in Elementary School Children

A Graduate Project

Submitted to the

Department of Curriculum and Instruction

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts in Education

University of Northern Iowa

by

Judith Hostetter

July, 1988
This Research Paper by: Judith Hostetter

Entitled: Teaching Strategies for Developing a

Positive Self-Concept in Elementary School

Children.

has been approved as meeting the research paper requirement

for the Degree of Master of Arts in Education.

Marvin Heller

pate' pp Director of Research Paper

Marvin Heller

Graduate Faculty'AvTser

Cathy L. Thompson

h /,f /ffi'
Greg Stefanich

H e a A p ~ f Curriculum
and Instruction
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Introduction. 1

Definition and Development. 4

Definition of Self-Concept . . 4
Development of Self-Concept. 7

Significant Others. 11

Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Teachers. . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . 15
Significance of Teachers. • . . • . 15

Relationship of Self-Concept and

School Achievement . . . . . • . 17

Teacher's Role • • . 22

Teachers' Self-Acceptance . . . . . . . . . 22
Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy . . . • . . 26
An Enhancing Environment . . • . 28
Building Success. . ......... . 34
Involving Parents . . . . . . . • . . . . . 38
Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

summary . . 45

References. 51
 1

Introduction

This is a fast paced, continuously changing,

technological world. The daily papers are filled

with crises and social problems. Will the children,

who are being educated today, be prepared for the

future? Will the skills and knowledge be outdated

and of little or no use in the future? Are they

being prepared to be happy, productive adults?

One unchanging factor is a need for a positive

image of self. They will always have their "self" as

a natural resource. If it is a happy well-adjusted

self, it will be advantageous. Society is becoming

more aware of the importance of promoting a positive

attitude towards self. Recently this has been

acknowledged in the news media through reports on

research and programs instituted in two states for

enhancement of self-concepts for their residents.

The waterloo Courier (March, 1987) and the NBC

Today Show (February, 1987) reported on California's

Task Force to Promote Self-Esteem and Personal and

Social Responsibility. California is spending

three-fourths of a million dollars (about what it

costs to keep thirteen convicts in prison for a

year) to study whether there is a relationship

 2

between the lack of self-esteem and social problems.

The task force will then recommend what government

can do to improve the self-esteem of the population.

It was regarded as a "warm fuzzy" approach to social

ills which would prevent dependency on drugs and

other negative forces. Canfield (1986) cited a

statement by John Vasconcellos, a California

legislator, who noted that the development of

healthy self-esteem may be the missing piece of the

puzzle of our otherwise seemingly intractable social

problems such as violence, teenage pregnancy,

alcohol and drug abuse.

In April 1987, Norma Quarels of the NBC Today

Show reported that Texas was making an all out

effort to improve the self-esteem of students in

hopes of reducing the dropout rate in public

schools. The importance of self-concept has not

been overlooked or underestimated in Texas and

California public schools.

In the 1970s, there was a renaissance of sorts

stressing the humanistic importance of children.

Educators were concerned about the affective side of

the child. Self-esteem was a very popular topic in

the 1970s. In the 1980s, there has been a resurgence

 3

for "back-to-basics." Educators are feeling the

pressure to raise standardized test scores and

teachers are being held accountable for these test

scores. In the midst of going back-to-basics,

raising test scores, and accountability, are

educators overlooking the need to develop totally

happy well adjusted children? Can the dilemma be

stated as an either-or, shall our schools teach

knowledge? or shall our schools teach for adjustment?

It cannot be reduced to an either-or-issue; children

need to be both, well adjusted and know something.

our concern over the high dropout rate and our

anxiety for the children at risk in our schools is

derived from an over-emphasis on intellectual growth

at the expense of the personal-emotional side of the

child's development. Dr. David Elkind (1974)

stated, "I strongly believe that most problems in

child rearing and education could be avoided if the

adult's concern for a child's achievement as a

student were balanced by an equally strong concern

for his feelings of self-worth as a person" (p. 57).

There must be a balance of the affective and

cognitive aspects of education.

 4

This paper will discuss the definition of

self-concept, cite studies on the importance of a

positive self-concept, examine the development of

self-concept, and identify the "significant others"

that influence a child's self-concept. In addition,

the role of teachers and how they can make a

difference on students' self-concepts will be

included. Specifically, teacher's self-acceptance,

effects of the self-fulfilling prophecy, classroom

environment, the importance of success and including

the parents in their child's educational experience

are topics that are covered in this review. These

are areas of importance in guiding children to a

positive self-concept and satisfactory academic

achievement. They will take very little time from a

busy teacher's schedule. Frequently, an awareness

of these topics is all that is needed to help

teachers become enhancers of positive self-concepts.

Definition and Development

Definition of Self-Concept

Teachers have been told that they should

promote and develop a positive self-concept in

children. The term self-concept is often used when

discussing children, schools, and academic

 5

achievement; and, therefore, should be clearly

understood. What really is a child's self-concept?

Sprigle (1980) contends that self-concept,

sometimes referred to as the self-image, is the view

the child holds of himself/herself as a result of

real-life experiences with parents, siblings,

relatives, peers, and teachers. This view can be

either positive, negative, or a shade between.

Samuels (1977) noted the following dimensions of

self-concept: body self (or body image), cognitive

self, social self, and self-esteem, (the evaluative

aspect of the self-concept). Self-esteem is defined

by Coopersmith cited in (Gurney, 1987) as:

The evaluation which the individual makes

and customarily maintains with regard to

himself--it expresses an attitude of

approval or disapproval and indicates the

extent to which an individual believes

himself to be capable, significant,

successful and worthy. (p. 130)

Yawkey (1980) posited that self-concept is a

conglomeration of unitary processes, as well as a set

of separate components--all of which reflect what a

child knows and how the individual feels about

 6

himself/herself at given times in various activities.

