Highway 1 (Soil)

• Duhok Polytechnic University
• Technical Collage of Engineering

• Highways and Bridges Engineering Dep.
• Highways, Specification & Maintenance.
• Fourth Stage
By
SHEYAN O. KHALED
General
- Flexible pavement structure consists of two characteristic sets of layers with different
mechanical properties and performance
- First is the unbound aggregate layers (Sub-base), seated on the subgrade, second is the bound
asphalt layers.
- Asphalt layers are featured into wearing course, binder course and asphalt base course.
- Unbound or granular aggregates are distinguished into base course and sub-base course.
- This module will concern about
the highway specification,
construction, quality control and
maintenance.
- This will be
covered as we study
the layer of the
Flexible pavement
Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

1 . Review
• Soil properties have significant importance

since it carries high traffic volumes with a large
percentage of trucks.
• From the civil engineering point of view, soil is a
loose mass of mineral and organic materials formed
by weathering and other geologic processes.
• A soil mass generally consists of solid particles of

different minerals with spaces between them which
can be filled with air and/or water.

1.1 Basic Engineering Properties of Soil
- Moisture Content %: The quantity of water in a soil mass is expressed in terms of the moisture
content or the weight of water in the soil mass.
- Density of Soil: densities are commonly used in soil engineering: total or bulk density and dry
density
- Bulk density: the soil weight to its volume
- Dry Density: is the density of the soil with the water removed that is used to evaluate how well
earth embankments have been compacted.
1.2 Atterberg Limits
- It have a vital role highway engineering, because many agencies uses Atterberg Limits to classify
soil for highway earthwork.
- As the water content increases solid soil gradually becomes plastic = soil easily can be molded
into different shapes without breaking up
-Continuous increasing of added water will eventually bring the soil to a state viscous liquid
(flow)
1.2 Atterberg Limits
Atterberg limits shrinkage limit (SL), plastic limit (PL), and liquid limit (LL)
• Iraqi specification for road and bridge (Iraqi SORB) use AASHTO tests to finds these limits and
using it in earthwork.
• The fourth-year students should be familiar with Atterberg limits form Soil
mechanic form third year.
1.2.1 The plasticity index (PI)
Soil materials with a high plasticity index value are unsuitable for pavement foundation.
Examples of such materials include all clayey, silty and sand-silt materials.
LI =liquidity index
wn = natural moisture content of the soil
LL = Liquid Limit, PL= Plastic Limit
1.2.2 Liquidity Index (LI)
Used to reflect the properties of the natural soil with respect with water content.
➢ LI less than zero will have a brittle fracture when sheared.
➢ LI between zero and one will be in a plastic state.
➢ LI is greater than one, the soil will be in a state of viscous liquid if sheared.
1.3 Permeability (K)
Coarse-grained soils, such as gravel and sands have high permeability allows for water to flow
easily in them (generally stable) both in the dry and saturated states
1.4 Shear Strength
- soil masses will usually fail in shear under highway loads. depends on The cohesion and the
angle of internal friction.
- Angle of internal friction density, shape of individual particles, surface texture
1.5 Classification of Soli for Highway Use

-The most commonly used classification is (AASHTO) Classification System
-Determining the relative quality of soils for use in embankments, copping, subgrades,
subbases, and bases layers.
- Based on particle size distribution, LL, and PI. to determine the group index (GI) of the soils
F = percent of soil particles passing 0.075 mm (No. 200), LL =liquid limit , PI = plasticity index
- See the table next slide.
- A-1 soils consist of well-graded granular materials, A-2 soils contain significant amounts of silts
and clays,A-3 soils are clean but poorly graded sands
(AASHTO) Classification System Cont...
- Soils classified as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 can be used satisfactorily as subgrade or
subbase material

(AASHTO) Classification System Cont…
- Materials classified as A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5, and A-7-6 will require a layer of
subbase material if used as subgrade.
- A low value of GI (0 to 4) indicate soli is a good subgrade material, with GI more than 8 the soil
can be described low to poor quality
1.6 Bearing capacity of subgrade by (CBR) Test

