Location and Control Survey

Location and Control Survey
NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN MINE SURVEY
LOCATION AND CONTROL SURVEY
AIM OF THE SUBJECT:
The aim of the subject is to equip the trainee with the knowledge, skills and attitudes of
Location and Control Survey. The subject will enable the student to have a thorough
understanding of mine surveying principles. The course also equips the students with
adequate material to enter and write the Government Mine Surveyor’s Certificate of
Competency examinations.
OBJECTIVES OF THE SUBJECT:
At the end of the course, the graduate should be able to apply the knowledge gained and
used it in the mining industry and other related industries.
TOPICS: Page
1 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASURING[EDM] 3

1.1 Basic principle of EDM measurement
1.2 Sources of error in EDM traversing
1.3 Determination of instrument parameters
1.4 Instrument corrections
2 TRINGULATION 10
2.1 Measurement of a baseline
2.2 Triangulation networks
2.3 Polygon adjustments
2.4 Tan K formula calculation
3 INTERSECTION 20
3.1 Practical importance of intersection
3.2 Various intersection calculation methods
4 RESECTION 23
4.1 Practical importance of Resection
4.2 Various resection calculation methods
5 THE SATELLITE STATION 29
5.1 The satellite station and its use
6 MAP PROJECTIONS 32
6.1 The Gauss-conform projection system
6.2 The Universal Transverse Mercator projection
6.3 The distance and direction correction
6.4 Converting co-ordinates from one system to another
7 TRANSPOSITION OF THE GRID 43
7.1 Change of axes, without a change of origin
1
7.2 Change of origin without a change of axes

7.3 Change of origin and axes
8 PHOTOGRAMMETRY 46
8.1 Basics principles of photogrammetry
8.2 Ground photogrammetry
8.3 Air survey
9 OBSERVATION AND ADJUSTMENTS 52
9.1 Basic principle of adjustments
9.2 Least squares adjustments
9.3 Method of correlates
9.4 Method of equal shifts
10 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS [GPS] 57
10.1 Basic principle of GPS
10.2 Method of taking measurements
2
CHAPTER ONE
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Basic principle of EDM measurement

Distance measurement has been previously done by taping, but of late the use of
electromagnetic waves, such instruments being called electromagnetic distance
measuring instruments or EDMs has increasingly become common. The use of EDM
equipment has enabled the measurement of distance over long range and to a
higher precision than it is possible when using a tape.
Two groups of instrument can be identified, namely the electronic, or microwave,
types and the electro-optical types. In each case the velocity of the electromagnetic
wave in air must be known precisely for the accurate determination of Distance
To use an EDM the instrument is set over one end of the line to be measured and
some form of reflector is set over the other end, such that the line of sight between
the instrument and the reflector is not obstructed. An electromagnetic wave is
transmitted from the instrument to the reflector where part of it is reflected back to
the instrument by comparing the transmitted and the received wave. The instrument
is capable of manipulating the information to compute and display the distance
being measured.
What is an electromagnetic wave?

It is an electrical energy conveyed through a media, i.e. atmosphere. They require no
material medium to support them.
Properties of electromagnetic waves

They are sinusoidal in nature and they form a complete cycle. The number of times
in one second the wave completes a cycle is called frequency.
1hertz= 1 cycle/second
A B
3
The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two identical points on the wave or is
that length traversed in one cycle by the wave and is denoted λ. The time taken by the wave
to travel one is known as period. The velocity of the wave depends on the medium through
which it travels in a vacuum. The velocity of electromagnetic waves is of the speed of light
and the speed of light is denoted by c. Where c = 3.0 × 108 m/s.
Properties of electromagnetic waves are related as follows
F = c/ λ = 1/T
Where T = period, F = frequency, c = speed.
There is also a phase on the wavelength ranging from 00 to 3600.
Distance Determination
There are two methods available in the use of microwaves for distance measurement, either
pulse transit times or phase difference being measured.
Phase Comparison method
The distance is determined by measuring phase difference between transmitted and

reflected signal. Phase difference is usually expressed as a fraction of a cycle which can be
converted into distance, when the frequency and the velocity of the wave are known. The
distance measured is expressed as:
2d = Nλ + δλ
Where N = integer number of λ; δλ = phase comparison and this is achieved by using

electrical phase detectors.
A phase detector measures the phase/ electromagnetic wave as it is transmitted. The same
phase detector measures/senses the wave as it is reflected back.
δλ = λ(Ø2 – Ø1)0/3600
Where (Ø2 – Ø1) is phase difference.
Resolving the ambiguity of phase comparison method
This is done as follows
1. The measuring wavelength can be measured manually in multiples of 10 so that the

distance course measurement of λ is made, enabling distance to be deduced.
2. Wavelength λ can be found by measuring the line using three or more different but
closely related wavelength to form simultaneous equations of the form:
2d = Nλ + δλ
4
3. Modern instruments use electronic devices to solve this automatically and displaying
the distance on the machine.
Modulation
It has been proved that the lower frequency signals provide a greater range but require
large transmitters and have the also the disadvantage of being absorbed when transmitted
through the atmosphere. In- order to transmit the wavelength through the atmosphere, a
process of modulation is used.
Definition of modulation
It is a process where the measuring wave is electronically superimposed on a carrier wave of

much higher frequency. The carrier wave acts as a media for carrying the information of the
wave.
Two methods used.
1. Amplitude Modulation
In this method the carrier wave has a constant frequency which is similar to the
modulation wave (measuring wave). Information is passed by the amplitude of the
carrier wave.
2. Frequency Modulation
The carrier wave has constant amplitude but its frequency varies. For example it is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulation wave.
Task: Research on the different classification of EDMs
Sources of Errors when Using EDMs
The principal sources of error are:
1. Error in instrumental constant

2. Error in the reflector constant
3. Error in frequency
4. Cyclic error
Instrumental and Reflector Constants
In most EDM instruments the signals travel over some distance internally during
transmission and return. The point from which the signal can be considered to be
transmitted, the electronic centre, may differ from the geometric centre referred to when
locating the instrument over a station. This gives rise to constant, which must be applied to
all distances measured with that instrument.
5
Speed of a carrier wave varies with temperature, humidity and pressure of the atmosphere.
The longer the wavelengths the more significant do these effects. Over long distances the
mean of the observations taken on one end of the line should be used to calculate the
corrections. Over short distances atmospheric observations made at the instrument station
only will be usually adequate.
NB The corrections having been obtained from a monogrametry is entered on the screen
and the correction is applied automatically. To change pressure (millibars) to mmHg multiply
by 0.75. For example 800mb = 600mmhg. To convert temperature from frainhertz (f) to
degrees Celsius use the following equation: C0 = 0.56 (F – 32)
Zero Error
The zero error is in two parts namely –
1. Instrumental error
2. Reflector error
To determine zero error a simple procedure is carried out. The zero error changes as the
instrument is aging. A simple procedure for this error involves taking a minimum number of
conditions with three collinear stations or points. The observation equations will be as
follows:
Determine the distance AD
® ® ® ®
A B C D
AB + BC = AC
AC + CD = AD
BC + CD = BD
→ (AB + K) + (BC + K) = (AC + K)
K = zero error
Correction = - k
6
Example
A baseline has three bays AB, BC, CD. Come up with the condition equation for determining
K (zero error)
® ® ® ®
A B C D
AB + BC – AC = - K
AC + CD – AD = - K
BC + CD – BD = - K
AB + BD – AD = - K
The arithmetic mean of K is accepted; however a more rigorous solution can be calculated
using what is known as least squares adjustments.
NB The baseline length does not need to be known prior to the measurement. However if
the base length is known K = Known length – measured length
The general equation is of the form
K = (L - ∑𝑛𝑖=1 Li )/ n-1
Where L = total length, n = number of bays, Li = measured length of each bay
Example
To obtain a zero error of a particular EDM instrument a base line was split into three bays
AB, BC, CD and measured in the following combinations. Using possible combinations
compute the zero error.
AB = 20,512; AC = 63,192; AD = 153,303; BC = 42,690; BD = 132,803; CD = 90, 120
Solution
® ® ® ®
A B C D
7
AB + BC – AC = - K = (20,512 + 42,690) – 63,192 = - 0.010
AB + BD – AD = - K = (20,512 + 132,803) – 153, 303 = - 0.012
AC + CD – AD = - K = (63,192 + 90,120) – 153,303 = -0.009
BC + CD – BD = - K = (42,690 + 90,120) – 132,803 = - 0.007
Mean error= (total errors)/4 = - 0.0095
Check using the general formula
K = (L - ∑𝑛𝑖=1 Li )/ n-1
= (153,303 – (153,322))/(3-1)
= -0.0095
NB: Correction for slope in distance is applied and zero error is independent of the distance.
Cyclic Error
A cyclic error is one whose magnitude depends on the actual phase difference ø which is
being measured, i.e. on the residual part of the distance over and above an integral number
of complete effective wavelengths. It varies with distance and the error is caused by
unwanted interference between electrical signals generated in the EDM unit. The distance is
spread over the wavelength of the instrument. A calibration curve is plotted against
distances (observed and known distance). If a periodic wave is obtained the EDM
instrument has a cyclic error. The effect of the cyclic error can be ignored over short
distance. The cyclic error correction must be applied before evaluating the instrumental and
reflector constant
Scale Error
Scale error occurs if the modulation frequency of the EDM instrument fails to correspond
exactly with the design frequency value of the instrument. The error is proportional to the
distance measured and expressed in parts per million (ppm).
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦−𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Scale Error = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
This error is corrected in the laboratory together with the cyclic error.
Advantages of using an EDM
1. It is more accurate ( provided all corrections are applied)