Ingraham's (1985) defined self-concept as a

multifaceted construct which includes the individual's

perception of self in the social, physical, academic,

and emotional domain. Self-concept is developed and

modified by the feedback, cues, and information one

receives about oneself.

Silvernail (1985) went to great lengths to

discuss the various definitions used by writers and

researchers. He came to a final definition of "the

way we perceive ourselves and our actions, and

opinions regarding how others perceive us--a

person's perception of himself/herself'' (p. 9). He,

like Samuels (1977), stated that self-esteem is the

evaluative dimension of self-concept, how we value

ourselves.

Still another authority on self-concept,

Hamacheck (1987), defined it as the organized

cognitive structure of ourselves as individuals

derived from the sum of all our experiences. He

went on to say, "from these experiences grow the

ideas (concepts) of the kind of person we see

ourselves as being" (p. 10). Hamacheck listed four

separate but interrelated aspects of self-concept;

 7

physical, social, emotional, and intellectual.

These are similar to those listed by Samuels (1977)

and Ingraham (1985).

In this paper, self-concept will mean; how a

child views himself/herself and the value the child

gives to the self. The way in which a child sees

himself/herself. Self-concept is an individual's

set of inferences made on the basis of a child's

experiences. The key word being experiences.

There are a variety of terms synonymously used

when writers and researchers discuss self-concept;

self-image, self-esteem, self-regard, self-perception,

and self-worth. As there is not a consensus of the

terminology, the terms will be used interchangeably

throughout this literature review.

Development of Self-Concept

Self-concept begins at birth (Silvernail,

1985). Within a few seconds after birth the child

begins to interact with the environment. In a few

weeks the infant becomes aware of his/her existence

as a separate entity. The first signs of separation

from the mother can be noted in the third or fourth

month after birth. Quickly the child begins to see

himself/herself as separate from other people and

 8

within a few months will assign a perception of his/

her self. Once the self is perceived the language

is acquired, the core dimension of the self-concept

formulates quickly.

The first few years are crucial to a child's

development, physically, socially, and

intellectually (Silvernail, 1985). The environment

with which the child interacts, early in life,

establishes the core self-concept. The parental

care received in the early years plays an essential

role in defining the child's self-image. Silvernail

(1985) contends that a supportive environment, with

many stimuli and visible love and care on the part

of parents, will enhance the development of a

psychologically sound and stable self-concept. An

opposite environment will, in all likelihood, result

in children who are psychologically crippled.

Swayze (1980) believes the self-concept is

acquired, not inherited. She agrees with Silvernail

that it evolves from birth. A person's perception

of himself/herself is based primarily on the

relationships he/she has with the immediate family

and other significant persons. Consequently, the

care a child receives in the early years, prior to

 9

attending school, sets the stage for the future

development of self-concept.

Drawing from the definition of self-concept it is

clear that one's self-concept can change with an

individual's experiences. One's self-concept is

limited at any stage of life by what his/her

experiences have been (McDonald, 1959). A pre-school

child interacts with a limited number of people,

mostly with parents, brothers, and sisters. The

picture of the child's self is determined by the

experiences in these interactions.

As children enter school and interact with

teachers and classmates, new tasks are set for them

and they are successful or unsuccessful in the

accomplishment of these tasks. The child will then

make more inferences about his/her capabilities.

Children tend to learn quickly who the "brightest"

students are in reading, math, and science even though

teachers attempt to disguise these facts. As children

progress through school, they learn what their

physical and mental capabilities are, draw inferences

about their capabilities and develop patterns of likes

and dislikes (McDonald, 1959). During the process of

assimilating new experiences, the child is continually

 10

revising his/her self-concept. Again, self-concept is

the set of inferences a person makes about

himself/herself on the basis of personal experiences.

The development of our self-concept is influenced by

others.

A person interacts with people at every stage of

life. We frequently receive descriptions of ourselves

from other people. A teacher may say to a student,

"You are not very good at drawing" and a parent may

tell the child that he/she is fat. The child may

accept these descriptions as reliable and may include

these descriptions in his/her self-concept, saying,

"I'm not good at drawing" and, "I am fat."

A child will also draw inferences about the self

from the way in which he/she is treated by other

people. If few children choose a child for a friend,

the child will infer that, "I am not likeable." A

child may be the last chosen for a relay race and

will infer, "I am not a fast runner." When a teacher

does not call on a child for answers, the child will

infer, "the teacher thinks I do not know anything."

"I am dumb." Parents, teachers and friends are

viewed as sources of reliable information to the

child and, therefore, greatly influence how the child

 11

views the self. The significant aspects of a

person's self-description is the product of one's

inferences from self-observation and from others'

descriptions of the self that he/she accepts

(McDonald, 1959).

The development of a child's self-concept is

learned, not inherited. It develops as a result of

experiences with significant others and the

inferences that are made from these experiences.

Self-concept can be ever changing with new

experiences--positive or negative, however they are

inferred.

Significant Others

As mentioned earlier self-concept is not

inherited, but evolves from experiences (experiences

with significant others, family, teachers and

friends). These people are considered important

sources of information about one's personal worth by

what is said and the treatment and care given to the

child. Inferences of how one feels about oneself

(self-concept) are drawn from these experiences with

significant others. In this review of the

literature, parents and teachers will be considered

as the primary sources of feedback for the child.