- California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is a penetration test for evaluation of
the mechanical strength of natural ground, subgrade.
-Evaluation of the of natural ground or granular materials
Which help to decide where to use each
1.7 Iraqi SORB, 2003 requirement for soil in highway
- Iraqi SORB require less than 25% for PI and 55% LL for sub-grade material and with
Minimum CBR 4%.
2. Soil Surveys for Highway Construction
- Information Collection for existing soil to highway path (where to be located).
- Enough soil samples of each type of soil from test pits for laboratory testing.
- Systematically recorded i.e. depth, location, thickness, texture, color and so forth.
- Locate soil’s type that is not accepted as a sub grade layer or do not follow the highway
specification or project requirement.
- Also, locate any high quality material i.e. sub-base material, aggregate, sand, building-rock……
3. Types of soil in the site.
- Topsoil: on visual examination, it can be seen down by agricultural cultivation This soil is not
preferred for embankment due to high organic content (removed by clearing and grabbing)
- Suitable material: soil is accept for road embankment according to soil classification which is
capable of being compacted AASHTO system of classification A-1, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 or
according to Iraqi SORB requirement.

3. Types of soil in the site. Con…
Unsuitable Material (Iraqi SORB)
1 Material from swamps, marshes containing more than 12% organic material.
2 Peat and perishable material.
3 Salty or gypsiferous soil containing more than 10% of soluble salts.
4 Clay of liquid limit exceeding 70 and/or plasticity index exceeding 45.
4. Cut and Fill
- These terms are used in earthworks where, for economic and design reasons,
- The excavated earth in cuttings (cut) should, if possible, balance the amount needed to form
embankments (fill)
How?? & Why ??

- Excavated material must be
suitable for use in the fill areas.
4.1 Clearing and Grabbing
Clearing and grabbing are generally the first operation to be undertaken on any project that
involve earthwork (cutting, filling)
- Clearing refer to removal of material above the
existing ground surface (trees, grass…)
- Grabbing is removal of roots, stumps and similar

objects below surface.
4.2 Setting Out Prior to Starting Earthworks

- A general survey have to be done to all the highway rout in order to define the cut and fill
locations (stations)
- The work boundary of each cut/fill location is made according to side slops (cut/fill)
- Accurate survey which is necessary to have a leveled subgrade or sub base, by using pegs,
traversals to make slop, crown, super-elevation accurately.
5. Setting Out Prior to Starting Earthworks
- In setting out the crown and channel levels, either two different travelers or one traveler and
double sight rails may be used.
pegs will be driven into the ground by surveyors at key points (strategic and significant points
which can be station of the rode)
- The line of pegs is inserted 1 m i.e. edge or at top kerb-face.
- Travelers or travelling rods can be used to check the depths of excavation as the work proceeds.
- This may not be required in early stages of cut/fill if more than 1 m is needed to reach the sub-
grade level.
6. Earthworks
6.1 Excavation
- This should be carried out immediately after topsoil removal and the optimum moisture is still
contented to be used for forming embankments.
- Then, the area should be dry and free of surface water which mean to make drainage system.
- Cuttings are normally left with the final 300 mm of excavation above the formation level to the
last possible moment as protector (protection layer)
- If the water table level above excavation
point, drains should be laid before by
lowering, or depressing water table.
- Excavation mean all work needed for the

construction and completion of the cuts, slops,
ditches, approaches and crown
6.1.1The main type of excavations
- Rock excavation: using blasting rippers and bulldozers, cost more
- Common excavations: Excavations disposal of all material
- Unsuitable excavation: very saturated mixture and soil with high organic material which is
unaccepted for embankments.
- Borrow excavation: Excavation for embankment material out side the project (not in BoQs).
6.1.2 The main guide points to preform excavation
1. Prior to beginning clearing and grubbing.
2. Excavation must be within the grading limits. To avoid any undercutting If happened filling with
suitable material no extra charge
3. Excavation shall proceed in manner cut to fill works.
WHY ??
4. Suitable materials are excavated separately from unsuitable materials
5. Keep in your mind that excavated material should used as embankment material as much as it
accepted.