2. Long distances can be easily measured
3. Possible to measure over unstable ground for taping
4. It faster and convenient than a tape
8
Disadvantages
1. It is expensive, it cost money

2. Can be affected by ageing and frequent repairs.
9
CHAPTER TWO
Triangulation
I t is a method of control surveying. In the simplest form of triangulation the area is divided
into a series of standard geometrical figures, such as braced quadrilaterals or polygons.
Choice of Stations
a. Every station should be visible from the adjacent stations

b. The triangles formed thereby should be well-conditioned, that is to say, as nearly
equilateral as possible. No angles should be less than 300 , if at all possible.
c. The size of the triangles will depend on the configuration of the country, but they
should normally be as possible. Short sights, in which the signal cannot be accurately
bisected, should be avoided.
Application of Triangulation
Now that EDM is widely available, traversing has replaced triangulation for the provision of
horizontal control for the majority of survey work. Triangulation is however the principal
method for:
1. The establishment of accurately located control points for surveys of large areas.
2. The accurate location of engineering works such as 1) centre lines, 2) terminal points
and 3) shafts for long tunnels.
3. The establishment of accurately located control points in connexion with aerial
surveying
4. Measurements of deformation of structures such as dams.
TRIANGULATION- Surveys aerial and geodetic surveys covering can be broken down into
three categories
-Primary
-Secondary
-Tertiary
PRIMARY
The side lengths will be 40 km or more
SECONDARY
Side lengths will be 15- 40km
10
TERTIARY
Side length will be 5-15km.
There are also natural factors to be considered. Pegs will be of permanent nature of ratio 1:
3:6; 1 cement 3 and sand 6 gravel (concrete mixture)
B A
Angles are observed at 3 stations and totalled to 1800 . AB is a base line which is usually
known then you coordinate C from AB. E.g. Calculate coordinates of C
A +590.660 -232.95
B +105-00 +105.01
Angles A =680 50’00’’

B=56 10 00
C=55 00 00
Join AB
A +590.660 -232.95
B +105.00 +105.010
DY -485.66 DX +337.96
HD = √(485.66𝑥485.66) + (337.96𝑥337.96)
HD = 591.678
450 check
T.H.D =591.678/√2= 418.380
Aux Brg = 169,49.59
S + 73.851 C - 411.810
C + 411.810 S + 73.851
DY =485.661 DX -337.959
11
@B + 105.000 + 105.010
@ A + 590.66 - 232-95
CHECKED
Z AB = 3600 + tan_1 (485.66)

337.96
The best conditioned triangle
-An ideal triangle mathematically will have base angles of 560, 560 and apex of 68 degrees.
-An error in the observation of an angle 300 propagates an error 3 times as much as an error
of an angle of 60 degrees.
-The accepted minimum is 300 to 370
-The maximum should not be more than 110 degrees 120 degrees.
-The baseline should be corrected prior to the survey and the grid correction should be
combined with the grid mean sea level.
-In this case the grid line will provide you with the shape of that triangle.
- And also taking into consideration the ambiguity
-Base line provides one side length has been measured all others can be calculated by
trigonometry, this length is called a baseline.
The Observation techniques

Reconnaissance
-First get plans together for the area of interest in order to see if it is possible to carry out of
survey.
-You can take the plan with you in the bush.

-When doing your triangulation start off by orienting the longest ray or fixed station and if
set on FL go clockwise if set on FR go anticlockwise i.e turn your alidade
-When sighting do not sight on the object directly , sight slightly to the ;left or right of the
object and bisect the object by moving the slow motion screw.
-Do not overshoot the object if it happens, you will have to start the whole process again.
-You should be familiar with points you are surveying.

-After setting the instrument turn it three times before observations
-Observations should be done early in the morning or in the evening.
-The horizontal angles and vertical angles should be done midday i.e for primary and
secondary triangulation.
12
Triangulation Networks and Polygon adjustments
Centred triangle
Pentagon
10 1
9 2
15 11
8 3
14 12
13
7 4
6 5
13
Example
Using pentagon above
1=19059’42’’ 2=71,22,53 3=87,35,05

4=39,42,25 5=61,15,56 6=54,00,28
7=43,04,38 8=31,08,37 9=79,18,11
10=52,32,25 11=88,36,40 12=52,42,36
13=66,44,10 14=105,47,01 15=48,09,33
1. Adjust for 5400 first

2. Adjust for the interior triangles
3. Adjust for the HUB
ANSWER
Distribute the misclosure evenly
ANGLE CORRECTION CORRECTED

1. 19,59,42 -2 19,59,40
2. 71,22,53 -2 71,22,51
3. 87,35,05 -2 87,35,03
4. 39,42,25 -2 39,42,23
5. 61,15,56 -2 61,15,54
6. 54,00.28 -2 54,00,26
7. 43,04,38 -2 43,04,36
8. 31,08,37 -2 31,08,35
9. 79,18,11 -2 79,18,09
10. 52,32,25 -2 52,32,23
SUM 540,00,20 SUM 540,00,00
14
HUB
ANGLE ANGLES CORRECTION CORRECTED ANGLE CORRECTED

1 19,59,40 19,59,40
2 71,22,51 71,22,51
11 88,36,40 49’’ 88,37,29 88,37,29 88,37,29
179,59,11 180,00,00 88,37,29
3 87,35,03 87.35,03
4 39,42,23 39,42,23
12 52,42,36 -2’’ 52,42,34 52,42,34 52,42,34
180,00,02 180,00,00 52,42,34
5 61,15,54 61,15,54
6 54,00,26 54,00,26
13 64,44,10 -30’’ 64,43,40 64,43,40 64,43,40
180,00,30 180,00,00 64,43,40
7 43,04,36 43,04,36
8 31,08,35 31,08,35
14 105,47,01 -12’’ 105,46,49 105,46,49 105,46,49
180,00,12 180,00,00 105,46,49
9 79,18,09 79,18,09
10 52,32,23 52,32,23
15 48,05,33 -5’’ 48,09,28 48,09,28 48,09,28
180,00,05 180,00,00 360,00,00
EXAMPLE
COORDINATES ANGLES
A 600.584 615.620 CAB=430 03’ 30’’
B 744.236 502.487 CBA=61,39,10
D 769.266 814.307 ECD=35,42,20
EDC=91,01,50
FAE=48,51,40
FEA=62,13,00
CALCULATE COORDINATES OF F
See diagram below
15
E C
B`
SOLUTION
In triangle ABC
BCA=180 - (Ang CAB + AngCBA)
=180 - (43,03,30 + 61,39,10)
=75,17,20
In triangle CDE
Angle DCE=180 - (AngECD + AngEDC)
= 180 - (35,42,20 + 91,01,50)
=53,15,50
In triangle AFE
Angle EFA = 180-(AngAFE – AngFEA)
=180 - (48,51,40 + 62,13,00)
=68,53,20
Join AB
A 600,584 615,620
B 744.236 502.487
dy 143.652 dx - 113.133
HD=√(143.652)(143.652) + (113.133)(133.133)
HD=182.852m
Z AB=180-TAN-1(143.652/113.133)
=128 13 20
16
45 DEGREE CHECK
T H D (182.852) / √2
=129.2961
AUX BRG =353,13,20
S-15,2594 C+128,3925
C-128.3925 S-15,2594
dy-143,652 dx+113.133
B+744,236 +502,487
A+600,584 +615,620
Checked
Calculate side a and b in triangle ABC
K=c/sin C =182.85233/ sin 75,17,20
=189,0497
ANGLE SINE DISTANCE

A 43,03,30 0,6827426 129.072 BC
B 61,39,10 0,8800863 166,38 AC
C 75,17,20 0,9672185 182,852 AB
180 ,00,00
To triangulate C from A and B
Z A=128 13 20 Z BA= 308 13 20
Ang at A =43 02 30 Ang at B 61 39 10
Z AC 85 09 50 Z AB 09 52 36
HD AC =166.380 HD BC =129.072
DY +165.786 DX +14.0268 DY +22.136 DX +127.160
A +600.584 +615.620 B +744.236 +502.487
C +766.372 +629.647 C +766.372 +629.647
The mean accepted coordinates C +766.372 +629.647
Join CD 45 DEGREE CHECK

C +766.372 629,647 Tilt D =184.6827/2 =130.5904
D +759.266 814.307 Aux brg = 225 53 52
Dy +2.894 Dx +184.660 S - 93.7769 C - 90,8832
C + 90.8832 S - 93.7769
HD= DY -2.894 Dx -184.660
HD=184.6827 D +769.266 + 814.307
BRG CD 0053 52 C +766.372 + 629.647 (checked )
17
Calculating distance DE and
K=DC sine E=184.6827 /sine 53 15 50
Angle Sine Distance