 12

Parents

American children who enter school at age five

or six have learned many of the same lessons.

However, there are also many differences. According

to Loree (1965), children differ in their attitudes

toward adults. One child may view adults as helpful

and friendly; another child may have learned to fear

adults, or at least, not to trust them. Children

also differ in their attitudes toward themselves

(Loree, 1965). One child learns to be dissatisfied

with himself/herself, and frequently wishes he/she

were like someone else; and another child develops a

high degree of self-acceptance. In many ways, five

and six year-olds differ and to a considerable

extent, these differences are attributable to the

home environment. Early childhood experiences are

vitally important in forming the kinds of persons we

become.

The impact of early parental care on self-concept

development is tremendous and long lasting

(Silvernail, 1985). The significance assigned to

parental care should not be underestimated.

Silvernail (1985) cited a study that found the child's

level of self-regard is related to the parents' level

 13

of regard for the child. Several writers (Hanner,

1974; Samuels, 1977; Silvernail, 1985; Swayze, 1980)

discussed parental self-concept, particularly

maternal, and noted the relationship to child rearing

practices and the child's personal development.

Mothers who possessed positive self-esteem tended to

show greater affection and warmth toward their

children and mothers who were more self-accepting

showed more approval and acceptance of their children.

How a mother views herself and how she perceives and

treats her child are inseparable (Swayze, 1980).

Silvernail (1985) contends that highly anxious

children come from homes in which the mothers were

less secure than normal. A mother's self-concept is

positively related to their child's self-concept

(Silvernail, 1985).

Self-perceptions of young children are largely a

function of feedback from parents or guardians since

these are the most significant others (Beane & Lipka,

1984). A home environment in which parents

demonstrate trust, love, and a welcoming attitude

fosters a healthy self-concept, and promotes positive

self-esteem. For many children this kind of home is

far from reality. Many parents are unhappy in their

 14

own lives or do not know how to parent their young

children. These parents may be young, have limited

educational backgrounds and live in poverty. In such

homes, children may face constant physical punishment

or abuse, tentative and conditional love, and

rejection and denial of self-worth. Many children

that come from this type of home environment are

considered students at risk in our schools.

The U.S. Department of Education reports the

dropout rates are more than three times higher for

poor children than for affluent children. That

nearly half of all poor children (47 percent) score

in the bottom quarter on achievement tests, twice

the rate of nonpoor children (19 percent). Low

achievers are five times more likely than other

students to become dependent on welfare. How can

this cycle of despair be broken? As mentioned

earlier, teachers are considered a major source of

input for developing a child's self-worth. Research

(Berne, 1985; Hamacheck, 1985; Sagor, 1988) has

shown that disadvantaged children can succeed as

well as other children in our schools. A big

responsibility for this success falls on the

classroom teachers.
 15

Teachers

The first day of kindergarten is a milestone in

the lives of children. Parents and family will no

longer be the primary person in the child's life.

Others--teachers, friends, and peers begin to

influence and affect development of the child's

self-concept. If these new significant others

consider and treat the child as worthwhile and

important, they will help the child develop a

positive self-image (Borba, 1978).

Significance of Teachers

Teachers are a significant other in the lives

of young children as they continually evaluate and

describe a child's behavior. As such they become a

role model. By what is said, how it is said, their

facial expression, teachers convey personal feelings

toward a child. Through teacher reactions the child

learns how to perceive the self. The teacher also

determines how an entire class will perceive

individual children. Teacher interactions are,

therefore, significant. If a child perceives

himself/herself negatively and this is reinforced by

the teacher, peers will more likely model the

teacher's behavior (Samuels, 1977).

 16

Teacher feedback about work was found to be a

better predictor of children's abilities and effort

than were other types of interactions with the

teacher or peers (Pintrich & Blumenfeld, 1985).

Children who were praised for their work regarded

themselves as "smarter" and worked harder than did

those who had experienced lower levels of work

praise from their teachers.

Students who felt they were liked and respected

by their teachers had higher self-concepts than

those who believed they were disliked by their

teachers. They were more dissatisfied with

themselves (Silvernail, 1985).

Beltz (1986) stated that teachers become

involved with students' self-esteem when those who

have feelings of poor self-worth are not working at

maximum potential. A child with a poor self-concept,

may discount personal successes. An intervening

adult is needed to break the cycle of self-defeat and

build self-esteem.

The teacher's role as a significant other

cannot be underestimated. For some children, it is

necessary to provide hope for success in school and

in their futures. Teachers cannot alter the home

 17

situation. Children must be accepted as they come

to school, and the teacher should attempt to do the

best for them cognitively and affectively. Concern

for helping children develop intellectually should

not overshadow an equally important concern for

their personal development. Many children will need

only a nurturing of the already positive feelings of

themselves. For those with a low self-concept,

teachers must accept the challenge to help them feel

good about themselves, to break the cycle of defeat,

to foster personal pride, and to heighten their

sense of self-worth. Such children need a caring,

sensitive teacher to affirm that they are lovable

and capable. Overcoming a negative self-concept is

one of the most prevalent problems facing all

educators today--kindergarten through college

(Canfield, 1986).

Relationship of Self-Concept

and School Achievement

A question frequently asked by teachers is,

"How is self-concept related to the learning of

subject matter?" Many teachers almost totally

ignore the aspect of self-concept in their teaching

because: (a) they feel the schools' role is to

 18

teach subject matter and not change personalities,

and (b) time spent on enhancing self-concept could

be better spent on academic instruction (Jones &

Jones, 1981). Teachers' time is limited and they

must show academic growth in the content areas

(accountability). Again the push is back-to-basics,

the acquisition of knowledge.

