Reeds Vol. 13 Ship Stability, Resistance and Powering 2

For my darling wife Linny
&
For Leanne
Published by Adlard Coles Nautical

an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3DP
www.adlardcoles.com
Copyright © Chris J Patterson, Jonathan D Ridley and Adlard Coles Nautical, 2014
First published by Adlard Coles Nautical in 2014
Print ISBN 978-1-4081-7612-2

ePDF ISBN 978-1-4081-7614-6
ePub ISBN 978-1-4081-7613-9
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or
by any means – graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping or information storage and retrieval systems – without the prior permission
in writing of the publishers.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by them
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Note: while all reasonable care has been taken in the publication of this book, the publisher
takes no responsibility for the use of the methods or products described in the book.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank their colleagues, families and friends who have
provided advice during the development of this book. They would also like to thank
Andy Phillips at Formsys, for his permission to use sample design data. They would
also like to sincerely thank Kirsty Schaper and Jenny Clark at Bloomsbury and Srikanth
Srinivasan at Newgen for their patience and encouragement.
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NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Units Name
AC – Admiralty coefficient
AP – Aft perpendicular
2
AWP m Waterplane area
b m Tank beam
b m Compartment beam
B – Centre of buoyancy
B m Waterline beam of a box shaped vessel
BAR – Propeller blade area ratio
BM m Vertical position of the metacentre above B
BM tonne metres Bending moment
BML m Vertical position of the longitudinal metacentre above B
BP – Propeller power coefficient
BWL m Waterline beam
CB – Block coefficient
CF – Frictional resistance coefficient
CF m FOAP Longitudinal centre of flotation
CM – Amidships area coefficient
CR – Residuary resistance coefficient
CT – Total resistance coefficient
CW – Waterplane area coefficient
d m Distance of a mass from the centreline
d m Transverse shift in the centre of buoyancy due to bilging in a side
compartment
D m Draught
D m Propeller diameter
DA m Draught at the aft perpendicular
DB m Bilged draught
δ – Propeller speed coefficient
Δ tonnes Displacement or ship mass including contents
DF m Draught at the forward perpendicular
DHeeled m Heeled draught
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xvi • Nomenclature
Symbol Units Name
DI m Initial draught
DLCF m True mean draught (draught at the LCF)
DM m Mean draught
DTMD m True mean draught (draught at the LCF)
DW – Subscript used to identify dock water
DWA mm Dock water allowance
ηDUCT – Waterjet duct efficiency
ηH – Hull efficiency
ηJET – Waterjet jet efficiency
ηJS – Waterjet system efficiency
ηM – Engine mechanical efficiency
ηO – Propeller open water efficiency
ηP – Propeller efficiency
ηPUMP – Waterjet pump efficiency
ηR – Propeller relative rotative efficiency
ηT – Transmission efficiency
FC – Fuel coefficient
Fn Froude number
FOAP – Forward of aft perpendicular
FP – Forward perpendicular
FSC m Free surface correction (loss in GM due to FSM)
4
FSM m Free surface moment (not corrected for fluid density)
FSM tonne metres Free surface moment (corrected for fluid density)
FWA mm Fresh water allowance
2
G m/s Acceleration due to gravity (taken as 9.81 m/s2)
G – Centre of gravity
GM m Metacentric height
GMI m Initial metacentric height (at zero heel)
GML m Longitudinal metacentric height
GZ m Righting lever, righting arm, arm of statical stability, lever of
statical stability
h m Height of a watertight flat or double bottom depth
4
I or Inertia m Transverse second moment of area of the waterline measured
through the centreline
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Nomenclature • xvii
Symbol Units Name
ICentroid m4 Second moment of area measured through the centre of a shape

4
IEDGE m Second moment of area measured through the edge of the shape
4
IGG m Second moment of area measured through the centre of a shape
4
IL or InertiaL m Longitudinal second moment of area of the waterline measured
through the LCF
IROLL AXIS m4 Second moment of area of the waterplane measured through the
centre of the waterplane
IXX or IX, IYY m4 Second moment of area measured through a point away from
or IY centre of a shape
J – Propeller advance coefficient
K The intersection of the centreline and the keel
KQ – Propeller torque coefficient
KT – Propeller thrust coefficient
KB m Vertical position of the centre of buoyancy
KM m Vertical position of the metacentre above the keel
KML m Vertical position of the longitudinal metacentre above the keel
KG m Vertical position of the centre of gravity
1+k – Frictional form factor
l m Tank length
l m Compartment length
L m Waterline length of a box shaped vessel
λ m Heeling arm
λ0 m Grain heeling arm at 0 degrees
λ40 m Grain heeling arm at 40 degrees
LBP m Length between perpendiculars
LCB m FOAP Longitudinal position of the centre of buoyancy
LCF m FOAP Longitudinal centre of flotation
LCG m FOAP Longitudinal position of the centre of gravity
LWL m Waterline length
m kg Mass
ṁ kg/s Mass flowrate
M – Metacentre
MCTC tm/cm Moment to change the trim by 1 cm
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xviii • Nomenclature
Symbol Units Name
MCTC2 tm/cm Used in draught surveys – the MCTC at the corrected midship
draught (row 13) plus 0.50 m
MCTC1 tm/cm Used in draught surveys – the MCTC at the corrected midship
draught (row 13) minus 0.50 m
MHM tonne metres Mass heeling moment, used in the grain regulations
MSS tonne metres Moment of statical stability, or righting moment
μ – Compartment permeability
μ kg/ms Dynamic viscosity
n rev/s Propeller revolution speed
N rpm Propeller revolution speed
N – Intersection of the line of action of buoyancy and a horizontal line
from the keel
∇ m3 Underwater or submerged volume
2
v m /s Kinematic viscosity
Pv Pa Vapour pressure
P tonnes Up-thrust during dry-docking
P m Propeller pitch
PD W Delivered power
PE W Effective power
PEN W Effective naked power
PI W Installed power
PS W Shaft power
PT W Thrust power
Q Nm Propeller torque
r m Turn radius
3
ρ t/m Fluid density
RF N Frictional resistance
Rn – Reynold’s number
RR N Residuary resistance
RT N Total resistance
s various Ordinate spacing when using Simpson’s Rule
2
S m Wetted surface area
SCF – Ship correlation factor
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Nomenclature • xix
Symbol Units Name
SF m2/t Stowage factor

SF tonnes Shear force
sfc kg/kW hr Specific fuel consumption
σ – Cavitation number
SW – Subscript used to identify sea water (taken as 1.025 m3)
t – Thrust deduction factor
T N Propeller thrust
TCB m Transverse position of the centre of buoyancy
TCG m Transverse position of the centre of gravity
∴ – Mathematical symbol meaning ‘therefore’
θ degrees Angle of inclination, list, heel or loll
~ Difference between
TPC t/cm Tonnes per centimetre immersion
v m/s, knots Ship speed
vA m/s Advance speed
vM m/s Model speed
vS m/s Ship speed
vW m/s Wake speed
VHM m4 Volumetric heeling moment, used in the grain regulations
w tonnes Mass of an item of cargo
x various Generic term for an unknown variable
Z – Number of propeller blades
Z – Intersection of the line of action of buoyancy and a horizontal line
from the centre of gravity
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INTRODUCTION
These notes are written with the intention of helping develop an understanding of
stability and propulsion for students of nautical science based degree courses, Merchant
Navy Officers undertaking their Officer of the Watch or Master/Chief Mate Stability and
Structures examinations, and Marine Engineers’ Naval Architecture examinations with
the UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA). Some topic areas are required for some
examinations but not others. For each topic area, the titles are marked (OOW), (MCM)
or (ENG) indicating the level of the topic.
For each section, the learning aims and objectives are listed at the start of the section,
and again at the end of the section as a checklist. You should ensure that you can tick
off all of the relevant boxes before the end of the course. These lists are for guidance
only – they are not an exhaustive list of all skills, abilities and knowledge required.
Questions within the notes are designed to test knowledge up to that point in the notes,
and outline solutions to all of these questions are given in Chapter 14. Try and attempt
the questions before looking at the solutions. Questions suitable for the Officer of the
Watch level course syllabus are marked (OOW) alongside the question number, while
questions suitable for the Master/Chief Mate level course are marked (MCM). Questions
suitable for the Marine Engineers’ courses are marked (ENG).
Background mathematical proofs and assumptions are covered in the appendices

of these notes, so that you can develop an understanding of the underlying physics.
These are indicated by arrow symbols.
The most important formulae, needed to solve problems, are marked in bold and are
highlighted in boxes, for example:
a+b=c
▲ Formula Example
It is recommended that you make a separate list of these, and note down what the
terms mean, the units used and sign conventions.
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1 FLOTATION AND
BUOYANCY
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
Explain why a ship floats

Understand and complete calculations based on the relationship between
displacement and draught for a box shaped vessel
Understand the relationship between underwater volume, fluid density and
displacement or mass
Understand the difference between displacement and tonnage
Understand and use block coefficients, waterplane area coefficients and amidship
area coefficients
Calculate underwater volume, waterplane area and amidships areas
Determine the displacement of a ship from the hydrostatics
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics
Determine the displacement of a ship from the hydrostatics at intermediate draughts
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics at intermediate displacements
Determine the displacement of a ship from the displacement and deadweight (DW)
scales
Draw, label and dimension a Load Line mark
Understand the Load Line zones
Use the TPC to calculate the mass to add to cause a sinkage or the mass to remove to
cause a rise
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Flotation and Buoyancy • 3
Use the TPC to calculate the sinkage or rise caused by adding or removing a mass
Understand and use the relationship between and calculate the TPC from the
dimensions of the ship and the form coefficients
Understand the relationship between density and TPC, and correct the sea water TPC
value to a dock water value
Correct the dock water TPC value to a sea water value
Understand the relationship between draught and water density
Calculate the fresh water allowance (FWA) of a ship, and apply it to the draught
Calculate the dock water allowance (DWA) of a ship, and apply it to the draught
Calculate the mass to add or remove to a ship so that the vessel floats in accordance
with the Load Line regulations
Understand the limitations of the TPC with respect to changes in draught
Understand the difference between normal Load Lines and Lumber Load Lines
Understand the process by which the position of the Load Line on a ship is
determined (assignment of Load Line)
Archimedes’ Principle
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Any object which floats will, when placed in water, have a certain proportion of its body
immersed, or underwater. Archimedes’ principle states that:
When an object is immersed or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upwards

thrust equal to the weight of water that it pushes aside, or displaces.
Therefore, if an object, such as a ship, is placed in water it will experience an upwards

force, known as buoyancy, as a result of displacing the water.
Archimedes’ Principle tells us that the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of water
displaced. The weight of water displaced can be found from the volume of water
displaced (given the symbol ∇), the density of the water (given the symbol ρ) and the
acceleration due to gravity (g):
= ∇×ρ×g
For a vessel to float, she must be in ‘equilibrium’. That means that the total forces acting
on the object must be equal and opposite to each other, and effectively cancel each
other out. As well as the buoyancy force acting on the vessel upwards, there is gravity

4 • Ship Stability, Powering and Resistance
acting downwards. The force of gravity on an object, in units of Newtons, is equal to

the mass of the object in kilograms, multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity, or
‘standard gravity’:
Force due to grav

r vitty M ass × g
Mass
Therefore, the gravitational force acting downward can be given by:
Force due to grav

r vitttyy ip mass × g
Ship
Ship
The mass of a ship is given the symbol ∆. Substituting this notation gives:
Force due to grav

r vitty Δ×g
As previously stated, for the ship to be in equilibrium, the buoyancy forces acting up
must equal the gravity forces acting down:
Force due to grav

r vitttyy Buoyanc
o cy forces
Substituting the expressions for the forces gives:
Δ×g= ρ×g×∇
The gravitational acceleration, g, is constant on both sides, and so to simplify the

equation it can be cancelled. This gives:
Δ=r×∇
▲ Formula 1.1 Archimedes' principle
X For a detailed proof of this for box shaped vessels, please see Appendix 2:
Derivation of Archimedes’ Principle for Box Shaped Vessels.
This means that the mass of the ship is the same as the water displaced. For this reason,
the term used to describe the mass of a ship is her ‘displacement’.
If we were to use normal SI units, the mass should be in units of kilograms, and the
density in units of kilograms per metres cubed (kg/m3). However, given the large mass

values used in the shipping industry, the common practice is to quote mass in units of
tonnes, and density in units of tonnes per metres cubed (1.025 t/m3 for sea water, and
1.000 t/m3 for fresh water).
Formula 1.1 allows us to directly calculate the mass and underwater volume of a ship.
This is an important relationship which governs the flotation of ships. As the density
of water in a fixed location can be considered constant, any increase in the mass of
the vessel, as a result of loading cargo, will result in an increase in volume – that is, the
draught increases.
The pressure still acts at right angles to the hull, but can be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components of force. The horizontal components act inwards on the hull, while
the vertical components create the buoyancy force.
X For a mathematical proof of this for vessels with a rounded section, please
see Appendix 3: Derivation of Archimedes’ Principle for Semi-Circular
Section Vessels.
QUESTIONS
Q1.1 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

A box shaped barge has a length of 30 m, a beam of 5 m and floats at a draught of 2 m in
salt water, as shown below. Calculate the displacement of the barge. (Hint – the volume
of a box is given by the length multiplied by the beam multiplied by the depth.)
2m
30 m
5m

A box shaped barge has a length of 50 m and a beam of 7 m. The displacement of
the barge is 1,076.25 tonnes. Calculate the draught of the barge if it is floating in salt
water.


A box shaped barge has a length of 60 m, a beam of 8 m and floats in an unloaded
condition at a draught of 3 m in salt water. 524 tonnes of cargo is added to the barge.
Determine the draught after loading.

A box shaped barge has a length of 50 m, a beam of 7 m and floats in a lightship
condition at a draught of 2 m in salt water. Determine what the draught of the vessel
would be in fresh water.
Displacement or Tonnage?
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
So far we have dealt with the displacement of the ship. There are a number of different
definitions of displacement that need to be understood, and also definitions for
‘tonnage’, which is often confused with displacement.
The ‘Light Displacement’ or ‘lightship’ is the mass of the vessel with no cargo, crew
stores, fuel, and so on. It does, however, include water in boilers to working levels and
hydraulic fluid. The ‘Load Displacement’ is the mass of the hull and everything aboard
when floating at the summer waterline. The term displacement (Δ) is generally used to
indicate any value between lightship and load.
Deadweight (DWT) is the difference between lightship and the displacement –

effectively the amount of cargo, people and stores carried. The total DWT is the
difference between lightship and the load displacement, and is effectively the
maximum amount of stores, cargo and people that can be carried.
The ‘Gross Tonnage’ of a ship is a measure of the internal volume of a vessel. Ships were
historically charged operating fees based on how much cargo they could carry, not
necessarily the actual DWT. The cargo carrying capacity of ships is referred to as the
‘tonnage’. This possibly comes from an old measure of how much wine a vessel could
carry – measured in units of Tuns. A ‘tun’ in this case was not a unit of mass but a unit
of volume – 2.78 m3. Note that tonnage, as a measure of the total volume of the vessel,
has no direct mathematical link with the mass of the vessel.

Form Coefficients
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The simplified box shaped vessels allow some basic calculations to be undertaken, but
obviously real ships have curved hull forms for hydrodynamic efficiency. For real ships,
determining the underwater volume is more complicated than simply multiplying the
length, beam and draught, as the curvature of the hull means that the underwater
volume is less than simply the waterline length multiplied by the waterline beam
multiplied by the draught. Form coefficients can be used to compare a box shaped
vessel to a real ship with the same length, beam and draught.
Block coefficient
For real ships, the underwater volume can be found using a value known as the
block coefficient. The block coefficient measures the actual underwater volume
compared to a box shaped vessel of the same length, beam and draught, as shown
in Figure 1.1.
BWL
D
LWL
▲ Figure 1.1 Block coefficient
The block coefficient, or CB, can be used to find the volume using the formula below:
∇
CB =
LWL × BWL × D
▲ Formula 1.2 Block coefficient

Within this, CB is the block coefficient, ∇ is the underwater volume of the vessel in units
of metres3, LWL and BWL are the waterline length and beam of the vessel in metres and D
is the draught of the vessel in metres.
The block coefficient is calculated by the Naval Architect, and supplied in a table which
gives the block coefficient for a particular draught. Therefore, at any draught, the block
coefficient can be found, and the underwater volume calculated.
Waterplane area coefficient
Another form coefficient that allows us to describe the shape of the hull is the
waterplane area coefficient. The waterplane area of a vessel is the two dimensional
area enclosed by the waterline of the vessel, as shown in Figure 1.2.
LWL
Waterplane area
BWL
▲ Figure 1.2 Waterplane area coefficient
The waterplane area can be found from:
Waterplane area
CW =
LWL × BWL
▲ Formula 1.3 Waterplane area coefficient
Within this, CW is the waterplane area coefficient, and LWL and BWL are the waterline
length and beam of the vessel in metres. The waterplane area is measured in units of
metres2. Again, the waterplane area coefficient is calculated by the Naval Architect,
and supplied in a table which gives the waterplane area coefficient for a particular
draught. Therefore, at any draught, the waterplane area coefficient can be found and
the waterplane area calculated.

QUESTION

A vessel has a waterline length of 100.00 m and a waterline beam of 20.00 m. Her
waterplane area coefficient is 0.65. Determine her waterplane area.
Amidships area coefficient
Another form coefficient that allows us to describe the shape of the hull is the
amidships area coefficient. The amidships area of a vessel is the shape enclosed by
the hull from the waterline down at amidships, as shown in Figure 1.3. As a general
rule, as the amidships area coefficient gets larger, the internal cargo carrying volume
increases for a given ship length.
BWL
▲ Figure 1.3 Amidships area coefficient
The amidships area coefficient measures can be found from:
Amidships area
CM =
BWL × D
▲ Formula 1.4 Amidships area coefficient
Within this, CM is the amidships area coefficient, BWL is the waterline beam of the vessel
in metres and D is the draught of the vessel in metres. The amidships area is measured
in units of metres2.

QUESTION

A vessel has a beam of 15 m and draught of 8 m. The amidships area coefficient is 0.95.
Determine the amidships area.
Hydrostatics
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Clearly the form coefficients, along with the underwater volume and displacement,
will change if the draught of the vessel changes. Calculating the underwater volume
and displacement values from the form coefficients can be time-consuming, so they
are pre-calculated by the Naval Architect, and supplied in tables known as ‘hydrostatic
tables’. These tables show how the displacement (and other hydrostatic parameters,
which will be covered in more detail later) change with the draught of the vessel.
Samples of these are in Appendix 1: MV Reed – Sample Stability Data. To use these
tables, we need to look at the definition of draught. If a vessel is ‘trimmed’, that is, not
evenly loaded fore and aft, then the draught of the vessel will vary along the length, as
shown in Figure 1.4, where the vessel is shown with stern trim (i.e. the stern is deeper
in the water than the keel), on an even keel (where the keel is horizontal) and bow trim
(i.e. the bow is deeper in the water than the stern).
The draught used in the tables is always the draught measured at a point along the
ship known as the longitudinal centre of flotation, or LCF, and is known as the True
Mean Draught. The LCF is the pivot point of the vessel when trimming, and so at any
LCF
AP Amidships FP
DA DLCF DM DF
▲ Figure 1.4 Variation in draught with trim

displacement the draught at this point is independent of the trim of the ship. The
LCF, and variations between true mean and mean draught will be covered in more
detail later. The hydrostatic values are always calculated assuming the vessel is in
salt water. Calculations using these tables will be covered in more detail later in the
book.
QUESTIONS

Using the MV Reed Sample Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1), determine the
displacement of MV Reed when she has a draught of 5.30 m.

Using the MV Reed Sample Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1), determine the draught
of MV Reed when she has a displacement of 6,008 tonnes.
It is a requirement of part 6 of the Statutory Instruments 1998 No. 2241 The Merchant
Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998, Amended 2000 that this information be provided
to the ship in book form. This is explained in more detail in MSN 1701(M).
Hydrostatics and Linear Interpolation

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Often the rows in the tables do not match the exact values we need. In this case, linear
interpolation can be used to determine the draught or displacement, or any other
values required. For example, consider the data in Table 1.1.
If we wanted to determine the displacement of the vessel at a draught between these

two values, for example, at 4.12 m, then we would need to use linear interpolation.
Table 1.1 Sample hydrostatic data showing

draught and displacement
Draught (m) Displacement (tonnes)
4.20 3,890
4.10 3,781

The easiest way to understand linear interpolation is to sketch a graph showing the
relationship between the numbers. On the x axis (horizontal axis) we plot the value we
know, in this case the draught, and on the y axis we plot the value we are trying to find,
in this case, the displacement. This is shown in Figure 1.5.
3,900
3,880
3,860
Displacement (tonnes)
3,840
3,820
3,800
3,780
3,760
4.08 4.10 4.12 4.14 4.16 4.18 4.20 4.22
Draught (m)
▲ Figure 1.5 Draught and displacement
We can read up from the known draught at 4.12 m, and across to the displacement to
find the displacement at 4.12 m, as shown in Figure 1.6. This gives us a displacement of
3,803 tonnes.
We can, however, speed up this process and interpolate mathematically, so that we

don’t need to draw a graph. If we consider the graph, as shown in Figure 1.7, we can
see that the proportion of distance a to distance b is the same as the proportion of
distance A to distance B. Therefore:
a A
=
b B
▲ Formula 1.5 Linear interpolation
This numerical method is much faster and far more accurate than drawing a graph and
reading off the value.

3,900
3,880
3,860
3,840
3,820
3,800
3,780
3,760
4.08 4.10 4.12 4.14 4.16 4.18 4.20 4.22
Draught (m)
▲ Figure 1.6 Interpolating displacement
3,900
3,880
B
3,860
3,840
3,820
3,800
A
3,780
a
3,760
4.08 4.10 4.12 4.14 4.16 4.18 4.20 4.22
b
Draught (m)
▲ Figure 1.7 Linear interpolation
QUESTIONS

Determine the displacement of MV Reed when the vessel has a draught of 3.48 m.


Determine the draught of MV Reed when she has a displacement of 3,365 tonnes.
(Hint – the known values go on the x axis, the unknown values go on the y axis.)
X For an explanation of an alternative method of interpolation by using the

equation of a straight line, please see Appendix 4: Linear Interpolation
Using the Equation of a Straight Line.
Displacement and Deadweight Scales

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Draught (m) Deadweight (tonnes)
8.00
8.000 5.385
TF
F T
S 7.00
W 7.000 4.385
6.000 3.385
6.00
5.000 2.385
5.00
4.000 1.385
4.00
3.000 385
3.00
▲ Figure 1.8 Displacement and deadweight scale

Occasionally the hydrostatic data may also be shown in terms of diagrams showing a
scale of draught against displacement and deadweight, as shown in Figure 1.8.
To use these scales, a horizontal line is drawn across the scale at the known displacement
or draught, and the other values read from the horizontal line.
Hydrostatic Curves
(ENG)
MCTC (tm/cm)
LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

9,000
t
men
100
TPc (t/cm)
lace
8,000
96
Disp
C
MCT
92
48
15
7,000
88
47
14
c
TP 84
46
13
B
6,000
LC
80
45
12
76
44
11
5,000
KM (m)
72
43
10
10
68
42
9
4,000
F
64
41
9
LC
KB (m)
60
40
8
3,000
KM
56
7
5
52
4
KB
2,000
48
3
44
2
1,000
40
1
8
Draught (m)
▲ Figure 1.9 Hydrostatic curves

Occasionally the hydrostatic data shown in the tables may instead be shown in graphical
form. The draught of the vessel is plotted on the y axis, with the other parameters each
plotted on their own scale along the x axis. The hydrostatic curves for MV Reed are
shown in Figure 1.9.
These graphs give the same data as the hydrostatic tables; however, as there is an
element of subjectivity in reading graphs, they are less accurate than the tables. They
MCTC (tm/cm)
LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

9,000
t
men
100
TPc (t/cm)
lace
8,000
96
i s p
C
D
MCT
48
92
15
7,000
47
88
TP
14
46
84
13
6,000
B
LC
45
80
12
44
76
11
5,000
KM (m)
43
72
10
10
42
68
9
4,000
41
F
64
9
LC
KB (m)
40
60
8
3,000
KM
56
7
5
52
KB
6
4
2,000
48
3
44
2
1,000
40
1
2
8
Draught (m)
▲ Figure 1.10 Hydrostatic curves and known draught

do have the advantage of not requiring interpolation to use. As with the tables, to
use the curves, either the draught or displacement must be known. If the draught is
known, then a horizontal line is drawn across all of the curves at the known draught.
The intersection of this line and the curves can be read off the corresponding x axes
to determine the hydrostatic parameters. An example of this for a draught of 5.50 m is
MCTC (tm/cm)
LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

9,000
t
men
100
TPc (t/cm)
lace
8,000
96
Disp
C
MCT
15
48
92
7,000
14
47
88
c
TP
13
46
84
6,000
B
LC
12
45
80
44
76
11
5,000
KM (m)
43
72
10
10
42
68
9
4,000
41
64
F
9
LC
KB (m)
40
60
8
3,000
KM
56
7
5
52
6
4
KB
2,000
48
3
44
2
1,000
40
1
8
Draught (m)
▲ Figure 1.11 Hydrostatic curves and known displacement

Alternatively, if the displacement is known, then a vertical line is draw up from the
displacement axis to the displacement curve. At the intersection of the line and the
curve, a horizontal line is draw across the graph. The intersection of this horizontal
line and the other curves can be read to determine the values of the hydrostatic
parameters. An example of this is given in Figure 1.11, for a displacement of 4,600
tonnes.
Load Line
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Note: Information in this section is based on the Statutory Instruments 1998 No. 2241
The Merchant Shipping (Load Line ) Regulations 1998, Amended 2000 (The Merchant
Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998).
The reality of commercial shipping is that ships carry cargo in order to make money.
As a general rule, carrying more cargo results in making more money, so there is
an economic argument to load as much cargo on a ship as is possible. However, as
cargo is added to the ship, she sinks lower into the water, increasing her draught
and reducing her freeboard (the height of the hull above the water). This reduction
in freeboard reduces the ability of the vessel to survive waves, and also reduces the
stability of the vessel (this will be covered in more detail later). All ships (with some
exclusions detailed later) are therefore marked on the side of the hull with ‘Load
Lines’, which show the minimum allowable freeboard for the vessel. The minimum
freeboard is measured from the waterline of the vessel to the ‘freeboard deck’,
which is the ‘the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea, which has
permanent means of closing all openings open to the weather, and below which
all openings in the sides of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight
closing’. This minimum freeboard is determined from a set of rules, and takes into
account, among other factors, the size, block coefficient, hull sheer and construction
of the vessel. A photo of these marks in shown in Figure 1.12, and a drawing of these
marks is shown in Figure 1.13. These are marks on the side of the hull which show
the highest allowable waterline for the vessel. When the ship is loaded so that the
waterline is on these marks, she will be floating at her maximum draught, with her
minimum freeboard.
As these are international symbols, there are strict rules about the size of the marks.
They must conform to the dimensions shown in Figure 1.14. To ensure that the marks

▲ Figure 1.12 Photograph of a Load Line mark
TF
F T
▲ Figure 1.13 Diagram of a Load Line mark

are permanent, they are painted onto strips of metal welded to the hull, so that they
can be found even if painted over.
300
Statutory freeboard
230
TF
230
300
F T
540
S
450
All lines are 25 mm thick. All dimensions shown are in millimetres.
Freeboards are measured from the top of each line.
▲ Figure 1.14 Dimensions of a Load Line mark
The ‘TF’, ‘F’, ‘T’, ‘S’, ‘W’ and ‘WNA’ markings refer to ‘zones’.
Designation Meaning
TF Tropical Freshwater
F Freshwater
1
T Tropical – always th of the summer draught above the summer mark
48
S Summer
1
W Winter– always th of the summer draught below the summer mark
48
WNA Winter North Atlantic (only used on vessels less than 100 m, and located
50 mm below the winter mark)

All of the world’s seas are broken down into a series of zones, based on the prevailing
weather conditions and water density. These zones are named after the seasons, to
indicate the overall weather conditions – the main zones do not change during the
year. Not all zones are always marked on the Load Line. The lowest zone that the ship
is sailing in, or through, controls which line the vessel can load down to. For example,
in a winter zone, she can only load so that the top of the W line is on the waterline, but
in a tropical zone, she could load additional cargo so that the top of the T line is on the
1
waterline. The tropical and winter lines are always equal to th of the summer
48
draught from the summer mark.
The letters by the circular mark (e.g. AB in Figure 1.12) are the signature letters of
what is known as the ‘Assigning Authority’. This is the organisation which analyses the
design of the ship, and determines what the minimum safe freeboard is. The black
bar above the circular mark represents the point at which the freeboard is measured
from.
Vessels which are exempt from the Load Line are ‘Ships of war’, ‘ships solely engaged
in fishing’, ‘pleasure vessels’ and ‘ships which do not go to sea’. Also exempt are the
following ships under 80 tonnes register, which do not carry cargo (unless specified
authorised on the Passenger Certificate).
Engaged in coastal trade, such as:

Tugs and salvage ships
Hopper barges or dredgers
Ships used by lighthouse authorities
Fisheries protection
Scientific research
Military firing range control vessels
Passenger vessels with passenger certificates specifying regions where the vessel
may sail
Ships carrying not less than 12 passengers within certain limits from shore
Under certain circumstances, the Secretary of State may allow vessels to sail with
exemptions, detailed in Paragraph 5 of the act.
Some passenger vessels may also be allocated ‘combination’ Load Lines. These are
used when there may be spaces which are alternatively used as passenger or cargo
spaces. These are marked as ‘C’ on the Load Line marks and are always below the
summer Load Line.

The TPC
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
To safely load a vessel, we need to know how much cargo can be added to the vessel.
While the hydrostatics give us an idea of the draught for a certain displacement, it is
often useful to be able to ‘fine tune’ the draught to get the maximum possible cargo
aboard, and therefore make the maximum possible profit.
When loading the vessel, it is vital that the relevant Load Line is not submerged when
the vessel proceeds to sea. To ensure this, calculations are required during loading
to ensure that the maximum cargo is carried, but that the loading is legal. To do this,
before completion of loading, the vertical distance from the waterline to the relevant
Load Line mark is measured. This distance can be used with a hydrostatic value known
as the tonnes per centimetre immersion, or TPC, to calculate the mass to load. This is
shown in the hydrostatic tables.
The TPC tells us how many tonnes of mass need to be added to the vessel to make her
sink down by 1 cm, or how many tonnes of cargo need to be removed from the vessel
to make her rise up by 1 cm. The TPC, sinkage or rise and mass added or removed are
linked by:
Mass added ( or removed )

or rrise ) =
k e (o
Sinkag
TPC
▲ Formula 1.6 Sinkage or rise and the TPC
As the vessel is loaded, the distance from the waterline to the Load Line can be used
to determine the allowable sinkage until the top of the relevant Load Line touches the
water, when loading should stop. If the allowable sinkage is known, then the amount
of cargo that can still be loaded can be found from the TPC.
QUESTIONS

If the mass added or removed has units of tonnes, and the TPC has units of tonnes per
centimetre, what are the units of sinkage or rise?


A ship has a TPC value of 35. An additional 70 tonnes of cargo is added to the vessel.
How much further in the water will the ship sink?

A ship has a TPC value of 25. How much cargo must be removed from the vessel to
make her rise by 0.2 m?

A ship is floating with the waterline 50 mm below the bottom of the summer Load Line,
in a summer zone. The TPC is 26. How much additional cargo can be loaded?

A ship is floating with the waterline 90 mm above the bottom of the summer Load Line,
in a summer zone. The TPC is 22. How much cargo must be removed?

A ship is floating with the waterline on the bottom of the summer Load Line, in a
tropical zone. The TPC is 20. How much cargo can be added if the summer draught of
the vessel is 9.80 m?
The TPC can be directly calculated from the waterplane area, water density, and the
length and beam of the vessel:
TPC = CW × L × B × 0 01× ρ
▲ Formula 1.7 The TPC
This can also be written as:
(CW × L × B ×ρ)
TPC =
100
▲ Formula 1.8 The TPC (alternative)
Within these, the TPC is measured in units of tonnes per centimetre, the CW is the
waterplane area coefficient, L and B are the vessel length and beam (on the waterline)
in metres and ρ is the water density in units of tonnes per metre3.

X To see a proof of how the TPC can be directly calculated, please see
Appendix 5: The Derivation of the TPC Formula.
QUESTION
Q1.17 (OOW)
A ship has a waterplane area coefficient of 0.80. The waterline length is 110 m, the
waterline beam is 15 m and she is floating in sea water. Determine the TPC.
As seen in Formulae 1.7 and 1.8, the exact value of the TPC depends on the density of
the water that the vessel is floating in. Often when loading in a port, the water around
the ship will not be pure sea water. Depending on the location, the water may be fresh
water (with a density of 1.000 t/m3), or it may be a mix of sea water and fresh water
known as dock water or brackish water. This will have a density somewhere between
sea water and fresh water. Unless you are told otherwise, the values for TPC quoted in
hydrostatic tables are always for salt water.
If the water is not salt water, then corrections are required to obtain the ‘dock water
value’ or ‘actual’ value of the TPC:
ρDDW
TPCDW = TPC
T SW ×
ρSW
▲ Formula 1.9 Dock water TPC
Within this formula, the subscript SW refers to the sea water values, and the subscript
DW refers to the dock water values.
QUESTIONS

Your ship has a TPC of 25. The vessel moves into fresh water. What is the dock water TPC
value?


Your ship has a TPC in sea water of 30. The vessel is in dock water with a density of 1.010
t/m3. What is the dock water TPC value?
Fresh Water Allowance

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
In fresh water, the vessel will float lower in the water than in salt water. This is because
fresh water is less dense, and therefore less buoyant. This means that (assuming
displacement remains constant) as ships move from fresh to salt water, they rise
up slightly. The Load Line rules which govern ship loading require that the vessel
must be on her correct marks when she proceeds to sea, but do not mention what
happens when she is alongside her berth or manoeuvring in a harbour. This allows
us to ‘overload’ the vessel in a fresh water port, as she will rise up to the correct Load
Line when she proceeds into salt water at sea. The distance between the fresh water
mark and the summer mark is known as the ‘fresh water allowance’, or FWA, as it is the
amount that the vessel is allowed to be ‘overloaded’ by in fresh water. The FWA (in units
of millimetres) can be found from:
Δ in sea w
water
ate at tthe
e relevant mark
r
W =
FWA
4 × TPC in
i sea wate
water at
a the relevant mark
r
▲ Formula 1.10 Fresh water allowance
Therefore in a tropical zone, the FWA can be found from:
Δ Tropical
W =
FWA
4 × TPC SW at the tropica
t l mark
r
▲ Formula 1.11 Tropical fresh water allowance

In a summer zone, the FWA can be found from:
Δ Summer
W =
FWA
4 × TPC SW at the su
summer
e mark
r
▲ Formula 1.12 Summer fresh water allowance
In a winter zone, the FWA can be found from:
ΔWinter
W =
FWA
4 × TPC SW at the winter mark
▲ Formula 1.13 Winter fresh water allowance
Within these, Δ is the displacement of the vessel when floating at the appropriate mark,
in units of tonnes, the TPC is the sea water value at the appropriate mark, and the FWA
is the fresh water allowance in units of millimetres.
X For a mathematical proof of the FWA, please see Appendix 6: The Derivation
of the Fresh Water Allowance Formula.
QUESTION

A ship with a summer displacement of 10,000 tonnes has a TPC in salt water of 30. What
is the summer draught FWA in units of millimetres and centimetres?
Dock Water Allowance

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
If the vessel is in dock water, then there will still be a change in draught and freeboard
when moving into sea water. When the vessel is in dock water, a dock water allowance

(DWA) is used instead of the FWA. The principle is the same – the vessel can be overloaded
by a certain amount so that she floats on her marks when proceeding to sea.
(ρSW ρDDW )
W = FWA
DWA FWA ×
(ρSW
S ρFFW )
▲ Formula 1.14 Dock water allowance
The DWA is measured in units of millimetres, with the sea water and dock water densities
measured in units of tonnes per metre3.
As the densities of salt water and fresh water are constant, the formula is often simply
written as one of:
DWA
W FWA ×
FWA
( SW − DW
D ) with
t ρ in units
t of tonnes / metre 3
( .025)
DWA
W FWA ×
FWA
( SW − DW
D ) with ρ in unitst of kkilograms / metre 3
( )
QUESTION

A ship with a summer displacement of 15,000 tonnes has a TPC in salt water of
35. What is the DWA at the summer draught in water with a density of 1.015 t/m3?
(Hint – you will need to calculate the FWA first.)
Together, the FWA, the DWA and the dock water or actual TPC can be used to determine
how much additional cargo can be loaded onto a vessel to get her to her maximum
possible legal displacement and draught when loading in dock water.
To determine how much additional cargo can be loaded aboard, the FWA (and the
DWA, if in dock water) must be calculated, and therefore the distance from the Load
Line mark to the allowable waterline can be found. The distance from the actual
waterline to the Load Line mark can be measured, and therefore the distance from the
actual waterline to the allowable waterline can be found. This is the ‘allowable sinkage’.

The allowable sinkage can be used with the TPC (suitably corrected for fresh or dock
water) to determine how much mass can be loaded aboard to cause the allowable
sinkage.
QUESTIONS

A ship with a summer displacement of 11,000 tonnes with a salt water TPC of 29 t/cm
floats in dock water with a density of 1.005 t/m3. The waterline is 5 cm below the lower
edge of the summer Load Line. Determine the amount of cargo the vessel can load.

A ship with a summer displacement of 14,000 tonnes and a TPC of 35 t/cm floats in
dock water with a density of 1.020 t/m3. The waterline is 15 cm above the upper edge of
the summer Load Line. Determine the amount of cargo the vessel must discharge.

A vessel has a summer draught of 10.6 m. The FWA at the Winter draught is 290 mm. The
vessel has a TPC, adjusted for dock water, of 33 t/cm. The density of the dock water is
1,018 kg/m3. The waterline is 490 mm below the summer Load Line. What is the Winter
displacement of the vessel, and how much more cargo can the vessel load so that she
is on her winter marks at sea?

MV Reed is floating in a summer zone, with the waterline 40 cm below the top of the
summer mark. The density of the water is 1.010 t/m3.
Determine the amount of cargo to load to bring the vessel to her summer displacement
using the mean TPC.
Accuracy of the TPC

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As seen in Formulae 1.7 and 1.8, the TPC depends on the waterplane area coefficient. This
changes as the draught changes, so as we load cargo onto the vessel, the TPC changes.
This is also shown in the hydrostatics, where TPC varies with draught. This change in
TPC with draught introduces a small error into the mass values found in Formula 1.6.

Table 1.2 Errors due to using the TPC
Draught (m) Displacement Actual mass to load TPC based mass to load
(tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes)
7 7,329 0 0.0
6.9 7,192 137 137.2
6.8 7,056 273 273.3
6.7 6,921 408 408.3
6.6 6,787 542 542.1
6.5 6,654 675 674.6
6.4 6,522 807 806.0
6.3 6,392 937 936.2
6.2 6,263 1,066 1,065.2
6.1 6,135 1,194 1,193.3
6 6,008 1,321 1,320.2
To minimise this error, if the sinkage is large (more than a few centimetres) and the
full hydrostatic data is available, then the TPC value can be interpolated at the initial
draught and the permitted draught, and the average of the two found. This average
TPC can then be used to determine the mass to load. Even this process introduces small
errors into the mass to load, which are shown in Table 1.2, which shows the mass to add
found using the mean TPC against the actual mass to add found from the hydrostatics,
for MV Reed in sea water, in a summer zone.
Lumber or Timber Load Lines

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Vessels which are designed to carry timber deck cargoes may have special Load Lines,
known as Lumber Load Lines, marked onto the hull. If the vessel has a securely packaged
timber deck cargo, then that cargo is assumed to be part of the vessel, and therefore
contributes to the freeboard. This is because timber is buoyant. Please see the section
on Large Angle Stability for more details. The vessel must have the bow protected by a
forecastle (which must be at least the ‘standard height’, which is 1.80 m high for a vessel
of 75 m or less in length, or 2.30 m high for a vessel over 125 m in length, with linear
interpolation used in between) of at least 7% of the Load Line length, and a raised

quarter deck of at least standard height if the vessel is less than 100 m in length. She
must also have efficient railings or bulwarks to help secure the cargo, and have double
bottom tanks along the half-mid length of the vessel, with adequate longitudinal
subdivision.
Lumber Load Lines are very similar to normal Load Lines, except that the freeboard of
the vessel is less because of the reasons outlined in the previous paragraph, and the
winter mark is closer to the summer mark. Each of the zones is prefixed with an ‘L’.
The zones are as follows:
Designation Meaning
LTF Timber Tropical Freshwater

LF Timber Freshwater
1
LT Timber Tropical – always th of the summer draught above the summer mark
48
LS Timber Summer
1
LW Timber Winter– always th of the summer draught below the summer mark
36
LWNA Timber Winter North Atlantic (only used on vessels less than 100 m, and located
50 mm below the winter mark)
Assigning a Load Line

(MCM, ENG)
The intentions of the Load Line Act are to ensure that a vessel is strong enough for
a proposed loading condition, to ensure that she has sufficient stability for probable
loading conditions, to ensure that the crew are sufficiently protected when working on
deck in bad weather, and to ensure that the vessel has sufficient reserve buoyancy. The
current Load Line Regulations, SI 2241 (1998) as amended by SI 1335 (2000), stem from
the 1966 International convention.
In order to understand the Load Line requirements, some basic definitions are required.
Within the regulations, watertight means ‘capable of preventing the passage of water
in any direction’, while weathertight for fittings means ‘water will not penetrate and
enter the hull in the worst sea and weather conditions’. In the case of a bulkhead door
weathertight means ‘permanently attached, made of steel or equivalent material

which, together with its frame, is of equivalent strength to the unpierced bulkhead’. It
must be closed by permanently attached gaskets and clamping devices. Weathertight
bulkhead doors must be capable of being operated from either side of the bulkhead
and should normally open outwards.
The freeboard deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea which
has permanent means of closing all openings in its weather portions and below which
all side openings have permanent watertight closing appliances. In effect, this is the
deck which forms the top of the watertight compartments.
The superstructure itself is defined as ‘decked structure on the freeboard deck

extending from side to side or such that its side plating is not inboard of the shell
by more than 4% of the ship’s breadth’. An enclosed superstructure is one where
‘the end bulkheads are of efficient construction and access openings have sills and
weathertight doors. All other openings in the sides and ends (such as ports) must
be fitted with weathertight closing arrangements.’ A superstructure deck is a deck
forming the top of part of the superstructure.
Narrower deck structures which open onto lower decks are known as trunks, which are
defined as ‘a structure having at least 60% of the ship’s breadth at the position in which
it is situated and which has the same strength as a superstructure which opens directly
into the space below the freeboard deck’.
In order for a vessel to operate, she must be ‘assigned’ a freeboard. What this means
is that the design (and the built ship herself ) are examined, and based on the shape
and fittings, given, or ‘assigned’, a minimum freeboard that is considered safe. It is this
freeboard which is marked on the hull as the summer Load Line or ‘Plimsoll mark’.
To do this, cargo ships are classed into two main types. ‘Type A’ vessels are those which
are designed to carry liquid cargo in bulk, while ‘Type B’ vessels are designed to carry any
other type of cargo vessel. Given the type of cargo carried, normally Type A vessels will
have strong, watertight decks, while Type B vessels will only have weathertight decks.
In addition, due to the free surface effects of liquid cargoes, Type A vessels normally
have greater subdivision than Type B vessels.
Tabular freeboard
Within the Load Line Act, there is a table of data which shows, either for a Type A or Type
B vessel, a minimum freeboard for the length of the vessel. Type A vessels have smaller
minimum freeboards than Type B vessels, as the deck of Type A vessels has an inherent
greater strength and integrity due to watertight decks, stronger deck structure; greater

Table 1.3 Sample tabular freeboards
Type A vessel Type B vessel
Length (m) Freeboard (mm) Length (m) Freeboard (mm)
140 1,803 140 2,109

143 1,853 143 2,171
internal subdivision than dry cargo ships and low permeability of loaded cargo spaces.
The freeboard listed in Table 1.3 is known as the ‘tabular freeboard’. An example extract
from the tables is shown in Table 1.3.
If a Type B vessel meets the following requirements, then it is considered to have better
structural integrity of the deck than a normal Type B vessel:
Over 100 m in length.

Adequate protection for crew working on deck and adequate water freeing
arrangements (such as railings rather than bulwarks).
Steel, gasketed and clamped hatch covers in exposed locations with adequate
strength and sealing arrangements.
The ability to remain afloat (when loaded to the summer Load Line ) with one
compartment (other than the machinery space) bilged with a permeability of 95%.
For vessels over 225 m in length, then this also includes the machinery space, but
with a permeability of 85%. Bilging means that the compartment is open to the sea,
this is covered in more detail later.
If the vessel meets the above requirements, it is possible to reduce the tabular freeboard
by 60% of the difference between a Type B and Type A vessel of the same size, in which
case the vessel is known as a Type B-60 vessel.
If it meets these Type B-60 requirements and also meets the following requirements,
then a further reduction in freeboard is allowed:
Suitable freeing arrangements for trapped water.

Suitable machinery case protection.
Safe and suitable means of access forward for crew working on deck.
The ability to remain afloat (when loaded to the summer Load Line ) with any two
adjacent compartments (other than the machinery space) bilged with a permeability
of 95%. For vessels over 225 m in length, then this also includes the machinery space
bilged in isolation, but with a permeability of 85%.