ECD 35 42 20 +0,58361995 134.4955 DE
CDE 91 01 50 +0,999838245 230.4131 CE
DEC 53 15 50 +0,801398827 184.6827 DC
To triangulate E from D To triangulate E from C

ZDE =271 55 42 ZCE =325 11 32
HD DE =134.4955 HD CE =230. 4131
DY-134.4193 DX +4.5257 DY -131.5256 DX+189.1857
D +769.266 +814.307 C +766 .372 +629.647
E +634.847 +818.833 E +634.847 +818.833
Cosine Rule
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐶 = 𝑐 2
C2 = 166.3802 + 230.4132 - 2(166.280 x 230.4131) cos 600 01’ 42’’
C = 206.0806 thus AE = 206.0806
Sin 60 01 42/206.0806 = sin A/230.4131 = sin A =0,968555722 Angle A =75 35 37

K = AE/sin F =206.0806/sin 68 55 20 =220.8575
Angle Sine Distance

FEA 63 13 00 +0.884716604 195.3962791 AF
FAE 48 51 40 +0.753117032 166.3315294 FE
EFA 68 55 20 +0.933093089 206.0805878 AE
180 0 00
To triangulate F from E To triangulate F from A

Z EF =251 47 13 Z AF =320 42 33
HD EF =166.3315 HD AF =195.3963
Dy -157.9984 Dx -51.9871 Dy-123.7361 Dx+151.2251
E+634.847 +818.833 A+600.584 +615.620
F+476.848 +766.846 F+476.848 +766.845
Mean accepted coordinates of F + 476.848 + 766.846
18
Join AE 45 degree check

A +600.584 +615.620 THD =206.812 / √2 = 145.7214
E +634.487 +818.833 AUX BRG =234 34 14
Dy +34.263 Dx +203.213 S -118.7382 C -84.4741
HD=√(34.263)(43.260) + (203.213)(203.213) C +84.4741 S -118.7382
HD=206.0812m Dy -34.2635 Dx-203.2129
BRG AE=tan-1(34.263/203.213) E +634.847 +818.833
Brg AE= 09 34 14 A +600.584 +615.620(checked)
K=F /Sin F =206.0812/SIN 68 55 20=220.8581354
Angle Sine Distance

FAE 48 51 40 0,753117032 166.3320 EF
AEF 62 13 00 0.884716604 195.3969 AF
EFA 68 55 20 0.933093089 206.0812 AE
Coordinate F from A and E
From E From A
HD=166.3320 HD =195.3969
ZEF=251 47 14 ZAF=320 42 34
Dy-157.9992 Dx-51.9865 Dy -123.7357 Dx +151.2264
E +634.847 +818.833 A +600.584 +615.620
F +476.848 +766.847 F +767.848 +766.846
19
CHAPTER THREE
Intersection
This is process of locating and co-ordinating a point from at least two existing control
stations by observing horizontal directions at the control points.
Applications
1. Used for coordinating new control points

2. Curve ranging
3. Surveying detail in inaccessible positions including that of high up on buildings
4. Useful especially for co-ordinating existing conspicuous points such as church spires,
flag –poles and radio- aerials since no observations have to be taken at the points in
question.
Coordinates determination of unknown point from two or more known points.
YB YC YA
A (YAXA)
XA
(YBXB) B
XB
XC
C (Y X )
C C
A and B are known stations.
Tangent method:
Tan( bearing)AC = (YC –YA)/ (XC –XA)
= YC –YA = (XC –XA)tan(bearing)AC ............ equation 1
Tan(bearing)BC = (YC –YB)/ (XC –XB)
= YC –YB = (XC –XB)tan(bearing)BC ................equation 2
20
Using equation 1 and 2
Equation 1 – Equation 2
∆YBA = XC ( tan(bearing)AC – tan (bearing)BC ) – XA (tan(bearing)AC + XB tan(bearing)BC) ........3
XC = (∆YBA + XA (tan(bearing)AC – XB tan(bearing)BC)/ ( tan(bearing)AC – tan (bearing)BC )....4
Substituting equation XC into equation 2
YC = YB + (XC – XB)tan(bearing)BC ..........................................................................................5
Cotangent method:
Cot(bearing) AC = (XC – XA)/ (YC – YA) .....................................................................................1
Cot (bearing)BC = ( XC – XB )/ (YC – YB) .....................................................................................2
XC – XA = YC Cot(bearing) AC - YA Cot(bearing) AC ...................................................................3
XC – XB = YC Cot (bearing)BC - YB Cot (bearing)BC .....................................................................4
∆XBA = YC Cot(bearing) AC - YA Cot(bearing) AC - YC Cot (bearing)BC + YB Cot (bearing)BC ............5
YC = (YA Cot(bearing) AC - YB Cot (bearing)BC + ∆XBA)/ (Cot(bearing) AC - Cot (bearing)BC) ........6
Substituting YC into equation 4
XC = YC cot(bearing)BC – YB cot(bearing)BC + XB
Example
Given the coordinates of A and B
A 7288.142 3479.263
B 8199.426 4827.381
Bearing AC as 1320 07’ 30’’
Bearing BC as 1650 22’ 40’’
Calculate the coordinates of C using the tangent and cotangent method.
Solution
Using the Tangent method
Using equation 4
21
XC = (∆YBA + XA (tan(bearing)AC – XB tan(bearing)BC)/ ( tan(bearing)AC – tan (bearing)BC )
= (911.284 + 3479.263tan 132007’ 30’’ – 4827.381tan1650 22’ 40’’)/(tan 1320 07’ 30’’ –
tan1650 22’ 40’’)
XC = 1984.335
Using equation 5
YC = YB + (XC – XB) tan(bearing)BC
= 1984.335 tan1650 22’ 40’’ – 4827.381 tan1650 22’ 40’’ + 8199.426
YC = 8941.162
Coordinates of C ( 8941.162 1984.335 )
Check your answer using the cotangent method.
22
CHAPTER FOUR
Resection
Resection is a method of determining the position of a point by observing horizontal

directions from it to at least three points of known position. It is the best method of placing
additional control points around a survey area in positions eminently suitable for detailing
or setting out.
In other words it is a technique where the coordinates of unknown points are obtained after
observing the angles subtended at the unknown point by three known stations.
Below are different situations for a resection:
ø ∂
P ø
е
α
β
B C
B
B
B
B A
B
B
B C
α ø
е β
23
A, B, C are known stations and P is unknown station. The main objective is to coordinate P
using the resection method. By orienting the observations at P observing 3 rays provide a
unique fix if P lies on the circle through A, B, and C. There is no intersection of tangent, they
will all lie in the same line and if that condition is not satisfied it result in what is known as
the danger circle.
IDEAL RESECTION M
α β
∂ ø
A B
β α
ø ∂
Having your circle passing through A, P, B and Q. QP do not necessarily pass through the
centre. The angles α and β must not be less than 300 or greater than 1500
Collin’s Point Method[ refer to diagram above]
1. You have A, B, P and M and you want to resect P from A, B and M. The instrument is
set up at P the unknown point and observe rays to A, B and M.
2. M should be the furthest point from P and the line QM passing through P does not
necessarily pass through the centre of the circle.
3. While the instrument is at P observe angle APM, BPA and MPB. Check if they add up
to 3600, if not distribute the error.
4. Obtain the angle α i.e. 1800 – APM; β i.e 1800 - MPB
5. Angle β is subtended by QB and similarly, α is subtended by AQ
6. Join AB to obtain the bearing and distance AB
7. Compute bearing AQ and BQ and by sine rule obtain distance AQ and BQ
8. Coordinate Q which is our Collin’s point by triangulation from AB
9. Join QM to obtain bearing QM and distance QM and the bearing QM is the same as
the bearing QP
10. Obtain your angle
24
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51. s ∂ and ф i.e. ∂ = ZQB – ZQM and ф = ZQM – ZQA
25
52. Calculate bearing AP and BP and from the sine rule obtain distances AP and BP and
triangulate the coordinates of P from A and B
53. Join PM and compute bearing PM and bearing QM gives a check to your bearing PM.
Example
A resection exercise was carried to coordinate unknown point P

M
α β
∂ ø
A B
β α
∂
ø
MPB = 1450 59’ 20’’
BPA = 1580 29’ 20’’
APM = 550 31’ 20’’
You are also given coordinates of points.
M +49 754.42 +23 970.76
B +44 738.41 +25 974.13
A +50 452.49 +27 475.99
Calculate the coordinates of P with @ M and check with pole @ A
26
Solution
Step1
Check if the angles at P add up to 1800
Step 2
Calculate angles BPQ = 1800 – MPB = 340 00’ 40’’ ; QPA = 1800 - MPA = 1240 28’ 40’’
α = 124
0
28’ 40’’
β = 340 00’ 40’’
ф and ∂ are to be determined.
Step 3
Calculate join AB
A +50 452.49 +27 475.99 450 Check
B +44 738.41 +25 974.13
Dy – 5 714.08 Dx – 1 501.86
HD = √(𝐷𝑦2 + Dx2)
= 5 908.155
ZAB = tan-1(Dy/Dx) ± 1800 = 750 16’ 26’’ + 1800 = 2550 16’ 26’’
Step 4
Calculate bearing AQ and BQ
ZAQ = ZAB + QAB ZBQ = ZBA + QBA
= 2550 16’ 25’’ + 340 00’ 40’’ = 750 16’ 25’’ – 1240 28’ 40’’
= 2890 17’ 05’’ = 3100 47’ 45’’
Step 5
Calculate distance AQ and BQ
K = DC/sin210 30’ 40’’ = 16 126.4423
27
Angle sin Distance

