Closing remark:

Which method to use:

 Whole population is available

 Whole population is accessible
 Population is homogeneous with regards to study

Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling

 Whole population is available

 Whole population is accessible
 Population is heterogeneous with regards to study
 There are specific subgroups in population to
investigate

Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling

1.2.5 Designing questionnaires.

Additional information is available in lecture slides. Please refer to this source.

Basic rule: KISS - keep it short and simple.
The success of a study depends on the ability of a researcher to obtain relevant and
accurate data. This can only be done if the data is collected in an appropriate manner. This
is often done by making use of questionnaires. The quality of the data however depends on
the quality of the questionnaire. A few guidelines that need to be considered when setting
up a questionnaire are given below.

Ethics in survey research

Ethics are described as the norms or standards for conduct that distinguish between right
and wrong. These help us determine the difference between acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour on the part of the researcher. Ethical principles in survey research are mostly
focused on protecting research participants (known as respondents) and the guiding
foundation of “do no harm”. The core ethical principles in survey research are:

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  Respect of persons - Respect for the autonomy, decision-making and dignity of
participants.
 Beneficence - Minimising the physical, psychological and social risks and
maximising the benefits to participants.
 Justice - Participants should generally be selected from groups who may benefit
from the research.
 Respect for communities - Research should protect and respect the values and
interests of the community as a whole and protect the community from harm.

Ethics are important in research as the integrity, reliability and validity of the research
findings rely on the researcher adhering to ethical principles. The public needs to be
assured that a researcher followed appropriate guidelines on issues such as human rights,
animal welfare, legal compliance, conflicts of interest, safety, and health standards, but to
name a few. Researchers who behave in an unethical manner can have a very negative
impact on the image of their institution and the public’s faith in these institutions. Funding of
research is also affected by the ethical reputation of an institute.

Most institutions and organizations have their own guidelines for the ethical conduct of their
staff. The ethical behaviour of researchers are reviewed by an Internal Review Board (IRB)
which consists of a panel of people who assists in making sure that human rights are not
violated and that the safety of human subjects involved in the research is ensured. This is
done by reviewing research methodology and ensuring that ethical practices are being
utilized. This helps to protect the institution and researchers against potential legal
implications from unethical behaviour. In Appendix C you will find the Code of Ethics for
Scholarly Activities for the University of Pretoria.

For a study to be considered ethical, it is important that participation is voluntary and that
there is informed consent. This means that respondents are not forced against their will or
coerced in any way to participate in the study and that they have been informed in full
regarding the procedures of the research project and any potential risks. In survey
research, a cover letter or introductory statement is typically used to introduce the survey
and provide information to the respondent regarding the purpose, intent, motivation,
sponsoring organisations, potential use of data, confidentiality issues and methods of data
collection. A respondent is considered fully informed prior to completing a survey if such a
cover letter is included. Respondents must be competent in making the decision to
participate in a study; this could for instance be an issue when including minors in a survey.

A primary ethical issue in survey research is that of confidentiality and anonymity of

respondents, especially if a survey contains sensitive questions. It is vital that a researcher
does not share information between participants and procedures should be in place to
protect the data and names of participants. Only research personnel may have access to
the data collected and identifying information and access to this should be limited to what is

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necessary for the project. Complete anonymity may not be possible if a researcher plans to
follow up with additional surveys at a later date. For one-time surveys, if possible, it is best
practice to not record identifying information. Tools such as encryption technology for
internet surveys and the numbering of respondent data can help reduce confidentiality
breaches.

The following list of tips can be seen as best practices which address ethical concerns:
 Use self-addressed, stamped envelopes for returning mail surveys to avoid
identifiable information.
 Require staff to sign a pledge of confidentiality.
 Train staff on appropriate use of data and ethical concerns.
 Use the information collected only for the intended purpose of the study.
 Avoid undue intrusion. Do not collect data that has already been collected.
 Do not harass or repeatedly ask the members of the sample to respond.
Encouragement participation in a positive, non-threatening way.
 Be honest with the potential respondents regarding all aspects of the project.
 Consider the sensitivity of the information during collection. For example, teachers in
a classroom should not collect the teaching evaluations for their own class.
 Be clear and concise in the introduction so that respondents are fully informed.
 Be aware of cultural and social differences relating to the topic of the project and
wording of questions.
 Obtain the consent of a parent or guardian before collecting survey information from
minors.

Source:
This section was based on information obtained from the following website:
https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/research_ready/designing_surveys/survey_ethi
cs

Introduction / cover letter

A brief title and introduction should be given at the start of the questionnaire. We aim to
collect accurate information and obtain maximum cooperation from respondents. If
respondents understand the purpose of the study, it may help aid this goal.

Include clear and concise instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. These must
be very easy to understand, so use short sentences and basic vocabulary. Be sure to print
the return address on the questionnaire itself (since questionnaires often get separated
from the reply envelopes).

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 Example of a cover letter:
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am a Master’s student in the Graduate School of Technology Management, University of
Pretoria.

My research titled …. is about ….

My study aims to ….
The purpose of this questionnaire is …
You were chosen as a respondent because …
Your participation is voluntary and you can withdraw at any time without penalty.
Throughout the survey your privacy will be protected and your participation will remain
confidential. I do not wish to analyse data individually and all the data will be transferred
to a computer programme to analyse the entire group. This means that you are assured
of anonymity.

If you agree to participate, please complete the survey that follows this cover letter. It
should take about … minutes of your time at the most. By completing the survey, you
indicate that you voluntarily participate in this research. If you have any concerns, please
contact me with the detail provided below.

Researcher name
Email
Phone

Confidentiality issues
As mentioned above, some questionnaires may deal with sensitive topics and respondents
may not answer truthfully if confidentiality issues are not addressed sufficiently. This should
be done in the introduction of the questionnaire. Sensitive questions, should be phrased
carefully and can be handled in an ethical manner by allowing for a respondent to not
respond. For example, a respondent may be uncomfortable indicating their exact income
and may feel more comfortable indicating an income bracket. The respondent may also be
provided with an option indicating that they are not comfortable sharing the information.

Knowledge of target population

It is important to understand how your target population may interpret questions.

Hold the respondent's interest.

 Incentives???
- Provide incentives as a motivation for a properly completed questionnaire.
- What does the respondent get for completing your questionnaire?
- Selflessness is rarely an effective motivator.
- Including a sweet to the questionnaire works well (does it?).
- If the information you are collecting is of interest to the respondent, offering a free
summary report is also an excellent motivator.

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