In this case, the tabular freeboard can be reduced by 100% of the difference between
a Type B and Type A vessel of the same length. This is known as a Type B-100 vessel. As
the reduction is 100% of the difference in tabular freeboard between a Type A vessel
and a Type B vessel of the same size, a Type B-100 vessel would have the same tabular
freeboard as a Type A vessel.
If the vessel is under 100 m in length, and the effective length of the superstructure is
less that 35% of the length, then an additional increase is made to the tabular freeboard
to increase it for safety.
In both the B-60 and B-100 requirements, the vessel must be designed so that in the
event of the vessel being bilged as per the requirements, the water must not enter the
vessel through any opening in the hull, the heel angle must not exceed 15 degrees,
the metacentric height must be at least 50 mm (see the chapters on small angle stability
and bilging for an explanation of metacentric height) and there must be adequate
residual stability.
Block coefficient correction
The tabular freeboard values are based on a standard shape of hull, with a block
coefficient of 0.68, and a length to depth ratio of 15. If the actual block coefficient
is different to the standard vessel, then a correction to the freeboard is made. If the
actual block coefficient is greater than the standard, then the freeboard is increased by
formula. This is now known as the Basic freeboard.
The reasoning for this is that vessels with a large block coefficient are ‘fatter’ or ‘fuller’
than vessels with a small block coefficient. They therefore have more buoyancy below
the waterline in proportion to the reserve buoyancy (the watertight volume above
the waterline). This means that if the vessel is damaged and floods there is a greater
resulting sinkage, and therefore a greater freeboard is required to ensure that the ship
has sufficient freeboard after damage. The concept of sinkage after damage is explained
in more details in the chapter covering bilging.
Length and depth correction
Once the basic freeboard is found, corrections must be made for the length to depth
ratio. As the depth of the vessel increases for a fixed length, the sinkage due to the same
amount of damage along the ship will increase, as more volume will be lost as a result

of damage. Therefore, vessels with large depth values for their length require additional
freeboard, and conversely vessels with small depth values for their length can have
their freeboard reduced. As the standard vessel used in the assignment process has a
length to depth ratio of 15, any vessel with a depth in excess of the length divided by
15 must have the freeboard increased according to formula. If the depth is less than the
length divided by 15, and the vessel meets additional requirements related to the size
of the superstructure, then the freeboard can be reduced according to formula.
If the length to depth ratio of the actual vessel is less than 15, and the vessel has an
enclosed superstructure running at least 60% of the length of the vessel, then the basic
freeboard can be decreased by formula.
Deck line correction
A further correction to the freeboard is made if the deck line (the line which marks the
point at the top of the hull at which the freeboard is measured) is not placed on the hull
at a depth corresponding to the depth for freeboard.
If the depth (measured up from the inside of the keel plates) to the freeboard deck is
more than the depth to the deck line, the difference is subtracted from the freeboard.
This effectively allows the freeboard to be measured to the deck plates. Conversely, if
the depth (measured up from the inside of the keel plates) to the freeboard deck is less
than the depth to the deck line, the difference is added to the freeboard.
Superstructure correction
The standard vessel has no superstructure. Enclosed superstructure can have a beneficial
effect in increasing reserve buoyancy, and so a reduction in freeboard is applied based
on the extent of the superstructure. This reduction is complicated, and is found from
tables based on vessel length and superstructure length.
Sheer and bow height correction
The standard vessel has a certain sheer profile along the length of the hull. Increasing
sheer will increase bow height, and hence influence the sea keeping of the vessel.
Increasing the sheer profile above the standard vessel results in an allowable reduction
in freeboard, while reducing the sheer profile below the standard vessel results in an

increase in freeboard. If the final bow height is less than a specified minimum value,
then an additional correction is required to bring the bow height to a safe value.
This freeboard, resulting from the corrections to the basic freeboard, is known as the
‘assigned freeboard’. It is this assigned freeboard that is then used to mark the summer
Load Line on the vessel. The tropical and winter Load Line marks can then be found
from calculation using the summer draught of the vessel.
In order for the vessel to be ‘assigned’ or given a freeboard, she must also meet structural
requirements.
FLOTATION AND BUOYANCY – LEARNING CHECKLIST
Objective Level Completed
Explain why a ship floats OOW, MCM, ENG

Understand and complete calculations based on the OOW, MCM, ENG
relationship between displacement and draught for a
box shaped vessel
Understand the relationship between underwater OOW, MCM, ENG
volume, fluid density and displacement or mass
Understand the difference between displacement OOW, MCM, ENG
and tonnage
Understand and use block coefficients, waterplane OOW, MCM, ENG
area coefficients and amidship area coefficients
Calculate underwater volume, waterplane area and OOW, MCM, ENG
amidships areas
Determine the displacement of a ship from the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatics
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics OOW, MCM, ENG
Determine the displacement of a ship from the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatics at intermediate draughts
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics OOW, MCM, ENG
at intermediate displacements
Determine the displacement of a ship from the OOW, MCM ENG
displacement and DW scales
Draw, label and dimension a Load Line mark OOW, MCM, ENG

Understand and use the Load Line zones OOW, MCM, ENG
Use the TPC to calculate the mass to add to cause a OOW, MCM, ENG
sinkage or the mass to remove to cause a rise
Use the TPC to calculate the sinkage or rise caused by OOW, MCM, ENG
adding or removing a mass
Understand and use the relationship between and OOW, MCM, ENG
calculate the TPC from the dimensions of the ship and
the form coefficients
Understand the relationship between density and OOW, MCM, ENG
TPC, and correct the sea water TPC value to a dock
water value
Correct the dock water TPC value to a sea water value OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand the relationship between draught and OOW, MCM, ENG
water density
Calculate the FWA of a ship, and apply it to the OOW, MCM, ENG
draught
Calculate the DWA of a ship, and apply it to the OOW, MCM, ENG
draught
Calculate the mass to add or remove to a ship so that OOW, MCM, ENG
the vessel floats in accordance with the Load Line
regulations
Understand the limitations of the TPC with respect to OOW, MCM
changes in draught
Understand the difference between normal Load OOW, MCM
Lines and Lumber Load Lines
Understand the process by which the position of the MCM
Load Line on a ship is determined (assignment of
Load Line )

SMALL ANGLE OR
2
INITIAL METACENTRIC
STABILITY  WILL MY
SHIP FLOAT UPRIGHT?
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Understand what is meant by the centre of buoyancy

Understand what is meant by the vertical centre of buoyancy (KB)
Understand what is meant by the longitudinal centre of buoyancy (LCB)
Understand what is meant by the transverse centre of buoyancy (TCB)
Calculate the position of the centre of buoyancy for a box shaped vessel
Determine the position of the centre of buoyancy using hydrostatic data
Understand what is meant by the centre of gravity
Understand what is meant by the vertical centre of gravity (KG)
Understand what is meant by the longitudinal centre of gravity (LCG)
Understand what is meant by the transverse centre of gravity (TCG or GGH)
Calculate the position of the centre of gravity when loads are added

Calculate the position of the centre of gravity when loads are removed
Calculate the position of the centre of gravity when loads are moved up or down
Calculate the position of the central gravity when loads are suspended
Calculate the position to load a known mass of cargo to obtain a required centre of
gravity
Calculate the mass of cargo to load at a known position to obtain a required centre of
gravity
Understand what is meant by the metacentre or transverse metacentre
Understand why the centre of buoyancy moves as a vessel inclines
Understand how a righting effect may be generated as a vessel inclines
Understand how a capsizing effect may be generated as a vessel inclines
Understand the definition of the metacentre
Understand what is meant by metacentric height
Understand what is meant by positive, neutral and negative metacentric heights
Understand the significance of positive, neutral and negative metacentric heights on
the stability of the vessel
Calculate the metacentric height of a ship using the hydrostatic data and the centre of
gravity
Understand what is meant by transverse second moment of area or transverse inertia
Calculate the metacentric height of a ship using the hydrostatic data and the centre of
gravity after moving masses aboard
Calculate the position to load cargo to achieve a required metacentric height
Understand and know the minimum allowable metacentric heights for vessels
carrying a range of cargo types
Understand the dangers of excessive metacentric height
Calculate the waterplane transverse second moment of area or waterplane transverse
inertia for a box shaped vessel
Calculate BM and GM for a box shaped vessel
Understand and complete calculations based on the metacentric height and the
geometry of a box shaped vessel
Understand what is meant by an angle of list
Calculate angles of list using the metacentric height
Understand the limitations of calculating the angle of list using metacentric height
Calculate the angle of list after loading operations if the vessel has an initial angle of
list
Calculating the required distribution of mass to achieve a final list angle or the upright
condition
Calculate angles of list for vessels with zero metacentric height
Understand what is meant by free surface effect (FSE) and free surface moment (FSM)

Small Angle or Initial Metacentric Stability • 39
Understand what is mean by, and calculate, the fluid, virtual or effective centre of
gravity
Understand what is meant by, and calculate, the free surface correction (FSC)
Calculate the loss in metacentric height due to FSE
Understand the effect of compartment subdivision on FSE and metacentric height
Calculate the metacentric height after operations involving solid and fluid masses
Calculate the loss in stability due to FSE in rectangular compartments
Understand what is meant by an angle of loll
Calculate the angle of loll using hydrostatics
Calculate the angle of loll for a box shaped vessel
Understand the procedure to recover a vessel from an angle of loll
Understand why a vessel heels when turning and calculate the angle of heel when
turning
Calculate the increase in draught when inclined
Calculate the effect of small load changes on GM
The Centre of Buoyancy

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As previously shown, any object which floats is supported by buoyant forces pushing
upwards. Although the buoyancy force acts on the underwater surface of the hull, the
overall resultant buoyancy force acts upwards through a point known as the centre
of buoyancy, B, which is located at the overall centre of the underwater volume. As
this is a position within the vessel, it is described in terms of Cartesian coordinates,
along a vertical, longitudinal and transverse measurement axis. The position of
centre of buoyancy in a vertical sense is measured as a distance above the keel, and
is abbreviated to KB. The position of centre of buoyancy in a longitudinal sense is
measured as a distance along the ship as a distance from the aft perpendicular (the
aft end of the summer waterline, which is usually the same as the rudder post, and is
abbreviated to LCB, and quoted as a distance FOAP (Forward of the Aft Perpendicular).
The position of centre of buoyancy in a transverse sense is measured as a distance
from the ship centreline, and is abbreviated to TCB. These are shown in Figure 2.1. For a
symmetrical ship in an upright condition, the TCB should always be on the centreline,
and hence zero. For ships, determining the centre of the underwater volume is time-
consuming, and so the values for KB and LCB are given in the hydrostatics tables for
the vessel.

LCB
Aft perpendicular
KB
TCB
▲ Figure 2.1 The centre of buoyancy
QUESTIONS

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m, a beam of 10 m, and floats at a draught of
2.00 m. Determine the LCB, KB and TCB values.

Determine the LCB and KB for MV Reed if her displacement is 3,563 tonnes.
The Centre of Gravity

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Adding loads
In the same way that all the buoyant forces act through the centre of buoyancy, the
mass forces can be assumed to act through a point known as the centre of gravity. The
centre of gravity is measured longitudinally (LCG), vertically (KG) and transversely (TCG)
in the same way as the centre of buoyancy. The TCG is sometimes also referred to as GGH.
Distances to port are taken as positive, while distances to starboard are taken as negative
(however, this may vary between ships – provided it is constant through any calculation
this does not make a difference to results). The position of the centre of buoyancy is
dependent on the shape of the vessel and her displacement, but the position of the
centre of gravity depends on the distribution of the mass on board (which is directly
under the control of the ship’s officers, and is the responsibility of the officers), and can
be found by ‘loading tables’. Loading tables are a simple, tabular calculation.

A loading table lists the mass and the individual longitudinal, vertical or transverse
position of all the items on the vessel, as shown in Tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. Also listed
is the ‘lightship’ displacement and centres of gravity. The lightship values for a ship
are available from the stability data book. The mass and each position are multiplied
together to find the longitudinal, vertical or transverse moments of mass, often just
referred to as ‘moments’. The moment of mass is totalled up and divided by the total
mass to find the centre of gravity in each direction (Formulae 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3).
Total v
vertica
ertical moment
l KG after loading =
Overall
Total mass
▲ Formula 2.1 KG from a loading table
The KG value has units of metres.
Table 2.1 Sample loading table for KG
Item Mass (tonnes) KG (m) Vertical moment (tonne metres)
Lightship Lightship mass Lightship KG Lightship mass × lightship KG

Cargo Cargo mass Cargo KG Cargo mass × cargo KG
Fuel Fuel mass Fuel KG Fuel mass × fuel KG
Crew/stores Crew & stores mass Crew & stores KG Crew & stores mass × crew &
stores KG
Total Total mass Total vertical moment
Table 2.2 Sample loading table for LCG
Item Mass (tonnes) LCG (m FOAP) Longitudinal moment

(tonne metres)
Lightship Lightship mass Lightship LCG Lightship mass × lightship LCG

Cargo Cargo mass Cargo LCG Cargo mass × cargo LCG
Fuel Fuel mass Fuel LCG Fuel mass × fuel LCG
Crew/stores Crew & stores mass Crew & stores LCG Crew & stores mass × crew &
stores LCG
Total Total mass Total longitudinal moment

Table 2.3 Sample loading table for TCG
Item Mass (tonnes) TCG (m) Transverse moment (tonne

metres)
Lightship Lightship mass Lightship TCG Lightship mass × lightship TCG

Cargo Cargo mass Cargo TCG Cargo mass × cargo TCG
Fuel Fuel mass Fuel TCG Fuel mass × fuel TCG
Crew/stores Crew & stores mass Crew & stores TCG Crew & stores mass × crew &
stores TCG
Total Total mass Total transverse moment
Total longitudinal
ongitudina moment
l LCG after loading =
Overall
Total mas
a s
▲ Formula 2.2 LCG from a loading table
The LCG value has units of metres.
Total tra
t nsverse moment
l TCG after loading =
Overall
Total mass
▲ Formula 2.3 TCG from a loading table
The TCG value has units of metres. Values for KG and LCG are normally calculated to the
nearest centimetre, while values for TCG are usually calculated to the nearest millimetre
or centimetre to reduce rounding accuracy. This will be discussed more later.
QUESTIONS

MV Reed starts loading from the lightship condition. 250 tonnes of cargo is loaded
onto the vessel, 5.00 m above the keel, 55.00 m FOAP and 0.50 m to port of the
centreline. Determine the overall KG, LCG and TCG of the vessel after loading the
cargo.


MV Reed starts loading from the lightship condition. 500 tonnes of cargo is loaded onto
the vessel, at a KG of 8.00 m, an LCG of 48.00 m FOAP, on the ship centreline. Determine
the overall KG, LCG and TCG of the vessel after loading the cargo.
Removing loads
So far we have dealt with loading the vessel from the lightship condition. Loading tables
also work if we are unloading cargo from a loaded condition. Instead of starting with
the lightship, we start with the loaded ship. When masses are removed, the process is
the same, but the removed masses are treated as negative masses.
QUESTION

MV Reed has a displacement of 2,915 tonnes, with a KG of 6.79 m, an LCG of 45.13 m
FOAP and a TCG of 0.05 m. 150 tonnes of cargo is unloaded from the vessel, from a KG
of 8.00 m, an LCG of 45.00 m FOAP and a TCG of –0.10 m. Determine the displacement
and the overall KG, LCG and TCG of the vessel after unloading the cargo.
Moving loads
Occasionally a mass which is aboard may need to be moved. A loading table is again
used to calculate the KG after a mass has been moved. The mass is removed from the
old location (treated as a negative mass) and replaced at the new location (treated as
a positive mass).
QUESTION

MV Reed has a loaded displacement of 5,000 tonnes and a loaded KG of 6 m. Cargo,
weighing 500 tonnes, is removed from a KG of 2 m and re-stowed at a KG of 4 m.
Calculate the overall KG of the vessel after re-stowing.

When a mass is moved, we can use a simple shortcut. The initial starting position and
final position are not actually important – what controls the change in KG of the ship is
the distance the mass moves. Try Question 2.6 again, but remove the mass from a KG of
10 m and replace it at a KG of 12 m – the final answer should be the same, as the actual
distance the mass is moved through is the same. You can use which ever KG values you
like, but make sure the distance between them is correct.
QUESTION

MV Reed has a loaded displacement of 6,615 tonnes and a loaded KG of 5.79 m. Cargo,
weighing 500 tonnes, is moved downwards through a distance of 3 m. Calculate the
overall KG of the vessel after re-stowing.
The movement of the centre of gravity of the ship, when a mass aboard is moved, can
also be found using:
w × Distance
t moved
Change in G =
Δ
▲ Formula 2.4 Change in G due to moving masses
The change in G is measured in units of metres, w is the mass moved, in units of tonnes,
the distance that the mass is moved is measured in metres and Δ is the displacement
of the vessel, including the moved load, in tonnes. Note that the centre of gravity of the
ship moves in the same direction as the mass which is moved.
X For a mathematical proof of Formula 2.4, please see the explanation in

Appendix 7: The Derivation of the Change in KG Formula.
Therefore, it can be see that the change in KG is dependent on the distance the mass is
moved, rather than the actual positions of the mass.
Suspended loads
Masses which are suspended (e.g. from a derrick during unloading) act at their point of
suspension from the ship, not the actual position of the mass. Dealing with suspended

loads is similar to moved loads, with the mass being removed from the table at the
original position and replaced in the table at the point of suspension.
QUESTION

MV Reed has a loaded displacement of 6,000 tonnes, and a loaded KG of 7 m. Cargo,
weighing 50 tonnes, is lifted from a stowed position at KG of 3 m and suspended from
a derrick head 20 m above the keel. Calculate the overall KG of the vessel with the
load suspended at a position 4.00 m below the derrick head. (Hint – there is one piece of
information in this question that you do not need.)
Occasionally it might be necessary to load an item of cargo so that the vessel has a
particular final KG value. In cases such as this, algebra is needed to determine the
position of the cargo. A loading table is used as before, except x is used as the KG of the
cargo. As the final KG is known, the loading table can be completed in terms of x, and
solved for x.
QUESTION

A vessel has a displacement of 8,000 tonnes and a KG of 6.00 m. 4,000 tonnes of cargo
is to be loaded so that the final KG of the vessel and contents is 7.00 m. Determine the
KG of the cargo.
Alternatively it might be necessary to load an item of cargo so that the vessel has a
particular final KG value, where the KG of the cargo is known, but the mass of the cargo
is unknown. In cases such as this, algebra is needed to determine the mass of the cargo.
A loading table is used as before, except x is used as the mass of the cargo. As the final
required KG is known, the value for x is the only unknown, and can be solved.
QUESTIONS

A vessel has a displacement of 10,000 tonnes and a KG of 12.00 m. Cargo is to be loaded
at a KG of 7 m so that the final KG of the vessel and contents is 11.00 m. Determine the
mass of the cargo.


A vessel has a displacement of 20,000 tonnes and a KG of 9.00 m. Cargo is to be unloaded
from a KG of 5 m so that the final KG of the vessel and contents is 10.00 m. Determine
the mass of the cargo to unload.
The Transverse Metacentre

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The centres of buoyancy and gravity act together to determine the stability of the
vessel. By analysing the relative positions of the centres of gravity and buoyancy an
assessment can be made of the stability of the vessel. Remember – the mass forces,
trying to sink the ship, act downwards through the centre of gravity (G), and the
buoyancy forces, trying to float the ship, act upwards through the centre of buoyancy
(B). When the buoyant forces equal the mass forces, the vessel floats.
Viewed from the bow, the transverse centres of gravity (G) and buoyancy (B) lie on the
centreline when the ship is upright, as shown in Figure 2.2.
▲ Figure 2.2 Upright equilibrium
The centre of buoyancy remains at the centre of the overall underwater volume. As the
vessel rolls, the amount of underwater volume remains the same, but the shape of the
underwater volume changes, therefore the overall centre of the underwater volume,
which is the centre of buoyancy, moves as the vessel rolls, as shown in Figure 2.3. Please
note that in Figure 2.3 the movements have been exaggerated for clarity. As long as the

cargo does not shift, G can be considered to be a fixed point relative to the vessel. This
is a valid assumption for solid cargoes at small angles of inclination. Fluid cargoes, and
large angles, will be dealt with later.
Old B
New B
▲ Figure 2.3 The movement of B as the vessel rolls
As can be seen in Figure 2.4, the overall effect of the two misaligned forces is to create
a torque which acts to try and roll the vessel upright – known as a righting moment.
Overall
effect G
Overall
effect
New B
▲ Figure 2.4 The righting moment
It is vital to be able to quantify the torque and forces acting to roll the vessel upright. If
a vertical line is drawn up from the centre of buoyancy, then the point where it crosses
the centreline is known as the metacentre, M, as shown in Figure 2.5.
At small angles of heel (typically less than 10 degrees) the position of the metacentre
relative to the centre of gravity can be assumed to remain constant. For this reason,

▲ Figure 2.5 The metacentre
the (assumed to be) fixed metacentre at small angles of heel is often referred to as the
‘initial metacentre’. In practice, the metacentre moves, but only by a very small amount.
Above around 10 degrees (depending exactly on hull form) the metacentre moves
significantly. The change with heel in the position of G relative to M, for MV Reed, is
1.4 60
55
1.3 Distance along the centreline between G and M 50
Variation in distance along the centreline
45
Initial distance along the centreline between G and M
1.2 40
Distance along the centreline
% variation 35
between G and M (%)
30
between G and M (m)
1.1
25
1 20
15
0.9 10
5
0.8 0
–5
0.7 –10
–15
0.6 –20
–25
0.5 –30
–35
0.4 –40
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 2.6 The change in GM with heel for MV Reed

The position of the metacentre relative to the centre of gravity, measured along the
centreline of the ship (known as the initial metacentric height or simply the metacentric
height, abbreviated to GM) is the measure of what is known as the ‘small angle stability’
or ‘initial stability’ of the vessel. As previously stated, the OOW has direct control over
the final centre of gravity of the vessel. Therefore, the OOW has control over the
stability of the ship.
If the vessel is loaded so that G is below M relative to the centreline, then the vessel
is said to be ‘stable’ (as shown in Figure 2.7). This means that if she is inclined over,
the torque will act to roll her back upright. The vessel is said to be stable, and the GM
distance is taken to be positive.
M
GM
▲ Figure 2.7 Metacentric height
If the vessel is loaded so that M coincides with G, as shown in Figure 2.8, then the vessel
is said to be ‘neutral’. This means that if the vessel is inclined over, there is no overall
torque trying to bring the vessel back upright. GM is zero.
This is very important:

If M is above G, the vessel is stable, and will return upright if a force causing it to incline is
removed. GM is said to be positive.
If M coincides with G, the vessel is neutral, and will remain at any small heel angle it is
inclined to. GM is said to be zero.
If M is below G, the vessel will be unstable and, if inclined even slightly, will incline further
over. GM is said to be negative.

M G
▲ Figure 2.8 Neutral stability
If the vessel is loaded so that M is below G, as shown in Figure 2.9, then the vessel is
unstable, and will try and roll over further when inclined. The GM value is taken to be
negative.
G
GM
▲ Figure 2.9 Negative metacentric height
A summary of the relative positions of G and M is shown in Figure 2.10 – note that as
the position of the metacentre is assumed to be constant at small angles, we also can
consider the metacentre to be in the same position when upright.
If the positions of B, G and M above the keel are known, then GM can be found, as
shown in Figure 2.11 and Formula 2.5.

M
GM
G G M G
GM
M
B B B
Stable Neutral Unstable
▲ Figure 2.10 Conditions of stability
GM
KM
KG
▲ Figure 2.11 Measuring the metacentric height
GM = KM − KG
▲ Formula 2.5 GM from KM
GM, KM and KG are all measured in units of metres, normally rounded to the nearest
centimetre.
KG can be found using loading tables, as shown in the previously. KM can be calculated
by dividing a value known as the ‘transverse inertia of the waterplane through the
geometric centre’, which for obvious reasons is often just abbreviated to ‘inertia’, by
the underwater volume of the vessel. The inertia is a mathematical measure of the
distribution of the waterplane. For curved hull forms, this is difficult to calculate, so
KM is usually pre-calculated by the Naval Architect and supplied to the ship in the
hydrostatic data. The values for KM and KG can be used to find GM, using Formula 2.5.
If the resulting GM is positive, the vessel is stable. If the resulting GM is zero, the vessel
is neutral. If the resulting GM is negative, the vessel is unstable.

QUESTIONS

MV Reed has a draught of 4.8 m and a KG of 5 m. Using the MV Reed Sample Stability
Data Book (see Appendix 1), determine the metacentric height of the vessel, and
comment on the answer.

MV Reed has a draught of 3.66 m and a KG of 7.32 m. Using the MV Reed Sample
Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1), determine the metacentric height of the vessel.
You will need to use linear interpolation. Comment on the answer.
These questions are easier with practice. The following questions tie together the work
you have completed on loading tables and metacentric height.
QUESTIONS

MV Reed starts loading from the lightship condition. 1,386 tonnes of cargo is loaded at
a KG of 8.00 m. Determine the final KG, KM and GM, and hence determine if the vessel
will be stable.

MV Reed has a displacement of 6,008 tonnes with a KG of 6.50 m. 374 tonnes of cargo is
unloaded from a KG of 7.00 m. Determine the final KG, KM and GM, and hence determine
if the vessel will be stable.

MV Reed has a displacement of 7,192 tonnes, with a KG of 6.90 m. 500 tonnes of cargo is
to be moved from a position 9.00 m above the keel to a position 6.00 m above the keel.
Determine the GM after the cargo is re-stowed.

MV Reed is floating with a draught of 5.00 m and a KG of 6.00 m. An item of cargo, with a
mass of 70 tonnes, is to be lifted from the hold (KG = 4.00 m) to the deck (KG = 12.00 m)
using the ship’s own heavy lift crane, with a derrick head 30 m above the keel. Calculate
GM before, during and after the cargo movement.


MV Reed is being loaded. She starts in her lightship condition. She is to be loaded to a
displacement of 5,150 tonnes, and a GM of 1.50 m. Determine the amount of cargo to
load, and the KG to load the cargo.
Minimum Initial Metacentric Heights

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As has been seen, the value of the metacentric height is very important. Minimum
values for GM are described in the International Maritime Organisation’s (IMO)
publication Code in Intact Stability 2008, known as the ‘2008 IS Code’ (International
Maritime Organisation, 2008). These are partially incorporated into the Merchant
Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998, as amended by the Merchant Shipping (Load
Line) (Amendment) Regulations 2000, via Merchant Shipping Notice 1752(M) (Maritime
and Coastguard Agency, 2000).
It is important to note, however, that the IS Code is certainly not a guarantee of safety.
Simply complying with the code is no absolute confirmation of safety. The 2002 edition
of the code, in paragraph 2.5.1, states:
Compliance with the stability criteria does not ensure immunity against capsizing,
regardless of the circumstances, or absolve the master from his responsibilities.
(International Maritime Organisation, 2002)
Vessels carrying grain cargoes
For a vessel carrying a grain cargo, the minimum legal value of GM is 0.30 m, as set
out in the Grain Regulations (International Maritime Organisation, 1991). This will be
discussed in more detail later.
Vessels carrying timber deck cargoes
For a vessel carrying a timber deck cargo, alternative criteria may apply. This is because
of the reasons outlined in the section on Lumber and Timber Load Lines.

Provided that the timber is securely packaged on deck, extends between the
superstructures, and water absorption in the cargo is taken into account, the minimum
GM at all times is 0.10 m, or 10 cm (see the 2008 IS Code, Part A, paragraph 3.3.2)
(International Maritime Organisation, 2008). For UK flagged vessels, the MCA allow a
reduction in the metacentric height to 0.05 m, as detailed in Schedule 2, paragraph
2.2.d of MSN 1752(M) (Maritime and Coastguard Agency, 2000).
These small margins for error are why accurate stability calculations are so important.
There are additional large angle stability requirements which must be complied with as
well to enable the vessel to sail with a reduced GM, please see the information on this
in the large angle stability section of the book.
Other vessels
For vessels not covered above, such as general cargo vessels and passenger vessels,
the minimum required value of GM is 0.15 m or 15 cm (see the 2008 IS Code, Part A,
paragraph 2.2.4) (International Maritime Organisation, 2008).
Large Metacentric Heights

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Obviously the vessel will be more stable with larger GM values. However, as GM
increases, the torque trying to roll the vessel upright also increases, resulting in a
faster roll. If GM is too large, then the vessel will roll too quickly (the roll period is
said to be too short), and it may be difficult to stand upright or move around, and
motion sickness may occur. In extreme conditions, it is possible to cause structural
damage to the ship, or cause cargo to break loose and move around the ship, or injury
to the crew. For this reason, GM values are normally kept within a certain range to
ensure that the vessel is stable, but not too stable. Vessels with small GM values are
said to be ‘tender’, as they roll slowly and incline under a small force. Vessels with large
GM values are said to be ‘stiff ’, as they roll quickly and incline under a large force. The
2008 IS Code suggests that an appropriate maximum GM values for vessels with a
timber deck cargo is 3% of the beam (see the 2008 IS Code, Part B, paragraph 3.7.5)
(International Maritime Organisation, 2008); however, there is no overall set maximum
GM value for all ships.

Calculating KB, BM and GM for a

Box Shaped Vessel
(MCM, ENG)
For a simplified box shaped vessel, the KM value can be easily calculated. Figure 2.12
shows the arrangement of B, G and M for a box shaped vessel. It can be seen that:
GM = KM − KG = KB + BM − KG
▲ Formula 2.6 GM from KB, BM and KG
All the values are measured in units of metres.
CL
M
GM
G
BM
KM KG
B
KB
▲ Figure 2.12 KB, BM, KG and GM
For a box shaped vessel, the KB can be found directly from the geometry. As the centre
of buoyancy is the centre of the underwater volume, for a box shaped vessel it must be
at half the length, half the draught and on the centreline (see Question 2.1). Therefore,
for a box shaped vessel:
D
KB =
2
▲ Formula 2.7 KB for a box shaped vessel

Finding the distance from B to M, or BM, is more complicated. BM depends on the

underwater volume of the vessel, and also on a value known as the ‘transverse inertia
of the waterplane through the geometric centre’, often simply referred to as ‘inertia’.
This ‘transverse inertia of the waterplane through the geometric centre’, or ‘inertia’, is
a property of the geometry of the waterplane. To complicate matters further, inertia is
also sometimes referred to as second moment of area.
The inertia of a shape is essentially a measure of the distribution of area relative to an axis
running through a point within a shape. Consider the two shapes shown in Figure 2.13.
Both shapes have exactly the same length and surface area, but taking a horizontal axis
through the geometric centre of the shape as the measuring point, the right hand shape
has slightly more height, and therefore more of the area of the shape distributed further
away from the centreline of the shape. The right hand shape would therefore have
greater inertia, even though it has exactly the same total area as the left hand shape.
▲ Figure 2.13 Inertia
The value (valid only for box shaped vessels) for the inertia for a rectangular waterplane
is found using:
LB 3
Inertia =
12
▲ Formula 2.8 Waterplane inertia for a box shaped vessel
X For a discussion and mathematical proof of the inertia of a rectangle, and

a ship shaped waterplane, please see Appendix 8: The Derivation of the
Formulae Giving the Transverse Inertia of a Rectangular Waterplane and a
Ship Shape Waterplane Measured through the Centreline.
Once the inertia has been found, the vertical distance from B to M can be found. For a
box shaped vessel, BM can be found from:

Inertia
BM =
∇
▲ Formula 2.9 BM for a box shaped vessel
X For a mathematical proof of this for a box shaped vessel, see Appendix
9: The Derivation of the Relationship between Transverse Inertia, BM and
Underwater Volume for a Box Shaped Vessel. For a mathematical proof of
this for a ship, see Appendix 10: The Derivation of the Relationship between
Transverse Inertia, BM and Underwater Volume for a Ship.
The values from Formulae 2.8 and 2.9 can be combined to give KM for a box shaped
vessel:
D Inertia
KM = KB + BM = +
2 ∇
Given that the inertia and the volume for a box shaped vessel can be expressed in terms
of the length, beam and draught of a vessel, Formula 2.9 can be simplified:
LB 3
Inertia 12 LB 3 1 B2
BM = = = × =
∇ LBD 12 LBD 12D
QUESTIONS
Q2.19 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m, a beam of 10 m, and floats with a draught
of 2.00 m. Determine GM if KG is 4 m.
Q2.20 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 60 m, a beam of 8 m, and floats with a draught of
1.00 m. Determine the required KG if GM is to be 0.15 m.
Q2.21 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a beam of 9.00 m. The vessel has a draught of 3.00 m. The KG is
1.25 m. Determine the GM. Note that you do not require the length.

Q2.22 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 60 m and a beam of 8.00 m. The vessel has a
draught of 2.00 m in sea water. The KG is 3.00 m. 492 tonnes of cargo is then loaded on
to the vessel at a KG of 5.00 m. Determine, and comment on, the GM of the vessel after
loading the cargo.
Q2.23 (MCM, ENG)

For the vessel in Question 2.22, determine the maximum KG of the cargo so that the
vessel finishes loading with a positive metacentric height.
Metacentric Diagrams
(ENG)
The values for KB and KM for a range of draughts can be plotted on a graph, with the
draught on the y axis and KB and KM on the x axis. This is known as the metacentric
diagram. The metacentric diagram allows BM to be determined for any draught (as it
is the difference between KB and BM). The metacentric diagram for MV Reed is shown
in Figure 2.14.
8
KM
KB
6
Draught (m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
KB (m) and KM (m)
▲ Figure 2.14 Metacentric diagram

Angles of List
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
If masses are moved transversely or loaded asymmetrically, then the overall centre of
gravity of the vessel will move off of the centreline of the vessel, as shown in Figure 2.15.
In this condition the vessel will have a non-zero TCG value, meaning that the centre of
gravity will no longer line up with the centre of buoyancy. This will result in a torque
trying to incline the vessel over, known as a listing moment. The vessel will incline over
until the centre of buoyancy is again directly under the centre of gravity, as shown in
Figure 2.16. In this condition, the vessel is said to have an ‘angle of list’.
G
TCG
▲ Figure 2.15 Shift in the TCG
The processes and calculations used so far can be combined to give a method of
calculating the ‘angle of list’ if a mass already aboard is moved transversely. This has
a major limiting factor – the theory assumes GM is constant (i.e. the metacentre does
not move). As seen earlier, this is only valid up to a list angle of around 10 degrees. List
angles above 10 degrees will be covered later.
The geometry of the metacentre and the TCG can be used to determine the angle of
list. Figure 2.17 shows these in detail. From the TCG dimension, the line between B and
M, and the centreline of the vessel, we can form a right angle triangle. The tip of the
triangle, between the centreline of the ship and the vertical line of action of buoyancy,
is the angle of list.

▲ Figure 2.16 Angle of list
M
GM
List
angle
TCG
G
▲ Figure 2.17 Finding the angle of list
From basic trigonometry, it is known that for a right angle triangle:
Opposite
tanθ =
Adja
d cent
From the right angle triangle in Figure 2.17, it can be seen that the opposite side of
the triangle is given by the TCG, and the adjacent side is given by the GM. Substituting
these values gives:

TCG
tanθ =
GM
▲ Formula 2.10 Small angle of list (TCG based)
QUESTION

MV Reed has been loaded so that her metacentric height is 0.81 m. Her TCG value after
loading is 0.043 m. Determine her angle of list.
When using the TCG (also sometimes known as GGH), and the convention that distances
to port are positive, and starboard negative, angles from Formula 2.10 to port are
positive, and angles to starboard are negative. It can be seen that the angle of list is
inversely proportional to GM. Therefore, for a given TCG, a reduction in GM will result
in an increase in list.
QUESTION
Q2.25 (MCM, ENG)

A boxed shaped vessel has a length of 70 m, and a beam of 9 m. She floats with a
draught of 2 m. In this condition, she is upright, and her KG is 4.00 m. 100 tonnes, which
is already aboard, is moved transversely 0.5 m to starboard. Determine the resulting
list angle.
Alternatively, the list may be found by the use of listing moments. Assuming that the
vessel is upright initially, if a mass, ‘w’ tonnes, already aboard, is moved transversely
a distance ‘d’ metres, then the resulting total of the moment column in the loading
table would be ‘w × d’ (see Table 2.3). The overall TCG can be found by dividing the total
moment by the displacement, as given by Formula 2.3:
Total transverse moment w × d

TCG = =
Δ Δ

Substituting this into Formula 2.10 gives:
w ×d
w ×d
tanθ = Δ =
GM Δ × GM
Therefore, for movements of mass, when the vessel is initially upright:
w×d
tanθ =
Δ × GM
▲ Formula 2.11 Small angle of list (mass and distance based)
The value w × d is often referred to as the heeling moment, even though it creates an
angle of list.
All the theory learnt so far can be used to analyse the loading or change in loading of
a ship. This seems complex initially, but is easier with practice. The objective is to find
GM, and then a list angle.
QUESTIONS

MV Reed starts loading from her lightship condition. 2,654 tonnes of cargo is added at
a KG of 5.00 m, 0.050 m to port of the centreline. Determine the GM and the angle of
list after loading the cargo.

MV Reed floats in her lightship condition. 1,000 tonnes of hold cargo is loaded at a KG
of 5.00 m, 0.30 m to port of the centreline. 497 tonnes of deck cargo is loaded at a KG
of 8.00 m, 0.50 m to starboard of the centreline. After loading the vessel, determine the
metacentric height and the list.
If the vessel is loaded from a condition with an initial list, then the TCG of the vessel
must be found before loading. This can be found using Formula 2.10. This initial TCG
value must then be used in the first line of the TCG loading table.

QUESTIONS

MV Reed starts loading from a displacement of 4,001 tonnes, and a KG of 6.00 m. In
this condition she has a list of 4 degrees to port. Determine the final list angle if 1,000
tonnes is added at a KG of 5.50 m, 0.50 m to port of the centreline, and 500 tonnes is
added at a KG of 5.00 m, 1.00 m to starboard of the centreline.

MV Reed starts loading from a displacement of 3,781 tonnes, and a KG of 6.10 m. In this
condition she has a list of 3 degrees to starboard. Determine the list if 109 tonnes is
added at a KG of 9.00 m, 1 m to port of the centreline.

MV Reed has a displacement of 5,000 tonnes and is listing by 4 degrees to starboard. The
GM is 1.00 m. Space is available to load cargo 4.5 m to port of the centreline. Determine
the amount of cargo to load so that the vessel finishes loading upright, assuming that
GM remains positive.
Remember – all of these calculations for determining the list of a vessel are based on
the metacentric height, and are therefore only valid if the angle of list is small (less than
approximately 10 degrees). If the angle of list is larger, a different method, known as
large angle stability, must be used.
The tangent function in the list formula can result in what appears to be large rounding
errors in the list angle, depending on the rounding accuracy of the TCG. This is shown
in Table 2.4, which shows the variation in the calculated angle of list for a vessel with
Table 2.4 Effect of rounding on list angles
Rounding (decimal places) TCG (m) List angle (degrees)
6 0.123456 14.441697
5 0.12346 14.44219
4 0.1235 14.4471
3 0.123 14.386
2 0.12 14.02
1 0.1 11.6
0 0 0

a TCG of 0.123456 m, and a GM of 0.50 m, as the TCG is rounded to lower levels of

precision. As can be seen, the rounding error increases if the TCG is rounded to below
three decimal places. Keeping the TCG value to three decimal places helps to ensure
that any rounding errors are not too excessive, however the accuracy of the solution
will be dependent on the accuracy of data given to calculate the TCG.
X For passenger vessels, there is also a requirement to determine the angle

of list as a result of passengers crowding to one side of the vessel. This is
explained in Appendix 11: Maximum Angles of List on Passenger Vessels
due to Passenger Crowding.
QUESTION

MV Reed is alongside a berth with a displacement of 3,781 tonnes. In this condition,
she has a GM of 1.50 m and a list of 3.0 degrees to starboard. Cargo is to be moved
transversely across a deck, from a position 4 m to starboard of the centreline to a
position 6 m to port of the centreline. Determine the amount of cargo to move so that
the vessel returns upright.
Angles of List for Vessels with Zero GM

(MCM, ENG)
When a vessel has zero GM, she has neutral stability. If a weight is then moved across
the vessel so that the centre of gravity moves off of the centreline of the vessel, then the
vessel will incline until the centre of buoyancy lines up with the moved centre of gravity
and the vessel goes back into a condition of equilibrium.
The list angle of a vessel with neutral stability, caused by a mass w a distance d from the
centreline, can be found from:
w×d
2×
3 Δ = tanθ
BM
▲ Formula 2.12 The angle of list for a vessel with zero GM

X For a mathematical proof of this, see Appendix 12: The Derivation of the
Formula Giving the Angle of List for a Neutrally Stable Vessel.
Note that BM is the same as KM – KB, as shown in Figure 2.12.
QUESTION
Q2.32 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed starts loading from her lightship condition. 1,386 tonnes of cargo is loaded at
a KG of 7.10 m, 0.02 m to port of the centreline. Determine the resulting angle of list.
Fluids and Free Surface Effects

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
So far we have considered loading solid items of cargo onto a ship. When fluid is added to
the vessel, either as cargo such as crude oil, or as water ballast or fuel, then the hydrostatic
tank data, given in the stability data book, must be used to determine the mass and centre
of gravity of the fluid. An example of hydrostatic tank data is given in Figure 2.18.
No. 3 Double Bottom Port
Sounding Ullage Fill Capacity LCG TCG KG FSM

metres metres % m3 metres metres metres m4
2.000 0.000 100.000 245.966 49.375 4.159 1.057 0.000
1.961 0.038 97.900 240.800 49.369 4.153 1.037 539.733
1.900 0.098 94.600 232.574 49.360 4.144 1.005 536.830
1.800 0.198 89.000 219.031 49.345 4.128 0.953 531.593
1.700 0.298 83.600 205.546 49.330 4.111 0.900 525.930
1.600 0.398 78.100 192.126 49.313 4.092 0.848 519.630
▲ Figure 2.18 Tank hydrostatic data
For any sounding (depth of fluid in the tank), the row of data at that sounding shows
the ullage of the tank (depth of the air gap at the top of the tank); the capacity of the
tank at that sounding in metres3; and the longitudinal, transverse and vertical centres of
gravity of the fluid in the tank. An additional value, known as the free surface moment,
or FSM is also shown. This will be discussed later.

To determine the mass of fluid in a tank at any sounding, the capacity must be
multiplied by the density of the fluid in the tank.
QUESTIONS

Determine, to two decimal places, the mass, KG, LCG and TCG of sea water ballast in the
No. 3 Double Bottom Port tank at a sounding of 1.80 m.