B 1240 28’ 40’’ 0.824358070 13 293.765 AQ
A 340 00’ 40’’ 0.559353664 9 020.385 BQ
Q 210 30’ 40’’ 0.366681651 5 913.370 AB
Step 6
Coordinate Q from B and A
Find mean coordinates of Q
Step 7
Calculate join QM
Find distance QM and ZQM
Step 8
Calculate angle MQB and AQM
Check if the angles in triangle BAP add up to 1800
Step 9
Using sine calculate distance AP and BP
Triangulate P from A and B
The mean coordinates of P (46 732.126 25 971.687)
Bary-centric method
This is another method of that can be used to resect the coordinates of unknown point.
Example
A resection exercise was carried out at point P and the following information was extracted
for observations to trigs A, B and C.
Coordinates Angles
A 49 754.42 23 970.76 APC = 1450 59’ 20’’
B 50 452.49 27 475.99 CPB = 1580 29’ 20’’
28
C 44 738.41 25 954.13 BPA = 550 31’ 20’’
see diagram
ø ∂
P ø
е
α
β
B C
B
B
Resect
B the coordinates of P by the Barycentric method.
B
Solution
B
B 1
Step
Check if α, β and e add up to 3600
Step 2
Determine angles A, B and C by join.
A 49 754.42 23 970.76 A 49 754.42 23 970.76 C 44 738.41 25 954.13
C 44 738.41 25 954.13 B 50 452.49 27 475.99 B 50 452.49 27 475.99
dy -5 016.01 dx 1 983.37 698.07 3 505.23 5 714.08 1 521.86
Bearing AC =2910 34’ 27’’ ; Bearing AB = 110 15’ 47’’ , Bearing CB = 750 05’ 11’’
Step 3
Angles
A = bearing AB – bearing AC = 750 41’ 20’’
B = bearing BC – bearing BA = 630 49’ 23’’
C = bearing CA – bearing CB = 360 29’ 16’’
K1 = 1/ (cotA – cotβ) K2 = 1/ (cotB – cote) K3 = 1/ (cotC – cotα)
Yp = (K1Ya + K2Yb + K3Yc)/(K1 + K2 + K3 )
29
Xp = (K1Xa + K2Xb + K3Xc)/(K1 + K2 + K3)
Chapter Five
Satellite Station
It is referred to as an eccentric station. These are established where it is impossible to set up

the instrument over the station for measurements to be observed. An eccentric station is
also introduced where the line of sight is blocked by natural or manmade features. The
measured angles and distance are then reduced to obtain the angles and distances at the
station. The diagram below shows a scenario of introducing an eccentric station.
Ts
B A
α
e θ
Te
B1
Where Te is direction observed @ eccentric station B1; e is distance between B1 and B; and
Ts is direction adjusted to assume direction BA
𝑠𝑖𝑛∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝑒 𝑆
𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Therefore: Sinα = ------------------------------------------------------------1
𝑆
α(radians) = x 206265
𝑆
α’’ = x 206265 ................................................ 2
𝑆
If e ≤ 3m use equation 2 , if greater than use equation 1
Example
Given the following information calculate the corrected bearings when the satellite station
is near station cow.
ZDIP = 470 17’ 23’’ HD = 1 270.00m
Zcow = 750 23’ 00’’ HD = 1 230.00m
30
ZSPIT = 1620 51’ 20’’ HD = 1 620.00m
ZDOG = 2180 49’ 05’’ HD = 1 055.00m
Eccentric distance = 1.23m
Solution
DIP
COW
α1
α3 α
β
α2
Eccentric
DOG station
SPIT
Using equation 2
𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1.23𝑠𝑖𝑛331 54 23 𝑥 206265
Dip: α1 = x 206265 =
𝑆 1270.00
= - 94.0736698’’ = - 1’ 34’’
Therefore ZDIP = 470 17’ 23’’ – 1’ 34’’
β = ZSPIT - ZCOW = 1620 51’ 20’’ – 750 23’ 00’’ = 870 28’ 20’’
1.23 sin 87 28 20 𝑥 206265
α2 = 1620.00
= + 156.456’’
= 2’ 36’’
Therefore ZSPIT = 1620 51’ 20’’ + 2’ 36’’
= 1620 53’ 36’’
31
α = ZCOW – ZDOG = 750 23’ 00’’ – 2180 49’ 05’’ = 2160 33’ 55’’
1.23𝑠𝑖𝑛216 33 55 𝑥 206265
α3 = 1035
= - 143. 263’’
= - 2’ 23’’
Therefore ZDOG = 2180 49’ 05’’ – 2’ 23’’
= 2180 46’ 42’’
Example
It is required to find out the bearing of two lines TA and TB from an accessible station T. An
eccentric station S was set up 4.7m from T in an approximately South East direction and the
following theodolite angles were measured.
SA = 000 00’ 00’’
SB = 720 40’ 00’’
ST = 3050 00’ 00’’
If the ZSA = 1900 04’ 32’’, calculate the true bearing of A and B from T. Distance AT = 15km,
BA = 16.7km.
Answer
Bearing of A from T is 2620 45’ 18’’
Bearing of B from T is 1900 05’ 25’’
32
CHAPTER SIX
Map projections
A projection is the translation of spherical coordinates onto a planar surface, while a datum
is the ellipsoid, or “figure of the earth” that approximates the actual shape of the earth, and
is used in the transformation equation. Each of the wide variety of projections (& datums)
have specific characteristics that make them useful for specific mapping purposes.
Generally, the projection is chosen to minimize the errors in the area and at the particular
scale of the study being undertaken. For data at the regional and state level, the most
common projections are Universal Transverse Mercator and State Plane (which comprises
several projections)
Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the earth
on a flat surface. Some distortions of conformality, distance, direction, scale, and area
always result from this process. Some projections minimize distortions in some of these
properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others. Some projection are attempts to
only moderately distort all of these properties.
o Conformality
 When the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any
direction, the projection is conformal. Meridians (lines of longitude)
33
and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles. Shape is

preserved locally on conformal maps.
o Distance
 A map is equidistant when it portrays distances from the center of the
projection to any other place on the map.
o Direction
 A map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a
line to another point) are portrayed correctly in all directions.
o Scale
 Scale is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and
the same distance on the Earth.
o Area
 When a map portrays areas over the entire map so that all mapped
areas have the same proportional relationship to the areas on the
Earth that they represent, the map is an equal-area map.
 Different map projections result in different spatial relationships between regions.
Definition of terms
1. Earth’s axis – It is the diameter upon which the earth rotates.

2. Poles – The extremes of the earth’s axis
3. Small circles – Those drawn on a sphere whose planes do not pass through the
centre of the sphere.
4. Great circle – Are lines drawn on a sphere whose planes pass through the centre of
the sphere
5. Meridians - Are great circles passing through the poles
6. Equator – a great circle whose plane is perpendicular to the earth axis. It is
equidistant from the south and north.
7. Parallel – small circle whose planes are parallel to the equator
8. Latitude – It is the arc of meridian intercepted between the equator and a given
point. The latitude of the is zero and the latitude of a point is expressed in degrees,
minutes and seconds.
9. Prime meridian – Is the zero meridian from which all latitudes are measured i.e the
meridian passing through the Greenwich.
10. Longitude – Is the arc of the equator between the prime meridian measured east or
west from the Greenwich or the angle between the plane of the prime meridian and
the meridian passing through a point.
 Map projections fall into four general classes.

o Cylindrical projections result from projecting a spherical surface onto a
cylinder.
 When the cylinder is tangent to the sphere contact is along a great
circle (the circle formed on the surface of the Earth by a plane passing
through the center of the Earth)..
34
 Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Tangent Case)