However, Jones and Jones (1981) contend teachers

must be accountable for employing those methods that

have been shown to increase student achievement.

Since positive student self-concept is related to

student achievement, it follows that teachers should

attempt to enhance student self-concept in order to

increase learning. The research literature is filled

with reports indicating that cognitive learning

increases when self-concept increases (Purkey, 1970;

Silvernail, 1985; Vandergriff & Rust, 1985). The

findings indicate a significant and positive

relationship between the two variables; a high

self-concept is associated with high achievement, and

low self-concept with low achievement.

By the time a child reaches school age, the

self-concept is quite well formed and the reactions

to learning, to school failure and success, and to

 19

the physical, social, and emotional climate of the

classroom will be determined by the beliefs and

attitudes the child has of himself/herself

(Canfield, 1976). Perhaps the most considerable

supporting evidence of this view was provided in a

study by Wattenburg and Clifford cited in Burns,

(1979); Canfield, (1976); and Samuels, (1977).

Wattenburg and Clifford (1964) studied kindergarten

children in an attempt to see if self-concept was

predictive of reading success. They studied 128

kindergarten students in two schools, one serving

lower-class, the other middle-class neighborhoods.

Measures of intelligence, self-concept, ego

strength, and reading ability of all the students

were examined when students were in kindergarten,

and again when they finished second grade. It was

found that measures of self-concept and ego strength

made at the beginning of kindergarten were more

predictive of reading achievement, two and one half

years later, than were measures of intelligence.

A study of 104 second-grade students from two

suburban Tennessee schools supported previous research

on the relationships between classroom performance and

self-concept. The results overwhelmingly indicated

 20

that high-achieving individuals had significantly

higher self-concepts than low achievers (Vandergriff &

Rust, 1985). High achieving students were found to

view themselves more favorably in school settings, saw

themselves as better behaved than other students, and

felt better about themselves. In addition, the total

self-concept of high achieving students was found to

be greater than low-achieving students.

The importance of a positive self-concept, and

a child's adjustment to the school environment and

how they correlate with school achievement cannot be

overlooked. When children feel good about

themselves and being in school, it will reflect in

their school work. However, when children do not

feel good about themselves and make a poor

adjustment to the school environment this also shows

in their school achievement. These children

experience little success, they get constant

feedback of their academic incompetence, which

further reinforces their negative concepts of

themselves. They begin to feel out of place at

school and that school has nothing to offer them.

And most discouragingly, they do not feel they have

 21

any control over their lives at school (Sagor,

1988) .

Our at risk students are confirmed

externalizers; they interpret successes or failures

as beyond their control--the consequences of luck

(Sagor, 1988). They blame someone else--the mean

teachers, the unfair principal, for their problems.

Many of the children of poverty, who don't see their

parents hard work rewarded, think success has to do

with luck rather than hard work and perseverance.

A student who does not feel a sense of personal

control and responsibility for achievement in school

will experience negative affect and self-perceptions

which can increase the likelihood of school failure

(Ingraham, 1985). The schools must acknowledge that

helping a student feel good about himself/herself is

just as essential as raising test scores. Self-esteem

is a feeling about oneself that is learned. Educators

need to consider the importance self-concept plays in

influencing children's academic achievement. They

work together, one is just as important as the other.

They play an equal part in building happy, successful

children that will grow up to be well-adjusted adults.

If educators do not pay attention to the affective

 22

side of the child, there may be an increase in the

already high dropout rate. What can be done?

Many guidance programs have been developed to

help children clarify their self-concepts. However,

the guidance counselor cannot assume the sole

responsibility of developing positive self-concepts

for students in his/her buildings. The classroom

teacher needs to take an active role on a daily

basis of contributing to the students' self-esteem.

The classroom teacher is the primary caretaker in

the schools. As stated earlier, self-concept will

change with an individual's experiences. It is up

to the classroom teachers to provide experiences

which build positive self-concepts.

Teachers' Role

Teachers play an important role in the

development of children's self-concepts which are

reflected in their academic achievement. What are

some specific things teachers can do to enhance a

student's self image?

Teachers' Self-Acceptance

Teachers need to feel good about themselves and

what they are doing. Samuels (1977) indicated that

teachers attitudes toward themselves may be more

 23

important than their techniques, practices, or

materials. He stated that positive teacher

attitudes transcend methods, skills, techniques,

performance, and competencies. These positive

attitudes are more likely to exist if the teacher is

confident and well adjusted.

Beane and Lipka (1984) reported evidence that

indicates teachers with the clearest and most

positive sense of self are in the best position to

facilitate positive self-perception of learners.

When teachers have essentially favorable attitudes

toward themselves, they are in a much better position

to build positive and realistic self-concepts in

their students (Purkey, 1970).

Burns (1979) cited studies on the relationship

of teacher effectiveness and teacher self-concept.

He said effective teachers appear to be different

from ineffective ones by demonstrating:

(a) a willingness to be more flexible; (b)

an empathic ability, sensitive to the

needs of the pupils; (c) an ability to

personalize their teaching; (d) an

appreciative reinforcing attitude; (e) an

easy, informal, warm, conversational

 24

teaching manner; (f) emotional adjustment

(p. 301) •

He cited another author D. G. Ryans, who found that

teachers who were reported to have high emotional

stability, frequently named self-confidence as a

dominant trait in themselves. They also preferred

active contact with people. Those with low

emotional stability scores preferred not to have

contact with others, possessed less self-confidence,

and were more authoritarian in their classrooms.