MV Reed starts in the lightship condition. The forepeak and after peak tanks are
pressed full with sea water ballast, and both bunkers are pressed full of oil fuel,
relative density 0.95. Determine the displacement, LCG, TCG and KG of the vessel
after loading.
Sounding pipe
Sounding
Soun
ding
▲ Figure 2.19 Variation in sounding with ship inclination

If the vessel is heeled or listed, then the sounding measured at the sounding pipe in
the tank will not be the actual sounding, as shown in Figure 2.19. For each tank, tables
of corrections for soundings and list or heel angles are provided so that the actual
sounding can be determined. For the purposes of this book, the corrections will be
neglected.
So far we have only considered the mass and centre of mass of the fluids. Carrying
fluids can, under certain circumstances, have a very significant effect on the stability of
ships. This effect is known as ‘free surface effect’, and is a reduction in the metacentric
height, GM, as a result of the fluid sloshing around the tanks or compartments. FSE
has been the primary cause of numerous losses of ships, especially Ro-Ro vessels and
fishing vessels.
Consider an amidships cross-section of a simple vessel with a tank containing fluid, as

G of the fluid
▲ Figure 2.20 Centre of gravity of a pressed tank
As the vessel heels under the action of wind and waves, the fluid retains the shape of
the tank, and the overall centre of gravity of the fluid remains at the tank centre – there
is no movement of fluid and no FSE. However, if the tank is partially full, then the fluid
can move within the tank as the ship moves.
As the fluid moves, the centre of gravity of the fluid will also move, in a transverse and
vertical direction. If the vessel lists, the fluid will flow ‘downhill’, causing the vessel to list
further, as shown in Figure 2.21.
As the fluid moves ‘downhill’, a listing moment will be generated, and the vessel will list
further over. In effect, the vessel is less stable than she would be with a solid cargo, as
a result of the change of shape of the fluid. This reduction in stability is accounted for
by a rise in the centre of gravity of the vessel, and hence a reduction in the metacentric

Fluid ballast Solid ballast
▲ Figure 2.21 Free surface effect

▲ Figure 2.21 Continued

▲ Figure 2.21 Continued

height of the vessel. The left hand column in Figure 2.21 shows a vessel inclining to an
angle of list with fluid ballast in the double bottom. The right hand column shows the
same vessel, with the same initial TCG and GM, with the same mass and location of
ballast, but assuming the ballast is solid. As can be seen from the diagram, the vessel
with the fluid ballast will list significantly further than the vessel with the solid ballast,
and can therefore be considered to be less stable. This is because the movement of the
fluid ‘downhill’ within the vessel exaggerates the list angle by moving the TCG of the
ship further outboard.
The centre of gravity of the vessel is therefore raised from a ‘solid’ position, to a position
known either as the ‘fluid’, ‘effective’ or ‘virtual’ position.
The rise in the centre of gravity from the solid to the effective or virtual position can be
explained by looking at Figure 2.22.
Original GM Effective,
GV fluid, or virtual
GM
G
TCG B
▲ Figure 2.22 The effective, fluid or virtual centre of gravity
As the vessel heels, the centre of gravity of the fluid moves outboard, and as a result,
the overall TCG of the vessel moves further towards the low side of the vessel. Note that
this is different from the previous list case, as shown in Figure 2.16, as the TCG of the
tank contents and vessel depends on the list angle.
This effect on the stability can be modelled by looking at the intersection of the line of
action of gravity with the centreline. This point is the ‘fluid’, ‘effective’ or ‘virtual’ position

of the centre of gravity. It can be seen that the effect of this is to reduce GM from the
original value to the effective, fluid or virtual value.
The upwards movement of the centre of gravity, and effective reduction in the
metacentric height of the vessel, which is effectively the same as the reduction in GM,
is known as the free surface effect (FSE) or free surface correction (FSC).
The FSE depends on a value known as the ‘transverse inertia of the free surface,
measured through the centre of the surface’, but often simply known as the ‘free
surface moment’, or FSM. This is a measure of the shape of the free surface, and is pre-
calculated by the Naval Architect, or for a rectangular tank, can be directly calculated
based on the length and beam of the tank. For curved tanks, it can be found from the
ship’s hydrostatic data book. The FSM is normally quoted in units of either metres4,
or tonne metres. If units of metres4 are quoted, then the FSM must be multiplied by
the density of the fluid in the tank to get the actual value. If units of tonne metres are
quoted, then no correction is required.
Once the FSM value corrected for density is known, then an extra line for each free
surface is added to the KG loading table, as shown in Table 2.5. In this line for each free
surface, the mass values are set to zero, the KG value is set to zero and the corrected
FSM value is put in the ‘vertical moment’ column. The resulting KG value calculated
from the loading table will then be the ‘fluid’, ‘effective’ or ‘virtual’ KG, and the GM value
calculated using this will be the ‘fluid’, ‘effective’ or ‘virtual’ GM. FSMs are not used in the
TCG or LCG loading tables, as the rise of the KG from the solid to the fluid value models
all of the aspects of the FSE.
Table 2.5 Sample KG loading table including FSM
Item Mass (tonnes) KG (m) Vertical moment (tonne metres)
Lightship Lightship mass Lightship KG Lightship mass × lightship KG

Cargo Cargo mass Cargo KG Cargo mass × cargo KG
Swimming pool Pool water mass Pool water KG Pool water mass × pool water KG
Swimming pool ZERO ZERO Pool water FSM from the
FSM hydrostatics, corrected for density
Crew/stores Crew & stores mass Crew & stores KG Crew & stores mass × crew &
stores KG
Total Total mass Total vertical moment, including
FSM

Total vertica
ve t cal moment ( iincluding
c ud g FS
F M)
l KG after loading =
Overall
Total mass
▲ Formula 2.13 Effective KG from a loading table
It is the ‘fluid’, ‘effective’ or ‘virtual’ KG, and the ‘fluid’, ‘effective’ or ‘virtual’ GM values that
must be used in all subsequent stability calculations to determine the stability of the
vessel.
In summary, the only difference between loading solid items and fluid items in stability
calculations is to include an FSM row after the item in the KG loading table. This increases
KG, and reduces GM.
QUESTION

MV Reed starts loading from the lightship condition. 282 tonnes of deck cargo is
loaded at a KG of 11 m. All of the No. 3 and No. 4 Double Bottoms are filled to a
sounding of 0.10 m with sea water ballast. Determine, and comment on, the effective
GM of the vessel after ballasting.
The actual loss in GM (known as the FSC) due to FSEs can be directly calculated. The
FSE, or FSC, is then found by dividing the total FSM, corrected for density, by the
displacement of the vessel:
FSM
FSC =
Δ
▲ Formula 2.14 Free surface correction
X For a mathematical proof of the effects of free surfaces, see Appendix 13:
The Derivation of the Formulae Describing the Effect of Free Surfaces on
Metacentric Height.
The FSE (or FSC) can then be directly added to the solid KG to find the effective or fluid
KG, or subtracted from the GM to find the effective or fluid GM. However, it is better to
use the FSM in the loading tables, as there are fewer opportunities to forget to apply it,

incorrectly apply it, or make a mistake in the calculation. Both methods of dealing with
FSE should give the same final answer. FSE reduces stability, and is clearly dangerous.
FSE can be reduced by efficient tank design. If the tank is subdivided by longitudinal
baffles (fore and aft vertical plates in the tank), then the FSM, and hence the FSC is
reduced as the fluid cannot flow as far transversely. Further reduction in FSC can be
achieved by placing longitudinal bulkheads within the tank, which again reduces the
mass of fluid which can move, and the distance it can move through transversely. When
dividing a tank like this, the FSC is reduced by the number of equal size compartments
squared. For example, if the tank is longitudinally split into two equal size compartments,
then the FSC will be reduced by a factor of 22, or 4. If the tank is split into three equal
size compartments, then the FSC will be reduced by a factor of 32, or 9. If the tank is
split into four equal size compartments, then the FSC will be reduced by a factor of 42,
or 16.
QUESTION

MV Reed floats in her lightship condition. The port bunker is filled to a sounding of 6.00
m with fuel oil, relative density 0.96. The starboard bunker is filled to an ullage of 2.04
m with fuel oil, relative density 0.96. Cargo, with a mass of 535 tonnes, is loaded at a
KG of 0.50 m, 0.20 m to port of the centreline. No. 3 Double Bottom starboard is filled
with sea water ballast to a sounding of 0.50 m. After loading the cargo, bunkering and
ballasting, determine the displacement, metacentric height and the list.
Clearly FSEs are very dangerous – it is the fluid, or effective GM and KG values that
should be used with all stability calculations.
QUESTION

MV Reed starts in the lightship condition. Both Bunkers are then filled to a sounding
of 6.00 m with fuel, relative density 0.96. 3,209.1 tonnes of cargo is then loaded, at
a KG = 5.50 m, with a TCG = 0.145 m to Port of the centreline. No. 3 Double Bottom
Port is then filled to a sounding of 1.50 m with SW ballast, and No. 3 Double Bottom
Starboard is filled to a sounding of 1.70 m with SW ballast. Determine the resulting
GM and list.

If a compartment is partially full, or slack, and the fluid is completely removed from
the tank, then the free surface of the fluid, which creates the FSE, must also have been
removed. The FSM row must still be included in the KG loading table, but the FSM
value should be treated as negative, as the free surface has been removed.
QUESTION
Q2.38
MV Reed has a displacement of 5,150 tonnes, with an effective KG of 6.80 m. In this
condition, the No. 4 Port Double Bottom is partially filled to a sounding of 1.00 m.
Determine the effective KG of the vessel if the No. 4 Port Double Bottom is then
completely emptied.
If a compartment is full, or pressed, and some (but not all) of the fluid is removed from
the tank, then a free surface, which creates the FSE, must have been created. An FSM
row must therefore be included in the KG loading table, with a positive value, as the
free surface has been created. The easiest way to do this is to completely ‘empty’ the
tank in the KG loading table, and then ‘refill’ the tank to the new sounding.
QUESTION
Q2.39
MV Reed has a displacement of 5,150 tonnes, with an effective KG of 6.80 m. In this
condition, the No. 4 Port Double Bottom is partially filled to a sounding of 1.00 m.
Determine the effective KG of the vessel if the No. 4 Port Double Bottom is then
de-ballasted to a sounding of 0.50 m.
Free Surface Effects in Rectangular

Tanks
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
For rectangular tanks, the FSM can be directly calculated using the dimensions of the
tank. The FSM depends on the ‘transverse inertia of the free surface measured about
the centre of the surface’, again more commonly referred to as ‘inertia’. This is found
from the length and beam of the free surface, as is shown in Formula 2.15. This gives the
moment in units of m4, and so the density correction is still required.

lb3
FSM =
12
▲ Formula 2.15 Free surface moment for a rectangular tank
QUESTIONS
Q2.40 (MCM, ENG)

A boxed shaped vessel has a length of 60 m, and a beam of 7 m. She floats in a lightship
condition with a draught of 3 m. In this condition, her KG is 2.60 m. A double bottom
tank, with a length of 10 m, and a beam of 6 m, is then partially filled to a depth of
1.00 m with oil fuel, relative density 0.97. Determine the GM after bunkering.
A Summary of Formulae for Real Ships

and Box Shaped Vessels
(MCM, ENG)
Parameter Real ships Box shaped vessels
Draught Interpolate from hydrostatics Δ

= o Δ = ∇ ×ρ
from
LB ρ
Displacement Interpolate from hydrostatics Δ=∇×ρ

Underwater Δ Δ = LBD
∇=
volume ρ
Centres of gravity Loading tables Loading tables

KB Interpolate from hydrostatics D
KB =
2
BM BM = KM − KB LB 3
Inertia 12
BM = =
∇ ∇
KM Interpolate from hydrostatics KM = KB + BM
GM GM = KM − KG GM = KB + BM − KG
FSM (m ) 4
Interpolate from hydrostatics lb3
FSM = (Rectangular
ecta gu
gula
a tanks
k only
ly )
12

Instability and Angles of Loll

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As previously discussed, if M is below G (negative GM), the vessel will be unstable and
will incline over further. As the vessel inclines over to larger angles, she will enter a
new equilibrium condition known as an ‘angle of loll’. In the unstable (negative GM)
condition, the centres of gravity and buoyancy act to roll the vessel from the upright
over to a larger angle, as shown in Figure 2.23.
Overall
G effect
B
Overall
effect
▲ Figure 2.23 Unstable vessel
As the vessel rolls, the shape of the underwater volume changes, and for a typical ship
form, the centre of the underwater volume (the centre of buoyancy) moves further
outboard, away from the original position. For typical ship forms, the rolling as a result of
instability continues until a point where the centre of buoyancy has moved sufficiently
far that it is under the centre of gravity, as shown in Figure 2.24.
Wind and waves G G G

M M
M
B B B
Upright but unstable Capsizing moment Angle of loll

G is above M – any small The action of G G and B realign in
disturbance will cause and B causes a equilibrium
the vessel to incline capsizing moment
▲ Figure 2.24 Movement of B
Once in this condition, the forces line up and the vessel is in equilibrium – at an angle
of inclination known as the angle of loll, as shown in Figure 2.25.

▲ Figure 2.25 Angle of loll
When in this condition, the vessel is in an extremely dangerous state, and while it will
appear to be steady at an angle of loll, it may only be seconds away from a complete
capsize. Recovering the vessel from this condition requires careful calculations and
redistribution of ballast and cargo in a particular sequence.
The angle of loll may be so large that the vessel starts to ‘down-flood’. This is the term
used to describe uncontrollable flooding through fittings on the deck which are not
watertight. If the vessel down-floods, she may capsize or sink under the additional mass
of water. This risk means that GM must always be kept positive under all circumstances.
If GM becomes negative, then it must be returned to a positive value very carefully. A
specific feature of an angle of loll is that they can occur both to port or starboard. A very
small change in mass distribution is needed to make it roll from port loll to starboard
loll or vice versa. As the vessel rolls from port to starboard, it gains momentum, and can
roll past the angle of loll on the opposite side, as shown in Figure 2.26. It is possible that
it will roll far enough for down-flooding or capsize.
If the vessel is assumed to be wall sided, and has not inclined so that the deck edge is
under, then the angle of loll can be predicted:
−2 × GM
tan =
KM − KB
▲ Formula 2.16 Angle of loll
Note that KM-KB is the equivalent of BM. The proof of Formula 2.16 (which is
examinable at MCM level) is covered in the discussion of the wall-sided formula
later.

Additional force Momentum Momentum
1. Lolling to port 2. Rolling to starboard 3. Through upright
Momentum Momentum Momentum
4. Rolling to starboard 5. Lolling to starboard 6. Roll past loll due

to momentum
▲ Figure 2.26 Capsize due to loll
QUESTIONS
Q2.41 (MCM, ENG)

a KG of 7.20 m, on the centreline. Determine the resulting angle of loll.
Q2.42 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has length of 50.00 m, and a beam of 8.00 m. In her lightship
condition, she has a displacement of 1,110.0 tonnes, and a KG of 3.15 m.
The vessel contains a rectangular swimming pool, with a length of 10.00 m, and a width
of 8.00 m. The base of the pool is 5.00 m above the keel.
The vessel starts in her lightship condition. The pool is then filled with fresh water until
the true mean draught of the vessel is 3.00 m in sea water. Determine the resulting
angle of loll.
To recover the vessel from an unstable condition, the GM needs to be increased. This
can be achieved by moving G downwards. However, for safety, we cannot risk the vessel

1. Lolling to port 2. Moving G 3. Positive GM and list
6. Find out why

it happened
4. Correct list 5. Stable and upright
▲ Figure 2.27 Recovering loll
rolling to the opposite side, so we must also move G towards the low side of the vessel,
as shown in Figure 2.27. This will make a combined loll and list angle. As GM increases,
the loll will reduce and eventually become pure list as GM becomes positive again. This
will be covered in more detail later.
Heel Angle in a Turn

(MCM, ENG)
As a vessel turns, centripetal force acts inwards towards the centre of the turn, through
the centre of buoyancy of the vessel. The equal and opposite force is the centrifugal
force, which acts through the centre of gravity. This creates a couple which generates a
heeling moment about the centre of buoyancy of the vessel.
The heel due to the turn can be found from:
v 2 × (K
KG KB)
tanθ =
g × r × GM
▲ Formula 2.17 Heel in a turn

In this, g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2), r is the turn radius in metres, and
v is the speed of the ship in metres per second. To get the speed in metres per second,
multiply the speed in knots by 0.514. Occasionally, the (KG − KB) term in the formula
may be written as (B ~ G). This has the same meaning.
QUESTION
Q2.43 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught of 5.05 m, and is travelling at a speed of 16 knots. Her KG is
6.20 m. At this speed, she enters a turn to starboard with a diameter of 400 m. Determine
the angle of heel due to the turn.
X The proof of the formula giving the heel angle in a turn requires some more
knowledge about stability, and is therefore shown in the section on large
angle stability.
X For passenger vessels, there is also a requirement to determine the angle
of list as a result of passengers crowding to one side of the vessel. This is
explained in Appendix 14: Passenger Vessel Heel in a Turn.
Increase in Draught due to Inclining

(MCM, ENG)
As a vessel inclines over, the draught of the vessel increases. Figure 2.28 shows the
increased draught compared to the original draught for a heeling vessel.
▲ Figure 2.28 Increase in draught with inclination

If a box shaped vessel is considered (which is similar to most modern vessels in the
midship section) then the increase in draught can be found from:
B
DHEELED = DUPRIGHT × cos θ + × sin
i θ
2
▲ Formula 2.18 Increase in draught due to heel
X For a derivation of this formula, see Appendix 15: Derivation of the Increase
in Draught When Heeling Formula.
The increase in draught as a result of heeling can be quite large, especially when small
under-keel clearances are considered. Table 2.6 shows the calculated draught increase
for MV Reed as she heels.
Table 2.6 Draught increase due to heeling
Angle (degrees) Draught increase (%)
0 0
2 4
4 8
6 11
8 15
10 18
12 22
14 25
16 28
18 31
20 33
Note that this formula is only valid up to a heel angle at which the deck is submerged,
or the keel emerges. At this point, the underwater shape of the vessel changes
considerably. Neither is the effect of trim with heel included, which is discussed in
detail later in the book.

QUESTION
Q2.44 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped barge has a length of 90.00 m, and a beam of 9.00 m, as shown below.
Initially the draught of the vessel is 2.00 m in sea water, and the metacentric height is
0.48 m. The vessel has no trim or list, and all tanks are empty.
An amidships rectangular ballast tank, extending across the full beam of the vessel,
with a length of 10.00 m, is then partially filled to a sounding of 1.50 m with sea water
ballast. The base of the tank is on the keel.
10 m
9m
2m
90 m
The barge is then towed at a speed of 10 knots in water with a depth of 4.00 m, in a
turn with a diameter of 400 m. Ignoring the effect of squat, determine the under-keel
clearance of the vessel during the turn.
Small Changes in GM due to

Small Changes in Loading
(ENG)
If a small load is applied to the vessel, so that the sinkage is small and the TPC and
waterplane area can be assumed to be constant, then an approximation can be used to
determine the new GM, rather than recalculating or interpolating the hydrostatics.
If the waterplane area is assumed to be constant, therefore any additional volume

gained (or lost) due to adding (or removing) a load can be assumed to be a thin ‘slice’ of
volume on the waterline of the vessel. KB can therefore be determined from a table of
moments of volume. In the case of adding mass:

Table 2.7 KB after adding a small load
Item Volume (m3) KB (m) Moment (m4)
Ship at the original Original underwater Original KB Volume column ×

draught volume KB column
Added slice of Added mass divided by Original draught + Volume column ×
volume water density half the sinkage KB column
Total Total volume column Total moment column
In the case of removing mass:
Table 2.8 KB after removing a small load
Ship at the original Original underwater Original KB Volume column ×

draught volume KB column
Added slice of Removed mass divided Original draught – Volume column ×
volume by water density half the sinkage KB column
Total Total volume column Total moment column
If the waterplane area is assumed to be constant, then the waterplane inertia can also
be assumed to remain constant. Therefore, BM will vary with the overall volume before
adding or removing the mass. As seen previously (Formula 2.9):
I
BM =
∇
Therefore in the initial condition:

IOrigin
r al
∴ BMOriginal =
∇Origin
r
r al
Therefore in the final condition:

INew
BMNew =
∇New
Transposing Formula 2.9 gives:

I BM × ∇
Therefore:
IOrigin
r al BMOrigin
r al × ∇Origin
r al

However, assuming the waterplane area is constant:

IOrigin
r al INew
Therefore combining these equations gives:

BMNew × ∇New = BMOrigin
r al × ∇Origin
r al
Transposing for the new BM gives:
BMOrigin
r al × ∇Origin
r al
BMNew =
∇New
KG can be found using a loading table, as seen previously.
QUESTIONS
Q2.45 (ENG)
MV Reed is loaded to a draught of 6.00 m and a displacement of 6,008 tonnes in sea
water, with a KG of 6.50 m. 100 tonnes of cargo is then added to the vessel at a KG of
13.00 m. Assuming that the waterplane area remains constant, determine the new GM.
Q2.46 (ENG)
MV Reed is loaded to a draught of 7.00 m and a displacement of 7,329 tonnes in sea
water, with a KG of 6.90 m. 50 tonnes of cargo is then removed from the vessel at a
KG of 8.00 m. Assuming that the waterplane area remains constant, determine the
new GM.
SMALL ANGLE OR INITIAL METACENTRIC STABILITY  LEARNING CHECKLIST
Understand what is meant by the centre of buoyancy OOW, MCM, ENG

Understand what is meant by the vertical centre of OOW, MCM, ENG
buoyancy (KB)
Understand what is meant by the longitudinal centre OOW, MCM, ENG
of buoyancy (LCB)
Understand what is meant by the transverse centre of OOW, MCM, ENG
buoyancy (TCB)

Calculate the position of the centre of buoyancy for a OOW, MCM, ENG
box shaped vessel
Determine the position of the centre of buoyancy OOW, MCM, ENG
using hydrostatic data
Understand what is meant by the centre of gravity OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand what is meant by the vertical centre of OOW, MCM, ENG
gravity (KG)
Understand what is meant by the longitudinal centre OOW, MCM, ENG
of gravity (LCG)
Understand what is meant by the transverse centre of OOW, MCM, ENG
gravity (TCG or GGH)
Calculate the position of the centre of gravity when OOW, MCM, ENG
loads are added
loads are removed
loads are moved up or down
Calculate the position of the central gravity when OOW, MCM, ENG
loads are suspended
Calculate the position to load a known mass of cargo OOW, MCM, ENG
to obtain a required centre of gravity
Calculate the mass of cargo to load at a known OOW, MCM, ENG
position to obtain a required centre of gravity
Understand what is meant by the metacentre or OOW, MCM, ENG
transverse metacentre
Understand why the centre of buoyancy moves as a OOW, MCM, ENG
vessel inclines
Understand how a righting effect may be generated OOW, MCM, ENG
as a vessel inclines
Understand how a capsizing effect may be generated OOW, MCM, ENG
as a vessel inclines
Understand the definition of the metacentre OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand what is meant by metacentric height OOW, MCM, ENG

Understand what is meant by positive, neutral and OOW, MCM, ENG

negative metacentric height
Understand the significance of positive, neutral and OOW, MCM, ENG
negative metacentric height on the stability of the
vessel
Calculate the metacentric height of a ship using the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatic data and the centre of gravity
Understand what is meant by transverse second MCM, ENG
moment of area or transverse inertia
Calculate the metacentric height of a ship using OOW, MCM, ENG
the hydrostatic data and the centre of gravity after
moving masses aboard
Calculate the position to load cargo to achieve a OOW, MCM, ENG
required metacentric height
Understand and know the minimum allowable OOW, MCM, ENG
metacentric heights for vessels carrying a range of
cargo types
Understand the dangers of excessive metacentric OOW, MCM, ENG
height
Calculate the waterplane transverse second moment MCM, ENG
of area or waterplane transverse inertia for a box
shaped vessel
Calculate BM and GM for a box shaped vessel MCM, ENG
Understand and complete calculations based on the MCM, ENG
metacentric height and the geometry of a box shaped
vessel
Understand what is meant by an angle of list OOW, MCM, ENG
Calculate angles of list using the metacentric height OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand the limitations of calculating the angle of OOW, MCM, ENG
list using metacentric height
Calculate the angle of list after loading operations if OOW, MCM, ENG
the vessel has an initial angle of list
Calculating the required distribution of mass to OOW, MCM, ENG
achieve a final list angle or the upright condition

Calculate angles of list for vessels with zero MCM, ENG

metacentric height
Understand what is meant by FSE and FSM OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand what is mean by, and calculate, the fluid, OOW, MCM, ENG
virtual or effective centre of gravity
Understand what is meant by, and calculate, the FSC OOW, MCM, ENG
Calculate the loss in metacentric height due to FSE OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand the effect of compartment subdivision on OOW, MCM, ENG
FSE and metacentric height
Calculate the metacentric height after operations OOW, MCM, ENG
involving solid and fluid masses
Calculate the loss in stability due to FSE in rectangular MCM, ENG
compartments
Understand what is meant by an angle of loll OOW, MCM, ENG
Calculate the angle of loll using hydrostatics MCM, ENG
Calculate the angle of loll for a box shaped vessel MCM, ENG
Understand the procedure to recover a vessel from an OOW, MCM, ENG
angle of loll
Understand why a vessel heels when turning, and MCM, ENG
calculate the angle of heel when turning
Calculate the increase in draught when inclined MCM, ENG
Calculate the effect of small load changes on GM ENG

LARGE ANGLE
3
STABILITY  JUST
HOW FAR CAN
SHE ROLL?
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Understand how the centre of buoyancy moves at large angles

Understand how a righting moment or capsizing moment may be generated
Understand what is meant by the terms GZ, righting lever, righting arm, statical
stability or lever of statical stability
Understand the significance of positive and negative GZ values
Understand the meaning of KN, and determine KN at any angle or displacement using
the hydrostatics
Calculate GZ for any angle or displacement using the hydrostatics
Plot a GZ curve
Determine the range of stability

Determine, and know the importance of, the angle of vanishing stability
Compare the peak value of the GZ against the current regulations
Calculate GZ at small angles using the metacentric height
Determine GM from the GZ curve
Understand the accuracy of GZ at angles where cargo shifts and down-flooding may
occur
Determine the down-flooding angle using the hydrostatics, and comment on the
accuracy of calculated down-flooding angles
Understand how changes in KG influence the GZ curve
Correct GZ values for a change in KG at a constant displacement
Understand how the TCG influences the GZ curve
Identify a vessel which is listing from the shape of the GZ curve
Correct GZ values for the TCG
Determine the angle of list at large angles using the corrected GZ curve
Correct GZ for a cargo shift or change in cargo position
Identify a vessel which is lolling from the shape of the GZ curve
Determine the angle of loll from a GZ curve
Identify a vessel which is initially neutrally stable from the shape of the GZ curve
Identify a vessel which is both listing and lolling from the shape of the GZ curve
Determine the combined angle of list and loll from the shape of the GZ curve
Understand the process by which a vessel must be recovered from an angle of loll
Calculate and plot the GZ at stages of loll recovery to ensure that a vessel can be
safely recovered
Determine the deck edge immersion (DEI) angle using the GZ curve
Calculate the moment of statical stability or righting moment
Plot the moment of statical stability or righting moment curve
Use the righting moment curve to determine the list angle by correcting the righting
moment values
Use the righting moment curve to determine the list angle by superimposing the
heeling moment values
Use the GZ curve to determine the list angle by superimposing the heeling arm values
Understand what is meant by dynamic stability and understand the importance of the
area under a righting moment or GZ curve
Calculate the dynamic stability of ship in tonne metre degrees and tonne metre
radians
Calculate the area under GZ curves and compare them against the current regulations
Correct the area under GZ curves for down-flooding, and compare them against the
current regulations

Large Angle Stability • 91
Understand the accuracy of Simpson’s Rule and ensure that they are suitably used for
the shape of the curve
Calculate approximate GZ values at larger angles, and comment on the accuracy of
the approximation
Determine the approximate angle of loll using the wall-sided formula
Determine the effective GM at the angle of loll
Understand how the freeboard affects GZ values and curves
Understand how the beam affects GZ values and curves
Understand how the symmetrical and asymmetrical ice accretion affects GZ values
and curves
Understand how GZ changes with trim
Understand how free surface effect (FSE) influences GZ
Understand the differences between free to trim and fixed to trim GZ curves
Understand how wind heels ships, and determine the heel angle under a beam wind
Understand and explain the current recommendations for ships and wind heeling
Understand synchronous and parametric roll, and actions to be taken to avoid them
Understand and explain the link between stability and roll period
Understand and explain the problems associated with the carriage of grain or similar
cargoes
Understand the assumptions and cargo shift model upon which the grain regulations
are based
Determine the ability of a vessel to meet requirements of the grain regulations by
plotting the GZ curve and determining the residual stability
Determine the ability of a vessel to meet requirements of the grain regulations by
using the maximum grain heeling moment tables, and determine the approximate list
angle in the event of a grain cargo shift
As previously seen, the basic, or initial, metacentric stability theory breaks down at
around 10 to 15 degrees of heel. At larger angles of heel, we can no longer assume that
the metacentre is stationary, and our use of GM as a measure of stability is not valid.
Instead, we have to switch to another method of assessing the stability, known as large
angle stability. The centres of gravity and buoyancy are still used, with gravity acting
down through G and buoyancy acting up through B. This can be seen in Figures 3.1, 3.2,
3.3 and 3.4, which show the position of the centres and forces of buoyancy and gravity
as a vessel rolls to large angles. This assumes that there is no cargo shift or water ingress
at large angles.

0° 5° 10°
15° 20° 25°
▲ Figure 3.1 Large angle movement of B (0 to 25 degrees)
30° 35° 40°
45° 50° 55°
At larger angles of heel, what is important is the magnitude and direction in which the
torque created by the misalignment of buoyancy and gravity is acting. In Figure 3.5, it
can be seen that at smaller angles, the upwards buoyancy force and the downwards
gravity force are acting to right the vessel. In Figure 3.6, it can be seen that at larger

60° 65° 70°
75° 80° 85°
90° 95° 100°
25°
▲ Figure 3.5 Righting action

85°
▲ Figure 3.6 Capsizing action
angles, the upwards buoyancy force and the downwards gravity force are acting to
incline the vessel further.
The overall moment is controlled by the transverse distance between G and B. A

horizontal line is drawn from G out to the line of action of B. The point at which these
intersect is called Z. The distance between G and Z is known as the righting lever,
righting arm, statical stability arm, or just GZ. If the vessel is trying to right, GZ is said
to be positive. If the vessel is trying to capsize, GZ is said to be negative. Clearly as the
vessel inclines over, the GZ value will change.
G Z
▲ Figure 3.7 Righting lever, righting arm or GZ
As GZ varies with heel angle, it is normally shown as a graph, known as the GZ curve,
with GZ on the y axis, and heel angle on the x axis (Figure 3.8).
Positive GZ means the vessel wants to return upright, negative GZ means she will
capsize. The range of the graph where GZ is positive is known as the range of stability.
The point where GZ changes from positive to negative is known as the angle of
vanishing stability, and is the point of no return for the vessel. There is a requirement for
UK flagged vessels, detailed in MSN1752 (Maritime and Coastguard Agency, 2000) to
load a vessel so that the peak of the GZ curve is greater than 0.20 m and occurs at
an angle of 30 degrees or greater (note that the 2008 IS Code (International Maritime
Organisation, 2008) requires this to occur at 25 degrees or more).

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
GZ (m)
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–0.1
–0.2
–0.3
–0.4
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.8 Sample GZ curve
Calculating GZ and Drawing GZ Curves

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Calculating GZ is actually very simple – the process requires some additional

hydrostatic curves, known as the cross curves of stability, an example of which is
shown in Figure 3.9. These are unique to each ship, and calculated by the Naval
Architect and supplied as part of the ship’s hydrostatic data. This data may also be
given in tabular form. These show a value known as KN, as shown in Figure 3.10. A
horizontal line is drawn out from the keel. Where this intersects the line of action
of buoyancy, a new imaginary point is created, called N. This point depends on the
position of the centre of buoyancy, which itself depends only on the displacement
and heel.
If KN is known, and KG for the ship is found using loading tables, then GZ can be
found. Figure 3.11 shows the vessel inclined, with all of the dimensions annotated.
Using Figure 3.11, it can be seen that:
Distance K
KN Dis ance (KG sinθ ) + Dista ce G
ista GZ

5.00
40
4.50
35
4.00
30
3.50
25
3.00
KN (m)
2.50 20
2.00 15
1.50 12
10
1.00
5
0.50
0.00
2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000
▲ Figure 3.9 Cross curves of stability for MV Reed (0 to 40 degrees)
K N
▲ Figure 3.10 KN
θ
G Z
KG
θ
B
K N
KG sin θ
▲ Figure 3.11 Finding GZ from KN

This equation can be transposed to give GZ:
GZ = KN − KG sin
i θ
▲ Formula 3.1 GZ from KN
QUESTIONS

Using the KN data in the MV Reed data books, determine the KN values at a displacement
of 3,200 tonnes, and hence draw the GZ curve for angles between 0 and 90 degrees, in
steps of 10 degrees, if the KG of the vessel is 7.18 m.

MV Reed starts loading from her lightship condition. 352 tonnes of cargo are loaded
at a KG of 7.00 m, 1,000 tonnes of cargo is loaded at a KG of 6.00 m, and both the
bunkers are pressed full of fuel oil, relative density 0.95. Draw the GZ curve at intervals
of 10 degrees for the vessel in this condition, up to an angle of 80 degrees.
Calculating GZ at Small Angles

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
At small angles of heel, up to around 10 degrees, the GZ values can be directly

calculated from GM. This assumes that the metacentre remains fixed, and GM is
therefore constant. Figure 3.12 shows the geometry of G, Z and M at a small angle
M
Heel angle
G Z
▲ Figure 3.12 GZ and GM

of heel. From Figure 3.12 it can be seen that at small angles of heel GZ is given by
Formula 3.2.
GZ ≈ GM × sin
i θ
▲ Formula 3.2 GZ approximation from GM
This formula allows GZ to be calculated at small angles where the metacentre can be
assumed to remain fixed.
Finding GM from the GZ Curve

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The GZ and the initial GM of the vessel are related, and the GZ curve can be used to
determine the initial GM. Consider the GZ curve shown in Figure 3.13.
Formula 3.2 showed that GM and GZ are approximately linked at small angles:
GZ ≈ GM × sinθ
1.000
0.800
0.600
GZ (m)
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.200
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.13 Sample GZ curve

Therefore, if we read off GZ at a small angle, we can use it to find GM. For example, using
Figure 3.13, at 6 degrees, the GZ value is 0.04 m. Substituting these values into Formula
3.2 gives:
0 04 GM i 6
0 04
GM ≈ = 0.38
38 m
sin6
This gives us an approximate GM value, which is useful as a check against our other
calculations. However, it can be difficult to accurately read off the GZ value at small
angles. To reduce this error, we can use an alternative method.
The first stage is to draw a straight line which is tangential to the initial slope of the GZ
curve. What this effectively means is to draw a straight line through the GZ curve at
zero and a very small angle, such as 2 degrees, as shown in Figure 3.14.
1.000
0.800
0.600
GZ (m)
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.200
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.14 Gradient of a GZ curve
The next stage is to draw a vertical line up at 57.3 degrees. This equates to one radian,
converted to degrees. This is constant for any GZ curve. This line is shown in Figure 3.15.
At the intersection of the vertical line and the diagonal line, we can draw a horizontal
line, as shown in Figure 3.16. The intersection of this horizontal line and the y axis gives
us the initial GM value. In this case, this gives a GM of 0.40 m.

1.000
0.800
0.600
GZ (m)
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.200
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.15 Vertical mark at 1 radian
1.000
0.800
0.600
GZ (m)
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.200
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.16 Finding GM from a GZ curve
The steeper the initial slope, the greater the GM. As will be seen later, a downward slope
indicates a negative GM, with the angle of loll at the point of intersection of the curve
and the x axis. The greater the initial slope, the greater GM. If the initial slope of the
curve is negative (i.e. it goes down), then the GM will be negative – this will be covered
in more detail later.

X For a mathematical derivation showing how this process works, see

Appendix 16: The Mathematical Proof of the Determination of GM from the
GZ Curve.
Cargo Shifts and Down-Flooding

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The GZ curves are constructed assuming that the position of the centre of gravity
remains constant. Clearly as the vessel inclines to larger and larger angles, the contents
of the vessel are likely to move (known as a cargo shift), with the result that the centre
of gravity will move, and KG will change. Therefore, GZ values should be treated with
caution, particularly if the cargo is prone to shifting, such as grain cargo. Special rules
exist to deal with these cargoes, and will be covered later.
The GZ curve also assumes that the vessel remains watertight. It is impossible to build
large ships which are completely watertight through 180 degrees of roll. At some
angle of heel, fittings such as engine room vents and exhausts, which cannot be made
watertight, will submerge. At this point, known as the down-flooding angle, water will
progressively flood down into the vessel, moving the centre of gravity, lowering the
vessel into the water and introducing FSE, significantly changing the stability of the
vessel. The heel angle at which the vessel down-floods is given in the hydrostatic data
for the vessel. This gives an indication of the angle at which the vessel will down-flood;
however, it assumes that the water is calm, and so should be treated with caution.
Corrections to GZ due to Changes in

the Vertical Centre of Gravity (Assuming
Displacement Remains Fixed)
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As KG changes, GZ will also change, as shown in Figure 3.17. As KG increases, GZ

decreases, and as KG reduces, GZ increases. This assumes that the displacement is
constant, and therefore KN will be constant at any heel angle.
Plotting GZ curves for the original, reduced KG and increased KG conditions shows
a specific trend in the GZ curves, as shown in Figure 3.18. As KG increases, the GZ
decreases, and the angle of vanishing stability decreases. As KG reduces, GZ increases,

KG
sed
G Z
rea
Z
G
G
Inc
al K
gin
Ori
KG
G Z
ced
du
B
Re
▲ Figure 3.17 Change in GZ with a change in KG
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
GZ (m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
–0.100
–0.200
–0.300
Original GZ
–0.400 Increased KG
Reduced KG
–0.500
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.18 GZ curve variation due to KG variation
and the angle of vanishing stability increases. As can be seen from the previous section,
the initial slope of the GZ curve increases as KG decreases, and hence GM increases.
If the displacement is kept constant, and cargo adjusted so that KG changes, then a
shortcut can be used which avoids the complete procedure of calculating GZ from
KN. The change in GZ can be expressed in terms of the change in KG. This all assumes
the displacement is constant, as when the displacement is constant, KN will be also
constant at any heel angle.

KG
G Z
e in
θ
ang
Ch
G Z
Change in GZ
▲ Figure 3.19 Change in GZ with KG changes
As can be seen in Figure 3.19, the change in GZ can be found from the change in KG:
Change in GZ = Change in
i KG × sin
i θ
▲ Formula 3.3 Change in GZ due to change in KG
This is only valid if the displacement remains constant. The change in GZ varies
at each angle of heel, and must be recalculated. If KG increases, the vessel becomes
less stable, and so GZ must reduce. Therefore, the change in GZ must be subtracted
from the original GZ. If KG decreases, the vessel becomes more stable, and so GZ must
increase. Therefore, the change in GZ must be added to the original GZ.
QUESTION
Q3.3 (MCM, ENG)
In the lightship condition, MV Reed has the following GZ values:
Angle degrees 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
GZ metres 0.00 0.15 0.31 0.39 0.39 0.46 0.46 0.21 –0.17

Determine (and plot) the new GZ values and curves at intervals of 10 degrees, from 0 to
80 degrees, if the displacement is kept constant, but:
1 The lightship KG is increased by 0.10 m;

2 The lightship KG is decreased by 0.10 m.
Corrections to GZ due to a Transverse

Centre of Gravity
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
If the centre of gravity moves off of the centreline of the vessel, so that the vessel has a
TCG (or GGH) value, as shown in Figure 3.31, then there will also be a change in the GZ
values.
▲ Figure 3.20 The TCG
In this condition, the centres of buoyancy and gravity are both acting to incline the
vessel over further (see the section on angles of list in the small angle stability). If we
draw the GZ on to Figure 3.31, we can see that it still runs from the centre of gravity to
the line of action of buoyancy, as shown in Figure 3.21.
In Figure 3.21, the centres of buoyancy and gravity are acting to try and roll the vessel
further over, so GZ would be said to be negative. The vessel will incline over, until
the centres of buoyancy and gravity are aligned, at which point the vessel will be in
equilibrium at the angle of list, as shown in Figure 3.22. As GZ measures the separation

Z G
▲ Figure 3.21 Negative GZ when upright
Z G
▲ Figure 3.22 Angle of list and GZ
between the centre of gravity and the line of action of buoyancy, at the angle of list, the
GZ must be zero, as the line of action of buoyancy and the centre of gravity are aligned
in equilibrium.
If the vessel is then heeled past the angle of list, then the centre of buoyancy will move
further outboard, and create a positive GZ, as shown in Figure 3.23.
As the vessel inclines further, the centre of buoyancy will continue to move, as shown
in Figure 3.24.
As the angle of heel increases, and the keel emerges and deck submerges, the centre
of buoyancy will move back towards the line of action of gravity. When the centre

G Z
▲ Figure 3.23 Inclined past list
G
Z
▲ Figure 3.24 Inclined past list to a larger angle
of buoyancy crosses back under the line of action of gravity (the angle of vanishing
stability), the action of buoyancy and gravity will be such that the vessel will try and
roll over further, as shown in Figure 3.25. GZ is said to be negative again. Therefore,
a vessel with a non-zero TCG will have a GZ curve that starts negative, is zero at the
angle of list, then positive to the angle of vanishing stability, and then negative, as
shown in Figure 3.29. In comparison to the vessel with the centre of gravity on the
centreline, all GZ values will be reduced proportional to the TCG and the cosine of
the heel angle.
The complete sequence of heeling for a vessel with a centre of gravity off of the
centreline is shown in Figure 3.26.

Z G
▲ Figure 3.25 Inclined past list with negative GZ
0° 5° 10°
15° 20° 25°
▲ Figure 3.26 A vessel with an off-centre TCG rolling to large angles (0 to 25 degrees)
The GZ curve for a listing vessel, as shown in Figure 3.29, can be used to determine
the angle of list for large angles, by reading off the first angle at which GZ is zero,
which in this case is 13.5 degrees. The previous formulae using GM to determine list
are only valid at small angles (where the metacentre is assumed to remain constant).
GZ curves are the only valid method to accurately determine angles of list above 10
degrees.

30° 35° 40°
45° 50° 55°
60° 65° 70°
75° 80° 85°

90° 95° 100°
0.800
0.600
0.400
GZ (m)
0.200
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.200
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.30 GZ curve of a listing vessel
Calculating the GZ for a vessel with a TCG value is similar to the normal calculations
for GZ. GZ is found as before, and then corrected for a loss in GZ due to the TCG.
This loss in GZ due to a TCG value can be found, as shown in Figures 3.31 and
3.32.
From this, it can be seen that the loss in GZ can be found from the TCG of the vessel:
Loss in GZ = TCG × cosθ
▲ Formula 3.4 Loss in GZ due to a TCG

TCG
G Z
Z
G
B
Loss of GZ
▲ Figure 3.31 Loss of GZ due to a TCG
TC
G
G Z
θ
Z
G
B
Loss of GZ = TCG cos θ
▲ Figure 3.32 Geometry of GZ loss

QUESTION
Q3.4 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is loaded to a displacement of 3,000 tonnes, with a KG of 6.77 m and a
TCG of 0.289 m. Calculate the corrected GZ at 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 degrees, and hence
determine the angle of list. Compare your answer against that given by small angle
list theory.
Changes in GZ due to Vertical and

Transverse Changes in the Centre of
Gravity
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
In the event of a cargo shift, it is possible that the centre of gravity of the cargo will
move both sideways and upwards. This results in a big reduction in the GZ values of
the vessel, as there is a reduction in GZ due to the transverse shift (giving G2Z2), and a
reduction due to the vertical shift (giving G3Z3), as shown in Figure 3.33. This results in
a reduction in GZ due to an increase in KG and a list angle. As a cargo shift is simply a
movement of internal cargo, then the displacement remains constant, and Formulae 3.3
and 3.4 can be used to determine the overall change in GZ of the vessel.
G3
Z3
G1 Z1
G2 Z2
B
Change in GZ due
to vertical shift
Change in GZ due to
transverse shift
▲ Figure 3.33 Loss of GZ due to KG and TCG shifts

QUESTIONS
Q3.5 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is loaded so that she has the GZ values as shown below:
Angle degrees 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
GZ metres 0.00 0.10 0.25 0.50 0.72 0.69 0.49 0.20 –0.12 –0.46
Plot the new GZ curve for the vessel if the cargo shifts, resulting in the centre of gravity
of the ship moving upwards by 0.24 m, and transversely to port by 0.40 m.
Q3.6 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is to unload a 100 tonne item of cargo, from a stowed position on the centreline.
Initially the vessel has a true mean draught of 4.10 m in sea water. In this condition, she
has a list of 1.10 degrees to starboard, and an effective KG of 5.49 m.
When the mass is unloaded, it is lifted using the ship’s own heavy lift crane, with the
crane derrick 11.00 m above the initial stowed position of the load, and swung out
17.00 m to port from the centreline.
By plotting the GZ curves, determine the maximum angle of list during the unloading
operation.
GZ Curves and Unstable Vessels

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The GZ curve can also be used to determine the angle of loll of an unstable vessel.
Figure 3.34 shows a vessel with a sufficiently large KG to give a negative GM inclining to
an angle of loll. As can be seen, the GZ distance would be described as negative, as the
forces of buoyancy and gravity are acting to roll the vessel over further.
Therefore, vessels which are unstable, and have negative GM, will also have negative
GZ values between the upright condition, where GZ will be zero, and the angle of loll,
where GZ will also be zero. The curve will therefore have an initial negative slope. This
downwards initial slope indicates a negative GM, with the angle of loll at the point of
intersection of the curve and the x axis. The complete sequence of heeling for a vessel
with a centre of gravity off of the centreline is shown in Figure 3.35.

Z G
▲ Figure 3.34 GZ at an angle below an angle of loll
0° 5° 10°
15° 20° 25°
▲ Figure 3.35 A vessel with a negative GM rolling to large angles (0 to 25 degrees)

30° 35° 40°
45° 50° 55°
60° 65° 70°
75° 80° 85°
90° 95° 100°

QUESTIONS
Q3.7 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is loaded from the lightship condition. 1,985 tonnes of cargo is loaded at a
KG of 7.50 m. Draw the GZ curve after loading, in steps of 10 degrees, up to an angle of
70 degrees, and hence determine the angle of loll of the vessel.

MV Reed is loaded to a displacement of 4,000 tonnes with a KG of 7.23 m.
1. Plot the GZ curve at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 degrees, and hence
determine the angle of loll (19 degrees);
2. Use the GZ curve to determine GM;
3. Verify the GM value from the curve by calculating GM using the hydrostatics.
GZ Curves and Neutrally Stable Vessels

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
When a vessel is loaded so that GM is zero (neutral stability), any small force heeling the
vessel will not generate a righting moment, as shown in Figure 3.39.
Clearly at this point GZ will also be zero. As the vessel heels to large angles, the centre of
buoyancy will move further, and the assumptions of small angle stability breakdown. At
this point, GZ will become positive. This results in a GZ curve as shown in Figure 3.40.
M G
▲ Figure 3.39 Heeling with neutral GM

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
GZ (m)
0.02
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
–0.02
–0.04
–0.06
–0.08
Angle (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.40 GZ curve for a neutrally stable vessel
QUESTIONS

MV Reed is loaded to a displacement of 6,000 tonnes with a KG of 7.01 m. Plot the GZ
curve at 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 degrees, and hence determine the GM of the vessel
from the GZ curve.