 In the secant case, the cylinder touches the sphere along two lines,
both small circles (a circle formed on the surface of the Earth by a
plane not passing through the center of the Earth).
 Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Secant Case)
 When the cylinder upon which the sphere is projected is at right
angles to the poles, the cylinder and resulting projection are
transverse.
 Transverse Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Tangent
Case)
 When the cylinder is at some other, non-orthogonal, angle with
respect to the poles, the cylinder and resulting projection is oblique.
 Oblique Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Tangent
Case)
o Conic projections result from projecting a spherical surface onto a cone.
 When the cone is tangent to the sphere contact is along a small circle.
 Projection of a Sphere onto a Cone (Tangent Case)
 In the secant case, the cone touches the sphere along two lines, one a
great circle, the other a small circle.
 Projection of a Sphere onto a Cone (Secant Case)
o Azimuthal projections result from projecting a spherical surface onto a plane.
 When the plane is tangent to the sphere contact is at a single point on
the surface of the Earth.
 Projection of a Sphere onto a Plane (Tangent Case)
 In the secant case, the plane touches the sphere along a small circle if
the plane does not pass through the center of the earth, when it will
touch along a great circle.
 Projection of a Sphere onto a Plane (Secant Case)
o Miscellaneous projections include unprojected ones such as rectangular
latitude and longitude grids and other examples of that do not fall into the
cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal categories
Cylindrical Projections
 Cylindrical Equal Area

o Cylindrical Equal-Area projections have straight meridians and parallels, the
meridians are equally spaced, the parallels unequally spaced. There are
normal, transverse, and oblique cylindrical equal-area projections. Scale is
true along the central line (the equator for normal, the central meridian for
transverse, and a selected line for oblique) and along two lines equidistant
from the central line. Shape and scale distortions increase near points 90
degrees from the central line.
35
 Mercator
o The Mercator projection has straight meridians and parallels that intersect at
right angles. Scale is true at the equator or at two standard parallels
equidistant from the equator. The projection is often used for marine
navigation because all straight lines on the map are lines of constant azimuth.
 Oblique Mercator
o Oblique Mercator projections are used to portray regions along great circles.
Distances are true along a great circle defined by the tangent line formed by
the sphere and the oblique cylinder, elsewhere distance, shape, and areas
are distorted. Once used to map Landsat images (now replaced by the Space
Oblique Mercator), this projection is used for areas that are long, thin zones
at a diagonal with respect to north, such as Alaska State Plane Zone 5001.
 Transverse Mercator
o Transverse Mercator projections result from projecting the sphere onto a
cylinder tangent to a central meridian. Transverse Mercator maps are often
used to portray areas with larger north-south than east-west extent.
Distortion of scale, distance, direction and area increase away from the
central meridian.
o Many national grid systems are based on the Transverse Mercator projection
 The British National Grid (BNG) is based on the National Grid System
of England, administered by the British Ordnance Survey. The true
origin of the system is at 49 degrees north latitude and 2 degrees
west longitude. The false origin is 400 km west and 100 km north.
Scale at the central meridian is 0.9996. The first BNG designator
defines a 500 km square. The second designator defines a 100 km
square. The remaining numeric characters define 10 km, 1 km, 100 m,
10 m, or 1 m eastings and northings.
o Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is used to define horizontal,
positions world-wide by dividing the surface of the Earth into 6 degree zones,
each mapped by the Transverse Mercator projection with a central meridian
in the center of the zone. UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree longitudinal
strips extending from 80 degrees South latitude to 84 degrees North latitude.
UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones extending north and south
from the equator.
Conic Projections
 Albers Equal Area Conic

o A conic projection that distorts scale and distance except along standard
parallels. Areas are proportional and directions are true in limited areas. Used
in the United States and other large countries with a larger east-west than
north-south extent.
36
o Albers Equal-Area Conic

 Equidistant Conic
o Direction, area, and shape are distorted away from standard parallels. Used
for portrayals of areas near to, but on one side of, the equator.
o Equidistant Conic
 Lambert Conformal Conic
o Area, and shape are distorted away from standard parallels. Directions are
true in limited areas. Used for maps of North America.
Azimuthal Projections
 Azimuthal Equidistant
o Azimuthal equidistant projections are sometimes used to show air-route
distances. Distances measured from the centre are true. Distortion of other
properties increases away from the centre point.
o Azimuthal Equidistant
 Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
o The Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection is sometimes used to map large
ocean areas. The central meridian is a straight line, others are curved. A
straight line drawn through the centre point is on a great circle.
o Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
 Orthographic
o Orthographic projections are used for perspective views of hemispheres.
Area and shape are distorted. Distances are true along the equator and other
parallels.
o Oblique Aspect Orthographic Projection
 Stereographic
o Stereographic projections are used for navigation in Polar Regions. Directions
are true from the centre point and scale increases away from the centre
point as doe’s distortion in area and shape.
o North Polar Stereographic
Gauss Conformal Projection
This is a modified Traverse Mercator projection. It is orthographic and is suitable for a

country which is relatively low in a North, South direction. The projection is normally drawn
on a cylinder whose surface meets the earth’s surface along the central meridian of the area
to be projected. The scale increases East and West from the central meridian and the
increase in scale at any point is proportional to the square of the distance. At any point the
scale is the same in all directions and therefore small areas are true to shape. In order to
minimize the effect and increase of scale the projection has been modified by reducing the
37
scale on the central meridian 1/ 2500. The South African and Zimbabwe coordinate system
based on the Gauss Conformal or Transverse Mercator projection.
Mercator Projection
This is an adjusted cylindrical projection and the shape of a small figure plotted on the plane
is the same shape as the equivalent figure on the sphere though its size and area are
increased. A cylinder is wrapped around the globe representing the Mean Sea Level so that
it touches all along the central meridian. The spherical portion of the earth is then projected
onto the cylinder and the cylinder is unrolled to form a plane surface. The Equator and all
lines parallel to it will retain their true direction but apart from the central meridian the
directions of the other meridians will not be true and the direction on the spheroid become
distorted as curved lines on the projection
LATITUDE
WEST EAST
MERIDIAN MERIDIAN
LATITUDE
CENTRAL
MERIDIAN
The amount of distortion depends on the distance from the central meridian and in practice
the effect is limited by making each projection extended only 20
300 EQUATOR 310 EQUATOR 320
+Y -Y
+X
15’
0verlap
Thus there are a series of cylinders each touching the earth at 2 0 interval. By convention
each odd numbered meridian is used a central meridian and this central meridian gives the
distinctive name for the strip e.g Lo31 or Lo29 or Lo27 this is known as the Lo system. The
intersection of the central meridian with the equator is the origin of each belt. Zero
38
direction is South. Y values are positive going to the West and negative going to the East and
X value positive going to the South and negative going to the North. Thus the X values are
positive in the Southern hemisphere.
Each Lo system has an overlap of 15 minutes for each 20 interval. Points in this area will
have coordinates in both systems i.e a point in the Lo31 coordinate list will also appear in
the Lo33 coordinate list in the overlap region. If a survey extends over the boundary into
another system, it is usually calculated on the system in which the greater portion of the
area lies. Even with narrow belts of 20 long rays will still be distorted, the amount increasing
toward the edge of the strip, a correction (t - T) arc to chord correction is applied which
represent the difference between the observed direction (spheroid) and direction as
calculated from the rectangular coordinates of the Lo system (grid direction) arc to chord (t -
T) is given by
(t – T) = 85 × 10-5(2Y1+Y2)(X1-X2) seconds
Where T is observed direction (spheroid)
t is the plane direction (grid direction)
Y and X are coordinates in km
NB Y1 and Y2 are full coordinates and most mines use a constant to reduce the size of X
coordinates. The value is usually rate off on a monogram chart or line chart. The sign of the
correction can be determined from the fact that the great circle is always cone curve to the
central meridian. This correction can be neglected for surveys based on tertiary
triangulation and for the survey extended from a measured baseline.
For the survey based on secondary triangulation the correction should be always applied.
The distance between any two points on the earth’s surface will differ from the distance as
projected on a flat surface and the distortion will increase with distance from the central
meridian. A correction known as projection enlargement, given by
S÷S = 1+(𝒚2÷ 2R2)
is applied and sometimes the scale factor is also applied.
Where y is mean coordinate, R is radius of curvature of the earth at that particular latitude.
The distance at this place, is the distance reduced to Mean Sea Level, to get the projection
length from the used length on sight, the reduction to Mean Sea Level must be applied.
The projection length is given by
Sp = Sm (1+C)
Where Sm is measured length
C=-h/R + y2/2R2
39
h is the altitude (height above sea level). The correction is always positive.
Question
Write brief notes on the Gauss Conformal System (Transverse Mercator Projection)
Suggested Answer
It is orthographic and is suitable for country which is relatively low in a North South
direction. South Africa and Zimbabwe are based on the Gauss Conformal or Transverse
Mercator Projection. The two countries use the Lo system where each odd number meridian
is used as a central meridian and this central meridian gives the distinctive name for each
particular strip. The intersection of the central meridian with the equator is the origin of
each belt. Zero direction is South, Y values are positive to the west and negative to the East
and X values are positive to the South and negative going to the north. But they are always
positive in the Southern hemisphere, each Lo system has an overlap of 15’.
The convergence meridian
TN GN
α’’ = sinф x e’’ L
L= Longitude ф= latitude
Convergence is the angle at a point between the true north and grid north. Meridian
increase as we move away from the equator and the central meridian.
Convergence calculations formulas
1] tan1/2 (α) = sin (ф) x tan1/2(difference in latitiude)/(cos ½ (difference in longitudes))
2] Changing longitude
α’’ = change in longitude × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 )
40
3] α’’ = ( Difference in departure (y coordinate ) × tan mean latitude )÷ R × Sin 1”
Example
Find the convergence between the central meridian and that through a point whose (GN)
National Grid Coordinates are.
y + 440 000
x + 419 000 latitude N 530 40’
The mean radius of the earth at latitude N 530 40’ is 6 384 km. The Y coordinate for the
central meridian is + 400 000
Solution
α = (difference in departure (Y coordinate) × tan mean latitude) / (R sin1’’)
(440 000- 400 000) Tan 53” 40” × 206 265
6384 × 103
= 1757,228408”
= 00 29” 17”
α’’ = change in longitude × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
Example 2
The diameter of a sphere is 200 cm on a projection and the two standard parallels are taken
at 450 and 650 latitude. Calculate the elements of the projection i.e the distance between
the two parallels, the length of the 100 longitude on the 450 latitude and the length of the
100 longitude on the 650 latitude.
100
B 650
A
450
41
= Rθ radians = r x ( 22/7) x ( θ/ 3600)
For 100 difference = r (22/7)x( 100 ÷ 3600)
= 17.453
For 200 difference = 34.907
Length of 100 longitude at 450 parallel is given by
= (22/7)x r x cosθ/ 36
=(22/7)x r x cos450/ 36 = 12.34
Length of 100 longitude at 650 parallel
= 7.376
The local scale factor
The local scale factor varies with Y distance east / west from the central meridian but is
applicable in any direction and to all points on the same meridian.
The scale factor is given by : Grid Distance ÷ Ground Distance
Along the central meridian local scale factor is 0,99960127
True ground distance are to be multiplied by the local scale factor to represent them on the
projection whilst distance scaled from the map s or calculated from the coordinates must
be divided by the scale factor to obtain the true ground distances (at mean sea level)
To find the local scale factor:
Let E be the distance in km east or west from the central meridian.
L S F = 0.99960127 + E2 x 1.228 x 10-8
NB: It should be noted that the distance of the central meridian from the origin of the grid
coordinates is given.
Example
Find the local scale factor at mean sea level of a point 415km east of the central meridian,
given that the central meridian is 400km from the origin of the grid coordinates
42
Solution
Calculate E (where E is the distance between a point and the central meridian)
E2 =
( 415-400 )2
=
152
= 225
LSF = 0,99960127 + (225 × 1.228 × 10-8 )