Burns (1979) cites research which indicates

that positive self-concepts in teachers facilitates

not only their own classroom performance as a

confident, unanxious, respected guide to learning,

but also promotes pupil performance. This

flourishes when the pupil is in relationship with

someone who projects trust and belief in his/her

capacity and a warm, supportive ethos which enhances

the pupil's view of himself/herself as someone of

worth. Expectancies from such teachers lead to

higher pupil self-esteem and improved performance.

Modeling

Gurney (1987) suggests that training teachers to

encourage self-rewarding behavior is a most useful

 25

procedure. In addition, increased self-praise by

teachers is helpful both to the pupils, in a modeling

sense, and to the teachers themselves.

He says teachers should remember to praise

themselves and each other. Because of this

self-reinforcement they will also improve their

self-esteem, gain confidence and become more

intrinsically motivated.

Canfield (1986) contends the most important thing

you can do to teach positive self-esteem is to model

it. Teachers need to exhibit positive self-esteem in

their classrooms. He defined this as:

Acknowledging yourself, admitting your

mistakes as well as your successes,

accepting and expressing your feelings,

nurturing yourself and your body, taking

good care of yourself, eliminating

self-destructive and self-defeating

behaviors (overeating, smoking, alcohol and

drug abuse, lack of exercise, lack of sleep

and play, and putting yourself down),

laughing at yourself, being flexible, being

willing to be wrong (p. 16).

 26

Who you are teaches more than anything you will ever

say.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Several writers discussed the "self-fulfilling

prophecy" (Burns, 1979; Charles, 1981; Covington &

Beery, 1976; DeAnda, 1975; Hamacheck, 1987; Neauman,

1978; Samuels, 1977; Silvernail, 1985). The

self-fulfilling prophecy is based on the assumption

that children will behave as others expect them to

behave. Thus feedback from significant others is

essential to modifying self-concepts. If the feedback

is constantly negative, self-esteem will likely

deteriorate. If it conveys great worth, self-esteem

will tend to improve (Anderson, Redman, & Rogers,

1984).

Purkey (1970) concluded that the teachers'

attitudes and opinions regarding students have a

significant influence on their success in school.

When teachers believe students can achieve, the

students appear to be more successful; when the

teacher believes that the students cannot achieve,

then it influences their performance negatively.

This self-fulfilling prophecy was brought to our

attention by the research of Rosenthal and Jacobson

 27

(1968). The basic hypothesis of their research was

that students, more often than not, do what is

expected of them.

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) conducted an

experiment in a public elementary school of 650

students. The teachers were told the names of

one-fifth of their students that would make

significant increases in mental ability, based on

ability tests. In reality these children were

randomly selected. These children were later

described by their teachers as happier, more

curious, more interesting, and as having a better

chance of future success than the other children.

The conclusion drawn by Rosenthal and Jacobson is

that the teacher, through facial expressions,

posture, touch; and through what, how and when

he/she spoke subtly helped the child to learn. They

summarized their study by stating that the evidence

strongly suggested that "children who are expected

by their teachers to gain intellectually in fact do

show greater intellectual gains after one year than

do children of whom such gains are not expected"

(Purkey, 1970, p. 48).

 28

Another study of lower income black children in

kindergarten conducted by Rist (1970) substantiates

the self-fulfilling prophecy. It was observed that

subjective evaluations (ability to interact with

adults, how clean and neat, and family background)

made by the teacher were based on a determination of

success factors. These were related to social class

expectations, rather than a measure of ability

(Samuels, 1977).

Samuels (1977) stated the self-fulfilling

prophecy is particularly destructive for lower-class

and non-white children. The teacher must believe

that children can learn and must challenge them to

perform their potential. Children who believe they

are competent and worthy develop an "I-can-do-it"

attitude for coping with the problems and

frustrations of life (Anderson et al., 1984).

An Enhancing Environment

It is the responsibility of the classroom

teacher to set the tone for the classroom. It can

be an inviting classroom where the students eagerly

enter the room or one of despair where the students

dread entering. The teacher can involve the

students and make the classroom "ours" or be a

 29

dictator and keep the classroom within his/her

clutches.

Purkey (1970) stated, "Traditionally, the child

is expected to adjust to the school, rather than the

school adjusting to the child. To insure this

process, the school is prepared to dispense rewards

and punishments, successes and failures, on a

massive scale." (p. 40)

All too often, schools are places where

students face failure, rejection, and daily

reminders of their limitations. Competitive

evaluations are used and competition among students

is encouraged. Students are encouraged to enhance

themselves by demonstrating their superiority over

their fellow students.

Schools sort out students as well as teach

them; students who learn quickest are selected to

learn more and thereby prosper in a society that

values high educational attainments. The results of

this sorting-out process are disappointed hopes,

anguish, and resentment among those who do not reach

the "top" (Covington & Berry, 1976). Many of these

students dropout of school to avoid the

disappointment and lack of success that schools

 30

delegate. There is a solution to this competitive

atmosphere, that of cooperation. Cooperative

learning in mixed-ability groups is a promising

strategy that meets the needs of discouraged as well

as motivated learners. A truly cooperative

classroom allows every student to demonstrate

competence, to feel a sense of belonging,

usefulness, and personal potency (Sagor, 1988).

When students support each other in mixed-ability

groups, they learn a lot more than just their lessons.