MV Reed is loaded so that she has the following KN values:
Angle (degrees) KN (m)
0 0.000
5 0.611
10 1.220
15 1.840
20 2.471
25 3.102

Working to three decimal places:

1. Plot the GZ curve at 0, 5, 15, 20 and 25 degrees if KG is 6.810 m;
4. For each of the above graphs, use the GZ curve to determine the GM of the vessel.
GZ Curves and Combined Angles of

List and Loll
(OOW)
In certain circumstances, it is possible that a vessel may be both lolling and listing at
the same time. For this to happen the vessel would have to be unevenly loaded and be
unstable. The only way to directly find the combined angle of list and loll is to use a GZ
curve. The process is similar to that for finding list, except the curve will have a negative
initial slope.
QUESTION
Q3.11 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed starts in her lightship condition. 2,985 tonnes of cargo is added at a KG of
7.50 m, at a position 0.10 m to port of the centreline. Determine the combined angle
of list and loll by plotting the GZ curve, in steps of 5 degrees, up to an angle of 35
degrees.
Instability and Recovering Loll

Using GZ Curves
(MCM, ENG)
The large angle stability theory covered so far is useful in analysing the steps required
to recover a vessel from an angle of loll. As previously seen, to recover a lolling vessel,
mass must be added to the low side of the vessel. The effect of adding mass to the low

side is to reduce KG, and hence increase GM to a safe, positive value. At this point, the
vessel can be counter-ballasted to an upright condition.
The easiest way to add mass to the low side of the ship is to ballast a double bottom.
This will create asymmetric loading, and hence cause the centre of gravity to move
off of the centreline of the vessel, causing a combined angle of loll and list. The GZ
curves can be created for this combined loll and list condition, to determine the actual
combined angle.
Clearly the greatest reduction in KG would occur when the double bottom tank is
pressed, as at that point there is the greatest mass added low in the vessel, and there
will be no FSE; however, it is important to remember that as a tank is filled, there will a
point when it is 10% full, 20% full, 30% full, and so on. The stability of the vessel must
be considered at all stages of filling the tank.
As the tank is filled, the initial gradient of the GZ curve will slowly become positive
as the GM increases, and the first intersection of the curve and the x axis will give the
combined angle of list and loll.
Figure 3.41 shows the variation in the GZ curve over time as a double bottom tank in a
lolling vessel is progressively filled.
0.4
0.3
0.2
GZ (m)
0.1
0
Sounding = 0.00 m 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Sounding = 0.40 m
Sounding = 0.80 m –0.1
Sounding = 1.20 m
Sounding = 1.40 m –0.2
Sounding = 2.00 m
–0.3
–0.4
Angle (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.41 GZ and recovering loll

QUESTION
Q3.12 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed starts loading from her lightship condition. The following loading operations
are undertaken:
Both bunkers are pressed full with fuel oil, relative density 0.96
Both No. 3 Double Bottoms are partially filled to a sounding of 0.30 m with sea water
ballast
Both No. 4 Double Bottoms are partially filled to a sounding of 0.30 m with sea water
ballast
3,245 tonnes of cargo is loaded at a KG of 7.50 m, on the centreline
As a result of the above loading, the vessel suddenly inclines to port.
The master proposes to recover the vessel by pressing both of the No. 3 Port and No. 4
Port Double Bottoms.
Determine the reason for the vessel inclining, and in sounding steps of 0.20 m,
determine if pressing both of these Port Double Bottoms at the same time will
recover the vessel to a stable condition, and determine the maximum angle of
inclination during the recovery. You should plot the GZ values in steps of 5 degrees
to 30 degrees.
Deck Edge Immersion Angles

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As has been seen, the shape of the GZ curve varies depending on the displacement,
heel angle and centre of gravity. Another feature of the vessel which has an influence
on the shape of the GZ curve is the ‘deck edge immersion’ (DEI) angle. This is the angle
of heel at which the edge of the deck starts to be immersed. With most vessels, GZ
gets progressively larger as the vessel starts to heel. This is seen as a gently increasing
slope, or gradient, on the GZ curve. When the deck edge is immersed, the rate at
which GZ grows reduces as the underwater geometry starts to change quickly. This
is seen as a ‘point of inflection’ on the curve, or the point at which the curve stops
increasing in steepness, as shown in Figure 3.42. The DEI angle is important, as this
point of inflection has an influence on the angle of vanishing stability, and the range
of stability.

0.60 Approximate point where gradient

stops increasing – ‘point of
inflection’, or DEI
0.50
0.40 Gradually
increasing slope
Gradually
GZ (m)
or gradient
0.30 reducing
gradient
0.20
0.10
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.42 DEI and the point of inflection
Moment of Statical Stability (MSS)

or Righting Moments
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As has been seen, the GZ indicates the transverse distance between the centres
of buoyancy and gravity, and therefore gives us an idea of the direction the torque,
or righting moment, is acting in. The value of the righting moment at any angle of
heel (sometimes known as the Moment of Statical Stability, or MSS) can be found by
multiplying the righting level by the displacement, as shown in Formula 3.5:
Righting moment = GZ × Δ
▲ Formula 3.5 Righting moment
For any vessel, a curve of righting moments can be produced, which shows how the
righting moment varies with heel angle. As the righting moment is the GZ multiplied
by a constant value, the righting moment curve looks identical to the GZ curve, the
only difference being the values on the y axis. This is shown in Figure 3.43.

GZ curve
3
1
GZ (m)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
–1
–2
–3
–4
Angle (degrees)
Righting moment curve

3,000
Righting moment (tonne metres)
2,000
1,000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
–1,000
–2,000
–3,000
– 4,000
Angle (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.43 GZ curve and righting moment curve
QUESTION
Q3.13 (OOW, MCM)

MV Reed is loaded to a displacement of 4,800 tonnes, with a KG of 6.80 m. In steps of 10
degrees, from 0 to 70 degrees, plot the GZ and the righting moment curves.
Using Righting Moment Curves to

Find Angles of List
(MCM, ENG)
Righting moment curves can also be used to determine the angle of list in the same
way that GZ curves can. The curves are plotted as before and the intersection with the
x axis gives the list angle.

QUESTION
Q3.14 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed starts loading from her lightship condition. A total of 4,185 tonnes of cargo
are loaded at a KG of 7.00 m, at a position 0.10 m to port of the centreline. In steps of
10 degrees, from 0 to 70 degrees, plot the GZ and the righting moment curves, and
hence determine the angle of list using both curves.
As an alternative to this method, righting moment curves can be used to predict the
angle of list of a vessel, using a method where the TCG correction is not required. As
previously explained in the section on small angles of list, when a vessel lists, a listing
or heeling moment is generated.
o listing moment = w × d
Heeling or
▲ Formula 3.6 Heeling or listing moment
When this equals the righting moment created by the vessel, a steady state of
equilibrium exists and the vessel heels at a steady angle.
To determine the angle where this occurs, the righting moment curve (with no
correction for the TCG effect of the load causing the list) at a range of angles can be
plotted, and the heeling moment (found from the mass causing the list, multiplied by
the distance of the mass from the centreline) superimposed onto the righting moment
curve, and the first point of intersection can be read off. At this point, the listing or
heeling moment is equal to the righting moment, and the vessel is in a condition of
equilibrium.
QUESTION
Q3.15 (MCM, ENG)

Using the scenario in Question 3.14, determine the angle of list by plotting the
righting moment curve (without a TCG correction), and superimposing the heeling
moment.

Under certain circumstances, this method is much easier than using the TCG correction,
particularly if the heeling or listing moment varies with the heel angle, as is the case
for heel due to wind, or cargo shifts due to the heeling moment lever changing with
the geometry of the vessel as she heels. Again, the righting moment and heeling
moment curves can be superimposed, and the heel angle read off the graph, as shown
in Figure 3.44.
4,000
3,500
Heeling and righting moments (tonne metres)
Righting
moment
3,000
2,500
Heeling or listing
moment
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
Heel or
list angle
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.44 Heeling moment and righting moment
As can be seen from the graph (Figure 3.44), the heeling moment reduces with the
angle of heel. The definition of a moment is a ‘force multiplied by the perpendicular
distance to the pivot point’. As the vessel inclines over, the distance to the pivot
point reduces, and the heeling or listing moment reduces. Consider a vessel heeling
under the effect of the wind (which will be covered in more detail later). As the vessel
heels, the point at which the heeling force acts rotates with the vessel, reducing
the perpendicular distance from the overall wind force to the rotation point on the
centreline at the waterline, as shown in Figure 3.45.

L
C L
C L
C
5.91
6.00
5.98
L
C L
C L
C
5.80
5.64
5.44
▲ Figure 3.45 Reduction in lever during heeling
X The equating of heeling and righting moments can be used to determine

the angle of heel in a turn, as previously discussed. For a full proof, see
Appendix 17: The Derivation of the Angle of Heel in a Turn Formula.
It is also possible to use the GZ curve in a similar method, so that the list angle can be
determined without the need to apply a TCG correction to the basic GZ values. The basic
GZ values area is calculated as previously, with no TCG correction. These are plotted to
give the GZ curve. The heeling or listing moment is then divided by the displacement
of the vessel to give the heeling or listing arm:
w×d
Heeling or r =
o listing arm
Δ
▲ Formula 3.7 Heeling or listing arm
This heeling or listing arm can be plotted as a line onto the basic GZ curve, and
the intersection between the arm and the GZ curve can be read off to give the list
angle.

QUESTION
Q3.16 (MCM, ENG)

Using the scenario in Question 3.14, determine the angle of list by plotting the GZ curve
(without a TCG correction), and superimposing the listing arm.
The other important function of the righting moment curve is related to energy. The
area under the righting moment curve up to a specific angle is equal to the energy
required to roll the vessel to that angle. Therefore, the greater the area under the
righting moment curve, the more energy it will take to roll the vessel to a given angle.
As the righting moment curve is proportional to the GZ curve, the area under the GZ
curve up to a specific angle is proportional to the energy required to roll the vessel to
that angle. Therefore, the greater the area under the GZ curve, the more energy it will
take to roll the vessel.
QUESTION

Which of the following vessels will require the most energy to roll it to an angle of
40 degrees?
GZ
5
3
GZ (m)
–0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–1
–2
Angle (degrees)
This is even more evident when we look at unstable vessels. Figure 3.46 shows GZ curves
for a vessel in a stable and unstable condition of loading. Clearly, the unstable vessel
would require significantly less energy to roll it to the angle of vanishing stability.

0.800
New GZ
Old GZ
0.600
0.400
GZ (m)
0.200
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
–0.200
–0.400
Angle (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.46 Areas under GZ curves for stable and unstable vessels
Dynamic Stability
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
If a mass is moved a certain linear distance, then the work done in moving the mass is
given by:
Work done = Force Distance
The rotational equivalent of this is:
Work done = Torque × Angle
When a vessel rolls, the torque resisting the roll is the righting moment; therefore, the
total righting moment multiplied by the total angle rolled through gives the work done
in rolling a vessel. This value is equivalent to the area under the righting moment curve.
Therefore, the area under the righting moment curve, up to any angle, gives the energy
required to roll the vessel to that angle.
The area under the righting moment curve is known as the dynamic, or dynamical
stability of the vessel. As the units of the axes are tonnes and metres, the area of the
curve has units of tonne metres. The mathematical measurement for angles is radians;
therefore, the area under the curve must be converted to metre radians. To determine
the area under the righting moment curve, Simpson’s Rule can be used – this is a
mathematical method of determining areas under curved graphs.

Table 3.1 Generic Simpson’s Rule tabular calculation
Ordinate Offset Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
X1 Y1 1 1 × Y1
X2 Y2 4 4 × Y2
X3 Y3 2 2 × Y3
X4 Y4 4 4 × Y4
X5 Y5 2 2 × Y5
X6 Y6 4 4 × Y6
X7 Y7 1 1 × Y7
Total Sum of above
Simpson’s Rule requires us to know the x values of a graph (known as the ordinates),
and the y values for each of the x values (known as the offsets). To use Simpson’s Rule,
we must have an odd number of ordinates, and they must be evenly spaced apart. The
first stage is to draw up a table (as shown in Table 3.1), with columns headed Ordinate,
Offset, Simpson’s Multiplier and Area Product.
The ordinate column lists each ordinate (the total of which must always be an odd
number). The offset column lists each offset measured at each ordinate.
The Simpson’s Multiplier column always follows the same pattern, starting and finishing
with a 1, and alternating 4, 2, 4, 2 in between.
The Area Product column is the product of the offset and Simpson’s Multiplier columns.
The total area under the curve is found from:
Ordinate spacing
Area = × Σ( Area product )
3
▲ Formula 3.8 Area by Simpson’s Rule
In this formula, the Σ symbol (capital sigma in the Greek alphabet) means the ‘total of’.
X For a mathematical proof of Simpson’s Rule, see Appendix 18: The

Mathematical Proof of Simpson’s Rule.

QUESTIONS
Q3.18
The table below shows a series of x and y coordinates forming a curve. The units of the
axes are metres. Determine the area between the curve and the x axis, as shown shaded
on the graph below the table.
X Y
0 5
2 6
4 5.25
6 4
8 2
4
Y
3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X
Q3.19 (MCM, ENG)

a KG of 6.00 m, on the centreline. Determine the dynamic stability of the vessel up to
an angle of 40 degrees.

In a similar way to the metacentric height criteria, minimum values for areas under the
GZ curve are described in the International Maritime Organisation’s (IMO) publication
Code in Intact Stability 2008, known as the ‘2008 IS Code’. (International Maritime
Organisation, 2008). These are partially incorporated into the Merchant Shipping
(Load Line) Regulations 1998, as amended by the Merchant Shipping (Load Line)
(Amendment) Regulations 2000, via Merchant Shipping Notice 1752(M) (Maritime and
Coastguard Agency, 2000).
These require that between certain angles the area under the GZ curve have minimum
values, and that the peak of the curve is in a certain region of the graph. The GZ curve is
used for these regulations, rather than the righting moment curve, as it is proportional
to the righting moment curve; however, the values for GZ are broadly independent of
ship size, and so more generic criteria can be used. As well as the metacentric height
requirements described previously, the GZ curve must be analysed to check compliance
with the regulations before sailing.
Requirement Details
Peak GZ value Must be greater than 0.20 m, and occur at 30 degrees heel
or greater
Area under the graph between Must be greater than 0.09 m radians
0 degrees and 401 degrees
Initial GM Minimum value for a general cargo ship is 0.15 m, for a
vessel carrying grain is 0.30 m, and for timber carriers
meeting certain requirements is 0.05 m. (Note that this
increases to 0.10 m under the 2008 IS Code.)
1
If the angle of down-flooding (the angle of heel at which the vessel will progressively flood through weather-tight
fittings) is less than 40 degrees, then that angle should be used instead.
X For details of alternative criteria for vessels carrying timber deck cargo,
given in the 2008 IS Code, but not permitted by the MCA, see Appendix 19:
Alternative Criteria for Large Angle Stability (Timber Deck Cargo).

Simpson’s Rule can be used with the GZ curve to determine the areas as required. The
easiest way to do this is to first use Simpson’s Rule to determine the area under the
curve between 0 degrees and 40 degrees, using steps of 10 degrees. Then use Simpson’s
Rule to determine the area under the curve between 30 degrees and 40 degrees, using
steps of 5 degrees. Finally, to find the area between 0 degrees and 30 degrees, subtract
the area between 30 degrees and 40 degrees from the area between 0 degrees and
40 degrees.
If the down-flooding angle is less than 40 degrees, this process should be followed,
and the final values adjusted for the loss of area between the down-flooding angle
and 40 degrees. The area between 40 degrees and the down-flooding angle can be
found using trapezoidal integration from the GZ values at 40 degrees and at the down-
flooding angle:
Area of a trapezoid Mean

Mea height Length
t
QUESTIONS
Q3.20 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is in her lightship condition. 785 tonnes of cargo is loaded onto the vessel at a
KG of 7.20 m. In this condition, her angle of down-flooding is 54 degrees. Determine if
the vessel meets all of the large angle stability requirements.
Q3.21 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is in her lightship condition. 4,585 tonnes of cargo is loaded onto the vessel at
a KG of 7.10 m. In this condition, her angle of down-flooding is 36 degrees. Determine
if the vessel meets all of the large angle stability requirements.
This process of determining the areas under the GZ curves can be time-consuming, and
it is easy to introduce errors into the calculations. For this reason, the stability data book
for ships often includes ‘simplified stability data’ which shows the maximum allowable
KG at a range of displacements. This is calculated on the basis of working backwards
from all of the stability criteria at each displacement to determine the KG value which
would just cause any one of the criteria to be failed.

How Accurate Is Simpson’s Rule

in Determining the Area under
a GZ Curve?
(MCM, ENG)
As will be discussed later, a generic GZ curve shape can be generated using

Formula 3.9:
GZ = GM ssinθ cosθ
Assuming that a vessel has a GM of 1.00 m, the GZ values would be as given in

Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Angle and GZ
Angle (degrees) GZ (m)
0 0
10 0.17
20 0.32
30 0.43
40 0.49
Simpson’s Rule can be applied to these values to determine the area under the curve
up to 40 degrees ( Table 3.3).
Table 3.3 Simpson’s Rule and GZ
Angle (degrees) GZ (m) Simpson’s Multiplier Area (product)
0 0 1 0
10 0.17 4 0.68
20 0.32 2 0.64
30 0.43 4 1.72
40 0.49 1 0.49
Total 3.53

Spacing
p g 10
Area = × Σ Area product = × 3.53 = 11
11.7667 m degrees
3 3
11.7667
= 0.2054 m radians
57.3
Increasing the number of measuring points should theoretically increase the accuracy
of Simpson’s Rule. Table 3.4 shows the number of measuring points and the resulting
calculated area. As can be seen, increasing the number of points has little overall effect
on the calculated area values.
Table 3.4 Variation in area with number of measuring points
Number of measuring points Area (m radians)
3 0.2059
5 0.2054
9 0.2062
11 0.2059
21 0.2054
41 0.2060
X For a mathematical proof of how the area under the curve can be directly
calculated, please see Appendix 20: The Direct Calculation of the Area under
a Generic GZ Curve.
Using the directly calculated value, the values in Table 3.4 can be used to determine the
percentage error in area using Simpson’s Rule at varying degrees of resolution ( Table 3.5).
Table 3.5 Accuracy of Simpson’s Rule
Number of measuring Area by Simpson’s Accuracy (%)

points Rule (m radians)
3 0.2059 100
5 0.2054 99
9 0.2062 100
11 0.2059 100
21 0.2054 99
41 0.206 100

The accuracy of Simpson’s Rule will reduce as the curvature between the measuring
points increases. Consider the curve shown in Figure 3.47. While this is a very
extreme example of a curve, it does illustrate the concept. The accurate use of
Simpson’s Rule assumes that there is a smooth curve between the measuring points.
If Simpson’s Rule were used with the minimum of only 3 measuring points, as shown
14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.47 Accuracy and curvature
14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.48 3 measuring points

in Figure 3.48, then the assumed curve (dashed line) and the actual curve (solid line)
can be seen to be different. As the number of measuring points are increased, then
the assumed line can be seen to be closer to the actual line, as shown in Figures 3.49
to 3.54.
14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)

14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)

14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
14
12
10
8
GZ (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)

In a similar way to the generic GZ curve shown in Table 3.5, the area under these can
be calculated using Simpson’s Rule and compared to the actual value determined from
integration. This gives the following values (note that the error at 41 points is due to
rounding in the tabular Simpson’s Rule calculation) for accuracy ( Table 3.6).
Table 3.6 Accuracy of Simpson’s Rule (less even curve shape)
Number of measuring Area by Simpson’s Accuracy (%)

points Rule (m radians)
3 3.939 94.0
5 4.297 102.5
7 3.946 94.2
9 4.139 98.8
11 4.119 98.3
21 4.209 100.5
41 4.208 100.4
Approximating GZ at Larger Angles

(MCM, ENG)
So far we have seen that GZ can be found using the cross curves of stability, and at
small angles can be approximated using:
GZ = GM sinθ
The cross curves of stability should be available – but to double check values, or for
small angles where approximations are acceptable, GZ can be estimated.
For older designs of rounded hull forms, this often overestimates the GZ value as angles
increase, with the error growing as angles increase. Therefore, it is often modified by a
cosine term to try and reduce the error, giving:
GZ = GM si
i θ cosθ
sin
▲ Formula 3.9 GZ approximation

However, the accuracy of Formula 3.9 at anything more than small angles is questionable
and this should be used with extreme caution. For vessels which have vertical sides,
GZ can be estimated up to the angle of DEI using a formula known as the ‘wall-sided
formula’:
⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sin
i θ GM + tan2 θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
▲ Formula 3.10 The wall-sided formula
The wall-sided formula can be considered as accurate for most vessels at small angles
of heel, and is theoretically accurate up to angles of DEI or keel emergence for wall-
sided vessels. Figure 3.55 shows the actual GZ against that predicted by the various
methods for MV Reed.
X For a derivation of the wall-sided formula, see Appendix 21: The Derivation
of the Wall-Sided Formula for Approximating the Righting Lever.
1.5
Actual GZ
GM sin θ
GM sin θ cos θ
1
Wall-sided formula
GZ (m)
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.55 Approximate GZ curves

QUESTIONS
Q3.22 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 40 m, a beam of 7 m and a draught of 3 m. Determine
GZ at 5, 10 and 15 degrees of heel if KG is 2 m.
Q3.23 (MCM, ENG)

The GZ curve below is for MV Reed at her summer displacement with a metacentric
height of 1.55 m. In steps of 5 degrees, up to 30 degrees, draw onto the curve the GZ
values as predicted by the wall-sided formula.
1.100
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
GZ (m)
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Heel (degrees)
Q3.24 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped barge has a length of 40 m, a beam of 6 m, and floats upright on an even
keel at a draught of 1.00 m in sea water. In this condition, the vessel has a GM of 1.20 m
and a freeboard of 3.00 m.
The vessel has a double bottom tank, 1 m deep, which extends the full beam of the
vessel. The length of the tank is 8 m.
A mass of 40 tonnes is lowered onto the freeboard deck of the vessel, 0.50 m to port of
the centreline. At the same time, the double bottom tank is filled with sea water to an
ullage of 0.8 m.
Using a suitable method, determine the resulting angle of list of the vessel.

Finding the angle of loll using the wall-sided formula (MCM, ENG)
It is the wall-sided formula that allows us to determine the angle of loll of a vessel, as
shown in Formula 2.16. At the angle of loll, the GZ must be zero, as the lines of action
of buoyancy and gravity are aligned. Therefore, Formula 2.16 can be written as:
BM
0 = sinθ((GM + tan2 θ )
2
The right hand side of this equation is made of two sections multiplied together, sinθ
BM 2
and ( ) . For these to be multiplied to get zero, one of them must be equal
2
to zero. We know that the angle of loll, θ, is a real angle, therefore sinθ cannot be zero,
BM 2
therefore ( ) must be equal to zero. This gives:
2
BM
0 = GM + tan2 θ
2
This can be transposed to give:
BM
−GM = tan2 θ
2
−GM × 2 = BM tan2 θ
−GM × 2
= tan2 θ
BM
GM × −2
= tan2 θ
BM
⎛ GM × −2 ⎞
= tanθ
⎝ BM ⎠
It can be seen that this equation gives the same result as Formula 2.16.

Effective GM at the Angle of Loll

(MCM, ENG)
The wall-sided formula can also be used to determine the effective GM of the vessel at
the angle of loll. In order for the vessel to loll, the initial GM must be negative, as shown
in Figure 3.56; however, as the angle of loll is a large angle, the metacentre moves, until
it coincides with the centre of gravity at the angle of loll, as shown in Figure 3.56.
▲ Figure 3.56 Negative metacentric height
G M
Initial M
▲ Figure 3.57 The movement of M at the angle of loll

If a heeling moment is then applied to the vessel, she will incline past the angle of
loll, and the centre of buoyancy will move out further, creating a righting moment
which will try and roll the vessel back to the angle of loll. The metacentre will move
further up above the centre of gravity, and the vessel will effectively have a positive
metacentric height, as shown in Figure 3.58. Note that the initial metacentric height
is still negative, but the metacentre has moved as the angle of loll is almost always a
large angle.
G
M
Initial M
▲ Figure 3.58 Effective GM past the angle of loll
The effective GM at small angles past the angle of loll can be found from the
following:
−2GMI
= GM at the angle of loll
cosθ
▲ Formula 3.11 Effective GM at the angle of loll
X A proof of the formula for the effective metacentric height when lolling can
be seen Appendix 22: The Derivation of the Formula Giving the Effective
Metacentric Height at an Angle of Loll.

QUESTION
Q3.25
MV Reed has a negative metacentric height of 10 cm, and is lolling at 10 degrees.
Determine the effective metacentric height at the angle of loll.
Variations in GZ with Changes in

Freeboard (Including Timber Deck
Cargo)
(MCM, ENG)
As has been seen, the shape of the GZ curve varies depends on a number of factors
including the shape of the vessel. As the freeboard of the vessel increases, and assuming
that KG remains constant, the DEI angle will increase, as shown in Figure 3.59. Therefore,
the point of inflection of the GZ curve occurs at a larger angle, and the resulting change
of gradient means that there is more area under the GZ curve, and hence more dynamic
stability. This is one of the reasons why preserving suitable freeboard is an important
aspect of the Load Line rules.
▲ Figure 3.59 Increasing DEI with increasing freeboard
The resulting GZ curves will be as shown in Figure 3.60.
The vessel with the double line has the greatest freeboard. As the vessel inclines,
the centre of buoyancy of all three vessels will move outboard at the same rate, and

Lower freeboard
1.5
Normal freeboard
Higher freeboard
1
0.5
GZ (m)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.60 Variation in GZ with increasing freeboard
(assuming GM is constant between the three vessels) the GZ values will increase at the
same rate. For the vessel with the larger freeboard, it can also be seen that the point of
inflection, and therefore the DEI angle, is larger, as DEI will occur at a larger angle.
It can be seen from Figure 3.60 that the following occurs as the freeboard INCREASES:
Same initial gradient (due to a constant GM)

Increase in DEI angles (due to extra freeboard)
Increase in GZ values (due to higher DEI angle)
Increase in the area under the curve (due to higher GZ values)
Increase in the angle of vanishing stability (due to higher GZ values)
It is this increase in the large angle stability due to an increase in freeboard which
enables vessels with a timber deck cargo to sail with smaller GM values, as the vessel
will have greater stability at larger angles. The timber deck cargo, which is buoyant, is
considered to add additional freeboard to the vessel. This is accounted for in special
KN curves for these vessels, which assume 75% of the timber volume contributes to
buoyancy. The effect of this for MV Reed is shown in Figure 3.61, where the two GZ
curves show the vessel at an identical GM and displacement, but with and without the
buoyancy effects of a timber deck cargo. The vessel may only sail with a reduced GM
(see the section on small angle stability) if she meets the area requirements for the GZ
curve created using these adjusted KN values.

0.75
0.5 Main DEI angle
0.25
GZ (m)
0 Without
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 With
–0.25
–0.5
–0.75
–1
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.61 The effect of timber deck cargo on GZ
Figure 3.62 shows the GZ curves for MV Reed at a draught of 7.00 m (the summer
draught) and 8.00 m (overloaded by 1 m). Both conditions have been loaded so that the
initial stability is the same (using the minimum allowable GM at the summer draught).
The solid line shows the summer condition, and the dashed line shows the overloaded
condition. For an increase in displacement of 19%, the area under the GZ curve up to
40 degrees has been reduced by 61%.
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
GZ (m)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.62 Summer and overloaded GZ curves

Changes in GZ with Variations in Beam

(MCM, ENG)
The beam of a vessel also has an influence on the stability of the vessel, and therefore
the shape of the GZ curve. As the beam of a vessel increases, the BM, and hence GM,
also increases. Therefore, for a similar KG value, the initial slope will be greater if the
beam is larger. However, an increase in beam actually reduces the DEI angle, as shown
in the cross-section sketches in Figure 3.63. Therefore, the point of inflection on the
graph will occur at a smaller angle.
▲ Figure 3.63 Reducing DEI with increasing beam
The resulting GZ curves will be as shown in Figure 3.64.
The vessel with the double line has the greatest beam. As the vessel inclines, the centre
of buoyancy will move outboard faster, and hence the GZ value will increase quicker
if the beam is larger. For the vessel with the larger beam, it can also be seen that the
point of inflection, and therefore the DEI angle, is lower, as DEI will occur at a smaller
angle.
It can be seen from Figure 3.64 that the following occurs as the beam increases:
Larger initial gradient (due to a greater GM)

Reduction in DEI angles (due to extra beam)
Increase in GZ values (due to higher GM and wider beam)
Increase in the area under the curve (due to higher GZ values)
No variation in the angle of vanishing stability (due to constant vessel depth)

2
Narrow beam
Wider beam
1.5
Normalbeam
1
GZ (m)
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
–0.5
–1
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.64 Variations in GZ with increasing beam
Changes in GZ with Symmetrical Ice

Accretion
(MCM, ENG)
In extremes of cold weather, it is possible for water to freeze to the hull, decks,
superstructure and rigging of the vessel in large quantities. This can have a problematic
effect on the stability of the vessel. The addition of the ice increases the displacement
of the vessel, and hence reduces the freeboard of the vessel. As seen previously, a
reduction in the freeboard reduces the DEI angle. The ice is also invariably formed above
the centre of gravity of the vessel, and therefore raises the centre of gravity, reducing the
metacentric height (and hence initial slope) and GZ values, also as seen previously.
The precise calculation of icing and centres of mass of ice is complex. Part 8 of the MCA’s
Guidelines for Surveyors (Maritime and Coastguard Agency) stipulate an assumed icing
of 30 kg/m2 on all exposed horizontal surfaces, and 15 kg/m2 on the exposed vertical
surfaces on one side of the ship. For wires, rails, booms and rigging, the weight of the
ice on lateral areas should be increased by 5% to account for icing on the rigging, and
the moment in the loading table increased by 10%. The KG values should be calculated
based on the vertical position of each surface.

Figure 3.65 shows the GZ curves for MV Reed before and after ice accretion. The initial
displacement used was the summer displacement, with a KG at the maximum permitted
to meet the requirements of the SOLAS criteria applicable to all ships. 200 tonnes of ice was
then added at a KG of 12 m to simulate ice accretion over the deck and superstructure.
0.4
0.3
Before
After
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 DEI 30 40 50 60 70
– 0.1
– 0.2
– 0.3
– 0.4
▲ Figure 3.65 GZ curve and ice accretion
It can be seen from Figure 3.65 that the following occurs as a result of symmetrical ice
accretion:
Smaller initial gradient (due to a smaller GM)

Reduction in DEI angles (due to a reduction in freeboard)
Reduction in GZ values (due to lower GM and reduced freeboard)
Reduction in the area under the curve (due to lower GZ values)
Reduction in the angle of vanishing stability (due to lower GZ values)
Changes in GZ with Asymmetric Ice

Accretion
(MCM, ENG)
When ice accretion occurs, it is rarely evenly across the vessel. The direction of the
apparent wind will result in a greater build-up of ice on one side of the vessel. This

results in a similar set of changes to the symmetrical case, but in addition, the centre of
gravity of the vessel moves towards the ice accretion, resulting in a further reduction
in GZ values and an angle of list. Figure 3.66 shows the same scenario as in Figure 3.65,
but with the ice centred 2.00 m off of the centreline.
0.4
0.3
Before
After
0.2
0.1
GZ (m)
0
0 10 20 DEI 30 40 50 60 70
– 0.1
– 0.2
– 0.3
– 0.4
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.66 GZ curve and asymmetric ice accretion
It can be seen from Figure 3.66 that the following occurs as a result of asymmetrical ice
accretion:
Smaller initial gradient (due to a smaller GM)

Reduction in DEI angles (due to a reduction in freeboard)
Reduction in GZ values (due to lower GM and reduced freeboard)
Initial negative GZ values and an angle of list (due to the centre of gravity moving
off of the ship’s centreline)
Reduction in the area under the curve (due to lower GZ values)
Reduction in the angle of vanishing stability (due to lower GZ values)
Changes in GZ with Changes in Trim

(MCM, ENG)
As a vessel trims, the waterplane area will vary. For some ships, this difference is very
small, but for vessels with large overhanging sterns and large bow flare, such as offshore

supply vessels, or container ships, the change in trim can have a large effect on the
waterplane area. For these vessels, the typical hull shape results in a widening of the
waterplane area with stern trim, as shown in Figures 3.67 and 3.68. The result of this is
an increase (for stern trim) or a decrease (for bow trim) of the transverse waterplane
inertia, and hence an increase (for stern trim) or a decrease (for bow trim) in the BM. This
has a corresponding increase (for stern trim) or a decrease (for bow trim) in the GM, and
the slope of the GZ curve.
Even keel
Stern trim
Bow trim
▲ Figure 3.67 Underwater volume shape with trim
▲ Figure 3.68 Waterplane area for stern trim (top), zero trim (middle) and bow trim (bottom)
Figure 3.69 shows the GZ curves for MV Reed at her load displacement and maximum
KG, for 1 m of stern trim, an even keel, and 1 m of head trim. It can be seen that in the

0.4
0.3 1 m stern trim

Even keel
0.2 1 m bow trim
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
– 0.1
– 0.2
– 0.3
– 0.4
▲ Figure 3.69 Variation in GZ with trim
case of stern trim, the initial gradient is steeper, and GZ values are increased, and in the
case of bow trim, the initial gradient is shallower and GZ values are reduced.
Changes in GZ with FSE

(MCM, ENG)
The effects of free surfaces have already been discussed in relation to small angle
stability. However, at large angles, the effects of free surfaces must be considered. As
the vessel inclines to large angles, the shape of the free surface in the tank changes
considerably, which changes the influence of the FSE on the stability of the vessel.
This calculation is complex, and therefore not routinely undertaken. Instead, GZ values
are calculated based on the effective of fluid KG. The effect of this on GZ is shown in
Figure 3.70, for MV Reed in a condition where all of the Nos 2, 3 and 4 Double Bottom
tanks are filled to a sounding of 1.00 m to create a large FSE. The dashed-dot line shows
the GZ values ignoring any FSEs, and the dashed line shows the GZ values using the
FSM data from the tank hydrostatics to determine the effective KG, and then GZ. The
solid line shows the GZ values based on the simulation of fluid moving in the tanks at
each angle of heel, and is therefore the most accurate calculation of the FSE. As can be
seen, the use of the tank data to determine the effective KG and therefore GZ gives the

1.4
Tank FSM
1.2 Fluid simulation
1 No FSM
0.8
0.6
0.4
GZ (m)
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
–0.2
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.70 The effect of free surfaces on GZ
most pessimistic, and therefore safest, GZ values. The actual movement of the fluid as
the vessel inclines to large angles results in slightly larger GZ values; therefore, the use
of the effective KG value is a safe assumption.
Fixed and Free to Trim Curves

(MCM, ENG)
As the vessel rolls, she may also change her trim. Figure 3.71 shows the trim of a
container ship, initially on an even keel, as the vessel rolls.
This change in trim is because the underwater shape changes significantly as she
rolls, mainly as a result of large stern overhangs and large bow flare. This makes the
centre of buoyancy move forward or aft, and hence a trimming moment is generated.
Historically, this movement in B was excessively time-consuming to calculate, so the
trim was assumed to be fixed. Older stability books will give cross curves and large
angle stability information assuming that the trim was fixed. The introduction of more
computer processing power over the past few decades has allowed the effects of trim
to be included in the curves. These are known as ‘free to trim’ curves. Figure 3.72 shows
a GZ curve for a container ship, with the trim fixed, and also with the vessel free to
trim.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
–1
–2
Trim (m)
–3
–4
–5
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.71 Change in trim of a container ship with list
0.4
0.3
Free to trim
Fixed trim
0.2
0.1
GZ (m)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–0.1
–0.2
–0.3
–0.4
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.72 Fixed and free to trim curves for a container ship
As can be seen, there is little difference in the values for this ship, especially in the initial
values and the angle of vanishing stability. However, for vessels with high freeboard
forward, such as offshore supply vessels, the change in trim during heeling is large (see
Figure 3.73), and therefore the difference in the GZ curves is significant.

10
6
Trim (m)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–1
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.73 Change in trim of an OSV with list
Figure 3.74 shows the fixed and free GZ curves for an offshore supply vessel. As can
be seen, there is a large difference in the GZ values at larger angles of heel. A certain
amount of cynicism must be used if fixed trim information is used to create GZ curves
for vessels with large freeboard forward.
0.4
0.3
Free to trim
Fixed
trim
0.2
0.1
GZ (m)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–0.1
–0.2
–0.3
–0.4
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.74 Fixed and free to trim curves for an OSV

GZ Curves for Vessels with Large

Freeboards and Small Draughts
(MCM, ENG)
For normally proportioned vessels loaded towards the maximum displacement, the
draught will be larger than the freeboard. However, for some vessels, such as small
ferries, the freeboard may be significantly larger than the draught, with a wide beam. In
these circumstances, as the vessel heels, the keel may emerge from the water before the
deck immerses in the water. In this situation, the point of inflection of the curve does
not give the DEI angle. Figure 3.75 shows the GZ curve for a vessel with a freeboard of
12 m, and a draught of 8 m, with a beam of 25 m. Although the curve looks similar to
those seen previously, the keel of the vessel emerges from the water at 30 degrees of
heel, with the deck edge immersing at 45 degrees.
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
GZ (m)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
–0.2
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
Angle (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.75 GZ curve for a shallow draught vessel

GZ Curves for Vessels Showing Port and

Starboard Angles
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Overview (OOW, MCM, ENG)
In general GZ curves or righting moment curves only show the inclination of the vessel
in one direction, normally using the positive x axis to show either port or starboard.
However, sometimes it may be necessary to show both port and starboard on one GZ
curve. In this case, the GZ curve is shown, but with a significant change to the direction
of the values on one side of the curve.
Consider the vessel in Figure 3.76, heeled to port at 20 degrees. The positive GZ value
of approximately 0.22 m would indicate that the vessel is trying to right itself. In this
context, a righting moment is acting to roll the vessel back in a starboard direction, and
hence back towards upright – therefore looking at the vessel from ahead, an observer
would see this righting moment acting in a counter-clockwise direction. If the righting
moment were to be calculated, there would be a positive GZ multiplied by a positive
displacement to give a positive righting moment. Now consider the vessel in Figure 3.76,
heeled to starboard at 20 degrees. If the GZ curve were simply a mirror image around the
y axis, as shown, then the positive GZ value of approximately 0.22 m to starboard would
indicate that the vessel is trying to right itself. In this context, the righting moment is
acting to roll the vessel back in a port direction, and hence back towards upright – if an
observer were looking at the vessel from ahead, they would see this righting moment
acting in a clockwise direction. As before, if the righting moment were to be calculated,
there would be a positive GZ multiplied by a positive displacement to give a positive
righting moment. This causes problems from the point of view of a sign convention
for the moments, as there would be two positive GZ values at opposite angles, each
creating a positive righting moment, but which act in opposite directions – for example,
when heeled to port, the righting moment acts counter-clockwise to starboard, and
when heeled to starboard, the righting moment acts clockwise to port. While the GZ
values make sense, this can cause problems with the righting moments, as there is now
no clear reference to indicate which way the moment is acting.
To overcome this problem of the sign convention for the righting moments, the GZ
curve is plotted with a GZ causing a righting moment as positive on one side, and a
GZ causing a righting moment as negative on the other side, as shown in Figure 3.77.

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
–90 –80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
GZ (m)
–0.2
Stb Port
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
–1
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.76 Simplified GZ to port and starboard
This means that when heeling to both sides is considered, the previous GZ convention
which said that positive GZ was a righting lever, and negative GZ was a capsizing lever
needs adjusting when heeling to the opposite direction.
Consider the vessel in Figure 3.77, heeled to port at 20 degrees. The positive GZ value
of approximately 0.22 m would indicate that the vessel is trying to right itself. In this
context, a righting moment is acting to roll the vessel back in a starboard direction, and
hence back towards upright – if an observer were looking at the vessel from ahead,
they would see this righting moment acting in a counter-clockwise direction. As before,
if the righting moment were calculated, there would be a positive GZ multiplied by
a positive displacement to give a positive righting moment. Now consider the vessel
in Figure 3.77, heeled to starboard at 20 degrees. Now that the GZ curve have been
adjusted as described, the negative GZ value of approximately –0.22 m to starboard
would now still indicate that the vessel is trying to right itself. In this context, the
righting moment is acting to roll the vessel back in a port direction, and hence back
towards upright – if an observer were looking at the vessel from ahead, they would
see this righting moment acting in a clockwise direction. If the righting moment were
calculated, there would be a negative GZ multiplied by a positive displacement to give
a negative righting moment. While the righting moment when heeled to port was
positive, the righting moment when heeled to starboard is negative. This indicates that
the righting moments are acting in opposite directions, which must be correct as they
are both acting to roll the vessel upright.

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
GZ (m)
Stb Port
0
–90 –80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.2
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
–1
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.77 GZ to port and starboard
This shows that the GZ sign convention must be changed from the initial one where
positive GZ was a righting lever and negative GZ was a capsizing lever. The new sign
convention is that GZ values in the upper right and lower left quadrants are righting
levers, and GZ values in the upper left and lower right quadrants are capsizing moments,
as shown in Figure 3.78.
0.8
0.6
Capsizing levers Righting levers
0.4
0.2
GZ (m)
Stb Port
0
– 90 – 80 – 70 – 60 – 50 – 40 – 30 – 20 – 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
– 0.2
– 0.4
Capsizing levers
Righting levers
– 0.6
– 0.8
–1
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.78 Sign convention for righting GZ values to port and starboard

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
GZ (m)
Stb Port
0
–90 –80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.2
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
–1
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.79 GZ to port and starboard for a vessel with port list
This process can be applied to all of the types of GZ curve that have been seen previously,
as shown in Figure 3.79.
This would occur if the TCG was to port of the centreline, causing a list to port of 22 degrees.
At any angle of inclination between 68 degrees to starboard, and 0 degrees, the negative
GZ values indicate that the vessel will try and roll back towards the upright position of
0 degrees. At any angle of inclination between 0 degrees and 22 degrees to port, the
negative GZ values indicate that the vessel will try and roll further towards the list angle of
22 degrees. For any angle between 22 degrees to port and 59 degrees to port, the positive
GZ values indicate that the vessel will try and roll back to the list angle of 22 degrees.
Again, the process works for an angle of loll, as shown in Figure 3.80, and for a vessel
with combined list and loll, as shown in Figure 3.81.
Effects on GZ approximation and dynamic stability (MCM, ENG)
Initially this seems confusing, however, as the angles to the left of the graph, or
starboard, are negative, and the angles to the right, or port, are positive, this new
convention starts to make sense when calculating other aspects of large angle stability.
For example, consider the wall-sided formula. If we were calculating the GZ values at an
angle θ to port, the angle θ would be positive, therefore giving a positive sinθ term and
a positive tan2θ term, and so we would get a positive GZ for a stable vessel. However,

1.5
0.5
GZ (m)
Stb Port
0
–90 –80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.80 GZ to port and starboard for a vessel with negative GM and an angle of loll
1.5
0.5
GZ (m)
Stb Port
0
–90 –80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.81 GZ to port and starboard for a vessel with a combined angle of list and loll
if we were calculating the GZ values at an angle θ to starboard, the angle θ would be

negative, therefore giving a negative sinθ term and a positive tan2θ term, and so we
would get a negative GZ for a stable vessel.
This sign convention also works for the area under the GZ curve. Consider the area
under the GZ curve in the upper right quadrant. The positive GZ, multiplied by a
positive angle, gives a positive area, indicating that the vessel can ‘absorb’ energy. In the
lower left quadrant, the negative GZ, multiplied by a negative angle, gives a positive
area, again indicating that the vessel can ‘absorb’ energy. In the top left and bottom
right quadrants, the multiplication of GZ and angle will always result in negative areas,
indicating that the vessel cannot absorb further energy.

Heeling under the Effect of Wind

(MCM, ENG)
A vessel which heels due to the wind will be in equilibrium when the heeling moment
is equal to the righting moment. The heeling moment due to wind is made up of the
force of the wind acting to rotate the vessel. The force of the wind, abbreviated to ‘F’,
acts through a lever ‘L’. L is the vertical distance from the centre of the exposed lateral
area, ‘A’, to the half draught, as shown in Figure 3.82.
▲ Figure 3.82 Wind heeling moment definitions
The force, F, is found from the wind pressure multiplied by the exposed lateral area.
Values of wind pressure against wind speed are shown in Figure 3.83.
140.00
130.00
120.00
110.00
100.00
Wind pressure (kg/m2)
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Wind speed (knots)
▲ Figure 3.83 Wind speed and wind pressure

The force F is then multiplied by the lever L, which gives the heeling moment caused
by the wind. Therefore:
Wind heeling
ee g moment Win
W dp essu e × Lateral
pressure ate a area Lever × cosθ
Note that the cosθ term comes from the reduction in L as the vessel heels – see Figure 3.45
for details. If this is plotted on top of the righting moment curve, then the point where the
curves first intersect gives the point where the heeling moment and righting moment
are in equilibrium, and therefore gives the heel angle due to the wind (see Figure 3.44 for
details). We have previously seen that the wind heeling moment reduces as the vessel
heels; however, by assuming that it remains constant we can simplify the process. This is
valid as the assumption is a ‘worst-case’ scenario and will overestimate the resulting heel
angle, and allows us to ignore the cosθ term to simplify the process.
QUESTION
Q3.26 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is loaded to a displacement of 4,600 tonnes, with a KG of 6.74 m. She has an
exposed lateral area of 617 m2, with a wind heeling lever of 5.17 m. By plotting the
righting moment in steps of 5 degrees to 20 degrees, determine the angle of heel that
would result from a beam wind of 75 knots.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Heel (degrees)

Chapter 3 of the IS Code 2008 includes recommended criteria for ensuring stability
in severe wind and weather. For UK flagged ships, the MCA has similar, but slightly
simplified guidelines specific for container ships, where the height from the load
waterline to the top of the container stacks is more than 30% of the beam. These are
detailed in the MCA’s Guidance to Surveyors (Maritime and Coastguard Agency).
These MCA guidelines assume the vessel is already loaded to her worst case for stability.
The lateral windage area is assumed to be subjected to a steady wind load of 48.5 kg/m2
(which is approximately equal to Beaufort force 10). The heeling moment created by
the wind is given by:
λ 0 = Steady wind load × Lateral w

windage area × Lever
indage
This is superimposed over the righting moment curve for the vessel in the worst
possible loading condition. The resulting angle of heel, given by the intersection of
the curve and the λ0 line is known as θ1. This should be less that 65% of the DEI angle.
The heeling moment due to wind is then increased by 50%, to account for gusts, and
the vessel is rolled 15 degrees into the wind. The area between the GZ curve and the
increased heeling moment line to this 15 degree back roll is known as S1, and is shown
in Figure 3.84. This area represents the energy which would be ‘stored’ in the vessel as
she rolls under the effect of wind and waves. A vertical line is then drawn on the curve
so that the area S2 is equal to S1. The point of intersection of this line with the x axis is
known as θdy , and can be considered to be the worst-case heel angle. This should be
less than the down-flooding angle of the vessel.
15°
S2
1.5λ0
S1
λ0
θ1 θ dy
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.84 Wind heeling moments

Typically the angle θ1 will be less than 15 degrees; therefore the area S1 will also include
area to the left of the y axis. In this case, the GZ curve should be mirrored, as explained
previously. This is shown in Figure 3.85.
15°
S2
1.5λ0
S1 λ0
θ1 θ dy
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.85 Wind heeling moments to port and starboard
Grain Regulations
(MCM)
The loading and carriage of grain (along with wheat, maize, rye, barley, rice, pulses and
seeds which behave in bulk in a similar manner to grain) differs from the usual rules
and regulations for stability. Grain cargoes are particularly prone to shifting with ship
motion. This can have problematic effects on the metacentric height and the large
angle stability of the vessel, as shown previously in the section covering cargo shifts.
The exact movement of the grain is subject to a large amount of research, and is an
extremely complicated problem which we will not attempt to model. To ensure safe
carriage, we have a simplistic set of rules to follow which allow us to ensure the loading
pattern is safe. These rules use a simple, ‘worst-case’ approach to analyse the effect of
the cargo distribution on the stability. They are detailed in the International Code for the
Safe Carriage of Grain in Bulk (International Maritime Organisation, 1991), known as the
International Grain Code.