= 0,999604033
Although the L S F is really only applicable to a meridian line at mean sea level for practical
purposes of minor local surveys , it may be regarded as a constant within a distance of
10km from the line whose local scale factor has to be calculated. The figure calculated
above 0,99604033 is applicable to all points in that meridian. For any two points at the same
distance from the central meridian East /West they have the same scale factor.
Example
The distance between two triangulation stations at a certain place 520km east of the origin
of projection was calculated from the national grid coordinates as 5210m. Find the true
ground distance
L S F = Grid distance/ ground distance
Ground distance = Grid distance / L S F
Ground distance = 5 210/ 0.9997

= 5 211.146
This shows that for grid distance of 5210 m there is a difference of 1.146 from the ground
distance.
Application of local scale factor in mine survey
As some ore deposits are below sea level, it is necessary for precise underground traversing,
that the distances be adjusted by the scale factor which appropriate for that depth, below
mean sea level as well as the distance to the central meridian.
43
Chapter seven
Transposition of Grid
At the present time it is increasingly becoming a common practice to orient all mines onto a
common coordinate axis usually the ordinates survey of the country in which the mine is
situated. If however the original mine survey work was laid out on a local coordinate axis
with arbitrary North it then becomes necessary to convert the local coordinates and
bearings. Whenever a correction is to be made from a point based on an old arbitrary
meridian to a point based on the new coordinate system.
Ynew
Ypnew
Ypold
O
Yold
θ
Θ-α
P Xp old
Xpnew
Xold
Xnew
44
From the diagram above the coordinates of P on the new system can obtained using the
following expression.
Ypnew = OPsin(θ – α)
= OP(sinθcosα – cosθsinα)
= Ypoldcosα – Xpoldsinα
Xpnew = OPcos(θ – α)
= OP(cosθcosα + sinθsinα)
= Xpoldcosα + Ypoldsinα
OP is the distance from the origin O to point P
NB In this case the same origin has been used.
Different Origin
Ynew
Yold O1
P® O2
Xnew Xold
Ypnew = KYpoldcosα - KXpoldsinα + Yold
Xpnew = KXpoldcosα + KYpoldsinα + Xold
45
NB When changing from any matric system or non matric system to any system introduce
the constant K. When the angle of swing α say about 30’ then will assume that our cosine =1
and also the sign of the swing is approximately α‘’ then we have the following formulas.
Ynew = Yold + Ypold – (Xpold x α’’)/206265
Xnew = Xold + Xpold – (Ypold x α’’)/206265
Given old coordinates of C and both old and new coordinates of point A and B. If you are
required to find new coordinates of C follow the following steps.
1. Join AB on the old system and the new system

2. Obtain distance and bearing AB on old and new system
3. Compare the two distances and bearings of the old and new system
4. K = (Distanceold )/(Distancenew)
5. Swing angle = Zold – Znew = α
6. Join AC on old system and obtain distance and bearing
7. Multiply old distance by K to get new distance AC
8. For Z apply swing factor to the old bearing to obtain new ZAC
9. Coordinate C from A using the new system.
α = ZACold – ZACnew
ZACnew = ZACold – α
Example
You have been sent into the field to establish a survey for a new mine headquarters. Given
coordinates of 3 beacons surveyed with zero south in cape feet. You are required to re-
coordinate the beacons in metres (zero west) with A as the origin of the system i.e. New
coordinates of A ( ±0.000 ±0.000 ).
Old coordinates of:
A + 332 686.06 + 6 111 501.49
B + 333 654.19 + 6 085 552.12
Sub 1 + 304 336.87 + 6 093 964.28
1 cape foot = 1.0329921 english feet
1 english foot = 0.304799472 metres
Hint
46
Ynew = DYoldcosα - DXoldsinα + YAold
Xnew = DXoldcosα + DXoldsinα + XAold
NB α = swing angle in this case is 900
CHAPTER EIGHTY
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Is that branch of surveying in which maps and plans are prepared from measurements taken
from photographs.
Terrestrial photogrammetry
Is the term used when maps and plans are prepared and used from photographs taken from
ground stations
Aerial Photogrammetry
Is used when maps are prepared from photographs taken from the air.
Survey cameras
Air photographs are taken by air survey cameras of various types. Photographs on glass
plates /more usually film conduct points vary in size from about 140-230mm. These are the
most common sizes and can be reproduced on glass or paper and may be in monochrome
colour or false colour. Camera lenses maybe super wide angle with an angle of about 1200,
wide angle of up to 950 and normal view of about 600 and occasional narrow view of 400 or
less. Super wide angles are now being more frequently used as they provide economical
large area coverage at lower flying height. Lower flying heights allow greater accuracy in
heightening thus permitting a closer contour interval on a resultant map. Focal length varies
with type of camera from 88mm to 635mm. The most common focal length is about 153mm
for wide angle lenses. Cameras are carried on special mounting to dumpen vibration and to
reduce the effect of aircraft drift. An instrument box is attached to the camera recording on
each film exposure.
The following information is recorded
1. Time of exposure
2. Date of survey
3. Digital counter numbering photographs in sequence
4. The flying height (altitude) which is read from the pressure altimeter
5. A spirit level which is not an accurate indication of the actual tilt owing to the centri-
fugal forces acting on the camera but is indicative of the steadiness of the flight.
Fiducial Marks
47
They are also referred to as collimation marks. Collimating marks appear on all
photographs in various forms. They consist of cross at the four corners or in the middle
of each edge of the photograph such that the line joining them will intersect at the
centre of the photo/principal point. In most cases the principal point itself is marked by
a fine cross.
NB At the time of exposure the film must lie absolutely flat inside the camera. This is
achieved either by applying tension momentarily by forcing it flat by air
pressure/vacuum
Air Photographs
There are two types of photographs that is vertical and oblique.
Vertical Photographs
In this case the camera axis is approximately vertical. Vertical photographs form the
most usual type of pictures because they are the most accurate and have the following
advantages. Variation in scale over the area of the photograph is minimised. The
photograph itself approximates the resultant map. Information can be transferred to a
map comparatively easy. Few areas of ground are hidden.
Disadvantage
The landscape is presented from an unfamiliar view point
Oblique Photograph
This is where the camera axis is deliberately tilted. There are high oblique which include
an image of the horizon and low oblique where the horizon is not seen. Camera tilt in
axis of 30 oblique are used under special circumstances. The ability to photograph
enemy territory by flying along the border without actually crossing it. They present the
area from a more familiar view point and features are more easily identified and
recognizable.
Disadvantage
Important detail maybe hidden in deadground i.e buildings obstructing the low features
around it. The scale varies considerably over the photograph and distances cannot be
scaled even approximately. The preparation of maps from oblique photograph is a
laborious task and consequently expensive.
Scale
The scale of a photograph is the average relationship between ground distance and
photograph distance over the area of the photograph.
48
b a
c
f
H
H C
A B
h
Where f is the focal length of the camera. A and B form the ground distance represented by
a and b on the film. H is the flying height, and h is height of ground above mean sea level.
On the diagram the length A and B is on a perfectly flat ground
The scale of the photograph is given by
Scale = ab/AB = photograph distance/ ground distance
Using similar triangles if the flying height and focal length of the camera are known the scale
is also given by
Scale = f/ H – h
NB This scale relationship is only correct if the picture plane is perfectly parallel to the flat
ground for the relation above to be correct.
The scale of the photograph is dependent on flying height and the required photograph
scale is dependent on the scale of the map to be produced.
Picture Distortion
The scale of an air photograph is subject to distortion. Distortion maybe caused by two
factors i.e. relief and tilt. Is at
49
Relief
If the area of the ground being photographed varies in height then the scale of the
photograph will vary in portion two the difference in height. For example if the focal length
of the camera used 120mm and the flying height is 1 500m and the ground along AB is at a
height of 300m then the scale of the photograph will be:
Scale = 120mm/ (1500 -300) m
= 1: 10 000
In the diagram above there is a point C and has an elevation of 500m then the scale here
will be
Scale = 120mm/ (1500 – 500) m
= 1: 8 333
Tilt
If the picture plane is tilted at the time of exposure the image will be distorted unless it is
known that the photograph was tilted at the time of exposure it may be wrongly assumed
that the picture shape properly represents the ground shape of the features.
Flat picture plane Tilted plane
a b
)
If the camera was tilted) the scale will have the shape as shown in diagram b.
NB The distortions produced by the effects of relief and tilt can be ignored in small scale
plotting from air photographs in the following cases.
a) Where the ground relief 1/10 of the flying heights