6.1.3 Excavation’s Equipment (Machinery)
- Rubber tier front loader that load truck with excavated material.
- Bulldozers which used in rocky and soft ground.
- Excavator (can load truck directly) and hydraulic
jackhammer can soft and hard rock.
- Explosives can be used for excavation if the jackhammer cost more and its safe to
use Explosives in the area.
It is crucial to use the machinery according to soil type and location

6.2 Embankment Formation
- Highway embankments are formed by spreading thin layers of uniform thickness of the material
and compacting each layer at or near the optimum moisture content.
- End dumping or compaction or thick layers, result in variable
strengths within the embankment which lead to differential
settlement between adjacent areas.
- Agencies stipulate a thickness of 15 to 30 cm for each layer
- transportation agencies require 90% to 95% as minimum field
density to laboratory density.
- SORB requires 25 cm thickness and a compaction degree of 95% from modified AASHTO
(designated T180) with max size of rock fragment do not exceed 2/3 of the layer thickness.
How we will control the 95% degree of compaction ???
- Soil is essential that the material be placed in uniform layers and compacted to a high density.
- Proper compaction will reduce settlement volume change so, enhancing the strength of the
embankment or sub-base.
6.2 Embankment Formation Cont.…
So, how we will do that in the field ??
- Hand-operated tampers, sheep's-foot rollers (most common), rubber-tired rollers, or other
types of rollers see later,
- Strength of the compacted soil is directly related to
the maximum dry density.
- Relationship of dry density and moisture content for
practically all soils takes:-
- The relationship between moisture content
and soil density is already covered in 3ed year.
6.3 Control of Embankment Construction
- The soil that is used in embankment (fill) must be accepted according to the specification i.e.
Iraqi SORB.
- Using one type of soil in each fill section for mare efficient quality control process.
6.3 Control of Embankment Construction Cont....
- Regular checks of the field dry density and the moisture content of materials being compacted
for each 2000 m2 with 95% degree of compaction according to Iraqi SORB.
- Up to 2 m below sub grade, Iraq SORB can accept 94% degree of compaction.
- First, The field dry density (FDR) is obtained in the field.
- The degree of compaction is then abstained by dividing (field density/ lab density) x 100%
- These tests are conducted by using either destructive method or nondestructive method.
6.3.1 Destructive Methods / Sand-cone method
- Determination the density of compacted layer density, Very popular method, cheap and safe
6.3.2 Destructive Methods / Rubber balloon method
- Used only by a few
agencies, completed.
- Note, both methods
do not give immediate
result
6.3.3 Non-Destructive Methods / Nuclear method
- Rapid measurement for Wet density, water content and dry density of soil and aggregate
mixtures.
- Determine of the compacted degree allows almost
immediate detection (less than 5 min) .
- Much more expensive than conventional devices BUT,
very popular in highway projects.
- Measures by direct transmission, backscatter of gamma
radiation. SAFITY !!
6.4 Field Compaction Equipment
-First is spreading the material to the desired thickness.
- Spreading Equipment. is by bulldozers and motor graders.
- Graders are most common for more smoothed and
leveled layers.
6.4 Field Compaction Equipment Cont…
Compacting Equipment. Rollers are used for field
compaction and apply either a weight and vibrating
force or an impact force on the soil.
- The smooth wheel roller: or drum roller (4.5 and 18
ton) over 100 percent of the soil area in contact
(commonly used with sub-base layers).
- SORB require 15 ton for minimum roller weight with
speed 1.2 to 2.4 km/hr.
WHY ?
- Sheep's-foot-rolle the wheel has several protrusions,
round or rectangular in shape.
- Applies contact much more pressure than smooth
one since it have less contact area
Ideal for sub-grade or soil embankment layer.
6.4 Field Compaction Equipment Cont.…
- The rubber-tired roller (pneumatic roller)
- Consisting of a heavily loaded wagon with rows of 3
to 6 tires placed close to each other
- They mostly used for asphalt and granular material
and rarely for embankment.
- The water separate
- Always remember to wet (add water) the layer
before and while compaction process to achieve the
optimum water content.
- It is very important to hair a high skilled
machinery user for all earthwork (cut and fill)
with a good experience for high quality work.
- Also these machinery should be regularly
cheeked especially the excavation ones
6.5 Capping layer
- The capping layer is the layer that is constructed between the subgrade and sub-base when the
subgrade soil material is too weak.
- Improves the subgrade’s bearing capacity and usually needed when the CBR is lower than 2.5%
or the subgrade don’t meet the design or specification requirement.
- Unbound granular material or stabilized with cement or lime subgrade material can be used.
- The thickness of a single compacted layer is typically not less than 100 mm and not more than
250 mm.
7 Stabilizing Ground
- Soil stabilization is the process of improving the engineering properties of the soil to increase
its bearing capacity and hence its strength.
- Soil stabilization is usually preform on soil with CBR <2% or 2%–4% if needed.
- The use of geotextiles is recommended when the subgrade has a very low or low carrying
capacity,
- The process can also involves the use of hydraulic binders such as cement, lime or both.
7 Stabilizing Ground Cont...
7.1 Geotextile synthetic:
- A plastic mesh or sheet structures that can be used to stabilize and
improve the load-bearing capacity of soft ground (shear resistant layer).
-The mesh can be used to reduce the thickness of road construction
required and allow traffic to use ground of very low CBR value
- The sheet can build-up of pore water in the sheeting which in turn led
to separation of the sheeting from the soil and the development of slip Geotextile mesh
surfaces, which weakened the ground structure.
The main reasons to use Geotextile synthetic