During the voyage, it is assumed that:
The grain settles, reducing the initial volume and opening a void in the hold above
the cargo, allowing a transverse shift in mass.
At angles of heel of less than 30 degrees, a void appears at the top of the grain. This
allows the grain, and the centre of mass of the grain, to shift transversely.
In all circumstances an average 0.15 m deep void is assumed to exist at the top of
the grain.
Grain compartments which are initially fully loaded are assumed to have a maximum
surface slope of 15 degrees.
Grain compartments which are initially partially loaded are assumed to have a
maximum surface slope of 25 degrees.
The capacity and details of each space used for grain will be tabulated in the ships data
in a similar way to tank data, and these can be used in a similar manner to determine the
mass and KG of the grain cargo. A normal loading table can then be used to determine
the loaded KG, and hence GM, of the vessel. The grain regulations require that a vessel
carrying a grain cargo has a minimum GM of 0.30 m or 30 cm – double the normal
requirement. Before sailing the Master must also ensure that the ship is upright.
In addition to the normal hold data, there will be a ‘volumetric heeling moment’ or
‘horizontal heeling moment’ column. This lists, for any ullage of grain, the capacity
of the grain hold and the worst-case volume shift of grain cargo, based on the above
assumptions. This volumetric heeling moment gives the equivalent volume of grain that
would move sideways in the event of a cargo shift. For example, a volumetric heeling
moment of 100 m4 would be the equivalent of 100 m3 of grain moving 1 m sideways,
or 50 m3 of grain moving 2 m sideways, or 25 m3 of grain moving 4 m sideways, or even
10 m3 moving 10 m sideways. Each of these shifts would generate the same heeling
moment.
The grain mass can be found from the capacity and the stowage factor.
Grain volum
v e
Grain mass =
Stowag
w e ffactor
▲ Formula 3.12 Grain mass
From the volumetric heeling moment, the actual mass heeling moment can be found
by dividing the volumetric moment by the stowage factor of the grain.

Volumetric heeling
ee g moment
ass heeling moment =
Grain mass
Stowag
w e factor
▲ Formula 3.13 Grain mass heeling moment
QUESTION
Q3.27 (MCM)
MV Reed is loaded with grain to a sounding of 4.00 m. The stowage factor of the grain is
1.40 m3/t. Determine the mass and the mass heeling moment of the grain.
Summing up all of the mass heeling moments together gives the overall worst-case
heeling moment in the event of a grain cargo shift. This can be used to determine the
list in the event of a cargo shift. The grain regulations state that the maximum allowable
list in the event of a grain cargo shift is lesser of 12 degrees or the DEI angle.
Dividing the total mass heeling moments by the overall mass displacement gives a
value called the grain heeling arm, known as λ0, which has units of metres.
Total mass
ass heeling moment
λ0 =
Δ
▲ Formula 3.14 Grain heeling arm at zero degrees
On the GZ curve (shown in Figure 3.86) of the vessel, a line, known as the grain heeling
line is drawn between the λ0 point on the x axis, and a new point, λ40, which is at
40 degrees on the GZ curve, at a value of 80% of λ0.
λ 40 = λ 0 × 0 8
▲ Formula 3.15 Grain heeling arm at 40 degrees
The residual area (see Figure 3.85) between this line and the GZ curve up to 40 degrees
(or the peak GZ, or the down-flooding angle, whichever is least) must not be less than
0.075 m radians. Cross curves of stability are provided to the master for 12 degrees and
40 degrees to enable these GZ calculations.

0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
GZ (m)
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.86 Grain regulation residual area
Determining the shaded area requires a mix of Simpson’s Rule, and calculating the area
of a triangle.
To determine the residual area, Simpsons’ Rule must first be used to determine the
overall area under the curve between 0 and 40 degrees, or the down-flooding angle.
The area bounded by the GZ curve and the grain heeling arm, as shown in Figure 3.86,
can be found by approximating the area to a triangle and trapezoid, with the split at
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
GZ (m)
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 3.87 Area under the grain heeling line and the GZ curve

the intersection. This area can be subtracted from the area found by Simpson’s Rule to
leave the residual area.
Although this approximates the GZ curve to a straight line up to the list angle, the
resulting error is small, and will generally result in the residual area being larger than
that which is calculated.
QUESTION
Q3.28 (MCM)
MV Reed starts loading from the lightship condition. The following loading takes
place:
Both bunkers are pressed with fuel, relative density 0.960

Both No. 2 Double Bottom Tanks are filled to a sounding of 1.00 m with sea water
ballast
The grain hold is filled to a sounding of 5.00 m with grain, stowage factor 1.45 m3/t
After loading the above, determine GM and plot the GZ curve (in 5 degree steps up
to 40 degrees) for the vessel, and hence determine the ability of the vessel to meet
all of the requirements of the grain regulations (including pre-1994 and post-1994
criteria).
In order to simplify the whole procedure, tables of maximum allowable mass heeling
moments may be supplied to the ship, as shown in the sample stability data for MV
Reed. These are the maximum mass heeling moments at given ship KG values and
displacements that would just meet the GZ curve and list requirements (which will vary
with the age of the vessel). To ensure that the vessel complies with the GZ curve and list
requirements of the grain regulations, all that is necessary is to check the actual mass
heeling moment against the maximum allowable mass heeling moment. GM must still
be calculated and checked separately. In the event of a grain shift, the heel angle can
be estimated from:
Actual mass
ass heeling moment
Approximate list = 12 ×
Allowable
l masss heeling moment
▲ Formula 3.16 Approximate list due to grain shift

QUESTIONS
Q3.29 (MCM)
MV Reed has a displacement of 4,050 tonnes, with a KG of 5.35 m. The grain mass
heeling moment after loading is 1,550 tonne metres. Using the tables of maximum
allowable grain mass heeling moment, determine the ability of the vessel to pass the
list and residual area requirements of the grain regulations.
Q3.30 (MCM)
Q3.31 (MCM)
Q3.32 (MCM)
MV Reed has a displacement of 7,100 tonnes, with a KG of 6.74 m. The grain mass heeling
moment after loading is 400 tonne metres. Using the tables of maximum allowable
grain mass heeling moment, determine the ability of the vessel to pass the list and
residual area requirements of the grain regulations.
Q3.33 (MCM)
MV Reed loads from the lightship condition. The port and starboard bunkers are each
pressed with 120.22 tonnes of fuel, with a KG of 7.81 m. The grain hold is filled to a
sounding of 6.00 m with grain, stowage factor 1.38 m3/t.
Determine if the vessel meets the GZ curve and list requirements of the grain
regulations using the maximum allowable grain heeling moment data, and find the
approximate list angle in the event of a grain cargo shift.

LARGE ANGLE STABILITY  LEARNING CHECKLIST
Understand how the centre of buoyancy moves at OOW, MCM, ENG

large angles
Understand how a righting moment or capsizing OOW, MCM, ENG
moment may be generated
Understand what is meant by the terms GZ, righting OOW, MCM, ENG
lever, righting arm, statical stability or lever of statical
stability
Understand the significance of positive and negative OOW, MCM, ENG
GZ values
Understand the meaning of KN, and determine KN at OOW, MCM, ENG
any angle or displacement using the hydrostatics
Calculate GZ for any angle or displacement using the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatics
Plot a GZ curve OOW, MCM, ENG
Determine the range of stability OOW, MCM, ENG
Determine, and know the importance of, the angle of OOW, MCM, ENG
vanishing stability
Compare the peak value of the GZ against the current OOW, MCM, ENG
regulations
Calculate GZ at small angles using the metacentric OOW, MCM, ENG
height
Determine GM from the GZ curve OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand the accuracy of GZ at angles where cargo OOW, MCM, ENG
shifts and down-flooding may occur
Determine the down-flooding angle using the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatics, and comment on the accuracy of
calculated down-flooding angles
Understand how changes in KG influence the GZ OOW, MCM, ENG
curve
Correct GZ values for a change in KG at a constant MCM, ENG
displacement
Understand how the TCG influences the GZ curve OOW, MCM, ENG

Identify a vessel which is listing from the shape of the OOW, MCM, ENG
GZ curve
Correct GZ values for the TCG MCM, ENG
Determine the angle of list at large angles using the OOW, MCM, ENG
corrected GZ curve
Correct GZ for a cargo shift or change in cargo MCM, ENG
position
Identify a vessel which is lolling from the shape of the OOW, MCM, ENG
GZ curve
Determine the angle of loll from a GZ curve OOW, MCM, ENG
Identify a vessel which is initially neutrally stable from OOW, MCM, ENG
the shape of the GZ curve
Identify a vessel which is both listing and lolling from OOW, MCM, ENG
Determine the combined angle of list and loll from OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand the process by which a vessel must be OOW, MCM, ENG
recovered from an angle of loll
Calculate and plot the GZ at stages of loll recovery to MCM, ENG
ensure that a vessel can be safely recovered
Determine the DEI angle using the GZ curve OOW, MCM, ENG
Calculate the moment of statical stability or righting OOW, MCM, ENG
moment
Plot the moment of statical stability or righting OOW, MCM, ENG
moment curve
Use the righting moment curve to determine the list MCM, ENG
angle by correcting the righting moment values
Use the righting moment curve to determine the list MCM, ENG
angle by superimposing the heeling moment values
Use the GZ curve to determine the list angle by MCM, ENG
superimposing the heeling arm values
Understand what is meant by dynamic stability OOW, MCM, ENG
and understand the importance of the area under a
righting moment or GZ curve

Calculate the dynamic stability of ship in tonne metre MCM, ENG

degrees and tonne metre radians
Calculate the areas under GZ curves and compare MCM, ENG
them against the current regulations
Correct the areas under GZ curves for down-flooding, MCM, ENG
and compare them against the current regulations
Understand the accuracy of Simpson’s Rule and MCM, ENG
ensure that they are suitably used for the shape of the
curve
Calculate approximate GZ values at larger angles, and MCM, ENG
comment on the accuracy of the approximation
Determine the approximate angle of loll using the MCM, ENG
wall-sided formula
Determine the effective GM at the angle of loll MCM, ENG
Understand how the freeboard affects GZ values and MCM, ENG
curves
Understand how the beam affects GZ values and MCM, ENG
curves
Understand how the symmetrical and asymmetrical MCM, ENG
ice accretion affects GZ values and curves
Understand how GZ changes with trim MCM, ENG
Understand how FSE influences GZ MCM, ENG
Understand the differences between free to trim and MCM, ENG
fixed to trim GZ curves
Understand how wind heels ship, and determine the MCM, ENG
heel angle under a beam wind
Understand and explain the current MCM, ENG
recommendations for ships and wind heeling
Understand synchronous and parametric roll, and MCM, ENG
actions to be taken to avoid them
Understand and explain the link between stability OOW, MCM, ENG
and roll period
Understand and explain the problems associated MCM
with the carriage of grain or similar cargoes

Understand the assumptions and cargo shift model MCM

upon which the grain regulations are based
Determine the ability of a vessel to meet MCM
requirements of the grain regulations by plotting the
GZ curve and determining the residual stability
Determine the ability of a vessel to meet MCM
requirements of the grain regulations by using
the maximum grain heeling moment tables, and
determine the approximate list angle in the event of a
grain cargo shift

4
LONGITUDINAL
STABILITY – FORE
AND AFT BALANCE
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Understand the concept of longitudinal metacentric height

Understand why the longitudinal metacentric height can normally be assumed to be
constant
Calculate the longitudinal metacentric height for a box shaped vessel
Understand what is meant by the terms trim, stern trim and bow trim
Understand what is meant by the MCTC
Calculate the MCTC for a box shaped vessel
Determine the MCTC from hydrostatic data
Understand the units of MCTC
Calculate the trim of a ship
Calculate the trim of a box shaped vessel
Calculate the approximate change in trim for small changes in loading
Understand the four positions at which the draught is measured, and the associated
terminology
Understand what is meant by the LCF, and the importance of the LCF in trimming the ship
Determine the mean draught from the end draughts
Determine the true mean draught from the hydrostatics
Calculate the end draughts of the vessel
9781408176122_Ch04_Final_txt_print.indd 174 12/4/2013 8:08:29 PM

Longitudinal Stability • 175
The stability of a vessel in the fore and aft sense is measured in a similar way to the
transverse method. As previously seen, in a longitudinal sense, the buoyancy forces act
at the longitudinal centre of buoyancy, abbreviated to the LCB, and normally measured
as a distance Forward of the Aft Perpendicular (FOAP). The gravitational forces act at
the longitudinal centre of gravity, abbreviated to the LCG.
Consider the vessel on an even keel, as shown in Figure 4.1.
▲ Figure 4.1 G and B on an even keel
If the pitch of the vessel is changed, then the centre of buoyancy will move to the new
centre of underwater volume. The intersection of the line of action of buoyancy to a
line which was originally drawn vertically through the original centre of buoyancy is
known as the longitudinal metacentre, as shown in Figure 4.2.
In a similar way to finding the transverse metacentric height, the longitudinal

metacentric height can be found, as shown in Figure 4.3.
GML = KML KG = KB + BML − KG
▲ Formula 4.1 GML from KB, BML and KG

Longitudinal metacentre, ML
New B Old B
▲ Figure 4.2 The longitudinal metacentre
As can be seen in Figure 4.2, GML is typically very large (often in the region of the length
of the vessel), which indicates that ships are normally very stable fore and aft. This is the
reason that intact ships tend to capsize transversely rather than bow over stern. As GML
is so large, free surface effects are sometimes not included, as their influence is small in
comparison to the transverse GM. Instead, the lightship or a worst case loaded value is
used, and GML is assumed to be constant.
ML
GML
BML
G
KG
B
KB
▲ Figure 4.3 Longitudinal metacentric height

Calculating GML for a Box Shaped Vessel

(MCM, ENG)
For a box shaped vessel, the calculations for KB and KG are the same as the transverse
case, while BML requires a new calculation. BML is based on the ‘longitudinal inertia
of the waterplane measured through the longitudinal centre’, or ‘longitudinal inertia’
which is a mathematical measure of the fore and aft distribution of the waterplane
area.
Once the inertia has been found, the vertical distance from B to ML can be found. For a
box shaped vessel, the longitudinal waterplane inertia is given by the formula:
BLL3
IL =
12
▲ Formula 4.2 Calculating longitudinal waterplane inertia for a box shaped vessel
X For a mathematical proof of the longitudinal waterplane inertia of a box

shaped vessel, see Appendix 23: The Derivation of the Formula Giving the
Longitudinal Inertia of a Rectangle.
This is very similar to the transverse case, only length and beam have been reversed.
Once the longitudinal inertia is known, the distance BML, and therefore GML, can be
found:
IL
BML =
∇
▲ Formula 4.3 BML
X For a mathematical proof of BML for a box shaped vessel, see Appendix 24:
The Derivation of the Formula Giving the Longitudinal BM for a Box Shaped
Vessel.

QUESTION
Q4.1 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 70 m, a beam of 11 m, and floats at a draught of
6 m with a KG of 4 m. Calculate the longitudinal metacentric height, GML, and hence
comment on the longitudinal stability of the barge.
The GML influences the trim of the vessel, which is defined as the difference between the
draught measured at the after perpendicular and the forward perpendicular. If the vessel
is deeper aft than forward, then she is said to be ‘trimmed by the stern’, or positive trim,
and if the vessel is deeper forward than aft (which is unusual in most cases) then she is
said to be ‘trimmed by the head’ or ‘trimmed by the bow’, or negative trim. While in the
transverse case, we are mainly interested in calculating angles of list, in the longitudinal
sense, trim is used instead of an angle of pitch, as the angles involved are very small.
MCTC – The Moment to Change Trim

by 1 cm
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The trim of the vessel is based on the relative positions of the LCB and the LCG. The
upward, buoyant forces act through the LCB, and the downward, mass forces act through
the LCG. The distance between the LCG and the LCB controls the trim of the vessel. The
trim can be calculated using one of two methods; however, each of these requires a
new hydrostatic value, known as the MCTC, or moment to change trim by 1 cm, to be
found. The MCTC is a measure of the ‘trimming moment’, the longitudinal equivalent
of a heeling or listing moment, needed to change the trim of the vessel by 1 cm. The
MCTC can be interpolated at any draught or displacement from the hydrostatics, or it
can be calculated from the following formula:
Δ × GML
MCTC =
100 × LBP
▲ Formula 4.4 MCTC
X A mathematical proof of the MCTC can be seen in Appendix 25: The

Derivation of the Moment to Change Trim by 1 cm Formula.

The units of MCTC are often confusing. The ‘100’ value is a conversion from metres to
centimetres, and so the correct units are:
⎡ ⎤
⎢ tonnes metre
et e ⎥ ⎡ to
tonnes r ⎤
es metre
MCTC = ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
centimetre
⎢ r ⎥ ⎣ centimetre ⎦
metre
⎣ metre r ⎦
However, as the ‘per cm’ is implicit in the title, the units are often quoted in units of
tonne metres.
QUESTION
Q4.2 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 74 m, a beam of 13 m, and floats at a draught of 5 m
with a KG of 3.50 m. Calculate the longitudinal metacentric height, GML, and the MCTC.
Calculating the Trim

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Once the MCTC has been found the trim (in units of cm) can be found using the
following formula:
( LCB LCG ) Δ
C − LCG
Trim =
MCTC
▲ Formula 4.5 Trim
This method is known as ‘taking moments about the aft perpendicular’. This formula is
sometimes written as:
( LCG LCB ) Δ
Trim =
MCTC
▲ Formula 4.6 Trim (alternative)

In this, the ‘~’ means ‘distance between’, and therefore LCG ~ LCB = LCB – LCG. However,
using LCB – LCG results in positive answers being by the stern, and negative answers
by the bow. The LCB can be found from the hydrostatic tables of the vessel, or by direct
calculation for box shaped vessels, and the LCG can be found via a longitudinal loading
table.
X For a mathematical proof of the trim formula, see Appendix 26: The
Derivation of the Trim Equation.
QUESTION
Q4.3 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 40 m, a beam of 8 m, and floats at a mean draught
of 2 m with a KG of 2.50 m. The LCG is 19 m FOAP. Calculate the trim of the vessel.
For real ships, the MCTC and LCB values are pre-calculated, and can be found in the
hydrostatic data for the ship.
QUESTIONS

Determine the trim of MV Reed in the lightship condition.
Changes in Trim
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
For a small (a few percentage of ship displacement) change in loading, or for a transfer
of mass aboard so that the displacement remains constant, the change in trim can be
APPROXIMATED using another method:
Trimmin
i g moment
Change in trim =
MCTC
▲ Formula 4.7 Change in trim

Please note that as this is an approximation, and with the exception of transferring mass
when displacement is kept constant, and dry-docking, which will be covered later, it is not
an acceptable method when better methods are available.
The MCTC is found in exactly the same way as before. The trimming moment is found
from one of three formulae, which need a value known as the LCF. The LCF is the
longitudinal centre of floatation. This is the centre of area of the waterplane area, and
is the pivot point of the vessel when she trims. As the LCF depends on the waterplane
area, which depends on the draught and displacement, it will vary as masses are
added or removed from the vessel. This method assumes the LCF does not move with
loading – in reality it will move a small amount. If a load is added or removed from the
vessel, then the trimming moment is given by:
Trimmin
i g moment
o e Mass added
Mass dd d o d × Dis
or removed
e o ed Dii ta ce to LCF
▲ Formula 4.8 Trimming moment due to adding or removing mass
If a load is moved within the vessel, then the trimming moment is given by:
Trimmin
i g moment
o e t Mass d × Dis
Mas moved
o ed Dii ta ce moved
▲ Formula 4.9 Trimming moment due to moving mass
Trimming moments which push the stern down are positive, and trimming moments
which push the bow down are negative. Therefore, a positive change in trim indicates
a change in trim by the stern, and a negative change in trim indicates a change in trim
by the bow.
QUESTIONS

A vessel has an MCTC of 4.613 tonne metres. She is initially floating on an even keel. A
5 tonne mass, already aboard, is moved aft a distance of 10 m. Determine the final trim.

A vessel has an MCTC of 7.324 tonne metres, which can be assumed to remain constant.
She is initially floating on an even keel. A 7 tonne mass is added to the vessel 5 m
aft of the LCF, and a 6 tonne mass is added 4 m forward of the LCF. Determine the
APPROXIMATE final trim of the vessel.

Draughts and Drafts

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The trim is only part of the problem for longitudinal stability. While it is important to
know the trim, it is equally important to know the draughts at the ends of the vessel,
which will vary with trim. The draught of a vessel can be measured at a number of
positions, as shown in Figure 4.4. The draught at the aft perpendicular is known as
the draught aft, or DA, and the draught at the forward perpendicular is known as DF,
or the draught forward. The draught at amidships is known as the mean draught,
or DM, as it is the average of the draughts forward and aft. The draught at the LCF is
known as the true mean draught, or DTMD, or DLCF. It is important to know this value
as the LCF is the rotation point in trim, as shown in Figure 4.5. Therefore, for a fixed
displacement, the true mean draught will be constant, irrespective of trim. It is for
this reason that the hydrostatic tables for ships use the true mean draught as their
LCF
AP Amidships FP
DA DLCF DM DF
▲ Figure 4.4 Draught definitions
LCF
AP Amidships FP
DA DLCF DM DF
▲ Figure 4.5 The LCF as the pivot point

measure of draught. If the displacement is known, then the true mean draught can
be interpolated or read off.
If the true mean draught is known, then the draught aft can be found using the
following formula:
LCF
C
DA LCF + Trim
DLCF
LBP
▲ Formula 4.10 Draught aft and the true mean draught
Note that the numerical order of precedence (BODMAS) is critical when using this
formula. The division must be calculated first, then the multiplication with trim, and then
the addition to the true mean draught. Forgetting this will introduce serious errors into
the solution. In this formula, the trim is in metres, and the LCF is measured as a distance
forward of the aft perpendicular. Again, this is available from the hydrostatics. Since
the trim is defined as the difference between the draught aft and draught forward, the
draught forward can be found from:
F DA − Trim
▲ Formula 4.11 End draughts and trim
For both of these formulae, care must be taken to ensure that positive trim values
are used for stern trim, and negative trim values are used for bow trim. The trim must
always be in units of metres.
QUESTIONS
Q4.7 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and floats with a draught at the LCF of 3 m.
The vessel has a trim of 110 cm by the stern. Calculate the end draughts of the vessel.

Determine the end draughts of MV Reed in the lightship condition, if the lightship trim
is 190 cm by the stern.


MV Reed starts loading from her lightship condition. Both bunkers are filled to a
sounding of 6.50 m with oil fuel, relative density 0.95. 212.71 tonnes of cargo is loaded
aboard at a LCG of 90 m FOAP. Determine the end draughts of the vessel after loading
the cargo.
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY – LEARNING CHECKLIST
Understand the concept of longitudinal metacentric OOW, MCM, ENG

height
Understand why the longitudinal metacentric height OOW, MCM, ENG
can normally be assumed to be constant
Calculate the longitudinal metacentric height for a MCM, ENG
box shaped vessel
Understand what is meant by the terms trim, stern OOW, MCM, ENG
trim and bow trim
Understand what is meant by the MCTC OOW, MCM, ENG
Calculate the MCTC for a box shaped vessel MCM, ENG
Determine the MCTC from hydrostatic data OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand the units of MCTC OOW, MCM, ENG
Calculate the trim of a ship OOW, MCM, ENG
Calculate the trim of a box shaped vessel MCM, ENG
Calculate the approximate change in trim for small MCM, ENG
changes in loading
Understand the four positions at which the draught OOW, MCM, ENG
is measured, and the associated terminology
Understand what is meant by the LCF, and the OOW, MCM, ENG
importance of the LCF in trimming the ship
Determine the mean draught from the end draughts OOW, MCM, ENG
Determine the true mean draught from the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatics
Calculate the end draughts of the vessel OOW, MCM, ENG

ADDITIONAL
5
CALCULATIONS
AND PROCESSES
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Correct hydrostatic data for water density

Calculate the hydrostatic values for a box shaped vessel in fresh and dock water
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water if the draught is known
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water if the displacement is known
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water or dock water if the draught is
known
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water or dock water if the displacement
is known
Use the layer correction process to determine the true mean draught in sea water,
dock water and freshwater
Determine the LCG of a vessel from the trim
Determine the mass and location of cargo so that the vessel finishes loading in a
specified condition
Determine the mass and distribution of cargo between two holds so that the vessel
finishes loading in a specified condition
Understand the accuracy of layer correction

Understand the purpose of an inclining test

Conduct an inclining test and determine the lightship KG and lightship displacement
Understand how hydrostatic values change with trim and heel
Understand how dry-docking or grounding will change the transverse stability of
the ship
Calculate the metacentric height at the critical instant
Calculate the limiting KG before dry-docking to ensure that the vessel is stable during
the dry-docking
Calculate the limiting trim before dry-docking to ensure that the vessel is stable
during the dry-docking
Understand the accuracy of assuming that hydrostatics remain constant during dry-
docking
Determine the true mean draught and the end draughts at the critical instant
Calculate if it is safe to re-float following a dry-docking
Understand the purpose of a draught survey
Complete a draught survey
‘Real Ship’ Hydrostatic Data and

Loading in Different Densities
(MCM, ENG)
We have previously seen that ship’s hydrostatics are presented in a series of tables or
charts, as shown in the MV Reed Sample Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1), so that
they can be read or interpolated for any true mean draught. Remember – the draught
in the tables is always the true mean draught. This is because the vessel rotates about
the LCF when trimming, and so the draught at the LCF is independent of the trim of the
vessel. Unless indicated otherwise, the values in the hydrostatics are always undertaken
assuming the vessel is in salt water. Often they will need to be used for fresh water or
dock water. Corrections have to be applied to some of the values.
Consider two vessels floating at the same draught, one in sea water, and one in
fresh water. Both vessels, if loaded to float at the same draught, would have identical
underwater volumes, regardless of fluid density. The displacements would, however,
be different. Other hydrostatic values, which are related to mass, will change. This is
easiest shown by calculation.

Additional Calculations and Processes • 187
QUESTIONS
Q5.1 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m, a beam of 10 m and a draught of 2 m in sea
water. KG is 3.00 m. Determine the displacement, KB, BM, KM, LCB, LCF, TPC and MCTC.
Q5.2 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m, a beam of 10 m and a draught of 2 m in fresh
water. KG is 3.00 m. Determine the displacement, KB, BM, KM, LCB, LCF, TPC and MCTC.
It is this concept which underpins hydrostatic tables – they give information for a fixed
draught, which allows us to modify certain values to get the actual hydrostatics. The LCB,
LCF, KB and KM are based on the underwater volume, so at a fixed draught, regardless
of density, they are the same. As previously seen, the displacement, TPC and MCTC are
linked to the fluid density, so at any draught they will vary according to fluid density,
and will need correcting. To remember which values need correcting, look at the units.
Any hydrostatic value with tonnes in the units will depend on the displacement, and
hence fluid density, and must be corrected. Any hydrostatic value without tonnes in the
units will not depend on the density, and therefore does not need correcting.
Table 5.1 Density effects on hydrostatics
Displacement LCB LCF KB KM TPC MCTC

(tonnes) (m FOAP) (m FOAP) (m) (m) (t/cm) (tonne
metres)
Sea water 2,050 50.00 50.00 1.00 5.17 10.25 85.01

Fresh water 2,000 50.00 50.00 1.00 5.17 10.00 82.94
Table 5.1 shows the displacement, LCB, LCF, KB, KM, TPC and MCTC for a box shaped
vessel with a length of 100 m, a beam of 10 m, a KG of 3 m, at a draught of 2 m in sea
water and a draught of 2 m in fresh water.
To correct the displacement, TPC and MCTC, the salt water values need to be multiplied
by the actual water density divided by the density of sea water:
ρAACTUAL
Actual value = Salt
S lt w
water l × ρ
t value
SW
S
▲ Formula 5.1 Dock water hydrostatic values from the sea water hydrostatics

Quite often, ship hydrostatic data will give both the fresh water and sea water values
for the appropriate hydrostatics, if the fresh water values are given, then the corrections
are as follows:
a ue = F
Actual value Fresh
esh water
t v l × ρAACTUAL
value
▲ Formula 5.2 Dock water hydrostatic values from the freshwater hydrostatics
Note that for both these formulae, the density should be in units of tonnes per metres
cubed (t/m3). Table 5.2 shows the hydrostatic data for MV Reed at a draught of 6.00 m,
corrected for fresh water and dock water at a relative density of 1.010.
Table 5.2 Corrected hydrostatics
Draught Displacement LCB LCF KB KM TPC MCTC

(m) (tonnes) (m FOAP) (m FOAP) (m) (m) (t/cm) (tonne
metres)
Sea water 6.00 6,008 46.15 43.043 3.277 7.006 12.634 68.639
Fresh water 6.00 5,861.5 46.15 43.043 3.277 7.006 12.326 66.965
Dock water 6.00 5,920.1 46.15 43.043 3.277 7.006 12.450 67.635
When dealing with fresh water or dock water, the easiest way to approach the problem
is to take the appropriate rows of the hydrostatic tables, correct them for density, and
then use the corrected tables as before for all calculations.
QUESTIONS
Q5.3 (MCM, ENG)

Using the hydrostatics for MV Reed, determine the hydrostatic values for the vessel at a
draught of 4.00 m in dock water, relative density 1.010.
Q5.4 (MCM, ENG)

draught of 4.15 m in dock water, relative density 1.007.
Q5.5 (MCM, ENG)

displacement of 3,600 tonnes in dock water, relative density 1.010.

Q5.6 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed floats at a draught of 4.00 m in salt water. How much additional cargo could
be added so that her draught would be 5.00 m in fresh water?
Q5.7 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed floats at a draught of 5.00 m in dock water, density 1.005 t/m3. How much
additional cargo could be added so that she would float at her summer draught in sea
water?
Q5.8 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is floating in a summer zone, with the waterline 20 cm below the top of the
summer mark. The density of the water is 1.015 t/m3.
Determine the amount of cargo to load to bring the vessel to her summer displacement
using both the mean TPC and the density corrected hydrostatics.
Which one is more accurate?
Q5.9 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is alongside in fresh water in her lightship condition. 3,000 tonnes of cargo,
stores and fuel is then loaded onto the ship. The vessel then sails. At the harbour mouth,
the water depth is 10.00 m, and the water density is 1.020 t/m3. Assuming that the
vessel is on an even keel, determine the under-keel clearance at the harbour mouth.
Q5.10 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed arrives at a harbour mouth in sea water with a true mean draught of 6.00 m.
She then sails up-river to a fresh water berth, using 100 tonnes of fuel. Determine the
true mean draught at the fresh water berth.
Layer Correction
(MCM, ENG)
In all of the problems considered so far, we have known either the draft of the vessel
or her displacement. This is the starting point for all of our calculations. Quite often,
in practical loading calculations, the true mean draught and the displacement of the
vessel are not known. However, the draughts at the fore and aft perpendiculars can be
measured, and then the hydrostatic tables can be used to determine the true mean
draught.

The trim of the vessel can be found by taking the difference in the draughts forward
and aft.
Trim = DA DF
▲ Formula 5.3 Trim
We have previously seen in Formula 4.10 that the draught aft and the true mean draught
are linked by the following formula:
LCF
DA DLCF + Trim
LBP
There is, however, a problem in applying this formula to find the true mean draught
(DLCF) using the end draughts. We know the draught aft (DA), and the trim, and the LBP,
but both the true mean draught and the LCF position are unknown. To get the LCF
position, we need to use the hydrostatic tables. Herein lies the problem – we cannot
use the hydrostatic tables without knowing the true mean draught, and we don’t know
the true mean draught.
The method of solving this, and determining the true mean draught from the end
draughts, is known as layer correction.
We know that the true mean draught and the mean draught are very similar to each
other. We can therefore find the mean draught, and use that in the hydrostatic tables to
find an approximate position for the LCF:
DA DF
DM =
2
▲ Formula 5.4 Mean draught
Once we have an approximate value for the LCF position, we can use the following
formula to get an approximate value for the true mean draught:
LCF
DA DLCF + Trim
LBP

This gives us a very good idea of the true mean draught, but this is still an approximation,
and is not potentially accurate enough for stability calculations. To improve the accuracy,
we can use our approximate true mean draught and read off the LCF from the tables.
This will be more accurate than the LCF obtained from the mean draught. We can then
use this formula again to get a better estimate of the true mean draught:
LCF
DA DLCF + Trim
LBP
This should result in an accurate enough value for the true mean draught. Once this is
known, then the displacement and other hydrostatic values can be found. In theory,
we could continue this process of determining the LCF and the true mean draught, and
then finding a more accurate value for the LCF indefinitely.
QUESTIONS
Q5.11 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 7.00 m and a draught forward of 3.00 m. Determine her
true mean draught to the nearest millimetre.
Q5.12 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 7.00 m and a draught forward of 4.00 m. Determine her
true mean draught (to two decimal places) and displacement.
Q5.13 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 6.00 m, and a draught forward of 5.31 m. Determine her
true mean draught, displacement and GM if KG is 6.00 m.
Q5.14 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 5.00 m and a draught forward of 5.23 m. Determine the
displacement of the vessel.
In scenarios where a layer correction is required, but the vessel is not in sea water, then
the process is very similar. The LCF values can be taken directly from the hydrostatic
tables without correction, as LCF is independent of water density Therefore, the only
stage in the process which changes when not in sea water is the final stage where
the hydrostatics are interpolated. At this stage, corrections as shown in Table 5.2 are
required.

QUESTION
Q5.15 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 6.00 m, and a draught forward of 5.31 m. Determine
her true mean draught and displacement if she is floating in dock water, density
1.020 t/m3.
Once a layer correction has been undertaken, normal loading calculations can be
used to determine the stability and trim of the vessel after loading additional cargo.
To determine the trim after loading, the LCG must be known. This can be found from
transposing the trim equation and using the hydrostatics.
(LCB LCG ) Δ
Trim =
MCTC
⎛ Trim × MCTC ⎞
− − LCB = LCG
⎝ Δ ⎠
Note that if the trim is zero to start with, then the LCB must be equal to the LCG.
QUESTIONS
Q5.16 (MCM, ENG)

displacement of the vessel and the position of the LCG.
Q5.17 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 4.50 m and is floating on an even keel. Determine the end
draughts of the vessel if 1,000 tonnes of cargo is loaded at a position 35 m FOAP.
Q5.18 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 4.00 m and is on an even keel. She is to be loaded to a
draught aft of 6.23 m, with a trim of 1.00 m by the stern. Determine the amount of cargo
to be loaded and the required LCG of the cargo.
Q5.19 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 4.00 m and a draught forward of 2.71 m. Space is available
in an aft hold, which is 30 m FOAP, and in a forward hold 80 m FOAP. Determine the

distribution of cargo so that the final true mean draught is 4.46 m and the trim is 0.34 m
by the stern.
Q5.20 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is alongside a berth in dock water, with a density of 1.005 t/m3. The draught
aft is 5.00 m with a draught forward of 3.90 m. The vessel is to be loaded so that when
she reaches sea water, she will float at the summer draught on an even keel. Space is
available in an aft hold, 25 m FOAP, and a forward hold, 75 m FOAP.
Determine the required distribution of cargo between the two holds.
Q5.21 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is floating alongside in fresh water. Her draught aft is 4.00 m and her draught
forward is 3.57 m.
After loading, she will sail in sea water with a depth of 8.00 m. The required UKC is
2.00 m, and the vessel requires a stern trim of 0.47 m. Space is available in holds 30 m
FOAP and 70 m FOAP. Determine the required cargo distribution.
Q5.22 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed floats at a true mean draught of 3.00 m with a trim of 0.00 m by the stern. She
is loaded with fuel and stores, and the crew is aboard. The only remaining mass to load
is the cargo. The density of the water is 1.008 t/m3. The vessel is to be loaded so that
when she leaves the harbour and enters sea water, she will be at draught of 7.00 m, on
an even keel. Space is available in two holds. The after hold is 25 m FOAP. The forward
hold is 75 m FOAP. Determine the distribution of the cargo so that the vessel sails in the
required final condition.
Q5.23 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed floats at a true mean draught of 3.60 m with a trim of 0.85 m by the stern. She
is loaded with fuel and stores, and the crew is aboard. The only remaining mass to load
is the cargo. The density of the water is 1.015 t/m3. The vessel is to be loaded so that
when she leaves the harbour and enters sea water, she will be at draught of 6.00 m, on
an even keel. Space is available in two holds. The after hold is 30 m FOAP. The forward
hold is 50 m FOAP. Determine the distribution of the cargo so that the vessel sails in the
required final condition.

The Effect of Hogging and Sagging on

Layer Correction
(MCM, ENG)
The layer correction process does not take into account any distortion in the hull. For
most ships, the distribution of cargo, fuel and ballast will be such that the hull will
either sag (deform so that the middle of the vessel bends downwards), as shown in
Figure 5.1, or hog (deform so that the middle of the vessel bends upwards), as shown
in Figure 5.2. In both of these, the deformation has been exaggerated for clarity.
▲ Figure 5.1 Sagging distortion
▲ Figure 5.2 Hogging distortion
Clearing hogging and sagging will have an effect on the relationship between the true
mean draught and the end draughts. Tables 5.3 and 5.4 show the error in the actual
displacement from a layer correction process as a result of hogging and sagging. As can
be seen, the percentage error is small.
Table 5.3 Error in calculated displacement due to hogging (positive) and

sagging (negative) at the summer displacement
Hog/sag (cm) Displacement (tonnes) Error (tonnes) Error (%)
–10 7,291 38 0.52

–9 7,294 35 0.48
–8 7,298 31 0.42
–7 7,302 27 0.37

Table 5.3 Continued

–6 7,306 23 0.31
–5 7,310 19 0.26
–4 7,314 15 0.21
–3 7,314 15 0.21
–2 7,322 7 0.10
–1 7,326 3 0.04
0 7,329 0 0.00
1 7,334 5 0.07
2 7,337 8 0.11
3 7,341 12 0.16
4 7,345 16 0.22
5 7,349 20 0.27
6 7,353 24 0.33
7 7,357 28 0.38
8 7,361 32 0.43
9 7,365 36 0.49
10 7,369 40 0.54
Table 5.4 Error in calculated displacement due to hogging (positive) and

sagging (negative) at the lightship displacement
–10 2,598 17 0.65

–9 2,600 15 0.58
–8 2,602 13 0.50
–7 2,604 11 0.42
–6 2,606 9 0.35
–5 2,607 8 0.31
–4 2,609 6 0.23
–3 2,611 4 0.15
–2 2,613 2 0.08
–1 2,615 0 0.00
0 2,615 0 0.00

Table 5.4 Continued

1 2,618 3 0.11
2 2,620 5 0.19
3 2,622 7 0.27
4 2,624 9 0.34
5 2,626 11 0.42
6 2,627 12 0.46
7 2,629 14 0.53
8 2,631 16 0.61
9 2,633 18 0.68
10 2,635 20 0.76
QUESTION
Q5.24 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is floating along a berth in fresh water. Her bunkers are pressed full with fuel
oil, relative density 0.96, and there are some stores and some cargo aboard. In this
condition, the draught aft is 4.00 m and the draught forward is 3.00 m.
The vessel departs on a voyage, with a predicted voyage fuel consumption of
59.7 tonnes from the port bunker and 59.7 tonnes from the starboard bunker. Water
ballast will not be used to compensate for the effect of the fuel consumption on the
stability of the vessel.
The destination is depth restricted, with a predicted minimum depth in the harbour at
low water of 7.00 m, with water of relative density 1.010. The passage plan is arranged so
that the vessel arrives at low water. The Company’s standing orders require a minimum
under-keel clearance of 1.00 m, and a trim of a m by the stern at the arrival port to
ensure that the manoeuvring characteristics are acceptable.
Space is available in the No. 2 hold, 75 m FOAP, and the No. 4 hold, 35 m FOAP.
Determine the cargo distribution between the two holds so that the vessel carries
the maximum possible cargo, and arrives at the destination port with suitable
draughts and trim. You may assume that there are no depth restrictions in the
starting port.

Inclining Tests
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
All the stability calculations undertaken so far need an accurate lightship displacement,
lightship KG and LCG to ensure an accurate calculation. These values can be theoretically
calculated from the design of the vessel, but the actual values depend on the accuracy
of the build, the accuracy of the design calculations, and any modifications made to
the vessel when she is in service. To determine the lightship centre of gravity, the exact
mass of every single item of structure on the vessel and the position of the centre of
mass of the item need to be known. These are then tabulated into very large loading
tables, which give the lightship KG, TCG and LCG.
The potential for errors is large, considering the required accuracy for GM. A more
accurate alternative is to conduct an experiment to determine the position of the
centre of gravity and the lightship displacement. This is known as the inclining test or
inclining experiment.
In an inclining test, the end draughts are read, and a layer correction process is used
to determine the true mean draught and therefore the displacement. A known mass is
then moved a known distance to create an angle of list. The angle of list is measured,
usually with a series of long pendulums. By measuring the deflection of a pendulum,
the angle of list of the vessel can be determined with a high level of accuracy.
Pendulum deflection
Tanθ =
Pendulum length
The list, mass, distance moved and the displacement of the vessel can be used to find
GM. We have previously seen in Formula 2.11 that list can be calculated using:
Σ( × d )
tanθ =
Δ × GM
This can be transposed for GM:

Σ(w d )
GM =
Δ × tanθ
By substituting the pendulum deflection and length for the list angle, this equation
becomes:

Σ(w d )
GM =
⎛ Pendulum deflection ⎞
Δ×⎜
⎝ Pendulum length ⎟⎠
▲ Formula 5.5 GM from inclining tests
Once GM has been found, direct calculations can be used to find KB and BM, or the
hydrostatics can be used to find KM, and therefore KG can be found using:
GM = KM − KG = KB + BM − KG

KG = − (GM − KB − BM ) = −(GM − KM )

KG = −GM + KB + BM = −GM + KM
The KG found from this process is not the lightship KG. It will include the masses
used to incline the ship, and any persons and equipment aboard as part of the test. A
loading table must be used to ‘unload’ these items to get the actual lightship KG, and
the lightship displacement. Any items aboard which are not considered to be part of
lightship must be included in the table, and FSE accounted for. Any items not aboard,
such as hatch covers, which are part of lightship must be added into the loading table.
From the end draughts, the LCG can be determined. Again, this is not the lightship
value. A loading table must be used to ‘unload’ any items aboard that are not part of
lightship to get the actual lightship LCG of the vessel. If the vessel has an initial list, then
this can be used to determine the TCG of the vessel in the experiment condition. Again,
this is not the lightship value. A loading table must be used to ‘unload’ any items aboard
that are not part of lightship to get the actual lightship TCG of the vessel.
To reduce experimental error, a number of weights (normally 6) are used in the

experiment. These are sequentially moved from port to starboard, as shown in
Figure 5.3, with the list and heeling moment recorded after each move. The overall mean
GM is used (excluding upright conditions).
The Load Line regulations (The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998)
require ships to undergo an inclining test when construction has finished. Details of
the process of inclining tests are given in detail in the MCA’s guidelines for surveyors
(Maritime and Coastguard Agency, 2007).