b) Where the angle of camera tilt does not exceed 30
FLIGHT PLANNING
50
In order to provide stereoscopic pairs of photographs necessary for the preparation of maps
and for three dimensional viewing every part of the ground to be surveyed must be
surveyed at least twice. This is achieved by flying in strips, photographs being taken with a
600 overlap secure the 50% minimum needed for stereoscopic viewing. Each strip/series of
photographs overlap adjacent strips by 30% on average to ensure that the area is captured
twice.
The flying height depends on the following.
1. Scale of the map /plan

2. Contour interval to be plotted
3. Relief of the country i.e. mountains
4. The type of camera to be used i.e focal lenses of the camera to be used
5. The type of plotting equipment to be used
6. The type of aircraft available
NB Where sophisticated instrument (plotting machine) it is more economical to increase

the flying height. For a map scale of 1:10 000 a flying height between 3 800 to 6000 is
used. Lower flying heights are necessary for close contouring over flat terrain.
Stereoscope
It was derived from the Greek words and literally means ‘’ solid’’. In normal human
vision any object viewed with both eyes produces two different prospective images
which are fused by the brain to give a perception of depth. The principal of stereoscopic
vision maybe derived as follows:
The line joining the eyes is called eye base and the distance apart between the eyes is
about 65mm and is known as the perception distance. The angle subtended at the point
by the eye base is called the angle parallax / the parallatic angle. The greater the angle
of parallax the greater the depth of perception. As distance increases the angle of
parallax becomes smaller. When it is reduced to about 30’’ at distance around 450m
sizes and distances are judged by relative size only of the object/point. By increasing the
parallax angle and by widening the eye base, depth perception can be extended. This
principal is used in prismatic binocular, range finders and mirror stereoscopes.
In viewing a three dimensional object such as a box each eye sees the different aspect of
the box and the true images seen are fused by the brain to provide a perception of
solidity of the box. If instead of viewing the box itself two flat pictures of it are seen
each taken from a slightly different position, looking at one picture with one eye and the
other picture with the other eye then the brain is deluded into providing the same
impression of depth.
51
Revision Question
Define the following terms as they are applied in photogrammetry
1. Nadir point
2. Principal point
3. Principal distance
4. Isocentre
5. Principal axis
6. Principal plane [10]
There are four methods of holding the film in the focal plane during exposure. Give a
description of these methods. [10]
52
Chapter Nine
Observations and Adjustments of measurements
For every measurement technique used, a more precise and potentially more accurate method can
be found. Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact and the true
value of the quantity being measured is never known. So the surveyor must learn to recognize
errors, eliminate as many errors as possible, and apply reasonable adjustments for those errors that
cannot be eliminated. This necessitates a proper control, assessment, adjustment and distribution of
those errors hence termed adjustment and computation.
Mistakes, errors and discrepancy are few terms frequently encountered in any surveying work.
Definition and classification of errors
Accuracy is the measure of the lack of error. It is an attempt to estimate difference between the
measured value and true value.
True error is the difference between measured and true quantity. The true error (E) of a single
observation cannot be determined because the true value is never known.
Mistakes errors – errors arising from the carelessness, inexperience, poor judgement and
incompetence of the observer.
Precision is the degree of reﬁnement in the performance of an operation (procedures and

instrumentation) or in the statement of a result. The term precise also is applied, by custom, to
methods and equipment used in attaining results of a high order of accuracy, such as using 3-wire
levelling methods or a one second theodolite. The more precise the survey method, the higher the
probability that the survey results can be repeated.
Types of errors:
Blunders/Mistakes/Gross errors
Systematic/Cumulative errors
Accidental/Random errors
Gross errors - are as a result of misreading of scale being used to measure or misbooking of
observed/measured quantity. They do not conform to any law or pattern, usually eliminated by a
sufficient number of repetitions e.g. redundant observations
Systematic errors follow some fixed law dependent on the local circumstances for example error
due to sag of a tape. Systematic errors always have the same magnitude and sign. Changes when
53
conditions changes e.g. temperature correction varies depending upon the climatic conditions. They
can be minimised by systematic observations and reduction techniques.
Random/Accidental errors are the remaining small errors after all the other have been eliminated.
Fallibility of the observer and changing conditions. Erroneous calibration of a tape is an accidental
error.
Analysis of Results
Results are supposed to be analysed using the following guidelines:

a) Systematic and Constant errors are difficult to depict so necessary checks on the results by
alternative method should be used.
b) Systematic and Periodic errors are indicated by their magnitude and sign
c) Accidental/Random errors are shown by their irregular deviations from the mean (most
probable value).
Arithmetic mean
If a quantity 𝒙 is measured n times (n→∞) under constant condition the true Arithmetic mean of
population becomes
μ=⅟n∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 (as n→∞)

and this assumed to be the most probable value (𝑋).
Most probable value (𝑋) is that value which based upon the observations is likely to be nearer to the
true value than any other value, is defined as
𝑋 = 𝒙+𝒗
𝒙 − 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑿 − 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
but
𝑣 = 𝑿−𝒙
𝑣 − 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍
54
Least Squares Adjustments
This is a method which makes use redundant observations minimizing the sum of the
squares of the residuals (v).
∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑉 2 = V12 + V22 + V32 + ............................................... + Vn2
1. Least squares estimate is the best in the sense that it is a variance estimator
2. It is an unbiased estimate and which is a unique solution
3. A residual(v) is a difference between an observed and the most probable value of a
quantity
4. Measurements will be containing random errors only and the adjustment should
bring about minimum changes in their values
5. Two basic methods exist for the adjustment of observations, thus (i) the direct
method which uses observations equations and (ii) the direct method which uses
conditioned equations.
In survey it is a good practise to several measurements than the minimum required to

achieve the desired results. Redundant observations are made in order to provide a check
for the blunders as to allow some assessment of the precision of the measurements
undertaken and the results obtained. Redundant observations are made so that results are
precise, accurate and reliable. Given an over determined set of measurements or
observations with n unknown it is unlikely due to existence of observational errors that the
observational errors that the observations will be consistent and hence any subset of any
linearly independent observations will produce different values for the unknown. It is
therefore not possible to produce a unique solution from the observations unless an
additional criterion is introduced (least squares adjustment). Before an estimate of the
desired parameters can be obtained a mathematical model linking the parameters with
observations must be formulated. The model is known as a functional model which includes
the observation equations and conditioned equations.
Observational Equations
Equations are formulated which relates measured values, their residual and the unknown
parameters.
for example ax + by = 0
55
where a and b are constants
x and y are unknown parameters
1. An equation is formulated for each measurement

2. The number of equations must equal the number of unknowns
3. If redundant observations are made then there will be more equations than
unneeded for a unique solution.
To simplify the equations the function partial derivatives are taken with respect to each
unknown and will be equated to zero
The set of equations obtained are called normal equations and they should be equal to the
number of unknowns.
Example
A line of collinear points A, B and C was measured as follows
X y
© © ©
A B C
X = 1.5; Y = 1.4; X + Y = 3.0
The three equations relate to the two unknown X and Y the measured parameters. Values X
and Y can be obtained from any two equations hence the other one is redundant. The
values of X and Y will differ depending on the equations selected.
The observation equation contain errors denoted by V
Observational equations
X – 1.5 = V1
Y – 1.4 = V2
X + Y – 3.0 = V3
Using the principle of least squares:
∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑉 2 = V12 + V22 + V32 where n = 3
= (X – 1.5)2 + (Y – 1.4)2 + (X + Y – 3.0)2
56
Differentiating the above expression with respect X and Y respectively
𝒅 ∑𝑛
𝑖=0 𝑉
2
= 2(x -1.5) + 2(x +y – 3.0) ..................................................1
𝒅𝒙
= 2x - 3.0 + 2x + 2y – 6
= 4x + 2y - 9
𝒅 ∑𝑛
𝑖=0 𝑉
2
= 2(y – 1.4) + 2(x +y – 3.0) ……………………………………………..2
𝒅𝒚
= 2y – 2.8 + 2x +2y – 6.0
= 2x + 4y – 8.8
4x + 2y – 9 = 0 …………………………………………………………………………3
2x + 4y – 8.8 = 0 ………………………………………………………………………4
Using equation 3 and 4
Equation (4) x 2 : 4x + 8y – 17.6 = 0 .........................................5
Equation (3): 4x + 2y – 9 = 0 ……………………………………………6
From equation (5) and (6)
0 + 6y-8.6
6y = 8.6
Y=1.433
4x = 10.64 - 17.6 = 0
X = 1.533
57
Therefore the most probable value of X = 1. 533 and Y = 1.433
Chapter Ten
Global Positioning System
Introduction to GPS
GPS is a system for navigation. It was contemplated in the