as soil stabilizer
(a) To reduce the possibility of loss of granular material from the sub-base as a result of water
seeping through the pavement and carrying it into the sub-grade;
(b) To prevent the intermixing of the sub-grade and sub-base (capping) during construction and
in use;
7 Stabilizing Ground Cont...
(c) To allow work to proceed during adverse weather conditions
(d) To allow construction to be carried out over ground conditions where traditional methods
would not be economically viable.
7.2 Cement or Lime Stabilization
- Week ground conditions can be increased in strength by adding cement or lime.
- A content of more than 2% cement or 2.5% lime is recommended,
- Enough water have to be added to hydrate the cement or slake the lime.
8. Soil support
- Soils can only withstand limited shear stress, thus it used for steeply angled profiles without
external support.
- Soil structures have been designed so that they are either in compression due to their
geometrical shape, or have an external support.

8.Soil Support Cont.…
8.1 Retaining walls:
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil,
when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil
8.2 Gabion Walls

- Gabion walls are built from layers of stone-filled ‘boxes’.
- Uses as retaining walls support for river banks, etc.
- Formed by placing galvanized mesh rectangular boxes in position and filling them with hard,
durable stone, not larger than 250 mm and not smaller than the size of the mesh.
8.Soil support Cont.…
- The mesh boxes must be
carefully formed from the
flat packs or bundles in
which they are delivered,
using binding wire laced
through adjacent panels.
8.3 Geotextile Reinforcement

- The Plastic mesh can be used in horizontal,
application. Where embankments are
constructed of piled and soft soil, (soil
reinforcement)
- This can significantly improve the strength
of the soil embankment.
9. Lab. Report

Highway 1 (Soil)

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• Duhok Polytechnic University

• Technical Collage of Engineering

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

• Soil properties have significant importance

• A soil mass generally consists of solid particles of

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

1.5 Classification of Soli for Highway Use

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

1.6 Bearing capacity of subgrade by (CBR) Test

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

How?? & Why ??

- Grabbing is removal of roots, stumps and similar

4.2 Setting Out Prior to Starting Earthworks

- Excavation mean all work needed for the

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

The main reasons to use Geotextile synthetic

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

8.2 Gabion Walls

8.3 Geotextile Reinforcement

Technical collage of engineering Highways and Bridges Department Sheyan O. Khaled

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