1 2 3 PORT 5 6 PORT
Step 1 – Check step Step 8
4 5 6 STB 1 2 3 4 STB
1 2 3 4 PORT 6 PORT
Step 2 Step 9
5 6 STB 1 2 3 4 5 STB
9781408176122_Ch05_Rev_txt_prf.indd 199
1 2 3 4 5 PORT PORT
Step 3 Step 10
6 STB 1 2 3 4 5 6 STB
1 2 3 4 5 6 PORT 1 PORT
Step 4 Step 11
STB 2 3 4 5 6 STB
2 3 4 5 6 PORT 1 2 PORT
Step 5 Step 12
1 STB 3 4 5 6 STB
3 4 5 6 PORT 1 2 3 PORT
Step 6 Step 13 – Check step
1 2 STB 4 5 6 STB
4 5 6 PORT
Step 7 – Check step
1 2 3 STB
▲ Figure 5.3 Mass movement in an inclining test

11/16/2013 6:55:07 PM
To ensure a high level of accuracy the vessel must be floating in absolutely calm water
in windless conditions. All mooring lines must be sufficiently slack to allow the vessel
to take up heel angles unimpeded. All tanks and bilge spaces must be either pressed
full or dry. The condition of all tanks should be recorded (25% lightship recommended
limit). All loose equipment must be secured in its normal stowage and any items that
are not part of the vessel’s normal outfit should be removed. Ideally there should be
no consumable stores aboard. If this is not possible then the position and weight of
all such stores must be recorded. The number of people aboard must be minimised.
All those aboard must be in a defined position while measurements are taken and
these positions and the weights of each person noted. The weights and positions, in
both the vertical and horizontal planes of all inclining weights must be recorded. If
an inclinometer is used, then the inclinometer used must be capable of measuring to
0.01 degrees. If a plumb bob is used, the pendulum length must be at least 1,800 mm.
At least 2 pendulums must be used. The pendulum length should be sufficient to allow
a deflection of at least 35 mm on each mass shift. The angle of list should not exceed
4 degrees, and usually be less than 2 degrees. The density of the water, and the drafts
forward and aft, and any initial list angle, must be recorded. This will enable accurate
calculation of the displacement, the LCB and the LCG.
If an identical sister ship (other than passenger vessels) has been built, then a weight
survey can be undertaken after construction has finished to determine the actual
lightship displacement of the vessel. If there is a deviation from the sister ship of more
than 1% of the lightship displacement for ships over 160 m in length, or more than
2% of the lightship displacement for ships under 50 m in length, then a full inclining
test is required. Linear interpolation can be used to determine the maximum allowable
deviation from the sister ship displacement for vessels between 50 m and 160 m in
length. In addition, if there is a deviation of more than 0.5% of the subdivision length in
the lightship LCG, then a full inclining test is required.
For all passenger ships, where GM may be low in order to keep motions acceptable,
SOLAS requires that lightship surveys (a check to determine the actual lightship
displacement from the draughts) must be undertaken at intervals not exceeding
five years. This check indicates if the lightship displacement has changed, and the
lightship trim can be used to see of the lightship centre of gravity has moved. If there
is a deviation from the stability book of more than 2% of the lightship displacement,
or more than 1% of the subdivision length in the lightship LCG, then a full inclining
test is required.
After the inclining test, and following approval from the classification society and the
Flag State, the new lightship values must be entered into the stability computer.

QUESTIONS
Q5.25 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is undergoing an inclining test to determine her lightship displacement
and KG. The vessel is to be inclined with six inclining masses, each with a mass of
10.00 tonnes. These masses are placed 8.000 m above the keel. The masses, when
moved, are moved a distance of 2.500 m from the centreline of the vessel. The list of
the vessel is measured with a 6.000 m long pendulum. With the masses aboard, and no
other masses, cargo or stores present, the true mean draught of the vessel is 3.085 m.
The recorded results from the inclining test are as follows:
Step Mass 1 Mass 2 Mass 3 Mass 4 Mass 5 Mass 6 Pendulum

position (m)
1 Port Port Port Starboard Starboard Starboard 0.000
2 Port Port Port Port Starboard Starboard 0.150
3 Port Port Port Port Port Starboard 0.299
4 Port Port Port Port Port Port 0.454
5 Starboard Port Port Port Port Port 0.307
6 Starboard Starboard Port Port Port Port 0.146
7 Starboard Starboard Starboard Port Port Port 0.000
8 Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Port Port –0.148
9 Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Port –0.303
10 Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard –0.448
11 Port Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard –0.307
12 Port Port Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard –0.148
Determine the lightship displacement and KG from the above data and the hydrostatics.
You may assume that the mass of the staff undertaking the test is negligible, and that
the masses are moved by a shipyard crane.
Q5.26 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 50 m, a beam of 6 m and a draft of 2.033 m in
her lightship condition, but with a 10 tonne inclining mass aboard, 4.00 m above the
keel. In this condition she floats upright. The mass is moved 2 m to port, resulting in a
219 mm deflection of a 2.50 m pendulum. Determine the lightship KG.

It is usual practice to display the results of the experiment graphically, with heeling
moment on the x axis plotted against the list, or tangent of the list on the y axis, as shown
in Figure 5.4, errors will show a deviation from a straight line. During the inclining test, the
GM and displacement should remain constant. Therefore the ratio of the listing moment
causing the incline to the tangent of the angle inclined to should remain constant. This
constant ratio is represented by the gradient of the straight line through the points.
Tan (list)
Heeling
moment
▲ Figure 5.4 Inclining test graph
QUESTION
Q5.27 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed undergoes an inclining test. She is in the lightship condition, plus the
inclining masses. The mass of the staff undertaking the test can be assumed to be
negligible. She has a draught of 3.029 m. Six inclining masses are used, each with a
mass of 5.000 tonnes. They are located 11.000 m above the keel. To incline the vessel,
the masses are sequentially moved 3.000 m from the centreline of the vessel. The
inclination is measured using a 7.500 m long pendulum. The measured deflection at
each step is shown:

position (m)

2 Port Port Port Port Starboard Starboard 0.120
3 Port Port Port Port Port Starboard 0.234


position (m)
4 Port Port Port Port Port Port 0.335

5 Starboard Port Port Port Port Port 0.240
6 Starboard Starboard Port Port Port Port 0.115
7 Starboard Starboard Starboard Port Port Port 0.000
8 Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Port Port –0.112
9 Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Port –0.215
10 Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard –0.400
11 Port Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard –0.230
12 Port Port Starboard Starboard Starboard Starboard –0.123
Determine the lightship displacement and lightship KG of the vessel and draw a graph
showing the tangent of list against the heeling moment.
Provided that the masses are identical, and the distance moved is constant, a slightly
alternative method of determining GM from an inclining test is to consider the
deflection of the pendulum due to a shift of a mass.
For each shift in the mass, the deflection of the pendulum is recorded. At the end of
the test the total deflection of the pendulum is calculated, and divided by the number
of shifts to determine the mean pendulum deflection. The mass and shift can then be
used with the mean deflection to determine the GM by using Formula 5.5.
QUESTIONS
Q5.28 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is undergoing an inclining test to determine her lightship displacement and
KG. The inclining masses are 10.50 tonnes each. When the masses are each shifted
through a distance of 5.100 m, the average deflection of a 6.000 m long pendulum is
0.150 m. During the inclining test, the displacement is 2,710.00 tonnes. During the test,
the vessel is in her lightship condition, but has a total of six inclining masses aboard.
The masses are 8.100 m above the keel. Also aboard during the inclining test are the
staff and some crew, with a total mass of 0.50 tonnes, and a location 7.900 m above the
keel. Determine the lightship displacement and KG.

Q5.29 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is undergoing an inclining test to determine her lightship displacement
and KG. The inclining masses are 9.50 tonnes each. When the masses are each shifted
through a distance of 5.000 m, the average deflection of an 8.000 m long pendulum is
0.195 m. During the inclining test, the displacement is 2,700.00 tonnes. During the test,
the vessel is in her lightship condition, but has a total of six inclining masses aboard.
The masses are 8.500 m above the keel. Also aboard during the inclining test are the
staff and some crew, with a total mass of 0.75 tonnes, at a location 8.000 m above the
keel. Determine the lightship displacement and KG.
Changes in Hydrostatics with Trim

and Heel
(MCM, ENG)
As the trim of a vessel changes, the hydrostatic values also change. For vessels which
are not wall sided, such as those with large overhangs, or big changes in waterplane
area, these changes in the hydrostatics may be significant. The result of these is that as
the vessel trims or heels, the waterplane area changes. This change in the waterplane
area changes both BM and BML. These changes in turn change the TPC, KM and KML,
and the MCTC.
8
7.9
7.8
7.7
7.6
7.5
7.4 2 m Stern
1 m Stern
KM (m)
7.3 Even keel

7.2 1 m Bow
7.1 2 m Bow
7
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
True mean draught (m)
▲ Figure 5.5 Variation in KM versus true mean draught with trim

100
90 2 m Stern
1 m Stern
MCTC (tonne metres)
Even Keel
80 1 m Bow
2 m Bow
70
60
50
40
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
▲ Figure 5.6 Variation in MCTC versus true mean draught with trim
14.5
2 m Stern
14 1 m Stern
Even Keel
13.5
TPC (tonne metres)
1 m Bow
2 m Bow
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
▲ Figure 5.7 Variation in TPC versus true mean draught with trim

60 12
11.75
LCB, LCF (m FOAP) and
MCTC (tonne metres)
55 11.5
TPC MCTC
11.25
TPC (t/cm)
50 11
10.75
LCB
45 10.5
LCF
10.25
40 10
0 5 10 15 20
Heel angle (degrees)
▲ Figure 5.8 Variation in hydrostatics with heel
Dry-Docking and Grounding

(MCM, ENG)
The theory of dry-docking can be broken down into two main subject areas: process
and transverse stability. The process of dry-docking concerns the operational aspects of
bringing a vessel into a dry-dock and effectively grounding her in a controlled manner.
The transverse stability aspect concerns the change in stability of the vessel during
dry-docking. This can be significant and directly endanger the safety of the ship. The
exact process varies between different dry-docks, companies and ships, but the basic
structure is similar. Data about the vessel is first provided to the dry-dock technical staff,
who plan the positioning of the blocks to take into account the hull fittings and any
areas requiring additional support. The dry-dock technical staff specify a trim (normally
for undamaged vessels this is a small stern trim) and draft to enter the dock – you should
check their stability calculations. The vessel enters the dry-dock, and is generally warped
in and held with lines over the position of the blocks, as shown in Figure 5.9.
▲ Figure 5.9 Before de-ballasting the dry-dock

The gates are secured (or caissons placed) and the water drained until the stern touches
the aft blocks, as shown in Figure 5.10.
▲ Figure 5.10 Stern contact
At this point, the vessel is checked to ensure she is properly aligned, and divers may
check the blocks to ensure they are correct and in position. As the vessel is grounded
at the stern only, due to the stern trim, the heading of the vessel can be changed by
gently pivoting the vessel about the stern so that the vessel is exactly aligned with the
blocks. The remaining water is then pumped out, and shore connections and gangways
can be rigged. All these events should be logged, along with the soundings around the
vessel in the dock, to assist in stability checks.
Dry-docking, or grounding a vessel, can have a significant influence on GM, and hence
the transverse stability of the vessel. As the vessel makes contact with the blocks, an
upwards force is generated, known as the ground reaction force or up-thrust, which is
given the symbol P. This force acts upwards at the stern, as shown in Figure 5.11.
PP
▲ Figure 5.11 Up-thrust or ground reaction force
As more water is pumped from the dry-dock, the up-thrust increases, as the vessel
pushes down onto the blocks, as shown in Figure 5.12.
▲ Figure 5.12 Increasing ground reaction force

Clearly as the water is pumped from the dock, the trim of the vessel changes, so that
when the bow touches the blocks, the trim is effectively zero. After the bow has touched,
the up-thrust will be spread over the entire length of the ship at each contact point, as
shown in Figure 5.13, and the ship can be supported by side blocks and shores.
▲ Figure 5.13 After the bow grounds
The up-thrust force is significant, and can be calculated as a function of the change of
trim, using Formula 4.7. Note that although this method is an approximation, in this
circumstance any errors generated are likely to have a positive impact on the final
answer.
Trimming moment
Change in trim =
MCTC
The change in trim of the vessel during dry-docking can be considered to be caused
by the up-thrust. A bow-down trimming moment is caused by the up-thrust, which is
assumed to act at the aft perpendicular. Using the trimming moment formula given in
Formula 4.8:
Trimming moment = P LCFFFOAP
Combining these equations gives:

P LCFFFOAP
Change in trim =
MCTC
This can be transposed to give the up-thrust in terms of the change in trim, which can
be measured during dry-docking using the draught marks:
Change in trim × MCTC

=P
LCF
CFFOAP
▲ Formula 5.6 Up-thrust or ground reaction force
Therefore, if the hydrostatics and the change in trim during dry-docking (which we can
take to be the initial trim, as we can assume the blocks are level) are known, we can find

the up-thrust. The up-thrust varies as the trim changes. The maximum up-thrust occurs
at the maximum trim change. As soon as the stern touches down, the trim will begin
to change. This time while the trim is changing as water is being pumped out is known
as the critical period. The worst part of the critical period is at the maximum change in
trim, when the bow touches down on the blocks. This is known as the critical moment,
as this is the point when the vessel is most likely to capsize.
QUESTION
Q5.30 (MCM, ENG)

up-thrust at the critical moment during dry-docking.
This up-thrust has an influence on the stability of the vessel. The up-thrust can be
thought of as a negative load acting at the keel. This can be dealt with in a number of
ways, but the simplest is to use a loading table ( Table 5.5).
Table 5.5 Loading table for KG during dry-docking
Item Mass (tonnes) KG (m) Moment (tonne metres)
Ship Δ KGSTART Δ × KGSTART

Up-thrust −P 0 0
Total Δ−P Δ × KGSTART
Moment Δ × KGSTART
tica moment =
KG at the ccritical =
Mass Δ−P
Clearly the up-thrust changes KG of the vessel and hence changes GM. The effect can
be quite substantial. During dry-docking, the GM must always be kept positive.
QUESTION
Q5.31 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a draught aft of 4.00 m and a draught forward of 3.15 m. She has a KG of
7.19 m. Determine the GM before dry-docking and at the critical moment during dry-
docking, assuming that KM remains constant.
If the vessel is going to be unstable during the dry-docking process, then action
must be taken to ensure that the stability is changed to a safe value. One method of

achieving this is to reduce the initial KG of the vessel. This has the effect of increasing
the metacentric height to start with, so any subsequent reduction in stability still results
in a larger metacentric height at the critical instant. By determining the required KG to
ensure that GM is positive at the critical instant, the process can be worked backwards
to determine the required initial KG of the ship.
QUESTION
Q5.32 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a displacement of 4,112 tonnes with a trim of 1.00 m by the stern. Determine
the maximum initial KG so that the GM remains positive during dry-docking.
Alternatively, the initial trim can be reduced. By reducing the initial trim, the resulting
change in trim will be less, and therefore the up-thrust will be reduced. This will have
less effect on the KG of the vessel, and therefore result in a smaller loss of GM during
dry-docking. To determine the limiting initial trim, the calculations must be undertaken
in reverse, starting from the required KG, and working backwards to find the allowable
up-thrust, and then the allowable initial trim.
QUESTIONS
Q5.33 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has a displacement of 4,112 tonnes, with an initial KG of 6.85 m. Determine
the maximum initial trim so that the GM remains positive during dry-docking.
Q5.34 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is to be dry-docked. The density of the water in the dock is 1.007 t/m3. She
has a true mean draught in the dock water of 3.60 m. In this condition, she has a KG
of 7.18 m and a trim of 1.00 m by the stern. KM may be assumed to remain constant
throughout the dry-docking process.
Determine, and comment on, the GM at the critical instant during the dry-docking
process, and then calculate the maximum initial trim of the vessel so that GM remains
above 5 cm throughout the dry-docking process.
Throughout this process the LCF, MCTC and KM have assumed to be constant. In
reality, as the up-thrust increases, the effective displacement and draught of the
vessel decreases, and therefore the hydrostatics vary. In practice, this variation is small.
Figure 5.14 shows the actual calculated up-thrust during dry-docking for MV Reed,

including the effects of variations in hydrostatics, against those predicted using the
method above, assuming that the hydrostatics are constant. This assumes that the
initial KG is 7.18 m, with a draught aft of 4 m and 1 m of stern trim. Figure 5.15 shows
the same information, but for GM. Note that for the actual condition, the initial GM is
larger as a result of a larger KM caused by stern trim.
120.00
P (Assuming constant hydrostatics)
P Actual
100.00
Up-thrust (tonnes)
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Change in trim (m)
▲ Figure 5.14 Result of assuming constant hydrostatics on P during dry-docking
0.50
GM (Assuming constant hydrostatics)
0.40 GM Actual
0.30
0.20
0.10
GM (m)
0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
–0.10
–0.20
–0.30
–0.40
–0.50
Change in trim (m)
▲ Figure 5.15 Result of assuming constant hydrostatics on GM during dry-docking

To improve the accuracy of the calculations, the KM can be interpolated at the ‘effective
displacement’ of the vessel. This is the displacement of the vessel of the vessel found
from the loading table, and is effectively the displacement as the up-thrust is considered
to be a negative load.
QUESTION
Q5.35 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is to be dry-docked. The density of the water in the dock is sea water. She has
a displacement of 3,136 tonnes. In this condition, she has a KG of 7.25 m and a trim
of 1.10 m by the stern. Determine, and comment on, the difference in the GM at the
critical instant during the dry-docking process, if KM is assumed to be constant, and if
KM is assumed to vary.
As previously seen, during the dry-docking process, the up-thrust can be considered
to be a negative load. At the critical moment, when the bow makes contact with the
blocks, the up-thrust can be found using the methods already described. If the loading
table is used to determine the effective KG at the critical instant, then the effective
displacement is also found. If this value is used in the hydrostatics, then the interpolated
true mean draught will be the true mean draught of the vessel at the point where the
bow grounds.
QUESTION
Q5.36 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is undergoing a dry-docking in sea water. The initial displacement of the
vessel is 3,241 tonnes and the calculated up-thrust is 83.60 tonnes. Determine the true
mean draught of the vessel at the point when the bow grounds.
Clearly after a dry-docking period has finished, the ship must be re-floated. The process
will then work in reverse, with water flooding the dock until the bow lifts, at which
point the up-thrust will be greatest. As the dock continues to flood, the vessel will trim
by the stern and the up-thrust will reduce. As with the initial docking calculations, it
is vital to ensure that the vessel is safe to re-float. The easiest way of doing this is to
assume that the vessel is being dry-docked, but in her new condition that she would be
in after dry-docking has been completed.

QUESTIONS
Q5.37 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed has undergone a dry-docking. She is ready to be re-floated, with a displacement
of 3,563 tonnes and a KG of 6.90 m. The LCG of the vessel is 44.60 m FOAP. Determine if
it will be safe to re-float the vessel in the above condition. (Note: you may assume that
KM remains constant.)
Q5.38 (MCM, ENG)

MV Reed is undergoing a dry-docking. During the dry-docking, structural alterations
are made so that, just before the dock is flooded, her LCG is 46.00 m FOAP, and her KG
is 7.05 m and her displacement is 2,897.46 tonnes.
The water in the dock is dock water with a density of 1.015 t/m3.
Determine the metacentric height, the draught aft and forward at the critical moment
during re-floating. (Note: You may assume that the KM remains constant during the
dry-docking process.)
Draught Surveys
(MCM)
Draught surveys are a standardised method to determine the displacement of a vessel.

While a normal layer correction is accurate enough to determine the displacement and
true mean draught for hydrostatic and stability calculations, it does not take account
of hogging and sagging. This is accounted for in draught surveys, which need to be
undertaken to determine the exact amount of cargo carried. The draught survey process
takes into account hogging and sagging in a standardised method. While the actual
displacement values obtained via a draught survey may not be correct (see Table 5.7)
in comparison, the standardised process means that any changes in the displacement
as a result of loading are accurately determined. This is obviously important as the
economics of the vessel depend on carrying the right amount of cargo.
The process of a draught survey is very simple, and simply requires a form to be
completed showing the relevant calculations, as shown in Figure 5.16.
Filling in the form is relatively simple, with the formulae given, but care must be taken
to use the correct values, accuracy and units. When using the draught survey process,
the sign convention is very important. As before, stern trim is treated as positive,

Metres
1 Draught Forward
2 FP Correction Dist . ma
marks
ks displaced
× Observed trim
Dist . bet
between
ee marks k
3 Draught at FP
4 Draught Aft
5 AP Correction Dist . marks

a ks displaced
× Observed trim
Dist . between marksk
6 Draught at AP
7 True Trim
8 Draught (M) Port
9 Draught (M) Stb
10 Draught Midships Mean
11 Amidship Line Correction Dist . marks

k displaced
× True trim
LBP
12 Draught at Amidships
13 Corrected Midship Draught dFP ( dM ) + d AP

8
14 TPC LCF FOAP
15 Displacement
16 1st Trim Correction (layer) o midships × Trim × TPC

Dist . CF from
LBP
17 2nd Trim Correction (form) 50 × True trim2 × ( MCTC 2 − MCTC1 )

LBP
18 Corrected Displacement
19 Dock Water Displacement R.D. Doc

Dock w
water
Δ×
1.025
▲ Figure 5.16 Draught survey form
and bow trim is treated as negative. Distances AFT of a point are treated as positive,
distances FORWARD of a point are treated as negative. For example, if the forward
draughts marks are aft of the forward perpendicular, and we knew the distance of the
perpendicular FROM the marks, then it would be treated as a negative distance, as
shown in Figure 5.17, or if the aft draughts marks are forward of the aft perpendicular,

and we knew the distance of the perpendicular FROM the marks, then it would be
treated as a positive distance, as shown in Figure 5.18.
Positive Negative
distance distance
▲ Figure 5.17 Sign convention for the FP
AP
Positive Negative
distance distance
▲ Figure 5.18 Sign convention for the AP
The draught forward is the draught measured at the forward draught mark and entered
into row 1.
The forward draught marks are not normally exactly on the forward perpendicular
(the distance from the perpendicular is known as the displacement of the mark), so a
correction must be made to the measured draught to get the actual draught forward.
Using the sign convention, if the perpendicular is forward of the marks, the distance is
negative, if the perpendicular is aft of the marks, the distance is positive. The trim must
also be taken as positive for stern trim, and negative for bow trim. The formula for the
correction is shown in row 2 with the result entered into row 2.
The measured draught forward is corrected to the actual draught forward and entered
into row 3. The actual draught forward is found by taking the measured draught and
adding the correction, respecting the positive or negative sign of the correction.

The draught aft is the draught measured at the aft draught mark and entered into row 4.
The aft draught marks are not normally exactly on the aft perpendicular, so a correction
must be made to the measured draught to get the actual draught aft. As with the
forward perpendicular, using the sign convention, if the perpendicular is forward of
the marks, the distance is negative, if the perpendicular is aft of the marks, the distance
is positive. The formula for the correction is shown in row 5 with the result entered into
row 5.
The measured draught aft is corrected to the actual draught aft and entered into row 6.
The actual draught forward is found by taking the measured draught and adding the
correction, respecting the positive or negative sign of the correction.
The true trim of the vessel is the actual trim of the vessel based on the draughts at the
perpendiculars (found by the difference in values in rows 6 and 3). This is entered into
row 7. Again, positive values indicate stern trim, negative values indicate bow trim.
Rows 8 and 9 are for the draughts measured at amidships, port and starboard. By taking
the draught each side, any effects of list can be included. Row 10 is the average of the
port and starboard draught values.
The amidships draught marks are not normally exactly at amidships (the distance from
the perpendicular is known as the displacement of the mark), so a correction must
be made to the measured draught to get the actual draught at amidships (the mean
draught). The formula for the correction is shown in row 11, with the result entered
into row 11. The sign convention that applies to the forward and aft perpendicular also
applies – if the amidships point is aft of the amidships draught marks, then the distance
is positive, if the amidships point is forward of the amidships draught marks, then the
distance is negative.
The measured draught at amidships is corrected to the actual draught at amidships

(the mean draught) and entered into row 12. The actual draught amidships is found
by taking the measured draught and adding the correction, respecting the positive or
negative sign of the correction.
The corrected midship draught, as found by formula in row 13, is a method of averaging
the draughts. The result of the formula is entered in row 13.
Using the hydrostatics, the displacement, TPC and the LCF are found for the vessel
for the corrected midship draught. The salt water values are used, regardless of the
actual density of water that the vessel is in. The result for the TPC and the LCF, which for
intermediate values can be found by linear interpolation from the hydrostatics, are put
into row 14, and the result for displacement is put into row 15.

In row 16, a correction is calculated for the difference in the mean draught and the true
mean draught (although this is very small). Within this correction, the trim is the true trim
of the vessel, in units of centimetres. It is important to use the correct sign convention. If
the LCF is aft of amidships, the distance of the LCF from amidships is positive, if the LCF
is forward of amidships, the distance of the LCF from amidships is negative. As before,
stern trim is positive, and bow trim is negative. The answer is entered in row 16.
In row 17, another correction is made for the form of the vessel. Again, within this
correction, the trim is the true trim of the vessel, in units of metres. As the trim is squared,
the value will always be positive, regardless of the direction of trim of the vessel. This
is because a positive number squared always gives a positive value, and a negative
number squared always gives a positive value. The MCTC1 is the MCTC of the vessel
interpolated for a draught of 0.50 m less than the actual mean draught, and the MCTC2
is the MCTC of the vessel interpolated for a draught of 0.50 m more than the actual
corrected midship draught in row 13. This variation in the MCTC values approximately
accounts for the variation in the MCTC as a result of trim.
Row 18 is the corrected displacement of the vessel. This is equal to the displacement
found in row 15 added to the corrections found in rows 16 and 17.
Finally, the displacement, corrected for dock water, is found, using the formula in
row 19. This is taken as the actual displacement of the vessel.
In HND, FdSc and SQA exams, you will be given the form as shown in Figure 5.16. Within
draught surveys, accuracy is important. You should work draughts in metres with an
accuracy of three decimal places (i.e. the nearest millimetre), and displacements in
tonnes to two decimal places (i.e. the nearest 10 kilograms).
QUESTIONS
Q5.39 (MCM)
MV Reed has a draught of 7.000 m measured at the aft draught marks. These are
2.500 m forward of the aft perpendicular. She has a draught of 6.000 m measured
at the forward draught marks. These are 3.000 m aft of the forward perpendicular.
The amidships marks are 2.000 m aft of amidships. The port amidships mark shows a
draught of 6.530 m, and the starboard amidships mark shows a draught of 6.514 m.
Complete a draught survey, and hence determine the displacement of the vessel if she
is in dock water, density 1.010 t/m3.
Q5.40 (MCM)
MV Reed is floating in dock water with a density of 1.006 t/m3. Table 5.6 shows a partially
completed draught survey for the vessel in the above condition. The forward draught

Table 5.6 Draught survey
1 Draught forward 4.000

2 FP correction Dist . ma
marks
ks displaced
× Observed trim
Dist . bet
between
wee marks k
3 Draught at FP
4 Draught aft 5.000
5 AP correction Dist . marks
a ks displaced
× Observed trim
Dist . between
w marks
k
6 Draught at AP
7 True trim
8 Draught (M) port 4.486
9 Draught (M) Stb 4.500
10 Draught midships
mean
11 Amidship line Dist . marks
k displaced
× True trim
correction LBP
12 Draught at amidships
13 Corrected midship dFP ( d M ) + d AP
draught 8
14 TPC LCF FOAP

15 Displacement
16 1st trim correction Dist . CF from midships × Trim × TPC
(layer) LBP
17 2nd trim correction 50 × True trim2 × ( MCTC 2 − MCTC1 )

(form) LBP
18 Corrected
displacement
19 Dock water R.D.Dock w
water
Δ×
displacement 1.025
marks are 2.000 m aft of the forward perpendicular. The aft draught marks are 3.000 m
forward of the aft perpendicular. The amidships draught marks are 0.500 m forward of
amidships. Complete the remainder of the draught survey form, and hence determine
the displacement of the vessel via a draught survey.

Q5.41 (MCM)
MV Reed is to undergo a draught survey. The draughts and positions of the draught
marks are as shown below, where the trim is exaggerated for clarity. The water relative
density is 1.010. Using a draught survey form, complete the draught survey and hence
find the displacement. Note that the vessel is trimmed by the bow, and that the aft
draught marks are aft of the aft perpendicular.
AP
FP
Actual waterline
1.500 m
1.500 m
2.000 m
Draught at aft marks = Draught at port
5.000 m amidship marks = 5.517 m Draught at fwd marks =
6.000 m
Draught at stb
amidship marks = 5.500 m
The draught survey process is in itself not an accurate way to exactly determine the
displacement. However, it is a consistent method which allows the displacement to
be determined before and after loading, with the change in displacement between
the two conditions giving a reliable indication of the mass loaded. The accuracy of the
actual displacement found from the draught survey process for MV Reed is shown in
Table 5.7.
Table 5.7 Accuracy of the draught survey process
Hog/sag (cm) Actual displacement Displacement via Error (tonnes) Error (%)
(tonnes) draught survey
–10 7,291 7,432.5 141.5 1.93

–9 7,294 7,422.84 128.84 1.76
–8 7,298 7,411.8 113.8 1.55
–7 7,302 7,402.14 100.14 1.37
–6 7,306 7,391.1 85.1 1.16
–5 7,310 7,381.44 71.44 0.97
–4 7,314 7,370.4 56.4 0.77
–3 7,314 7,360.74 46.74 0.64

Table 5.7 Continued
Hog/sag (cm) Actual displacement Displacement via Error (tonnes) Error (%)
(tonnes) draught survey
–2 7,322 7,349.7 27.7 0.38

–1 7,326 7,340.04 14.04 0.19
0 7,329 7,329 0 0.00
1 7,334 7,319.41 14.59 0.20
2 7,337 7,308.45 28.55 0.39
3 7,341 7,298.86 42.14 0.57
4 7,345 7,287.9 57.1 0.78
5 7,349 7,278.31 70.69 0.96
6 7,353 7,267.35 85.65 1.17
7 7,357 7,257.76 99.24 1.35
8 7,361 7,246.8 114.2 1.56
9 7,365 7,237.21 127.79 1.74
10 7,369 7,226.25 142.75 1.95
ADDITIONAL CALCULATIONS AND PROCESSES  LEARNING CHECKLIST
Correct hydrostatic data for water density MCM, ENG

Calculate the hydrostatic values for a box shaped MCM, ENG
vessel in fresh and dock water
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water if OOW, MCM, ENG
the draught is known
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water if OOW, MCM, ENG
the displacement is known
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water MCM, ENG
or dock water if the draught is known
Determine the hydrostatics of a vessel in fresh water MCM, ENG
or dock water if the displacement is known
Use the layer correction process to determine the true MCM, ENG
mean draught in sea water, dock water and freshwater

Determine the LCG of a vessel from the trim MCM, ENG

Determine the mass and location of cargo so that the MCM, ENG
vessel finishes loading in a specified condition
Determine the mass and distribution of cargo MCM, ENG
between two holds so that the vessel finishes loading
in a specified condition
Understand the accuracy of layer correction MCM, ENG
Understand the purpose of an inclining test MCM, ENG
Conduct an inclining test and determine the lightship MCM, ENG
KG and lightship displacement
Understand how hydrostatic values change with trim MCM, ENG
and heel
Understand how dry-docking or grounding will MCM, ENG
change the transverse stability of the ship
Calculate the metacentric height at the critical instant MCM, ENG
Calculate the limiting KG before dry-docking to ensure MCM, ENG
that the vessel is stable during the dry-docking
Calculate the limiting trim before dry-docking to MCM, ENG
ensure that the vessel is stable during the dry-docking
Understand the accuracy of assuming that MCM, ENG
hydrostatics remain constant during dry-docking
Determine the true mean draught and the end MCM, ENG
draughts at the critical instant
Calculate if it is safe to re-float following a dry-docking MCM, ENG
Understand the purpose of a draught survey MCM
Complete a draught survey MCM

6
BILGING AND
DAMAGED STABILITY
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Understand the definition of bilging

Calculate the lost volume in a bilged compartment
Determine the sinkage as a result of lost volume in a bilged compartment at any point
along the length of the vessel
Determine the sinkage as a result of lost volume in a bilged double bottom at any
point along the length of the vessel
Determine the sinkage as a result of lost volume in a bilged compartment above a
double bottom at any point along the length of the vessel
Determine the sinkage as a result of lost volume in a bilged compartment with a
watertight flat above the initial waterline
Determine the sinkage as a result of lost volume in a bilged side compartment
Apply the effects of permeability to sinkage calculations
Calculate the permeability of a compartment
Calculate KB after bilging a whole compartment, a double bottom or a compartment
above a double bottom, including the effects of permeability
Calculate the LCB after bilging a whole compartment, a double bottom or a
compartment above a double bottom, including the effects of permeability
Calculate the TCB after bilging a side compartment
Calculate the transverse waterplane inertia after bilging a full beam compartment,
a double bottom or a compartment above a double bottom, located at amidships,
including the effects of permeability
Calculate the transverse waterplane inertia after bilging a full beam compartment,
a double bottom (including the effects of permeability) or a compartment above a
double bottom, located at the end of a ship

Bilging and Damaged Stability • 223
Calculate the longitudinal waterplane inertia after bilging a full beam compartment,
double bottom, located at the end of a ship
Calculate the longitudinal waterplane inertia after bilging a full beam compartment,
double bottom, located away from the end of a ship
Calculate the position of the roll axis after bilging a side compartment
Calculate the transverse inertia of a waterplane with a bilged side compartment
Calculate BM and BML using the waterplane inertia after bilging
Calculate GM and GML after bilging
Calculate the trim of a vessel after bilging
Calculate the end draughts of a vessel after bilging
Calculate the list after bilging
Understand how bilging influences the GZ curve
Calculate the change in stability as a result of bilging
Understand and explain the current and historical requirements for minimum
damaged stability of passenger vessels, and Type A and Type B vessels
Bilging is the term used to describe the uncontrolled flow of water in and out of a compartment
in a vessel. A compartment which is bilged is considered to be damaged so that water is
free to flow in and out of the compartment. There are several methods of determining the
stability and trim of a vessel after bilging. The ‘standard’ IMO method is known as the ‘lost
volume’ method. For reasons that will be clearer later, this name is a bit confusing.
During bilging, the underwater shape of the vessel changes, and as a result the stability
of the vessel changes. To determine the effect of bilging, the bilging process needs to
be considered in a series of steps:
Parallel sinkage
New position of the centre of buoyancy
New BM and BML
New GM and GML
Resulting list and trim
Parallel Sinkage
(MCM, ENG)
When a vessel is bilged, it will sink further into the water, and possibly then, depending
on the position of the bilged compartment, trim or list. The initial sinkage is referred to
as the parallel sinkage.

Before a compartment is bilged, the compartment contributes to the overall underwater

volume of the vessel, and hence provides some of the buoyancy supporting the vessel.
When a compartment is bilged, it no longer contributes to the ‘dry’ underwater volume
of the vessel, and therefore does not provide buoyancy. This means that when a
compartment is bilged, the overall buoyancy force reduces.
As the buoyancy force reduces, the vessel is no longer in vertical equilibrium, as the
force of gravity will exceed the force of buoyancy. Therefore, the vessel will start to
move vertically downwards. As she does so, the underwater volume produced by the
remaining intact compartments starts to increase as the draught increases. As the
underwater volume increases again, the buoyancy force starts to increase, until such
point that the buoyancy force increases to be back in equilibrium with the force of
gravity. At this point, the vessel stops sinking. Overall the underwater volume gained
through sinkage is equal to the underwater volume lost through bilging. This principle
can be used to determine the parallel sinkage as a result of bilging.
Therefore, overall during bilging, as a result of losing volume in the bilged compartment
and gaining volume in the remaining intact compartments during sinkage:
Underwater volume lost = Underwater volume gained
▲ Formula 6.1 Underwater volume change due to bilging
QUESTIONS
Q6.1 (MCM, ENG)
20 m
2m
100 m
10 m

For the vessel shown above, determine the final draught of the vessel if the 20 m
long amidships compartment is bilged, and the overall underwater ‘dry’ volume and
displacement before and after bilging.
Q6.2 (MCM, ENG)
15 m
1m
1.1 m
100 m
10 m
For the vessel shown above, determine the final draught of the vessel if the amidships
compartment is bilged below the watertight flat.
As seen in the calculations, you should find that the overall underwater volume and
displacement of the vessel is the same before and after bilging – that is, the amount of
‘dry’ vessel is constant. There may be some small variation due to rounding.
For most scenarios of box shaped vessels, the parallel sinkage can also be found in
terms of the lost volume and the final waterplane area.
If the barge has a length L, beam B and initial draught DI, with a compartment of length
l, then the underwater volume lost as a result of bilging can be found from:
Lost ∇ = l B × DI
The underwater volume gained as a result of the sinkage can be found by:
Gained ∇ = ((L B ) − (l B )) × Sinkage

DI
L
B
DI
DB
L
B
▲ Figure 6.1 Bilging definitions
Equating the lost underwater volume and the gained underwater volume gives:
l B × DI (( L × B ) ( l × B )) Sinkage
Transposing this for the sinkage gives:
l B × DI
Sinkage =
(( L B ) − ( l B ))
In this, the numerator is the underwater volume lost as a result of bilging, while the
denominator is the waterplane area of the vessel after bilging.

Therefore, this could also be written as:
Lost volume
o u e in tthe
e biilged compartment
k e=
Parallel si kag
Final waterplan
aterrplane area
▲ Formula 6.2 Parallel sinkage due to bilging
This formula is valid providing that the waterplane area remains constant during the
parallel sinkage. If this is not the case, then Formula 6.1 must be used instead.
QUESTION
Q6.3 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 50 m, a beam of 10 m and a draught of 2 m. A full
beam amidships compartment is bilged. The final draught is 2.857 m. Determine the
length of the compartment.
The theory so far assumes that the compartment completely floods. In practice, this
may not happen, as solid objects such as machinery, cargo and structure cannot flood.
This is modelled using a factor known as compartment permeability. This is a decimal
or percentage value which tells us how much of the compartment floods. For example,
a permeability of 0.6 means 60% of the compartment can flood. Permeability has the
symbol μ. Permeability affects both the volume flooded and the waterplane area lost.
This means that we have to adjust the parallel sinkage formula to take into account the
effects of permeability on the lost volume and the waterplane area.
QUESTIONS
Q6.4 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 50 m, a beam of 6 m and a draught of 1 m. A
full beam amidships compartment, with a length of 5 m, is bilged. Determine the final
draught of the vessel if the permeability is 95%.
Q6.5 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 70 m, a beam of 10 m and a draught of 3 m. A
full beam amidships compartment, 8 m long, is bilged. The final draught is 3.34 m.
Determine the permeability of the compartment.

The permeability of a compartment, as a decimal, can be directly calculated if the

density of the cargo and the stowage factor of the cargo is known.
⎛ 1 ⎞
SF − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ρc go ⎠
μ=
SF
▲ Formula 6.3 Compartment permeability and stowage factor
X For a mathematical proof of this, see Appendix 12: The Derivation of the
Formula Giving the Angle of List for a Neutrally Stable Vessel.
So far we have considered an amidships compartment, so there will be no list or trim

after bilging. Even in cases where the vessel will list or trim, parallel sinkage is still the
first stage. For end compartments or side compartments, the process of calculation for
parallel sinkage is exactly the same as the previous cases, but the parallel sinkage is
applied to the true mean draught of the vessel to find the new draught.
QUESTION
Q6.6 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m, a beam of 10 m and a draught of 2 m. A full
beam forepeak compartment, 20 m long, is bilged. Determine the parallel sinkage due
to bilging.
The parallel sinkage can be complicated by the addition of watertight flats within
compartments. These restrict flooding vertically, for example, in a double bottom.
These problems have to be analysed logically – look at the actual lost volume, and look
at the final waterplane area. A good method is to draw the shape of the vessel after
bilging, and try and determine the lost volume and waterplane area.
A series of bilging scenarios is shown in Figures 6.2 to 6.8, along with the appropriate
parallel sinkage formula. L and B are the length of the vessel, DI is the initial draught, l
and b are the length and beam of the bilged compartment, and h is the depth of the
double bottom.

DI
DI
DB
L
B
▲ Figure 6.2 Full beam amidship compartment
Full beam amidship compartment
Lost volume (m3) l × B × DI × μ

Final waterplane area (m2) (L × B) − (l × B μ)
Parallel sinkage (m) (L B × DI × μ )
(L B ) − (l B × μ )

DI
DI
h
DB
L
B
▲ Figure 6.3 Full beam amidship compartment bilged in a double bottom
Full beam amidship compartment bilged in a

double bottom
Lost volume (m3) l×B×h×μ

2
Final waterplane area (m ) (L × B)
Parallel sinkage (m) (L B × h ×μ)
(L B )

DI
DI
h
DB
L
B
▲ Figure 6.4 Full beam amidship compartment bilged above a double bottom
Full beam amidship compartment bilged in a

double bottom
Lost volume (m3) l × B × (DI − h) × μ

Final waterplane area (m2) (L × B) − (l × B × μ)
Parallel sinkage (m) l B × (DI h) × μ
(L B ) − (l B ×μμ )

DI
DI
DB
▲ Figure 6.5 Full beam end compartment
Full beam end compartment
Lost volume (m3) l × B × DI

Final waterplane area (m2) (L × B) − (l × B)
Parallel sinkage (m) l B × DI
(L B ) − (l B )
Note that for this scenario, the effects of permeability complicate the problem
significantly, so no permeability is used to assume a worst-case scenario.

DI
L
B
DI
DB
h
L
B
▲ Figure 6.6 Full beam end compartment bilged in a double bottom
Full beam end compartment bilged in

a double bottom
Lost volume (m3) l×B×h×μ

2
Final waterplane area (m ) (L × B)
Parallel sinkage (m) l B ×h× μ
(L B )

DI
L
B
DB
DI
h
L
B
▲ Figure 6.7 Full beam end compartment bilged above a double bottom
Full beam end compartment bilged above

a double bottom
Lost volume (m3) l × B × (DI − h)

2
Final waterplane area (m ) (L × B) − (l × B)
Parallel sinkage (m) l B × (DI h)
(L B ) − ( l B )

b
DI
L
B
b
DI
DB
L
B
▲ Figure 6.8 Side compartment
Side compartment
Lost volume (m3) l × b × DI

2
Final waterplane area (m ) (L × B) − (l × b)
Parallel sinkage (m) l b × DI
(L B ) − ( l b )

DI
DB
L
B
DI
DB
L
B
▲ Figure 6.9 Amidships compartment with a watertight flat above the initial waterline
Amidships compartment with a watertight flat

above the initial waterline
Lost volume (m3) l × b × DI × μ

Final waterplane area (m2) Variable with draught
Parallel sinkage (m) Lost ∇ = Gained ∇
Note that for this scenario, the waterplane varies with the sinkage; therefore, the
sinkage must be directly calculated using the lost volume and gained volume.

QUESTIONS
Q6.7 (MCM, ENG)

A vessel is as shown below:
20 m
2m
1.5 m
100 m
10 m
Determine the parallel sinkage if the amidships double bottom is then bilged.
Q6.8 (MCM, ENG)

The vessel shown below is bilged, and is shown in the bilged condition.
15 m
3m
1m
80 m
12 m
Determine the parallel sinkage if the amidships double bottom compartment is then
bilged, with a permeability of 95%.
When bilging, particularly as a result of damage from collisions, it is possible to be

in a situation where the vessel is bilged in a compartment above a water-tight flat.

In situations like these, the approach is the same, but care must be taken with the
waterplane area. Again, a good method is to draw the shape of the vessel after bilging,
and try and determine the lost volume and waterplane area.
QUESTIONS
Q6.9 (MCM, ENG)

The vessel shown below has an initial draught of 2.00 m. The vessel is then bilged in the
amidships compartment, above the double bottom. Determine the parallel sinkage.
20 m
2m
1.5 m
100 m
10 m
Q6.10 (MCM, ENG)

The vessel shown below is bilged in the amidships compartment, above the double
bottom.
25 m
5m
3m
70 m
8m
If the initial draught is 5.00 m, determine the parallel sinkage if the permeability of the
compartment is 77%.

The Centre of Buoyancy after Bilging

(MCM, ENG)
Once a compartment has been bilged, it is important to be able to determine both GM

and GML in order to assess the stability of the vessel. GM does not always reduce after
bilging. Finding GM involves finding KB, BM and KG.
Finding KB after bilging requires a table of moments of volume. The vessel, in the
bilged condition, needs to be analysed to determine the overall centre of underwater
volume after bilging. To do this, a table of moments of volume is used. This is similar to
a loading table, except volume and centre of volume are used instead of mass and KG.
There are a number of ways of analysing the volume, but the simplest is to determine
the total volume of the vessel at the bilged draught, ignoring the lost volume, and
then determine the volume of the bilged compartment. Treating the volume of the
bilged compartment as negative means that the total of the underwater volume
column in the table will be correct. Note that this value should be the same as the
initial underwater volume, as the overall underwater volume should remain constant
during bilging.
Table 6.1 Tabular calculation to find KB after bilging
Item Underwater volume Centre from keel Vertical moment of

(m3) (m) volume (m4)
Ship at the bilged L × B × bilged draught Bilged draught L × B × bilged draught

draught × 0.5 × bilged draught × 0.5
Bilged –(l × b × d of bilged d of bilged –(l × b × d of bilged
compartment compartment after compartment after compartment after bilging
bilging × permeability) bilging × 0.5 × permeability) × d of
bilged compartment after
bilging × 0.5
Total Total of volume column Total of moment column
Total v
vertica
ertical moment oof v
volume
l KB after biilging =
Overall
Tota
t l volum
v e
▲ Formula 6.4 Bilged KB from a table of moments of volume

QUESTIONS
Q6.11 (MCM, ENG)

Determine KB for the vessel shown below.
22 m
3.379 m
2m
80 m
9m
If permeability is involved, then the calculation becomes slightly more complex.