They also gain self-esteem and are far more accepting

of each other and of individual differences

(Bernagozzi, 1988). Lickona (1988) contends through

cooperative learning that one develops a sense of

community. This is important as it contributes to

self-esteem, partly by creating a norm of mutual

respect that inhibits put-downs and partly by helping

children to feel known and positively valued by their

peers. A supportive classroom community provides a

surrogate "family" that helps to meet important

emotional needs that are not being met at home for

some students.

In addition to establishing a cooperative

classroom, teachers can make an enhancing school

 31

environment by using positive praise. Children too

often hear the negative, "You missed • . . . You

should have . . . . That's wrong."

Hamacheck (1987) contends praise can be a big

builder of self-esteem; it can be the feedback that

enhances both motivation and self-confidence. He

says research suggests that low socioeconomic status

and low ability students respond positively to

praise of all sorts because of their frequent

encounters with failure.

Social reinforcers such as teacher praise,

smiles, and compliments are valued by most students

and can increase many desirable behaviors (Hasentab,

1988). If children are praised they will more

likely repeat that behavior because it had a

pleasant result. Hasentab (1988) cautions,

"Praising specific behaviors is more effective than

general praise and public praise is not rewarding

for some students" (p. 4).

Hamacheck (1987) noted that not all praise is

verbal. A teacher's feelings can be conveyed by

nonverbal means; a pat on the shoulder, a nod, a

smile, a wink, or stopping long enough to take a

good look at what is done.

 32

Children who were praised more for their work

thought they were smarter and worked harder than did

children who received less praise for their work.

This was concluded by Pintrich and Blumenfield (1985)

in a study with second-grade and sixth-grade

classrooms. Another study by Hauserman et al. (1976),

suggests that making positive self-statements and

having them reinforced is important in raising

self-concept.

Children may need to be taught how to make

positive self-statements, the teacher can model this

for them by praising herself/himself in front of the

children. Often, children with negative self-images

really don't know how to speak positively regarding

their own efforts (Borba, 1978). Teachers will need

to help children see and feel their successes.

Whenever success occurs, the teacher should help the

child verbalize the success, soon it will become

automatic and this positive attitude will be

internalized by the child.

Canfield (1986) contends creating an

environment of mutual support and caring is most

important. Without the critical environment which

includes dimensions of trust, caring, and openness,

 33

the teachers efforts to enhance pupils' sense of

self-esteem will be seriously limited. He listed

several attributes of a learning environment which

effectively enhance students' self-esteem:

1. Children feel loved, nurtured and cared

for.

2. Children feel secure enough to risk

attempting new things without being concerned about

failure.

3. Children are respected as individuals.

4. Children are encouraged to show initiative,

and can freely express their ideas and opinions.

5. Children understand there are definite and

clear limits within the classroom environment.

6. Limits, including rules and standards, are

fairly and consistently enforced for all children.

7. Children have opportunities for success,

and succeed on their own ability and achievement

levels. (pp. El-E2)

start each day by consciously creating an

environment in your classroom of mutual support,

respect, cooperation, and a very positive note.

 34

Building Success
Glasser (1969) emphasizes how crucial school is

for self-concept development. He says schools offer

youth their best opportunity for success and

recognition. Schools are the only places where

genuine success and recognition are available to

many. This is essential if students are to reach

fundamental life goals (Charles, 1981).

Charles (1981) contends that self-concept is

built on experience. A strong self-concept grows

from successful functioning in different aspects of

life. A poor self-concept evolves from failure. He

says if the findings of research on self-concept are

examined, it must be concluded that nothing is so

important as success. Nothing is as damaging to

self-concept as failure.

The idea that successful achievement enhances

self-perceptions (while the lack of success has a

negative influence) has tremendous implications for

the school experience (Beane & Lipka, 1984). It

must be understood that schools, rather than

students, provide the framework that leads to

success or failure (Lundell, 1982). Children need

 35

to feel that the tasks they perform are appropriate,

relevant, and will lead to success (Samuels, 1977).

The teacher describes and evaluates a child's

behavior and academic performance to him/her. The

teacher is a very important source of the child's

information about himself/herself.

Sagor (1988) asked, "Can we teachers, armed

with an understanding of the perspective,

experience, and orientation of the at risk student,

develop classrooms and lessons that will change his

view of himself and school and put him on a path to

academic success?" (p. 30) Yes, but the task will

not be easy. The at risk student is often not easy

to work with. They frequently are defiant and

unmotivated. Teachers must force their way through

the negatives to help the discouraged learner

succeed.

Teachers should start by building a sense of

success by creating situations where failure is

unlikely (Berne, 1985). They should arrange

experiences or structure larger tasks into a series

of easy steps so that the child's sense of failure

does not stop him from trying. If the child has

small successes, he/she will be willing to try and

 36

will, hopefully, experience more success. These

successes begin to build on one another and the

child begins to re-evaluate his/her perception and

begins to view himself/herself as successful. The

child will develop an "I-can-do-it" attitude. The

child will begin to be more of a risk taker when

he/she encounters new material. According to

Canfield (1986) the child, who has more success

"chips" in his pocket, is more willing to take a

chance at something new. Hopefully, this will set

up a chain of events for more successes. Children

will feel better about themselves and their

abilities if teachers can help them build a history

of successes (Berne, 1985).

Hamacheck (1987) reported success, expected or

unexpected, can do great things for one's ego, which

in turn elevates self-confidence. Then this is

translated into higher self-imposed expectations that

one strives harder to live up to. This takes us back

to teacher expectations and the self-fulfilling

prophecy, if teachers expect students to succeed, they

more than likely will succeed. Particularly, if they

plan the curriculum to meet the students abilities so

that success is assured.