60’s, tested in the 70’s and a series of satellites were
launched around 1989-1993. Initially, they were defense
devices developed by the US government. It was then
opened up for civilian use since 1993. GPS generates about
100,000 jobs in a multi-billion-dollars industry. There are 24
satellites revolving around the Earth, each at a height
12,000 miles above the Earth surface. They are used to
locate positions on Earth mainly and the accuracy is within a
few hundred feet.
Applications of GPS
By the use of GPS, you can identify your geographic position (longitude and latitude), altitude,
velocity and direction of travel. GPS has various applications on land, at sea and in the air.
GPS can be used in
 aviation navigation
 marine navigation
 car navigation
 surveying
 recreation e.g. hiking
 tracking
 emergency response e.g. ambulance and fire
 mapping
 military
58
The 3 segments of GPS
GPS consists of 3 segments. They are:
1. The space segment (the satellites)

2. The control segment (the ground stations)
3. The user segment (the user and the GPS receiver)
太空部份
SPACE SEGMENT
地面控制部份使用者接收部份
CONTROL SEGMENT USER SEGMENT
The space segment consists of at least 24 satellites (21 satellites plus 3 spares). The satellites are at
about 12,000 miles above the Earth’s surface. The satellites circle the Earth once every 12 hours.
The satellites transmit radio signals continuously to broadcast its changing position and time.
The control segment consists of ground stations that monitor and control the satellites.
The user segment consists of the user and the GPS receiver. The GPS receiver measures the signals
from the satellites and identifies the user’s position.
59
How does GPS operate
The satellites are spaced so that from any point on Earth, at least four satellites will be above the
horizon. Each satellite continually transmits radio signals and broadcasts its position and time.
GPS uses satellites in space as reference points to locate the positions on the Earth. The GPS
receiver measures our distance from the satellites by measuring the travel time of the radio signals.
The distance from the satellite to the GPS receiver is equal to the travel time from the satellite to
GPS receiver multiplied by the speed of light. That is,
Distance = Travel time x Speed of light
On the ground, any GPS receiver that contains a computer can locate its own position on the Earth
by measuring accurately the distance from three satellites. The result is provided in the form of a
geographic position – longitude and latitude.
If a fourth satellite can be received, the receiver/computer can figure out the altitude as well as the
geographic position.
?
?
?
?
?
Limitations of GPS
GPS cannot be used in places where the signal from the satellite cannot be received e.g. in
caves, inside a building, underground locations, underwater etc. Besides, the GPS receivers
have potential position errors.
60
How GPS was invented
In the early 20th century several radio-based navigation systems were developed, which were
used widely during World War II. Both navy ships and airplanes used ground-based radio-
navigation systems.
One of the drawbacks of using radio waves generated on the ground is that you must choose
between a system that is very accurate but doesn't cover a wide area, or one that covers a
wide area but is not very accurate. High-frequency radio waves can provide accurate position
location but can only be picked up in a small, localized area.
Lower frequency radio waves can cover a larger area, but cannot provide accurate position
location.
Scientists, therefore, decided that
the only way to provide coverage
for the entire world was to place
high-frequency radio transmitters
in space. A transmitter high above
the Earth sending a high-frequency
radio wave can cover a large area.
This is one of the main principles
behind the GPS system. The first
GPS satellite was launched in
1978. The first 10 satellites were
developmental satellites, called
Block I. From 1989 to 1993, 23
production satellites, called Block
II, were launched. The launch of
the 24th satellite in 1994
completed the system.
How could GPS use in navigating objects?
What is Navigation?
Navigation is the act of determining the course of movement. This movement could be for a
plane, ship, automobile, person on foot, or any other similar means. The main purpose of
navigation is to be able to get from one place to another place without getting loss.
?
? ?
?
?
?
61
Since prehistoric times, people have been using different ways to tell where they are, to help
guide them to where they are going, and to get them back home again. Cavemen probably
used stones and twigs to mark a trail when they set out hunting for food. The earliest
mariners followed the coast closely to keep from getting lost. When navigators first sailed
into the open ocean, they discovered they could chart their course by following the stars.
How could GPS use in navigating objects?
GPS receivers take signal information and calculate the user's exact location. Now, the
receiver can determine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map. Your
current location can be viewed in the GPS in the form of coordinates (latitude, longitude and
altitude). If you are moving, your receiver may also be able to calculate your speed and
direction of travel and give you estimated the distance to destinations and times of arrival to
specified destinations. Besides, the locations and the route traveled can also be recorded.
GPS Applications in the Military Field, Standard Positioning System and Precise Positioning System
GPS Applications in Military Field
There are 24 satellites revolving
around the Earth up to now and all of
them are owned by the US
government. It was restricted for the
military use preliminary. Military
GPS user equipment can be integrated
into fighters, bombers, helicopters,
navy ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps,
and soldiers’ equipment for
navigation. Besides, military
applications of GPS include target
designation, rendezvous. With the
technological advancement, its
accuracy had been improved greatly.
GPS was then being divided into two
categories, namely Precise
62
Positioning Service (PPS) and
Standard Positioning Service (SPS).
Precise Positioning System (PPS)
Authorized users with cryptographic equipment and keys and specially equipped receivers
use the PPS. U. S. and Allied military, certain U. S. Government agencies, and selected
civil users specifically approved by the U. S. Government, can use the PPS. The accuracy
of PPS is as follows:
Horizontal accuracy: 22 m
Vertical accuracy: 27.7 m
Time accuracy: 200 nanoseconds
Standard Positioning System (SPS)
Civil users use the SPS without charge or restrictions. The accuracy of SPS is
intentionally degraded by the U. S. Department of Defense. The accuracy of SPS is as
follows:
Horizontal accuracy: 100 m
Vertical accuracy: 156 m
Time accuracy: 340 nanoseconds
63
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Location and Control Survey

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN MINE SURVEY

LOCATION AND CONTROL SURVEY

AIM OF THE SUBJECT:

OBJECTIVES OF THE SUBJECT:

1 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASURING[EDM] 3

7.2 Change of origin without a change of axes

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Basic principle of EDM measurement

What is an electromagnetic wave?

Properties of electromagnetic waves

Properties of electromagnetic waves are related as follows

Where T = period, F = frequency, c = speed.

There is also a phase on the wavelength ranging from 00 to 3600.

Phase Comparison method

The distance is determined by measuring phase difference between transmitted and

Where N = integer number of λ; δλ = phase comparison and this is achieved by using

Where (Ø2 – Ø1) is phase difference.

Resolving the ambiguity of phase comparison method

This is done as follows

1. The measuring wavelength can be measured manually in multiples of 10 so that the

It is a process where the measuring wave is electronically superimposed on a carrier wave of

Two methods used.

Task: Research on the different classification of EDMs

Sources of Errors when Using EDMs

The principal sources of error are:

1. Error in instrumental constant

Instrumental and Reflector Constants

The zero error is in two parts namely –

Determine the distance AD

→ (AB + K) + (BC + K) = (AC + K)

The general equation is of the form

Where L = total length, n = number of bays, Li = measured length of each bay

AB = 20,512; AC = 63,192; AD = 153,303; BC = 42,690; BD = 132,803; CD = 90, 120

AB + BC – AC = - K = (20,512 + 42,690) – 63,192 = - 0.010

AB + BD – AD = - K = (20,512 + 132,803) – 153, 303 = - 0.012

AC + CD – AD = - K = (63,192 + 90,120) – 153,303 = -0.009

BC + CD – BD = - K = (42,690 + 90,120) – 132,803 = - 0.007

Mean error= (total errors)/4 = - 0.0095

Check using the general formula

Advantages of using an EDM

1. It is more accurate ( provided all corrections are applied)

1. It is expensive, it cost money

a. Every station should be visible from the adjacent stations

Angles A =680 50’00’’

T.H.D =591.678/√2= 418.380

Aux Brg = 169,49.59

Z AB = 3600 + tan_1 (485.66)

The best conditioned triangle

The Observation techniques

-You can take the plan with you in the bush.

-You should be familiar with points you are surveying.

Triangulation Networks and Polygon adjustments

Using pentagon above

1=19059’42’’ 2=71,22,53 3=87,35,05

1. Adjust for 5400 first

ANGLE CORRECTION CORRECTED

ANGLE ANGLES CORRECTION CORRECTED ANGLE CORRECTED