Previously, we have seen that permeability (μ) is the measure of the amount of the
compartment which floods. Therefore, part of a permeable compartment must still be
providing buoyancy. This must be accounted for in the calculations.
Q6.12 (MCM, ENG)

Determine the KB for the vessel shown below if the bilged amidships compartment has
a permeability of 70%.
22 m
3.379 m
2m
80 m
9m

If the compartment is a side or end compartment, the process is exactly the same, but
be careful with the dimensions. The fact that the vessel may trim or list as a result of
bilging is not important at this stage.
If the bilged compartment runs all of the way from the keel to the final waterline
(i.e. there are no watertight flats), then there is a shortcut to finding KB for box
shaped vessels. In these scenarios, KB is equal to half of the final draught of the
vessel.
Table 6.2 Tabular calculation to find LCB after bilging
Item Underwater Centre from Longitudinal moment

volume (m3) AP (m) of volume (m4)
Ship at the bilged L × B × bilged draught L × 0.5 L × B × bilged draught ×

draught L × 0.5
Bilged –(l × b × d of bilged Centre of bilged –(l × b × d of bilged
compartment compartment after compartment compartment after
bilging × permeability) from AP bilging × permeability)
× centre of bilged
compartment from AP
Total Total of volume column Total of moment column
Finding the LCB after bilging is very similar to finding KB; however, the centres of each
compartment are measured from the aft perpendicular.
Total longitudinal
o g tud a moment o of v
volum
u e
Overall LCB i =
CB after biilging
Total vvolume
▲ Formula 6.5 Bilged LCB from a table of moments of volume
QUESTION
Q6.13 (MCM, ENG)

Determine the LCB of the vessel shown if the permeability of the compartment is
70%.

22 m
3.379 m
80 m
9m
If the bilged compartment runs all of the way from the keel to the final waterline
(i.e. there are no watertight flats), and is at the extreme end of the vessel, and there
is no permeability, then there is a shortcut to finding LCB for boxed shaped vessels.
In these scenarios, the LCB is equal to half of the final waterplane length of the
vessel. Finding the TCB after bilging is very similar to finding KB and LCB, however
the centres of each compartment are measured from the centreline of the vessel.
Distances to port are treated as positive, and distances to starboard are treated as
negative.
Table 6.3 Tabular calculation to find TCB after bilging
Item Underwater Centre from Transverse moment of

volume (m3) centreline (m) volume (m4)
Ship at the bilged L × B × bilged draught 0 0

draught
Bilged –(l × b × d of bilged Distance from –(l × b × d of bilged
compartment compartment after original centreline compartment after
bilging × permeability) to centre of bilged bilging × permeability
compartment × distance from original
(port positive, stb centreline to centre of
negative) bilged compartment)
Total Total of volume Total of moment column
column

Total ttra
ansverse
s e se moment o
of v
volume
Overall i =
l TCB after biilging
Total volum
v e
▲ Formula 6.6 Bilged TCB from a table of moments of volume
QUESTION
Q6.14 (MCM, ENG)

For the vessel below, determine the TCB if the mean draught after bilging is 4 m and
the damage is on the port side of the vessel. You may assume that the compartment
permeability is 100%.
8m
4m
2m
100 m
10 m
BM after Bilging a Full Beam

Compartment
(MCM, ENG)
To determine GM, BM is required. Again, this needs consideration as to what the final
waterplane area looks like. If the bilged compartment runs right across the vessel, then
determining BM is straight forward. The vessel has effectively ‘lost’ the waterplane

inertia provided by the bilged compartment. Therefore, if the bilged compartment has
a length l, the BM calculation becomes:
LB 3 lb3
−μ
I
BM = = 12 12
∇ ∇
▲ Formula 6.7 BM after bilging a full beam compartment where waterplane area is lost
QUESTION
Q6.15 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m, a beam of 10 m and floats at a draught of
2 m. The vessel has an amidships compartment formed by two watertight transverse
bulkheads spaced 20 m apart. Determine BM after bilging this amidships compartment
if the permeability is 100%.
The process is identical if the full beam compartment is amidships, at the ends or
anywhere along the length of the vessel. However, for side compartments, the process
is a bit different.
BM after Bilging a Side Compartment

(MCM, ENG)
When a side compartment is bilged, the final waterplane is no longer symmetrical about
the centreline of the ship. The result of this is that the centre of area of the waterplane
moves away from the damage, off of the centreline of the ship. The ship rolls about an
axis which goes through the centre of area of the waterplane in a transverse direction
(just in the same way that she trims about the centre in the longitudinal direction – the
LCF), therefore the ship will roll around an axis which will be away from the centreline
of the vessel, as shown in Figure 6.10. This shows the waterplane of a box shaped vessel
before and after bilging a side compartment with the resulting movement of the centre
of area of the waterplane and the roll axis.

Before bilging After bilging

Waterplane centre
Waterplane centre
Roll axis through Roll axis through

ship centreline waterplane centre
▲ Figure 6.10 Waterplane geometry and side compartment bilging
To determine BM, we need to determine the transverse inertia of the waterplane when
measured about an axis running through the centre of the waterplane.
Previously, we have been able to do this by directly calculating the transverse

inertia of the waterplane, and hence find BM, as the waterplane has been
rectangular or symmetrical about the centreline of the ship. However, we cannot
directly calculate the transverse inertia through the new roll axis after bilging a
side compartment, as the shape of the waterplane after bilging is not rectangular
or symmetrical about the centreline. To calculate the transverse inertia for this
scenario, we need to look at the concept of inertia, or second moment of area, in
a bit more detail.
Inertia is more complicated than geometric measures such as area, in that it varies
depending on the axis it is measured about. This is because inertia is a measure of
the distribution of area from an axis running through a point (see Figure 2.13). The
closer the area of the shape is to that point, the smaller the inertia of the shape.
Conversely, the greater the area of the shape away from the point, the greater the
inertia.
The parallel axis theory
Before we look at inertia in more detail, we need to define some terminology. This can
be confusing, as there are a number of terms which mean the same thing. The value
of inertia depends on where it is measured from. When inertia is measured through an
axis running through the geometric centre of a shape, it is referred to as InertiaCENTROID,
InertiaCENTRE, InertiaNEUTRAL AXIS or InertiaGG, often abbreviated to ICENTROID, ICENTRE, INEUTRAL AXIS or
IGG. These terms all mean the same thing.

When inertia is measured through an axis running through a point away from the
geometric centre of a shape, it is referred to as InertiaREMOTE (or InertiaX or InertiaY
when measured through the x or y axis of a graph), often abbreviated to IR, IXX or IYY.
An example of these measurement axes is shown in Figure 6.11, with the centre axis
running through the centre of the shape and the remote axis running through the
bottom of the shape.
Centre of area
Centroid axis
Remote axis
▲ Figure 6.11 Centroid and remote axes
There is a mathematical link between the inertia measured through an axis at the
centre of the shape (which for the sake of clarity, we’ll call ICENTROID), the inertia measured
through a parallel axis at a remote point away from the centre of the shape (which
again for the sake of clarity, we’ll call IREMOTE), the area of the shape and the distance
between the two axes. This link is known as the parallel axes formula:
IREMOTE
E = ICENT
E TROID + ( Area Dis
i ce 2 )
▲ Formula 6.8 Parallel axes formula
Provided that the area of the shape and the distance between the axes is known, along
with one of the inertia values, then the other inertia value can be determined using the
parallel axes formula.
X For a mathematical proof of this formula, see Appendix 29: Derivation of

the Parallel Axes Theorem (Huygens-Steiner Theorem).

QUESTIONS
Q6.16 (MCM, ENG)

The shape in Figure 6.11 has an area of 6,853 m2. The remote axis is 46 m from the
centroid axis. If the inertia of the shape measured at the centroid axis is 2,814,730.8 m4,
determine the inertia measured at the remote axis.
Q6.17 (MCM, ENG)

A shape has an area of 1,000 m2. The remote axis is 5 m from the centroid axis. If the
inertia of the shape measured at the remote axis is 33,333.33 m4, determine the inertia
measured at the centroid axis.
For rectangular shape of length L metres and width B metres, we have previously seen
that the transverse inertia measured through the centre of the shape can be determined
using Formula 2.8:
LB 3
Inertia =
12
Note that this is an InertiaCENTROID value, as it is measured through the centre of the
shape.
For rectangular shape of length L metres and width B metres, the remote inertia,
measured along one of the long edges of the rectangle, can be determined using:
LB 3
Inertia =
3
▲ Formula 6.9 Remote inertia of a rectangle measured along the long edge
Note that this is an InertiaREMOTE value, as it is measured through an axis away from centre
of the shape. This formula allows us to determine the transverse waterplane inertia
after bilging a side compartment.
X For a mathematical proof of this formula, see Appendix 28: Derivation of

the Formula Giving the Transverse Inertia of a Rectangular Waterplane
Measured from the Edge.

QUESTION
Q6.18 (MCM, ENG)

A rectangular waterplane has a length of 60 m and a beam of 20 m. Determine the
inertia measured along the side of the vessel (the long edge of the rectangle).
Calculating the transverse inertia of the waterplane after bilging a side

compartment (MCM, ENG)
The theory shown in the previous section is needed to determine the transverse inertia
of the waterplane after bilging. To determine this, the centre of the waterplane after
bilging must be found. This will tell us where the roll axis of the vessel is. We can find the
centre of area of the waterplane area by taking moments of area about the centreline of
the vessel. This is very similar to finding the centre of buoyancy, except that the tables
are based on waterplane area.
Table 6.4 Tabular calculation to find the roll axis after bilging
Item Waterplane area Centre from centreline Transverse moment

(m2) (m) of area (m3)
Waterplane of L×B 0 0
the ship at the
bilged draught
Waterplane of –(l × b) Distance from original –(l × b) × distance
the bilged centreline to centre of from original
compartment bilged compartment centreline to centre of
(port positive, stb bilged compartment
negative)
Total Total of area column Total of moment
column
Transverse moment of area

Waterplane centre after biilgiing =
Wa
W aterrplane area
a
▲ Formula 6.10 Bilged centre of waterplane area from a table of moments of area

QUESTION
Q6.19 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m, a beam of 10.00 m, and has a port side
bilged side compartment 8.00 m long and 2.00 m wide. The permeability of the
compartment is 100%. Determine the distance from the centreline of the vessel to the
roll axis after bilging.
The next step is to determine the transverse inertia of the vessel, measured at the
damaged edge. In Formula 6.9, we saw the formula for determining the inertia of a
rectangle along the long edge. This can be adapted for a vessel with a rectangular
waterplane and a bilged rectangular side compartment. For a vessel with a length L,
and beam B, and a damaged side compartment with a length l and a beam b, the inertia
measured at the damaged edge is given by:
LB 3 lb3
IEDGE = −
3 3
▲ Formula 6.11 Inertia at the long edge of a rectangle
As seen previously, the parallel axes theory can be used to determine the inertia
measured through the centre of the shape (which is the roll axis) using the inertia
measured about the edge:
IREMOTE = ICENTRO
E ID + ( Area Distance 2 )
ICENTROID is the inertia at the centre of the shape (the new roll axis), the area is the area of
the shape (the final waterplane area) and the distance is the distance from the damaged
edge to the new roll axis. Therefore, this can be transposed and written as:
IROLL AXIS
X IEDGE − (Waterplane area
a ea × New
e roll dg 2 )
lll axiis to edge
▲ Formula 6.12 Parallel axis formula
Note that with different notation, this may also be written as:
IGG I XX − ( Area h2 )

Or:
ICentroid IRRemote − ( Area h2 )
QUESTION
Q6.20 (MCM, ENG)

A vessel with an initial draught of 2 m is bilged in a starboard side compartment as
shown. Find BM.
20 m
4m
100 m
10 m
BML after Bilging a Full Beam End

Compartment
(MCM, ENG)
For full beam end compartments with a length l, the BML must also be found so that the
GML and MCTC can be found, and the trim determined. If the bilged compartment is at
the end of the vessel, waterplane area is lost as a result of bilging, and the compartment
permeability is one, then the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane can be found from:
( L l )3 B
IL =
12
▲ Formula 6.13 Longitudinal waterplane inertia after bilging an end compartment where
waterplane area is lost

Therefore the bilged BML can be found with:
(( L l )3 B)
I 12
BML = L =
∇ ∇
▲ Formula 6.14 BML after bilging an end compartment where waterplane area is lost
If there is a watertight flat, so that the waterplane area is not reduced as a result of
bilging, then BML can be found as before with:
(L3 B)
BML = 12
∇
▲ Formula 6.15 BML after bilging an end compartment where waterplane area is lost
QUESTIONS
Q6.21 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 80.00 m and a beam of 15.00 m, with a draught
of 3.00 m. The vessel has a full beam end compartment, running the full depth of the
vessel, which is 10.00 m long. Determine the longitudinal BM of the vessel if the end
compartment is bilged.
Q6.22 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 90.00 m and a beam of 20.00 m, with a draught of
5.00 m. The vessel has a 15.00 m long full beam end compartment, with a watertight
flat 2.00 m above the keel. Determine the longitudinal BM of the vessel if the end
compartment is bilged below the watertight flat.
BML after Bilging a Full Beam

Compartment
(ENG)
For full depth, full beam end compartments with a length l, where the bilged
compartment is not at the end of the ship, a different approach must be taken. This

is because the waterplane contributing to the longitudinal BM is effectively in two

sections. This complicates the BML calculation, as the parallel axes theory must be
used to determine the overall longitudinal inertia about the LCF, which is required to
calculate the longitudinal BM.
The first stage is to determine the position of the LCF after bilging. This can be done
by using a table of moments of area, which is the same approach as seen in Table 6.4,
however this time the distances measured must be taken from the aft perpendicular.
Table 6.5 Tabular calculation to find the LCF after bilging
Item Waterplane Centre from AP Longitudinal moment

area (m2) (m FOAP) of area (m3)
Waterplane area of L×B L/2 0

the ship at the
bilged draught
Bilged compartment –(μ × l × b) Distance from AP to –(μ × l × b) × distance
waterplane area centre of bilged from AP to centre of
compartment bilged compartment
Total Total of area column Total of moment column
Longitudinal moment
oment of area
te biilging =
CF after
Total water
w rpllan
a e area
▲ Formula 6.16 Bilged centre of waterplane area from a table of moments of area
QUESTION
Q6.23 (ENG)
A box shaped vessel has a length of 80 m and a beam of 15 m. A full depth, full beam
watertight compartment, with an aft bulkhead located 40 m FOAP and a forward
bulkhead located 50 m FOAP, with a permeability of 0.75, is bilged. Determine the LCF
after bilging.
The next stage in determining the BML is to examine the longitudinal inertia of the
waterplane area measured about the LCF of the vessel, as this is the pivot point
when trimming. To do this, first the longitudinal waterplane inertia of each section of

waterplane must be determined, measured about the centre of area of the section of
waterplane area. The parallel axes theory can be used to then determine the longitudinal
inertia of each section of waterplane, measured about the LCF.
QUESTIONS
Q6.24 (ENG)
A box shaped vessel has a length of 80 m and a beam of 15 m, with an initial draught of
2.00 m. A full beam, full depth watertight compartment, with an aft bulkhead located
40 m FOAP and a forward bulkhead located 50 m FOAP, with a permeability of 0.75, is
then bilged. Determine the BML after bilging, if the LCF is 39.48 m FOAP.
Q6.25 (ENG)
A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and a beam of 20 m, with an initial draught
of 3.00 m. A full beam, full depth watertight compartment, with an aft bulkhead located
30 m FOAP and a forward bulkhead located 40 m FOAP, with a permeability of 0.80, is
then bilged. Determine the LCF and the BML after bilging.
KG after Bilging
(MCM, ENG)
Finding KG after bilging is extremely simple. The lost buoyancy method works by
changing the distribution of buoyancy of the vessel. This in turn changes the stability
of the vessel. We have seen that overall the total displacement is constant. We can also
make the assumption that the distribution of mass has not changed – the water in the
bilged compartment is not technically adding any mass to the vessel. Although there
may be a small change due to damage, we can assume that KG REMAINS CONSTANT.
GM and GML after Bilging

(MCM, ENG)
As has been seen, for a variety of situations, KB, BM and BML can be found, and as KG
is constant, GM and GML can be found. These can be used to determine the transverse
stability and list, as well as longitudinal stability and trim, after bilging.

GM = KB + BM − KG
GML = KB + BML − KG
Trim after Bilging

(MCM, ENG)
When a compartment is bilged, the centre of gravity remains constant. The centre of
buoyancy, which is the centre of the underwater volume, moves longitudinally away
from the original position, which creates a longitudinal imbalance between buoyancy
and gravity. The vessel trims as a result of this.
The MCTC of a bilged vessel can be found using Formula 4.4:
ΔGML
MCTC =
100LBP
Note that the GML is in the bilged condition. The trim can then be found using:
(LCB LCG ) Δ
Trim =
MCTC
The LCB and MCTC must be in the bilged condition.
QUESTIONS
Q6.26 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and a beam of 10 m, with an initial draught
of 2 m, and is initially floating on an even keel. The vessel has a 20 m long forward end
compartment, with a watertight flat creating a double bottom 1.00 m deep. Determine
the GML, MCTC and hence the trim if the forward end compartment is bilged above the
watertight flat. KG is 1.40 m.
Q6.27 (ENG)
before bilging of 4.00 m, and floats on an even keel before bilging. The vessel has a
5.00 m long compartment, running between bulkheads 40.00 m FOAP and 45.00 m
FOAP. The compartment runs the full depth of the vessel.

Determine the GML, MCTC and hence the trim and end draughts after bilging. You may
assume that the compartment permeability is 60% and that the KG is 2.00 m.
Q6.28 (ENG)
FOAP. The compartment runs the full depth of the vessel.
Q6.29 (ENG)
FOAP. There is a watertight flat 1.50 m above the keel. The compartment is then bilged
below the watertight flat.
Q6.30 (ENG)
below the watertight flat.
Q6.31 (ENG)
above the watertight flat.
Determine the GML, MCTC and hence the trim and end draughts after bilging. You
may assume that the compartment permeability is 60% and that the KG is 3.00 m.

Q6.32 (ENG)
above the watertight flat.
List after Bilging

(MCM, ENG)
When a compartment is bilged, the centre of gravity remains constant. The centre of
buoyancy, which is the centre of the underwater volume, moves transversely away
from the side compartment if a side compartment is bilged. The mass of the vessel
acts down from the centre of gravity, and the buoyancy acts up through the centre of
buoyancy, as shown in Figure 6.12.
B B
▲ Figure 6.12 Movement of B due to bilging a side compartment
The list can be determined from Formula 2.11:
(w d)
tanθ =
Δ × GM

The force causing the vessel to list is the buoyancy force, which has moved transversely
across the vessel. Therefore, the w term, the mass causing the list, is equal to the
buoyancy force, which equals the mass of the vessel (see the notes on Archimedes’
Principle for the proof of this). Therefore, Formula 2.11 can be written in terms of the
mass of the vessel:
Δ×d
tanθ =
Δ × GM
The displacement values cancel, giving Formula 6.17, in which d is the shift in the
centre of buoyancy. For a box shaped vessel, this is equal to the shift from the original
centreline to the new roll axis.
d
tanθ =
GM
▲ Formula 6.17 List after bilging a side compartment
QUESTIONS
Q6.33 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and a beam of 10 m, with an initial draught of
2 m, and initially floats upright. The vessel has a 20 m long starboard side compartment,
3 m wide.
The vessel then bilges the starboard side compartment. Determine the transverse
stability and the list if the permeability is 100% and KG is 4 m.
Q6.34 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 50 m, a beam of 8 m and floats at an initial draught
of 2 m in sea water. The vessel is on an even keel and is upright.
The vessel has a full beam, amidships compartment which is 10 m long. The compartment
has a watertight flat in it, 1.20 m above the keel, which forms a double bottom and a
partially filled cargo hold.
As a result of a collision, the cargo hold is then bilged, but the double bottom remains
intact. The vessel sinks until the draught is 2.15 m.
Determine the change in metacentric height as a result of bilging.

Q6.35 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and a beam of 10 m, and an initial draught
of 2.00 m. She floats upright, on an even keel, with a KG of 4.00 m. Two watertight
transverse bulkheads form an amidships compartment with a length of 20 m. Determine
the metacentric height of the vessel if the amidships compartment is bilged with a
permeability of 100%.
Q6.36 (MCM, ENG)

transverse bulkheads form an amidships compartment with a length of 20 m. Determine
the metacentric height of the vessel if the amidships compartment is bilged with a
Q6.37 (MCM, ENG)

transverse bulkheads form an amidships compartment with a length of 20 m. Within
the compartment, a watertight flat forms a double bottom 0.90 m deep. Determine
the metacentric height of the vessel if the amidships double bottom is bilged with a
Q6.38 (MCM, ENG)

the metacentric height of the vessel if the amidships double bottom is bilged with a
Q6.39 (MCM, ENG)

the metacentric height of the vessel if the amidships compartment is bilged above the
double bottom, with a permeability of 100%.
Q6.40 (MCM, ENG)



the metacentric height of the vessel if the amidships compartment is bilged above the
double bottom, with a permeability of 80%.
Q6.41 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and a beam of 10 m, and an initial draught of
2.00 m. She floats upright, on an even keel, with a KG of 4.00 m. A watertight transverse
bulkhead forms a forward end compartment with a length of 20 m. Determine the end
draughts of the vessel if the forward end compartment is bilged with a permeability of
100%.
Q6.42 (MCM, ENG)

of 2.00 m. She floats upright, on an even keel, with a KG of 4.00 m. A watertight
transverse bulkhead forms a forward end compartment with a length of 20 m. Within
the end draughts of the vessel if the forward end compartment is bilged in the double
bottom with a permeability of 100%.
Q6.43 (MCM, ENG)

of 2.00 m. She floats upright, on an even keel, with a KG of 4.00 m. A watertight
transverse bulkhead forms a forward end compartment with a length of 20 m. Within
the end draughts of the vessel if the forward end compartment is bilged in the double
bottom with a permeability of 80%.
Q6.44 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and a beam of 10 m, and an initial draught of
2.00 m. She floats upright, on an even keel, with a KG of 4.00 m. A watertight transverse
bulkhead forms a forward end compartment with a length of 20 m. Within the
compartment, a watertight flat forms a double bottom 0.90 m deep. Determine the end
draughts of the vessel if the forward end compartment is bilged in the compartment
above the double bottom, with a permeability of 100%.
Q6.45 (MCM, ENG)

transverse bulkheads and a longitudinal bulkhead form an amidships compartment

with a length of 20 m and a width of 1.00 m. Determine the list of the vessel if the
amidships compartment is bilged with a permeability of 100%.
GZ Curves for Vessels after Bilging

a Side Compartment
(MCM, ENG)
If a side compartment is bilged, then the centre of buoyancy will move transversely
away from the damaged area. This creates a misalignment between the centre of
gravity and buoyancy, which is analogous to a transverse shift in the centre of gravity
for an intact vessel. Therefore, when the vessel is upright, she will have a negative GZ
value, and all the GZ values at larger angles of heel will be reduced by the cosine of the
initial offset of the centre of buoyancy from the centreline of the ship.
The loss in waterplane area will also result in a reduction in the transverse waterplane
inertia, and hence a reduction in BM and GM, reducing the initial slope of the curve. The
parallel sinkage as a result of bilging will result in a reduction of freeboard, and hence a
reduction in the DEI angle, and subsequent reduction in GZ values past the DEI angle.
These features can be seen in Figure 6.13.
0.4
0.3
Intact
wing tank
Bilged
0.2
0.1
GZ (m)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

–0.1
–0.2
–0.3
–0.4
Heel (degrees)
▲ Figure 6.13 GZ curve after bilging a side compartment

Damaged Stability Requirements
Ships are designed so that in the event of damage, the vessel will retain sufficient
freeboard (i.e. the parallel sinkage is acceptable), and sufficient stability, both in
terms of the initial and large angle stability. These methods are designed to improve
chances of survival. However, it should be remembered that there is no such thing as
an unsinkable ship, only unsinkable materials. We can only minimise the probability of
losing a vessel – not exclude it completely.
The requirements for different regulations are complicated, and are only summarised
here. The appropriate publications should be read for the full requirements.
Passenger vessels pre-2009 (MCM, ENG)
These are described in detail in MSN 1698M (Maritime and Coastguard Agency, 1998).
The freeboard requirements are written using an imaginary datum line known as
the margin line. This runs all around the vessel, 76 mm below the freeboard deck.
A vessel may be assumed to be lost when the margin line touches the water, so the
requirements are written to ensure that, for a reasonable amount of damage, this does
not happen.
Depending on the type of vessel, ships must be designed so that the margin line does
not touch the water if one, two or three compartments are bilged. This is achieved
by keeping the compartments small enough that in the event of bilging the parallel
sinkage is small, or by the use of double bottom and wing tanks, or a combination of
the above. In order to do this, the Naval Architect analyses the design, and determines
the ‘floodable length’ of the potential compartments in the vessel. The floodable length
is the length of a compartment, centred at a point on the vessel, which would cause the
margin line to just touch the water when flooded.
To ensure maximum safety, a number of factors are taken into consideration when
determining how large compartments can actually be, in relation to the maximum size
that would cause the margin line to touch the water surface.
The first factor is the ‘criterion of service numeral’, known as CS. This is effectively a
measure of the passenger carrying capability and distribution in relation to the size
of the vessel. This measures, by formulae, the amount of the vessel occupied by

passengers above the margin line, the accommodation space below the margin line
and the machinery spaces. This can be thought of as a measure of the ‘vulnerability’ of
the design of the ship.
The next variable is the ‘factor of subdivision’, known as F. This value, which is always
less than one, is determined by formulae from CS and the length of the vessel. CS and F
are inversely proportional to each other, so an increase in CS would result in a decrease
in F. These values are used to determine the ‘permissible length’ of a compartment:
issible lengt
length
t l d bl length × Factor of subdivision
Floodable
Floodable
What this effectively means is that the compartments in a vessel are smaller than that
which is required to cause the margin line to touch the water in the event of bilging,
and therefore a factor of safety is included in the design of the compartment. ‘Curves of
Permissible Length’ are then created by the Naval Architect, which show the allowable
length of compartment at any point.
The reciprocal (i.e. 1/F) of the ‘factor of subdivision’ is known as the ‘compartment
standard’. This is effectively the number adjacent compartments which could be
flooded while still keeping the margin line dry. The compartment standard is rarely a
whole number – it should be rounded down to find the number of compartments. The
permissible length must be subdivided by watertight bulkheads so that it contains the
same number of compartments as the compartment standard.
The vessel must also retain suitable stability characteristics after damage. The stability
rules are based on what is known as a ‘deterministic’ approach. This approach applies a
predetermined amount of damage to the ship, and the ship must have suitable stability
characteristics after receiving this damage.
Under this approach, the vessel is assumed to have been damaged so that a section of
the ship is destroyed as follows:
Over a length of 3 m plus 3% of the ship length, or 11 m, whichever is less (if the vessel
is a three compartment standard, this damage must cover three compartments).
20% of the beam.
The entire depth of the vessel.
The vessel is assumed to be in the worst-case loading scenario.
Permeability is set (e.g. 0.95 for accommodation, 0.85 for machinery spaces).
If lesser damage causes a more serious condition, then the worst case must be
used.

After this damage is inflicted on the vessel (and using the lost volume calculation
method for bilging), and she has reached her equilibrium condition, she must meet the
requirements as follows:
A metacentric height of at least 0.05 m.

An angle of list of no more than 7 degrees for one compartment flooding, or
12 degrees for two or more adjacent compartments.
The area under the GZ curve must be at least 0.015 metre radians, measured from
the equilibrium angle to the lesser of progressive flooding, 22 degrees for one
compartment flooding, or 27 degrees for simultaneous flooding of two or more
adjacent compartments, or a major progressive flooding point where there is a rapid
reduction in GZ of 0.04 m or more.
The range of stability must be at least 15 degrees. If the area under the curve as
described above is increased by the ratio of 15/range (in degrees), then the range of
stability may be reduced from 15 to 10 degrees.
The peak GZ value must be no less than 0.10 m, and at least the value given by:
Heeling
g moment
GZ = + 0 04
Δ
Within this, the heeling moment is the maximum of the heeling moment generated by
the following scenarios:
All passengers crowding to one side of the ship (this assumes that each passenger
has a mass of 75 kg and that passengers can crowd with 4 to a square metre, on deck
areas on one side of the vessel where the muster stations are located).
The launching of all fully loaded, davit launched survival craft on one side of the
vessel.
Wind pressure of 120 N/m2 on one side of the ship.
For passenger vessels not carrying vehicles on the bulkhead deck, the margin line may
be submerged during the flooding and equalisation process (however it must not be
submerged in the final equilibrium condition), provided that there is partial subdivision
above the bulkhead deck stops the spread of water along the bulkhead deck, and
results in a heel angle below 15 degrees.
This method (known as a deterministic method, as the ship must survive a predetermined
amount of damage) is sufficient to model a range of scenarios, however, in reality any
accidents are unlikely to cause damage which neatly fits the scenario planned for, so

they are slowly being replaced by ‘probabilistic’ methods. These probabilistic methods
look at the probability of damage occurring at a particular location. For example,
damage may be more likely under the vessel forward than on the side shell forward.
The possibility of the damage running through more than one compartment, and the
probability of different types of incident, is then determined.
These are put together to determine the probability of flooding a particular

compartment in the vessel. Each compartment in turn is then assumed to be flooded.
The possible GM, trim, weather, permeability and other statistical factors are taken
into account to determine the possibility of the vessel sinking or capsizing.
The overall probability of survival in each case is then assessed, and the overall chance
of losing the vessel is determined. The layout of the vessel can then be designed in such
a way that a large range of incidents can be dealt with.
The overall probability of survival of any incident is then compared against a minimum
allowable, which itself is based on the ship length and passenger numbers (or the
length for cargo vessels).
Probabilistic rules are more expensive and harder to use (from the point of view of
the Naval Architect and shipyard) as they give less initial guidance to placement of
bulkheads, and are computationally expensive (specialist software is required), however
they give a much better assessment of the ‘overall’ problem than simply assuming
damage scenarios.
The Stockholm Agreement (MCM)
Large Ro-Ro passenger vessels have a number of potential risks associated with them:
Lack of watertight division on the car decks, with the potential for significant free
surface effects
High compartment permeability allowing greater potential for flooding
Large holes for bow and stern doors for fast turn-around
Wide sterns and stern doors cause slamming in heavy seas
Significant windage and wind heeling angles
Significant danger of shifting cargo (vehicles and vehicle’s own cargo)
Large heel angles when turning (especially evasive manoeuvres in congested
waters)

Probabilistic rules are already being used on these vessels. These address not only the
danger of water on vehicle decks, but the often rapid sinking of this type of vessel after
flooding. MSC/Circ. 574 describes the Stockholm Agreement, which is now in force. This
assesses the probability that the vessel will survive after damage with water ingress,
with the probability of damage varying according to location on the ship. The overall
probability of survival takes into account the chance of a compartment flooding,
and the chance of surviving that compartment flooding. The agreement requires the
calculation of an A/Amax value. A is a subdivision index, and Amax is maximum value
of survivability of the vessel. The agreement also takes into account the hypothetical
effect of 0.5 m (or less, depending on freeboard) of water on the vehicle deck closest
to the waterline.
Safe return to port regulations (MCM, ENG)
In 2006, IMO approved a new set of regulations for passenger vessels. These were
written on the basis that the safest lifeboat is the ship itself. As the name suggests,
these regulations are intended to ensure that a vessel can survive damage (up to a
realistic threshold) and be able to safely return to port. These regulations are applicable
to all passenger ships built on or after 1 July 2010, which have a length of 120 m or
more, or have three or more main vertical fire zones.
These regulations require relevant ships to be able to return to port in the event of the
flooding of any one single watertight compartment. This includes the engine room,
so twin engine vessels will have to have subdivided engine rooms to ensure that one
engine can operate even if the other engine is in a flooded space. In the event of more
than one compartment flooding, the vessel must be designed to be evacuated safely,
with 3 hours available for abandonment.
Damaged stability requirements – ‘Type A’ and ‘Type B’ vessels

(pre-2009) (MCM)
Type A vessels, as defined in the Load Line Regulations (i.e. carrying liquid cargo in
bulk) and Type B (all other vessels) have to be able to withstand a certain amount of
damage and remain stable and afloat. The depth of damage is assumed to be over the
entire depth of the vessel. The transverse extent of the damage is assumed to be B/5
or 11.5 m, whichever is lesser. The flooding shall longitudinally be confined to a single
compartment between transverse bulkheads, provided any longitudinal bulkheads are
outside of the transverse damage limits – this changes for B-60 and B-100 vessels.

A B-60 vessel must be able to withstand the flooding of any compartment or

compartments, with a permeability of 95%, consequent on the damage assumptions
given, so that she remains afloat in an equilibrium position (detailed later).
A B-100 vessel must be able to withstand the flooding of any two adjacent compartments
(not including the machinery space if the vessel is less than 150 m).
All vessels must meet the minimum requirements shown in Figure 6.14.
GZ
Max GZ must be greater than 0.1 m
Total list must

be less than
15º (17 if the
deck edge is
not immersed) Total area must be
greater than 0.0175 m
Rad
Heel
Range must be greater than 20º
Min GM must be greater than 0.05 m
▲ Figure 6.14 Type A and Type B damaged GZ curves
SOLAS damaged stability rules post-2009
IMO has introduced new regulations for damaged stability requirements for passenger
and dry cargo vessels in SOLAS 2009. These new regulations differ from the previous
regulations, which were based on a deterministic approach, as the new regulations are
based on a mix of deterministic and probabilistic approaches.
The new rules apply to vessel with a keel laying date on or after the first of January 2009
respectively for vessels which undergo a major conversion on or after that date. The
regulations apply to cargo vessels over 80 m in length, and all passenger vessels.
The rules require double bottoms to be fitted, unless it can be proved that alternative
arrangements are as safe. The double bottom must be the minimum of 0.76 m or 5% of
the maximum beam, but need not be deeper than 2 m.

Cross flooding should be, as far as possible, automatic. Manual systems must be
operated from above the bulkhead deck. Cross flooding arrangements must bring
the vessel to an acceptable condition within 10 minutes, and must be detailed in the
damage control plans in the stability book.
For all ships, a value known as the Required Subdivision Index, R is found. For cargo
vessels, this depends on the length of the vessel, and for passenger ships, this depends
on the length of the vessel, the capacity of the lifeboats and the number of people the
vessel is permitted to carry in relation to the capacity of the lifeboats.
The vessel is considered at three draught and trim combinations:
DS – Deepest subdivision draught, on an even keel

DP – Partial subdivision draught, on an even keel
DL – Light service draught, which is the ballast condition for dry cargo vessels or the
arrival condition for passenger vessels, with a trim corresponding to that condition,
but no more than 1% of the length.
For each draught, the safety of the vessel is measured by a partial safety index AS, AP or AL.
These partial safety index values are mathematically derived from the probability of
compartments, or combination of compartments flooding, and the condition of stability
of the vessel after flooding those compartments or combination of compartments.
This takes into account the angle of list after flooding, the down-flooding angle after
flooding, the peak GZ values and the range of stability after flooding. For passenger
vessels, this also includes a factor to allow for passenger crowding (at 75 kg per person,
with 4 passengers per square metre), wind heeling pressure of 120 Newtons per metre
squared and the launching of fully laden survival craft. For different types of cargo,
permeability values for compartments are specified.
For passenger vessels carrying over 36 passengers, there are additional deterministic
requirements:
vertical damage from the baseline to 12.5 m above the deepest draught
if more than 400 passengers are carried, the damage is assumed to be greater than
3 m or 3% of the length of the ship, at any point along the side shell, with a hull
penetration of the greater of 0.75 m or 10% of the maximum beam of the vessel
if less than 400 passengers are carried, the damage is assumed to occur at any point
along the side shell between watertight bulkheads
where 36 passengers are carried, the damage is assumed to be greater than 3 m or
1.5% of the length of the ship, with a hull penetration greater than 0.75 m or 5% of
the maximum beam

between 36 and 400 passengers, linear interpolation may be used to determine the
damage length and penetration.
These partial safety indices are combined to give an overall safety index A, which for
dry cargo vessels must be more than 0.5 R, or for passenger vessels, more than 0.9 R.
BILGING AND DAMAGED STABILITY – LEARNING CHECKLIST
Understand the definition of bilging MCM, ENG

Calculate the lost volume in a bilged compartment MCM, ENG
Determine the sinkage as a result of lost volume in a MCM, ENG
bilged compartment at any point along the length of
the vessel
bilged double bottom at any point along the length
of the vessel
bilged compartment above a double bottom at any
point along the length of the vessel
bilged compartment with a watertight flat above the
initial waterline
bilged side compartment
Apply the effects of permeability to sinkage MCM, ENG
calculations
Calculate the permeability of a compartment MCM, ENG
Calculate KB after bilging a whole compartment, a MCM, ENG
double bottom or a compartment above a double
bottom, including the effects of permeability
Calculate the LCB after bilging a whole compartment, MCM, ENG
a double bottom or a compartment above a double
bottom, including the effects of permeability
Calculate the TCB after bilging a side compartment MCM, ENG

Calculate the transverse waterplane inertia after MCM, ENG

bilging a full beam compartment, a double bottom
or a compartment above a double bottom, located
at amidships, including the effects of permeability
Calculate the transverse waterplane inertia after MCM, ENG
bilging a full beam compartment, a double
bottom (including the effects of permeability) or a
compartment above a double bottom, located at the
end of a ship
Calculate the longitudinal waterplane inertia MCM, ENG
after bilging a full beam compartment, a double
compartment above a double bottom, located at the
end of a ship
Calculate the longitudinal waterplane inertia ENG
after bilging a full beam compartment, a double
compartment above a double bottom, located away
from the end of a ship
Calculate the position of the roll axis after bilging a MCM, ENG
side compartment
Calculate the transverse inertia of a waterplane with MCM, ENG
a bilged side compartment
Calculate BM and BML using the waterplane inertia MCM, ENG
after bilging
Calculate GM and GML after bilging MCM, ENG
Calculate the trim of a vessel after bilging MCM, ENG
Calculate the end draughts of a vessel after bilging MCM, ENG
Calculate the list after bilging MCM, ENG
Understand how bilging influences the GZ curve MCM, ENG
Calculate the change in stability as a result of bilging MCM, ENG
Understand and explain the current and historical MCM, ENG
requirements for minimum damaged stability of
passenger vessels, and Type A and Type B vessels

7
CALCULATING HULL
SHEAR FORCE AND
BENDING MOMENT
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Plot the shear force diagram for a simplified vessel

Plot the bending moment diagram for a simplified vessel
Analyse the shear force and bending moment diagrams for a simplified vessel
Basic Structural Calculations
So far we have considered the buoyancy forces to act through a single point – the centre
of buoyancy. We have also considered the mass forces to act through a single point –
the centre of gravity. When the longitudinal centres of buoyancy and gravity are aligned
and the forces are equal in magnitude, the vessel floats at a static waterline (and a static
trim).
While these assumptions are valid for the ship as a whole, for structural calculations we
need to look at the distribution of buoyancy and mass in the vessel in more detail.
9781408176122_Ch07_Rev_txt_prf.indd 270 11/16/2013 2:46:50 AM

Calculating Hull Shear Force and Bending Moment • 271
While the overall amount of buoyancy supporting the ship will be equal to the
displacement of the vessel, the distribution of buoyancy is not equal along the length of
the vessel. At any point along the vessel, the buoyancy is proportional to the underwater
cross-section of the ship at that point. Therefore, at the ends of the vessel, where the beam
narrows at the bow and stern, there will be less buoyancy force acting on the vessel than
at amidships, where the beam and draught are maximum. The distribution of mass also
varies along the length of the vessel. The amount of mass at any point along the vessel
will depend on the structure of the ship, and the distribution of cargo, fuel and stores.
If we imagine the vessel sliced transversely into a series of sections, the buoyancy force
acting upwards on that section of the ship is unlikely to be equal to the mass of that
section of the ship. The difference between the buoyancy acting upwards on the section
and the mass acting downwards on the section is known as the load. On some sections,
there will be less buoyancy acting upwards than mass acting downwards, so there will
be a net downwards (or negative) load acting on the section, while in other sections
there will be more buoyancy acting upwards than mass acting downwards, so there will
be a net upwards (or positive) load acting on the section. The overall buoyancy acting
on all of the sections will equal the overall mass of the ship and contents, however it
is the difference between mass and buoyancy on each individual section that creates
stress in the structure of the vessel. This stress must be kept within acceptable limits to
avoid damage to the structure and possible structural failure.
The mechanisms by which the buoyancy and mass create stress in the structure are
known as ‘shear force’ and ‘bending moments’. The shear force at any point along
the vessel is the sum of the loads acting aft of the point under consideration. This is
effectively the total imbalance in vertical forces up to the point under consideration.
This must be kept within acceptable limits to ensure that the shear stress acting on the
structure is within acceptable limits. The bending moment at any point along the vessel
is the sum of the loads acting aft of the point under consideration, multiplied by the
distance to the point under consideration. This must be kept within acceptable limits
to ensure that the bending stresses acting on the structure, which causes hogging or
sagging distortion of the structure, is kept within acceptable limits.
The normal method of presenting load, shear force and bending moment distribution
is to plot them on a graph, with the shear force and bending moment plotted on the y
axis, against the ship length on the x axis. These are known as the load, shear force and
bending moment diagrams.
To determine the shear force and bending moment, first the ‘load’ in each section must be
determined. As mentioned previously, this is the difference between the total mass of the
section, being acted on by gravity, and the total buoyancy of the section. The mass of each
section can be determined from the lightship displacement and the mass of cargo carried.

Assuming that the structural mass is evenly distributed along the length of the vessel,
the structural mass per metre of ship length can be found from:
Δ LIGHTSHIP
r mass per metre =
Structural
L
▲ Formula 7.1 Structural mass per metre of ship length
Assuming that the cargo mass in each hold is evenly distributed along the length of
each of the holds, the cargo mass per metre of hold length can be found from:
Mass of hold c go
ass per metre =
C go mass
Hold length
▲ Formula 7.2 Cargo mass per metre of hold length
As the buoyancy force (in units of tonnes force) must be equal overall to the total
mass of the vessel (see Archimedes), and assuming that the buoyancy force is evenly
distributed along the length of the vessel (which is valid for box shaped vessels), the
buoyancy force per metre of ship length can be found from:
Δ LOAD
Buoyancy force per metre = O ED
L
▲ Formula 7.3 Buoyancy force per metre of ship length
The overall load per metre of ship length can then be found at any point along the
vessel from the sum of the structural, cargo and buoyancy forces:
Load pe etre = Buoyancy force pe

per metre Structural mass per metre
− C go mass
ass per metre
▲ Formula 7.4 Load acting per metre of ship length
This can also be written as:
Δ LOADED Δ Mass of hold c go

Load = O
− LIGHTSHIP −
L L Hold length

A graph can then be drawn, showing the position along the ship on the x axis, and
the load on the y axis. This is known as the load diagram. The load diagram is a ‘square’
shaped diagram, as shown in Figure 7.1.
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load (tonnes)
–5
–10
–15
–20
–25
Position (m FOAP)
▲ Figure 7.1 Sample load diagram
The definition of shear force at any point along the vessel is ‘the sum of the vertical
forces acting to one side of that point’. This is equivalent to the area under the load
diagram up to that point. Therefore, to determine the shear force at any point, the
area under the load diagram is found up to that point. This allows another diagram
to be plotted, showing the variation in shear force along the length of the vessel. This
is the shear force diagram. The shear force diagram is a ‘saw tooth’ shape, as shown in
Figure 7.2.
The definition of bending moment at any point along the vessel is ‘the sum of the
vertical forces acting to one side of that point, multiplied by the distance of the force
to the point of consideration’. This is equivalent to the area under the shear force
diagram up to that point. Therefore, to determine the bending moment at any point,
the area under the shear force diagram is found up to that point. This allows another
diagram to be plotted, showing the variation in bending moment along the length of
the vessel. This is the bending moment diagram. This is a smooth curve, as shown in
Figure 7.3. Positive bending moment values indicate sagging, negative values indicate
hogging.

300
250
200
150
100
Shear force (tonnes)
50
0
0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10
–50
–100
–150
–200
–250
Position (m)
▲ Figure 7.2 Sample shear force diagram
5,000
4,000
Bending moment (tonne metres)
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
–1,000
Position (m FOAP)
▲ Figure 7.3 Sample bending moment diagram

QUESTION
Q7.1 (MCM, ENG)

A box barge is 60 m long with a beam of 10 m. The barge floats at a lightship draft
of 0.524 m in salt water. The barge is separated into three equal size compartments,
each 20 m long. The two end compartments are each loaded with 300 tonnes of cargo,
evenly distributed along the length and beam of the compartment. Draw the load,
shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Load diagram
12.00
10.00
8.000
6.000
Load (t/m)
4.000
2.000
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–2.000
–4.000
–6.000
Position (m)
Shear force diagram

150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
–10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–20
–30
–40
–50
–60
–70
–80
–90
–100
–110
–120
–130
–140
–150
Position (m)

Bending moment diagram

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–200
–400
Bending moment (t/m)
–600
–800
–1,000
–1,200
–1,400
–1,600
Position (m)
Note that the overall area under the load diagram must be zero (as the vessel is floating
in equilibrium the overall vertical loads must be zero), the shear force value must also
therefore start and finish at zero, and the peak bending moment value occurs at the
point of minimum shear force with the steepest gradient.
X The shear force and bending moment can also be determined directly using
calculus. For a demonstration of this, see Appendix 30: Direct Calculation of
Shear Force and Bending Moment.
QUESTION
Q7.2 (MCM, ENG)

A box shaped vessel has a length of 100 m and a loaded displacement of 5,840 tonnes.
In the lightship condition, the vessel floats on an even keel. The vessel is split by
transverse bulkheads into five equal size compartments. Compartment 5 is loaded with
300 tonnes of cargo; compartment 4 is loaded with 700 tonnes of cargo; compartment
3 is loaded with 400 tonnes of cargo; compartment 2 is loaded with 200 tonnes of
cargo; and compartment 1 is loaded with cargo so that the vessel finishes loading on
an even keel.
Construct the curves of load, shear force and bending moment, and hence determine
the position, direction and magnitude of the maximum bending moment.