 37

Sagor (1988) stated that defeated and

discouraged learners may be low on skills, but that

does not mean they are low on intelligence.

Building on their strengths can work wonders; these

students are all too accustomed to having their

weaknesses pointed out. By using mastery learning

techniques, we can create an environment where

everyone is successful and everyone develops

self-esteem (Sagor, 1988).

Mastery learning is a technique that insures

success and encourages co-operative learning.

Mueller (1976) concluded mastery learning reduces

competition among students and reduces student

failure and the frustration which accompanies

repeated failure. He states mastery learning is

also an effective model to use with educationally

disadvantaged students and slow learners (i.e., our

children of today that are considered at risk in our

schools).

Self-concept is built on experience (Charles,

1981). A strong self-concept grows out of

successful experiences. A poor self-concept grows

out of failure. Charles (1981) concluded that for a

strong self-concept, nothing is so important as

 38

success and nothing is so damaging to self-concept

as failure. Perhaps the single most important step

that teachers can take in the classroom is to

provide an educational atmosphere of success rather

than failure (Purkey, 1970).

Involving Parents

Since parents exert the first and most powerful

influence, their role should be examined. Parents

are the most significant people in young children's

lives and the ones with whom the children spend the

majority of their time (Samuels, 1977). Hamacheck

(1987) stressed parental importance:

Before children begin their formal

schooling they are in the custody of their

parents or parent surrogates for five or

six years. In that period of time, an

overall blueprint for subsequent

self-concept development has been drawn.

The details of that blueprint will be

sketched in during the next ten years or

so of a child's life. Parental input

through feedback and evaluation, parental

caring or lack of it, and parental

acceptance or rejection contribute

 39

importantly to the finished draft. (p.

279)

Yawkey (1980) says a child's self-concept is

affected by many variables, but none as important as

the self-concept and self-esteem of parents.

Because parental self-concept is so important, it is

as critical to give parents understanding, support,

and reinforcement as it is to provide these for the

children.

A disproportionate number of students at risk

come to us from fragile families (Sagar, 1988).

Fragile should not be mistaken as a synonym for

single parent or low income; fragile families can

best be defined as those in which quality nurturing

is frequently lacking due to an array of stresses,

traumas, and concerns which the child cannot

control. Our successful students have parents or

other adults in their lives who serve as advocates

for them and their interests and stand by them if

they get in trouble. Almost all at risk students

lack such support.

Samuels (1977) contends the school bears the

major responsibility for initiating good relationships

with parents. He says the self-fulfilling prophecy

 40

operates with parents as well as with children. If

little cooperation is expected, that is what will

likely occur. Samuels notes a need to improve

communication with parents. He also states that the

development of trust and acceptance by parents takes

time. Confidence is built after much contact and good

experiences. This is particularly true with parents

who do not feel positive about themselves.

There are many things a classroom teacher can

do to encourage parents to be active partners in

their child's education. Here are a few of them:

1. Hold a young-parent tea party. Parents who

are sending a child to school for the first time

often have fears and anxieties about losing their

children. It will be helpful to them if they are

shown what their child will experience. This is

also an excellent way to recruit volunteers (Purkey,

1984).

2. Assign can-do homework. Homework should be

assigned in which the student has a good chance of

success (Purkey, 1984). This will make the parents

feel better about themselves if their child is

successfully completing his/her homework.

 41

3. Each week call a parent with some honest

and positive report about his or her child. If

there is no phone, a post card will do (Purkey,

1984) .

4. Send home simple descriptions of topics

being covered in class to foster parent interest and

stimulate parent-child conversations about school

(U.S. Dept. of Ed., 1987).

5. Provide encouragement and access to parents

by: (a) sending notes home when children are doing

well, as well as when problems arise, (b) open up

the classroom for parent observation and hold social

events at which parents and teachers can get

acquainted in a friendly, informal atmosphere, (c)

inform parents regarding how to reach the principal

and the teacher, (d) hold parent conferences at

hours convenient for working parents (U.S. Dept. of

Ed., 1987) •

6. Help parents assist their children with

schoolwork. Many low-income parents may want to

provide more direct academic help to their children,

but those with less formal schooling may lack the

confidence or the know-how. To help these parents,

schools can: (a) establish teacher homework

 42

hotlines in which teachers are available for

immediate information needs, or use other students
to tutor their peers, (b) inform parents about
specific learning activities they can do with their
children, (c) make available inexpensive workbooks
with projects to be done at home by children and
their parents, (d) show parents the importance of
everyday actions that emphasize the value of
education, such as encouraging their children to
read (U.S. Dept. of Ed., 1987).
Parents continue to play a critical role in
their children's self-concept development long after
they enter school (Silvernail, 1985). Gurney (1987)
stated that involving the parent appears to be
crucial. Parents are very important to their
children in terms of developing and maintaining
self-esteem. Parents can quickly undermine the best
plans for enhancing the student's self-concept.
Clearly it is worth the effort to attempt to bring
together the two most significant other groups in
the lives of children.
Guidelines
Several ideas, guidelines, and checklists for
developing positive self-concepts in children have
 43

been developed. Two were regarded as particularly

useful.

The first was developed by McDonald (1980). Ten

guidelines for enhancing a positive self-concept:

1. Recognize, respect, and encourage

individual differences.

2. Teach children to be pleased about the good

fortune of others. Teach children to be empathetic

toward others.

3. Capitalize on strengths. Structure for

success and provide for a minimum of failure.

4. Provide a comprehensive range of activities

and experiences.

5. Separate a child's behavior from the person

he is. Praise or punish the behavior, not the

child. state desired behaviors positively.

6. Refrain from blaming children when

something goes wrong that is not their fault.

7. Keep promises.

8. Provide the child with appropriate models.

9. Be consistent.

10. Allow a child progressively more autonomy.

Gradually permit him/her to do things independently

and make decisions on his/her own.

 44

Berne (1985) stressed the need for success in

her seven secrets for building self-esteem:

1. Build in success, create situations where

failure is unlikely.

2. State the positive.

3. Capitalize on successes.

4. Watch for growth sparks (signs of

interest).

5. Value and acknowledge (keep a collection of

tangible work).

6. Keep expectations realistic.

7. Don't be boring (active involvement

nourishes self-esteem). (pp. 63-65)

Hanner (1974) summed up what teachers can do:

accept each child as unique, and demonstrate this

acceptance not only in verbal ways, but through acts

of non-verbal communication (smiles, nods, touch);

have realistic expectations; and provide many

experiences which are successful.

Teachers need to be aware of these and make an

effort to incorporate them into their classroom

environment. They should model those behaviors that

will contribute to a positive climate.

 45

Summary

A child's self-concept is influenced by his/her

interpersonal relationships and the experiences

he/she has with significant others, namely parents

and teachers. A child who is liked, approved, and

experiences success is apt to develop attitudes of

self-acceptance. However, a child who is rejected

and experiences failure is likely to develop

negative attitudes. An individual's concept of self

is determined by the types of experiences previously

encountered. Children also draw their conclusions

about themselves by the way others talk to them and

treat them.

Children behave in terms of their self-concepts.

Students who feel they are able to learn are likely to

try. Students who do not feel able to learn will find

ways of avoiding learning to escape embarrassment,

humiliation, or fear (Combs, 1982). These children

and their behaviors can have a detrimental effect on

classrooms. These children are considered the

school's students at risk. They come from fragile

families where there has been little support,

acceptance, and nurturing. These children come to

school with few positive feelings about themselves and

 46

their abilities. Unless a new direction is given to

these children, they may become our future drug users,

dropouts, and unemployed welfare recipients.

Samuels (1977) states that a major goal of the

school must be to help children function as

contributing members of society. The child who comes

to school with a healthy, positive self-concept is

very fortunate. For the underconfident child who has

not developed self-worth in a stable home, the

teacher's job is more difficult. The teacher has to

intervene and help the child develop a positive

self-concept. There are many ways the classroom

teacher can help these children. The teacher needs to

be self-accepting. If the teacher is a happy,

well-adjusted person, confident with his/her role in

life, it will more than likely carry over into his/her

work. The children will pick up on this positive

attitude. The teacher needs to model self-praising

behavior, so the children will know how and then they

can imitate.

Classroom teachers need to be aware of the

significance of the self-fulfilling prophecy and its

implications on their students achievement. They

need to know it is not only the things they say, but

 47

also the things they do not say and their actions

that tell the child they are worthy or unworthy.

Teachers need to impart a feeling of "I believe in

you" to their students.

The classroom environment is also the teacher's

responsibility. It can be a happy, inviting

classroom or one in which students dread or fear

entering. The teacher sets the tone. Research

(Bernagozzi, 1988; Mueller, 1976) has shown in

classrooms where teachers encourage cooperation

rather than competition, the students encounter less

stress, are more willing to take risks, are more

successful, and feel better about themselves.

The classroom teacher has to insure that

his/her students will meet success in the classroom.

Many of our children come to school possessing

self-doubts and negative feelings about themselves

and their capabilities. These children may appear

unmotivated, undisciplined, or uninterested in

school and learning. These children are not easy to

work with and will quite often damage the teacher's

self-image if he/she is not prepared for the

monumental task of getting these children directed

down a road of success. The material to be covered

 48

will need to be made relevant to the children before

they are willing to invest the time learning. Tasks

will need to be broken down into small surmountable

chunks that will insure success for each child.

Once the children begin to experience success, they

will begin to think positively about their

capabilities and themselves. The children will

begin to see themselves in a new way--as successful

students. Success will lead to more success.

success does terrific things to a person's inner

self. When successful, students will be more

willing to take a risk; they have more poker chips

to gamble with (Canfield, 1986).

This review of the literature has stressed the

importance of the significant others in the

development of the child's self-concept. The first

and possibly the most significant others are the

parents, because of the amount of time spent with

them and the child's total dependence on them during

the formative years. It is the responsibility of

the teacher to reach out to the parents if they do

not reach out to the schools. Teachers need to

establish positive home contacts, invite the parents

to visit the classroom, plan special parent

 49

meetings, send home classroom newsletters, make

phone calls, (hopefully positive) and assign

homework that the child will successfully complete.

Some parents may need as much tender, loving care as

their children; these are the fragile families. The

parents need to feel successful too.

Glasser (1969) stated that schools and teachers

have great power to provide for success (or failure).

Schools may be the only place that some children

experience success and recognition. The importance of

fostering a healthy, positive self-concept cannot be

ignored. Children with healthy self-concepts achieve

better because they have a greater desire and because

they know they can (DeAnda, 1975). These children

will become our future leaders; hopefully not dropout

statistics. Tomorrow's future should not be risked by

showing concern for only the cognitive, intellectual

growth of our students at the expense of ignoring

their self-worth.

In closing, a Chinese proverb expresses a point

of significance for all who are responsible for

nurturing youth, "A child's life is like a piece of

paper on which every passerby leaves a mark"

 50

(Carothers, p. 1). What kind of mark do you leave

on your student's lives?
 51

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