CALCULATING HULL SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 

LEARNING CHECKLIST
Plot the shear force diagram for a simplified vessel MCM, ENG
Plot the bending moment diagram for a simplified vessel MCM, ENG
Analyse the shear force and bending moment diagrams MCM, ENG
for a simplified vessel

8
CALCULATING
HYDROSTATICS
USING SIMPSON’S
RULE
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Calculate the area under a graph

Calculate the moment of area under a graph, relative to the x axis
Calculate the centre of area under a graph, relative to the x axis
Calculate the moment of area under a graph, relative to the y axis
Calculate the centre of area under a graph, relative to the y axis
Calculate the inertia of area under a graph, relative to the x axis
Calculate the inertia of area under a graph, relative to the y axis
Use the parallel axis theory to determine the inertia through the centre of the graph,
parallel to the x axis
Use the parallel axis theory to determine the inertia through the centre of the graph,
parallel to the y axis
Use Simpson’s Rule as appropriate with half stations
Understand the importance of the hull lines plan

Calculating Hydrostatics Using Simpson’s Rule • 279
Calculate the submerged volume and displacement of a vessel from the section area
curve
Calculate the submerged volume and displacement of a vessel from the draught
waterplane area curve
Calculate the KB of a vessel from the draught waterplane area curve
Estimate KB using Morrish’s method
Calculate the transverse inertia of the waterplane area from the waterline half beam curve
Calculate GM using data from the lines plan data
Calculate the waterplane area and the TPC from the lines plan data
Calculate the free surface effect caused by a non-rectangular tank
Calculate the GM for a multihull
Determine the effect of sponsons on metacentric height
Calculate the position of the LCB from the lines plan data
Calculate the position of the LCF from the lines plan data
Calculate the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane area from the waterline half beam
curve
So far all the calculations have been based on box shaped vessels, or on given
hydrostatic data. This significantly simplifies the calculation process. For real ships with
curved hull forms, the hydrostatic values can be calculated from graphs derived from
the hull shape.
All of these calculations are based on Simpson’s Rule, which we have previously used to
find the area under a graph. In addition to the calculation of area, Simpson’s Rule also
allow the analysis of the following geometric properties of graphs:
Area under a graph (integration, as seen previously)

Moments of area of the area under a graph
Centroids of area of the area under a graph
Second moment of area (inertia) of the area under a graph
Finding the Moment of Area about

the X Axis, and the Centre of Area
from the X Axis
(ENG)
The next parameter to be found is the moment of area, measured relative to (or ‘about’)
the x axis. This is a measure of the distribution of the area under the graph relative to (or

‘about’) the x axis, as shown in Figure 8.1. This can be used to find the centre, or centroid
of the graph, as a distance from the x axis, also shown in Figure 8.1.
4
y
2
Centre of area
from X axis
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x
▲ Figure 8.1 Moment of area about the X axis and the centre of area from the X axis
Again, this is found using a tabular calculation. The first stage is to draw up a table,
with columns headed Ordinate, Offset, Offset2, Simpson’s Multiplier and MomentX
product.
Ordinate Offset Offset2 Simpson’s Multiplier MomentX product
X1 Y1 (Y1)2 1 1(Y1)2
X2 Y2 (Y2)2 4 4(Y2)2
X3 Y3 (Y3)2 2 2(Y3)2
X4 Y4 (Y4)2 4 4(Y4)2
X5 Y5 (Y5)2 2 2(Y5)2
X6 Y6 (Y6)2 4 4(Y6)2
X7 Y7 (Y7)2 1 1(Y7)2
Total Sum of above
As before, the ordinate column lists each ordinate. The offset column lists each offset
measured at each ordinate, with the offset2 column listing the squared value. The
Simpson’s Multiplier column is as before. The MomentX product column is the product
of the offset2 and Simpson’s Multiplier columns. Once the MomentX product column

has been completed, the summation of the column can be found. This can be used to
determine the moment of area about the x axis using:
⎛ Spacing ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Moment o axiis =
of area about tthe X a × × Σ ( Momen
o t X product )
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
▲ Formula 8.1 Moment of area about the X axis
Once the moment of area about the x axis has been found, the centre of the graph from
the x axis can be found using:
Moment of area about tthe X axis

a
Centre of area from the X axis =
Area u
under
de tthe graph
▲ Formula 8.2 Centre of area from the X axis
Note that the area under the graph can be found using the methods seen previously in
Chapter 3, ‘Dynamic Stability (OOW, MCM, ENG)’.
QUESTION
Q8.1 (ENG)
A graph has the following coordinates:
X Y
0 5
2 6
4 5.25
6 4
8 2
Determine the first moment of area about the x axis, and hence determine the centre
of area from the x axis.

Finding the Moment of Area about

the Y Axis, and the Centre of Area
from the Y Axis
(ENG)
The next parameter to be found is the moment of area, measured relative to (or ‘about’)
the y axis, as shown in Figure 8.2. This is a measure of the distribution of the graph from
the y axis, and can be used to find the centre, or centroid of the graph, as a distance
from the y axis, also shown in Figure 8.2.
4
y
3
Centre of area
from Y axis
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x
▲ Figure 8.2 Moment of area about the Y axis and the centre of area from the Y axis
Again, this is found using a tabular calculation. The first stage is to draw up a table, with
columns headed Ordinate, Offset, Lever, Simpson’s Multiplier and MomentY product:
Ordinate Offset Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
X1 Y1 0 1 0 × 1(Y1)
X2 Y2 1 4 1 × 4(Y2)
X3 Y3 2 2 2 × 2(Y3)
X4 Y4 3 4 3 × 4(Y4)
X5 Y5 4 2 4 × 2(Y5)
X6 Y6 5 4 5 × 4(Y6)
X7 Y7 6 1 6 × 1(Y7)
Total Sum of above

As before, the ordinate column lists each ordinate and the offset column lists each
offset measured at each ordinate. The lever column lists the number of ‘spacings’ of
the ordinate from the y axis. This is the same as the ordinate. The Simpson’s Multiplier
column is as before. The MomentY product column is the product of the offset, lever
and Simpson’s Multiplier columns. Once the MomentY product column has been
completed, the summation of the column can be found. This can be used to determine
the moment of area about the y axis using:
Moment oof area ⎛ Spacing ⎞

= × Spacing ( Momen
e tY product )
about the
t Ya axiis ⎝ 3 ⎠
▲ Formula 8.3 Moment of area about the Y axis
Once the moment of area about the y axis has been found, the centre of the graph from
the y axis can be found using:
Moment of area about tthe Y axis

a
Centre of area from the Y axis =
Area u
under
de tthe graph
▲ Formula 8.4 Centre of area from the Y Axis
QUESTION
Q8.2 (ENG)
X Y
0 5
2 6
4 5.25
6 4
8 2
Determine the first moment of area about the y axis, and hence determine the centre
of area from the y axis.

Finding the Second Moment of Area,

or Inertia, Relative to the X Axis
(ENG)
The concept of second moment of area, or inertia, has already been discussed in the
chapter explaining the transverse metacentre. Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine
the inertia of the area under the graph relative to the x axis of the graph.
Ordinate Offset Offset3 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaX product
X1 Y1 (Y1)3 1 1(Y1)3
X2 Y2 (Y2)3 4 4(Y2)3
X3 Y3 (Y3)3 2 2(Y3)3
X4 Y4 (Y4)3 4 4(Y4)3
X5 Y5 (Y5)3 2 2(Y5)3
X6 Y6 (Y6)3 4 4(Y6)3
X7 Y7 (Y7)3 1 1(Y7)3
Total Sum of above
The first stage is to draw up a table, with columns headed Ordinate, Offset, Offset3,
Simpson’s Multiplier and InertiaX product:
As before, the ordinate column lists each ordinate. The offset column lists each offset
measured at each ordinate, with the offset3 column listing the cubed value. The
Simpson’s Multiplier column is as before. The InertiaX product column is the product
of the offset3 and Simpson’s Multiplier columns. Once the InertiaX product column
has been completed, the summation of the column can be found. This can be used to
determine the inertia of area about the x axis using:
Inertia about the X axis = × × Σ ( Inertia X product )
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
▲ Formula 8.5 Inertia about the X axis

QUESTION
Q8.3 (ENG)
X Y
0 5
2 6
4 5.25
6 4
8 2
Determine the inertia about the x axis.
Finding the Second Moment of Area,

or Inertia, Relative to the Y Axis
(ENG)
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the inertia of the area under the graph relative
to the y axis of the graph. The first stage is to draw up a table, with columns headed
Ordinate, Offset, Lever2, Simpson’s Multiplier and InertiaY product.
Ordinate Offset Lever2 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaY product
X1 Y1 02 1 02 × 1(Y1)
X2 Y2 12 4 12 × 4(Y2)
X3 Y3 22 2 22 × 2(Y3)
X4 Y4 32 4 32 × 4(Y4)
X5 Y5 42 2 42 × 2(Y5)
X6 Y6 52 4 52 × 4(Y6)
X7 Y7 62 1 62 × 1(Y7)
Total Sum of above
As before, the ordinate column lists each ordinate and the offset column lists each offset
measured at each ordinate. The lever2 column lists the number of ‘spacings’ squared of

the ordinate from the y axis. This is the same as the ordinate squared, and the Simpson’s
Multiplier column is as before. The InertiaY product column is the product of the offset,
lever2 and Simpson’s Multiplier columns. Once the InertiaY product column has been
completed, the summation of the column can be found. This can be used to determine
the inertia of area about the y axis using:
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Inertia about the Y axis = × Spacing 2 (InertiaY product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
▲ Formula 8.6 Inertia about the Y axis
QUESTION
Q8.4 (ENG)
X Y
0 5
2 6
4 5.25
6 4
8 2
Determine the inertia about the y axis.
Graphs and Parallel Axes Theory

(ENG)
As discussed in the section on bilging a side compartment, the inertia of a shape varies
depending on where it is measured through. So far we have measured the inertia of
the area under the graph about the x and y axes. The values of inertia that we have
calculated about the x and y axes have been the InertiaREMOTE values, as they are not
measured through an axis running through the centroid of the shape. The parallel axes
theory allows us to calculate the inertia through axes running through the centre of the

shape (as shown in Figure 8.3) if we know the remote inertia. This will be needed for
further calculations later.
y InertiaY remote 7
InertiaY centroid
6
4
Inertiax
centroid
3
2
Centre of area
from Y axis Centre of area from X axis
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x Inertiax remote
▲ Figure 8.3 Remote and centroid inertia through the X and Y axes and axes through the
centre parallel to the X and Y axes
QUESTION
Q8.5 (ENG)
For the graph formed by the coordinates in Question 8.4, the area is 38.333 units2, the
centre of the graph is 2.540 m from the x axis and 3.513 m from the y axis. The inertia
measured about the x axis is 342.758 units4, and the inertia measured about the y axis
is 645.34 units4.
Determine the Inertia measured through an axis parallel to the X axis, but running
through the centre of area of the graph, and determine the inertia measured through
an axis parallel to the Y axis, but running through the centre of area of the graph.
These techniques are all required to determine the hydrostatics from graphs which are
derived from the shape of the hull. This will be covered in more detail later.
QUESTION
Q8.6 (ENG)

X (m) Y (m)
0 0
4 8
8 15
12 20
16 17
20 10
24 0
Using Simpson’s Rule, determine:
The area under the graph

The first moment of area relative to the x axis
The centre of area relative to the x axis
The first moment of area relative to the y axis
The centre of area relative to the y axis
The inertia relative to the x axis, measured through the x axis
The inertia relative to the y axis, measured through the y axis
The inertia relative to the x axis, measured through the centre of the graph
The inertia relative to the y axis, measured through the centre of the graph
Half Stations
(ENG)
Simpson’s Rule are accurate enough for normal use in Naval Architecture. However,
the accuracy can be further improved by the use of ‘half stations’. As seen previously
in the section on dynamic stability, the accuracy of Simpson’s Rule depends on the
curvature of the graph and the number of ordinates. Increasing the curvature of
the graph decreases accuracy, and increasing the number of ordinates increases
accuracy. However, increasing the number of ordinates improves the accuracy, but also
significantly increases the time it takes to complete the calculation.
For virtually all the graphs used in the calculation of hydrostatics, there is more curvature
at the ends of the graph than in the middle. To improve the accuracy of the calculation,
additional ordinates are used at the start and end of the curve. These are known as
‘half stations’. These half stations are placed exactly halfway between the first set of

ordinates, and halfway between the last set of ordinates. It is not necessary to have half
stations at each end, they can be used either at the start or finish of the curve.
When using half stations, the tabular calculations for half stations are very similar to
the normal calculations – the only difference is the Simpson’s Multiplier pattern of
numbers. If a half station is used, the Simpson’s Multiplier column for the ordinates at
that end of the curve start with 0.5, 2, 1.5, and then alternate 4, 2, 4, 2 in between, and
finishing with a 1.5, 2, 0.5 if a half station is used at the end of the curve.
QUESTIONS
Q8.7 (ENG)
A graph has the following coordinates, including half stations:
X (m) Y (m)
0 5
1 5.6
2 6
4 5.25
6 4
7 3
8 2
Determine (including using the half stations) the area of the graph.
Q8.8 (ENG)
A graph has the following coordinates, including half stations:
X (m) Y (m)
0 0
2 4
4 8
8 15
12 20
16 17
20 10
22 5
24 0
Determine (including using the half stations) the area of the graph.

Q8.9 (ENG)
X (m) Y (m)
0 0
2 1
4 2
8 3
12 4
16 5
20 5
24 4
28 2
30 1
32 0

Q8.10 (ENG)
X (m) Y (m)
0 4
3 5
6 6

X (m) Y (m)
12 7
18 7
24 6
30 5
36 4
42 3
45 2
48 0

The Lines Plan

(ENG)
Most of the information required to directly calculate the hydrostatics can be determined
from a plan of the hull known as the lines plan. This shows the shape of the hull from
three viewpoints (ahead, above and from the side), using a series of contours to show
the shape.
The view from the bow or stern is called the body plan or section plan, as shown in
Figure 8.4. The contours on this view, which effectively show the shape of transverse
slices across the hull, are called the stations or sections. These are normally numbered,
with zero at the aft perpendicular, and increase in number going forward – note that

▲ Figure 8.4 Body plan view
some sign conventions number the station at the forward perpendicular as zero, and
then increase the station number going aft.
The view from above is called the plan view, as shown in Figure 8.5. The contours on this
view, which show slices through the hull parallel to the waterline, are called waterlines.
These show the shape of the waterplane area at a range of draughts.
▲ Figure 8.5 Plan view
The view from the side is called the profile view, as shown in Figure 8.6. The contours
on this view, which show slices through the hull parallel to the centreline, are called
buttock lines.
▲ Figure 8.6 Profile view
By using each of the three views, it is possible to determine the coordinates of the hull
surface at any point on the hull. More usefully from a calculation point of view, it is
possible to determine the shape of the hull for calculations.

Calculating the Underwater Volume and

Displacement from the Lines Plan
(ENG)
To determine the underwater volume, a graph known as the Section Area Curve (or
SAC) is required. This is a graph which shows waterline length along the x axis, and
the underwater cross-section area up the y axis. The underwater cross-section area can
be determined from analysing the underwater cross-section of the vessel at a number
of points along the vessel (which can be found on the body plan view on the lines
plan) using Simpson’s Rule. An example of the SAC for the hull shown in the previous
diagrams is shown in Figure 8.7.
3.5
Immersed section area (m2)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Length along the waterline (m FOAP)
▲ Figure 8.7 Example section area curve
The area of the SAC (which can be determined using Simpson’s Rule) at any given
draught is equal to the underwater volume of the vessel at that draught. To determine
the displacement, the underwater volume needs to be multiplied by the density of the
water which the vessel is floating in.
QUESTIONS
Q8.11 (ENG)
A ship’s lifeboat, which has a waterline length of 9.414 m, has the following underwater
cross-section area at each station when floating on her designed waterline:

Station Immersed section area (m2)
0 (AP) 0
1 0.115
2 0.392
3 0.702
4 0.933
5 1.008
6 0.904
7 0.660
8 0.353
9 0.097
10 (FP) 0
Using the data, determine the design displacement of the lifeboat in sea water.
Q8.12 (ENG)
A ship with a waterline length of 120 m has the following values for immersed
underwater section areas when floating at her summer waterline:
Position (m FOAP) Immersed area (m2)
0 0.0
12 25.6
24 65.9
36 79.4
48 80.0
60 80.0
72 80.0
84 79.4
96 74.2
108 42.9
120 0.0
Using the data, determine the underwater volume at the summer draught, and the
summer displacement in sea water.

Finding KB
(ENG)
To determine the KB value, a graph known as the draught waterplane curve is required.
This is a graph which shows the draught of the vessel along the x axis, and the waterplane
area up the y axis, as shown in Figure 8.8 (occasionally the axes may be switched). The
waterplane area can be determined from Simpson’s Rule and the waterplanes of the
vessel, which can be found on the plan view on the lines plan.
70
60
Waterplane area (m2)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
Draught (m)
▲ Figure 8.8 Draught waterplane area curve
As with the SAC, the area under the draught waterplane curve (when plotted with the
draught along the x axis) gives the underwater volume of the vessel. When plotted with
the draught along the x axis, the distance from the y axis to the centre of the area under
the graph is equal to the KB value.
Note that if the axes are swapped, so that the draught is plotted up the y axis, then the
area between the curve and the y axis gives the underwater volume, and the distance
from the x axis to the centre of area of the graph between the curve and the y axis gives
the KB value.
QUESTIONS
Q8.13 (ENG)
A ship’s lifeboat has the following waterplane areas at each draught, when loaded to a
draught of 0.625 m:

Draught (m) Waterplane area (m2)
0 0
0.063 1.797
0.125 3.544
0.188 5.199
0.250 6.754
0.313 8.208
0.375 9.559
0.438 10.807
0.500 11.951
0.563 12.989
0.625 13.92
Using the data, and assuming that the draught is plotted along the x axis, determine
the underwater volume of the lifeboat and the KB value when at a draught of 0.625 m.
Q8.14 (ENG)
A vessel with an underwater volume of 24,693.12 m3 has the following waterplane
areas at a range of draughts up to the summer draught:
0.00 0.0
0.90 1,807.2
1.80 2,620.8
2.70 2,808.0
3.60 2,880.0
4.50 2,952.0
5.40 3,024.0
6.30 3,096.0
7.20 3,168.0
8.10 3,240.0
9.00 3,312.0
Using the data, determine the KB at the summer draught.

Estimating KB Using Morrish’s Method

(ENG)
The KB can be estimated by using Morrish’s method, which gives an estimation of KB:
1 ⎛ 5D ⎛ ∇ ⎞⎞
KB = × −
3 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎜⎝ Waterplane area ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
▲ Formula 8.7 Morrish’s formula to approximate KB
QUESTION
Q8.15 (ENG)
A ship has a draught of 7.00 m and a displacement in sea water of 7,000.00 tonnes. The
waterplane area of the vessel is 1,500.00 m2.
Using Morrish’s method, calculate KB.
Transverse Inertia of the Waterplane

and BM
(ENG)
The waterplane shapes on the plan view of the lines plans can also be used to
determine the transverse inertia of the waterplane, and hence BM. To do this, we need
to create a graph of the waterline half beams at each station. This is the transverse
distance from the centreline to the waterline at each station, plotted on a graph on
the y axis, with the length of the vessel plotted on the x axis, as shown in Figure 8.9.
This is known as the curve of waterline half beams. The inertia of the area under the
waterline half beam curve about the x axis is half of the total transverse inertia of the
waterplane.

Waterline half beam (m) 2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Length along the waterline (m FOAP)
▲ Figure 8.9 Waterline half beam curve
QUESTIONS
Q8.16 (ENG)
A ship’s lifeboat has a waterline length of 9.414 m and an underwater volume of
4.904 m3 at her design draught. At that draught, the vessel has the following waterline
half beams at each station:
Ordinate Half beam (m)
0 (AP) 0
1 0.366
2 0.712
3 0.976
4 1.129
5 1.179
6 1.108
7 0.935
8 0.661
9 0.305
10 (FP) 0
Determine the BM of the vessel in the above condition.

Q8.17 (ENG)
A vessel with an underwater volume of 48,228.75 m3 and a waterline length of 225 m
has the following waterline half beams:
Position (m FOAP) Waterplane half beam (m)
0 0.00
23 9.45
45 12.90
68 13.80
90 13.80
113 13.80
135 13.80
158 13.80
180 12.75
203 8.85
225 0.00
Using the above data, determine the BM.
Calculating GM Using the Lines Plan

Data
The processes seen in the previous sections can be combined to determine the GM of
a vessel if KG is known, and if the data from the lines plan is available.
QUESTIONS
Q8.18 (ENG)
A vessel with a waterline length of 150 m and a KG of 7.07 m has the following values
for immersed underwater section areas when floating at her summer waterline:

0 0.0
15 40.0
30 103.0
45 124.0
60 125.0
75 125.0
90 125.0
105 124.0
120 116.0
135 67.0
150 0.0
Her waterplane areas at a range of draughts up to the summer draught are as follows:
0.00 0.0
0.75 1,255.0
1.50 1,820.0
2.25 1,950.0
3.00 2,000.0
3.75 2,050.0
4.50 2,100.0
5.25 2,150.0
6.00 2,200.0
6.75 2,250.0
7.50 2,300.0

At the summer draught, she has the following waterline half beams.
0 0.00
15 6.30
30 8.60
45 9.20
60 9.20
75 9.20
90 9.20
105 9.20
120 8.50
135 5.90
150 0.00
Using the above data, determine the following:
Underwater volume at the summer draught

Summer displacement in sea water
KB at the summer draught
BM at the summer draught
GM at the summer draught with the KG given
Q8.19 (ENG)
A vessel with a waterline length of 180 m and a KG of 9.55 m has the following values
for immersed underwater section areas when floating at her summer waterline:
0 0.0
18 57.6
36 148.3
54 178.6
72 180.0
90 180.0
108 180.0
126 178.6

144 167.0
162 96.5
180 0.0
Her waterplane areas at a range of draughts up to the summer draught are as follows:
0.00 0.0
0.90 1,807.2
1.80 2,620.8
2.70 2,808.0
3.60 2,880.0
4.50 2,952.0
5.40 3,024.0
6.30 3,096.0
7.20 3,168.0
8.10 3,240.0
9.00 3,312.0
At the summer draught, she has the following waterline half beams:
0 0.00
18 7.56
36 10.32
54 11.04
72 11.04
90 11.04
108 11.04
126 11.04
144 10.20
162 7.08
180 0.00

Using the above data, determine the following:
Underwater volume at the summer draught

Summer displacement in sea water
KB at the summer draught
BM at the summer draught
GM at the summer draught with the KG given
Finding the Tonne per Centimetre

Immersion Value
(ENG)
Previously in the section on the TPC, we saw that:
TPC CW × L B × 0 01× ρ
In the section on form coefficients, Formula 1.3 can be transposed so that:
Waterplane area = CW L×B
Combining these two equations gives:
Waterrplane area × 0 01× ρ

TPC W
▲ Formula 8.8 TPC and waterplane area
If the lines plan data is available, then the waterplane area can be calculated using
Simpson’s Rule. To do this, the waterline half beam curve is used (as shown in Figure 8.9).
The area under the waterline half beam curve gives half of the waterplane area, so the
overall waterplane area can be found by determining the area under the curve with
Simpson’s Rule, and doubling the value.

QUESTIONS
Q8.20 (ENG)
A ship’s lifeboat, with a waterline length of 9.414 m, has the following values for the
waterline half beam at each station along the vessel:
Ordinate Half beam (m)
0 (AP) 0
1 0.366
2 0.712
3 0.976
4 1.129
5 1.179
6 1.108
7 0.935
8 0.661
9 0.305
10 (FP) 0
Determine the TPC of the vessel.
Q8.21 (ENG)
A vessel with a LBP of 150 m has the following waterline half beam values:
0 0.00
15 6.30
30 8.60
45 9.20
60 9.20
75 9.20
90 9.20
105 9.20

120 8.50
135 5.90
150 0.00
Determine the TPC of the vessel in sea water.
Calculating the Free Surface Moment

in a Non-Rectangular Tank
(ENG)
Previously, we have covered the basic concept of free surface effects, and calculated
the effects of free surface moment using the ship’s hydrostatic data or by directly
calculating the free surface moment for a rectangular free surface.
As most spaces for fluids are built into the shape of the hull, we need to be able to
determine the inertia of irregular shapes. Normally, the free surfaces in these tanks will
have three straight sides formed by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads, and one
curved side formed by the hull surface.
The method for calculating the fluid stability is the same as seen previously, but when
we calculate inertia of the free surface needs to be calculated differently. This requires a
set of Simpson’s Rule calculations and the parallel axes theory formulae. The first stage
is to plot the shape of the free surface on an x–y graph. The longitudinal edge of the
tank should run along the x axis, the aft transverse bulkhead of the tank should run up
the y axis. The curved edge of the free surface forms the curve of the graph, and the
forward transverse bulkhead forms the left hand edge of the graph.
To determine the free surface moment, first the area has to be determined using
Simpson’s Rule. Then the first moment of area about the x axis must be found using
Simpson’s Rule, which when divided by the area allows the centre of the free surface
from the x axis to be found. The inertia about the x axis can then be found, again using
Simpson’s Rule. Finally, the parallel axes theory can be used to convert the inertia value
from the x axis to the centre axis. This value is the free surface moment in units of
metres4, and can then be used in subsequent stability calculations.

QUESTIONS
Q8.22 (ENG)
A tank on a ship is formed by a longitudinal bulkhead, two transverse bulkheads and
the hull plating. The tank has a planform (in units of metres) as shown below:
Edge formed by the ship’s hull
Edge formed
by aft
transverse
bulkhead Edge formed by forward
3.00
transverse bulkhead
2.60
1.90
Edge formed
by longitudinal
1.10
bulkhead
0.10
1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25
5.00
Determine the transverse free surface moment of the tank in units of metres4.
Q8.23 (ENG)
A ship has a displacement of 5,000 tonnes. In this condition, she has a KM of 8.00 m
(which can be assumed to remain constant) and a KG of 7.00 m. She is upright in sea
water. The vessel has a 10.00 m long starboard wing tank (which can be assumed to be
a constant planform), formed by the side of the hull, two transverse bulkheads, and a
longitudinal bulkhead 7.00 m to starboard of the centreline, as shown (all dimensions
are in metres):
2.32
2.09
1.82
Hull side
2.50
1.50
Forward
Aft transverse
transverse 10.00
bulkhead
bulkhead
Longitudinal bulkhead
7.00
Ship centreline

The base of the tank is 2.00 m above the keel. Water ballast is pumped into the tank
until the depth of water is 3.00 m. Determine the resulting angle of list.
Multihulls
(ENG)
In the past few years, large multihull vessels have started to become more common. Due
to their beam, multihulls have greater initial stability than similar length mono-hulls
and a greater working deck space. They tend to have lower hydrodynamic resistance
than mono-hulls, and so require less fuel and power, or can operate at higher speeds.
Multihulls have greater initial stability because the inertia of the waterplane is much
large than a mono-hull. This increases BM and hence GM. Before looking at multihull
vessels in detail, it might be beneficial to revise inertia and the parallel axes theory.
When the inertia is measured through an axis running through the centre of a shape,
it is referred to as InertiaCENTROID. When the inertia is measured through an axis running
through a point away from the centre of a shape, it is referred to as InertiaREMOTE.
As seen previously, the InertiaCENTROID and InertiaREMOTE are linked by the parallel axes
theory given in Formula 6.8:
InertiaRemote InertiaCentroid + ( Area Distance 2 )
In this formula, the area is the area of the shape under consideration, and the distance
is the distance between the axis through the centre of the shape and the axis through
the remote point. The formula can be used to determine the inertia about a remote
point if the inertia through the centre is known.
QUESTIONS
Q8.24 (ENG)
A waterplane has an area of 800 m2. The transverse inertia measured through the
centreline of the shape is 8,000 m4. Determine the inertia measured through an axis
parallel to the centreline but 10 m to port of the centreline.

Q8.25 (ENG)
A rectangular waterplane has dimensions, as shown below. Calculate the area of the
waterplane, the transverse inertia through the centre of the waterplane (InertiaCENTROID)
and the remote inertia measured through the axis XX, parallel to the centreline of the
vessel, but 30 m from the centreline.
60 m
20 m
30 m
X X
The complication with multihulls is that the vessel has two waterplanes making up
the total waterplane area. Each waterplane rolls not around the centreline of the hull,
as a mono-hull would, but around the centreline of the vessel, which will be halfway
between the centrelines of the two hulls.
To determine the stability of multihulls, we find GM in the same way to a mono-hull,

however we have two smaller hulls to deal with. Each hull can be analysed in isolation,
using the techniques already show, to determine the underwater volume, KB and
transverse inertia of the waterplane about the hull centreline. The overall volume of
the vessel will be (assuming that the hulls are identical) double the volume of one hull.
Assuming that the hulls are identical, the KB and LCB of the combined hulls will be the
same as one single hull. The BM, however, is more complicated.
For multihulls, the inertia in the BM formula is the overall transverse inertia of the two
waterplanes (one for each hull) measured at the overall centreline of the ship, not the
centreline of the single hull.
The first stage in determining the BM of a multihull is to analyse a single hull in isolation.
The area of the waterplane area of one hull, and the transverse inertia of the waterplane
area of the hull, measured about the centreline of the hull (an InertiaCENTROID value), can
be found as it has for mono-hulls previously. This InertiaCENTROID value can then be used,
along with the waterplane area and the distance from the hull centreline to the ship
centreline, in the parallel axes formula to determine the inertia of the waterplane of a
single hull, about the centreline of the overall vessel (an inertiaREMOTE value). Doubling

this value gives the overall transverse inertia of the complete waterplane measured
about the centreline of the ship. This can be divided by the total underwater volume
of the vessel to get the BM value. This can then be used with KB and KG as before to
determine GM.
QUESTIONS
Q8.26 (ENG)
A catamaran is constructed from two identical box shaped hulls. Each hull is 40 m long
and 4 m wide. The draught of each hull is 3 m and the overall KG of the vessel is 5 m.
Determine the GM of the vessel if the distance from the centreline of each hull to the
overall centreline of the vessel is 6 m.
Q8.27 (ENG)
A catamaran has a waterline length of 60 m and a hull centreline to hull centreline
distance of 10 m. The KB is 1 m, the KG is 6 m and the total underwater volume is 530 m3.
The vessel has the following waterline half beams at equally spaced stations along the
hull:
Station Waterline half beam (m)
0 0.1
1 1.0
2 1.7
3 2.0
4 1.5
5 0.7
6 0.0
Determine GM of the vessel.
Sponsons
(ENG)
The stability of some vessels, particularly Ro-Ro vessels, can be improved by the
addition of sponsons. These are additional sections of watertight volume, placed on

the waterline of the vessel, to increase the beam of the vessel on the waterline without
a significantly large increase in the underwater volume. As BM is related to beam3, even
a small increase in the beam with a small increase in underwater volume can cause a
large increase in BM, and therefore also in GM. Sponsons are often fitted during the
lifetime of the ship, rather than during the initial build, to bring the vessel up to more
stringent requirements as legislation gets tougher.
To determine the effect of adding sponsons to the vessel, the shape of the waterplane
area of the sponsons must be known. Using methods seen previously, the waterplane
area of each sponson can be determined, along with the centre of the waterplane area
as a distance from the centreline of the ship. Finally, the transverse inertia of the
sponson’s waterplane area can be found. As the vessel rolls about the ship’s centreline,
the parallel axes formula used previously must be used to determine the transverse
inertia of the sponson’s waterplane area about the centreline of the ship. This can be
added to the transverse inertia of the main waterplane to get the overall transverse
inertia of the ship and sponsons.
QUESTION
Q8.28 (ENG)
A box shaped vessel has a main hull with a length of 50.00 m, a beam of 10.00 m, and
floats upright on an even keel with a draught of 2.00 m, with a KG of 5.00 m. Rectangular
sponsons with a length of 15.00 m and a beam of 1.50 m are to be added to the vessel
to improve the stability, as shown below.
15 m
50 m
m
1.5 m
10

Assuming that the draught and KG remain constant after adding the sponsons,
determine the GM after adding the sponsons.
One of the drawbacks of sponsons is that they increase the hydrodynamic drag of
the vessel, and hence increase the required power to maintain the service speed of
the vessel (and also therefore increase the fuel consumption). To minimise this, the
sponsons must be streamlined in shape. This requires Simpson’s Rule to analyse the
shape of the sponson, using the x axis as the fore and aft straight side of the sponson
attached to the hull surface, and the y axis as the local beam of the sponson measured
from the hull surface, as shown in Figure 8.10.
Port sponson waterplane

x
y
Main hull waterplane
Stb sponson waterplane
▲ Figure 8.10 Sponson notation
This graph can be used to determine the area of the sponson waterplane, the moment
of area about the x axis (and hence the centre of the sponson’s waterplane from the
x axis) and the inertia of the sponson’s waterplane about the x axis. The parallel axis
theory can then be used to determine the inertia of the sponson’s waterplane area
about an axis parallel to the x axis but running through the centreline of the sponson’s
waterplane. Finally, the parallel axes theory can be used again to determine the inertia
of the sponson’s waterplane area about the centreline of the ship, which itself can be
used to determine the overall waterplane inertia of the vessel, and hence BM.
QUESTIONS
Q8.29 (ENG)
A ship is to be retro-fitted at amidships with 4.00 m long sponsons to improve her
stability. In the original condition, she has a displacement of 645.75 tonnes, with a
transverse inertia of the waterplane area, measured about the centreline of the ship,
of 857.43 m4. The beam of the vessel at amidships is 7.00 m. The sponsons, which are
2.10 m deep and can be considered to be a constant planform in shape, have the
following beams, measured as a distance forward of the aft end of the sponsons:

Position forward of the aft Beam of the sponson (m)

end of the sponson (m)
0.00 0.00
1.00 1.00
2.00 1.50
3.00 1.00
4.00 0.00
After fitting the sponsons, the overall draught of the vessel remains constant, and the
waterline lies at exactly half of the depth of the sponson. Determine the BM of the
vessel after fitting the sponsons.
Q8.30 (ENG)
A ship is to be retro-fitted at amidships with 16.00 m long sponsons to improve her
stability. In the original condition, she has a displacement of 3,000 tonnes, with a BM of
11.39 m. The beam of the vessel at amidships is 20.00 m. The sponsons, which are 4.00 m
deep and can be considered to be a constant planform in shape, have the following
beams, measured as a distance forward of the aft end of the sponsons:
Position forward of the aft Beam of the sponson (m)

end of the sponson (m)
0.00 0.00
1.00 2.00
2.00 3.00
3.00 2.00
4.00 0.00
After fitting the sponsons, the overall draught of the vessel remains constant, and the
waterline lies at exactly half of the depth of the sponson. Determine the BM of the
vessel after fitting the sponsons.
The Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy

(ENG)
To determine the position of the LCB, the SAC (see Figure 8.7) is again used. The
centre of the area under the curve from the y axis represents the distance from the

aft perpendicular to the centre of the underwater volume, which is the LCB value.
Therefore, to determine the LCB, the moment of area about the Y axis must be found,
and divided by the area under the graph (which is also equal to the underwater volume
of the ship).
QUESTION
Q8.31 (ENG)
A ship has an LBP of 60 m. At the load draught in sea water, she has the following
immersed section areas:
Station Section area (m2)
0 1.57
0.5 25.13
1 56.55
2 76.97
3 76.97
4 56.55
5 25.13
5.5 6.28
6 0.00
Using the above information, determine the underwater volume and the LCB.
The Longitudinal Centre of Flotation

(ENG)
The waterplane shapes on the plan view of the lines plans can be used to determine the
longitudinal centre of flotation of the waterplane. To do this, the curve of waterline half
beams (as shown in Figure 8.9) is used.
The LCF is the longitudinal centroid of the area under the waterline half beam curve.
This value can be found from the moment of area about the y axis of the area under the
waterline half beam curve.

QUESTIONS
Q8.32 (ENG)
A vessel has a waterline length of 120 m. She has the following waterline half beams at
equally spaced stations:
0 0
1 6
2 12
3 12
4 12
5 3
6 0
By analysing the curve of waterline half beams, calculate the waterplane area, the first
moment of area of the curve about the y axis, and hence the LCF.
Q8.33 (ENG)
A vessel has a waterline length of 90 m. She has the following waterline half beams:
0 0
0.5 4
1 8
2 10
3 10
4 9
5 6
5.5 3
6 0
By analysing the curve of waterline half beams, calculate the waterplane area, the first
moment of area of the curve about the y axis, and hence the LCF.

Longitudinal Inertia of the Waterplane

and BML
(ENG)
The waterplane shapes on the plan view of the lines plans can also be used to determine
the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane, and hence BML. To do this, the curve of
waterline half beams (as shown in Figure 8.9) is again used. The second moment of
area of the waterplane about the y axis can be found using Simpson’s Rule. The parallel
axes formula can then be used to convert the value from about the y axis (a remote
value) to be about the LCF (the centre of the waterplane area, and hence the centroid
value).
QUESTIONS
Q8.34 (ENG)
A ship has the following waterline half beams at equally spaced stations:
0 0
1 10
2 20
3 20
4 16
5 8
6 0
If the vessel has an LBP of 180 m, an underwater of 30,000 m3, a waterplane area
of 4,480 m2 and an LCF of 86.79 m FOAP, determine the longitudinal inertia of the
waterplane about a transverse axis running through the AP and the LCF, and hence
BML.
Q8.35 (ENG)
waterplane half beams and immersed section areas:

Station Waterline half beam (m) Section area (m2)
0 1.00 1.57
0.5 3.00 14.14
1 5.00 39.27
2 7.00 76.97
3 8.00 100.53
4 7.00 76.97
5 5.00 39.27
5.5 3.00 14.14
6 0.00 0.00
Using the above information, determine the underwater volume and displacement,
the LCB, LCF, BM and BML.
Q8.36 (ENG)
waterplane half beams and immersed section areas:
0 0.00 0.00
0.5 4.00 25.13
1 7.00 76.97
2 10.00 157.08
3 11.00 190.07
4 10.00 157.08
5 6.00 56.55
5.5 3.00 14.14
6 0.00 0.00
Using the above information, determine the underwater volume and displacement,
the LCB, LCF, BM and BML.
Q8.37 (ENG)
A ship has an LBP of 105 m. At the load draught of 9.00 m in sea water, she has the
following waterplane half beams and immersed section areas:

0 3.00 14.14
0.5 6.00 56.55
1 8.00 100.53
2 9.00 127.23
3 9.00 127.23
4 8.00 100.53
5 5.00 39.27
5.5 3.00 14.14
6 0.00 0.00
Using the above information, and Morrish’s method for KB, determine the metacentric
height of the vessel if KG is 7.00 m, and the trim if the LCG is 45.00 m FOAP.
CALCULATING HYDROSTATICS USING SIMPSON’S RULE – LEARNING

CHECKLIST
Calculate the area under a graph ENG

Calculate the moment of area under a graph, relative to the x axis ENG
Calculate the centre of area under a graph, relative to the x axis ENG
Calculate the moment of area under a graph, relative to the y axis ENG
Calculate the centre of area under a graph, relative to the y axis ENG
Calculate the inertia of area under a graph, relative to the x axis ENG
Calculate the inertia of area under a graph, relative to the y axis ENG
Use the parallel axis theory to determine the inertia through the ENG
centre of the graph, parallel to the x axis
Use the parallel axis theory to determine the inertia through the ENG
centre of the graph, parallel to the y axis
Use Simpson’s Rule as appropriate with half stations ENG
Understand the importance of the hull lines plan ENG
Calculate the submerged volume and displacement of a vessel ENG
from the SAC

Calculate the submerged volume and displacement of a vessel ENG

from the draught waterplane area curve
Calculate the KB of a vessel from the draught waterplane area curve ENG
Estimate KB using Morrish’s method ENG
Calculate the transverse inertia of the waterplane area from the ENG
waterline half beam curve
Calculate GM using data from the lines plan data ENG
Calculate the waterplane area and the TPC from the lines plan data ENG
Calculate the free surface effect caused by a non-rectangular tank ENG
Calculate the GM for a multihull ENG
Determine the effect of sponsons on metacentric height ENG
Calculate the position of the LCB from the lines plan data ENG
Calculate the position of the LCF from the lines plan data ENG
Calculate the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane area from the ENG
waterline half beam curve

SHIP RESISTANCE
9
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Understand the causes of ship resistance

Explain the components of ship resistance
Calculate the frictional resistance of a ship using Froude’s method
Calculate the total resistance of a ship from a model test using Froude’s method
Calculate the frictional resistance of a ship using the 1957 ITTC Ship-Model
Correlation Line
Calculate the total resistance of a ship from a model test using the 1957 ITTC method
Calculate the total resistance of a ship from a model test using the 1978 ITTC method
The driving force acting on a vessel comes from the thrust produced by the propellers,
waterjets, sails, paddles or oars. This is opposed by the resistance or drag of the ship.
When these forces are in balance, the system is in equilibrium and the vessel maintains
a constant speed.
The forces of thrust and drag are measured using Newtons (N) and the speed of the
vessel is measured using either knots or metres per second (m/s). The conversion
factors of knots and metres per second are:
Commonly used: 1 knot = 0.514 m/s (used by Marine Engineers)

More accurate: 1 knot = 0.5144 m/s (used by Undergraduate Students)
Exact: 1 knot = 1,852 ÷ 3,600 m/s (1 nautical mile = 1,852 m)
Determining the resistance of a vessel by direct calculation is so complex that it is not

routinely used in ship design. Even the most powerful modern computers are limited
in their ability to calculate ship resistance accurately.

In practice, several approaches to calculating ship resistance are used which can be
categorised as:
Experimental Methods (Measurements)

Towing Tank Testing Models
Wind Tunnel Testing Models
Ship Trials
Empirical Methods (Estimates from Data)
Parametric Studies
Regression Analysis
Standard Series
Numerical Methods – Computational Fluid Dynamics (Computer Simulations)
Potential Flow Solvers
Navier-Stokes Solvers
The first step is to understand the various causes of ship resistance.
Components of Ship Resistance

(ENG)
The resistance of a ship is commonly broken up into a number of components and

subcomponents as shown in Figure 9.1.
Total ship
resistance
Frictional Residuary
resistance resistance
Wave making Eddy making

Form drag Air resistance
drag drag
▲ Figure 9.1 Components of ship resistance

Ship Resistance • 321
Frictional resistance (ENG)
The frictional resistance of a vessel is caused by the viscosity (stickiness) of the water
flowing past the hull. Friction is generated by the contact between the hull and the
water. As the hull moves through the water, a microscopic layer attaches itself to the
hull and moves along at the same speed as the ship. Water flowing over this layer will
also end up being dragged along with the vessel because water is viscous. Figure 9.2
shows the effect of viscosity on the flow over a surface such as the hull of a ship.
Flow speed
Distance from surface
Object surface
▲ Figure 9.2 Flow speeds in a boundary layer resulting from flow over a surface
The result of this effect is there is a layer of water near the hull that is no longer stationary
but is being dragged along with the ship at some proportion of the ship speed. This
layer of water is called the boundary layer.
The overall thickness of the boundary layer gradually increases between the bow and
the stern and will vary with the speed and length of the vessel. A large container vessel
travelling at 20 knots will typically have a boundary layer thickness of around 10 cm
near the stern.
The viscous forces that cause the water in the boundary layer to speed up also have
the effect of trying to slow down the vessel. This force is called the frictional resistance.
There are numerous methods for calculating frictional resistance.
More information about the flow in boundary layers and various methods for calculating
frictional resistance can be found in later sections of the book.

Residuary resistance (ENG)
As shown in Figure 9.1, the residuary resistance of a ship is made up of a number of

subcomponents. These are more complex than the frictional resistance, and cannot
be simply calculated. As only the frictional resistance can be calculated with relative
ease the other components of resistance are often lumped together and termed the
residuary resistance (literally – the remaining, or rest of the, resistance). As will be
explained later the residuary resistance is often determined by subtracting the frictional
resistance from a measurement of the total resistance.
Form drag or viscous pressure resistance (ENG)
Form drag occurs because of pressure changes in the water flowing around the hull. All
objects moving through a fluid experience form drag, for example, cars and aeroplanes
moving through the air.
As a body moves through a fluid, it creates pressure changes around the body. At the
front of body the fluid is pushed aside and high pressure is created. At the sides of the
body the fluid speeds up and low pressure is created. At the back of the body a wake
is formed of fluid that is dragged along with the body. The pressure at the back of the
body is always lower than the pressure at the front of the body causing an overall force
that opposes the motion of the body. This is called form drag.
Form drag, as its name suggests, is highly influenced by the shape (or form) of the
object. One method of reducing form drag is to streamline the shape of the object, for
example, car bodies are carefully designed to reduce form drag which results faster
and/or more fuel efficient cars.
Wave making resistance (ENG)
The wave making drag is the largest and most complex subcomponent of the residuary
resistance. Wave making resistance, like form drag, is caused by pressure changes
around the hull. Wave making resistance only occurs when bodies are travelling close to
the surface of the water. Bodies travelling just beneath the surface, such as submarines,
or just over the surface, such as landing seaplanes, also create waves.
High pressure areas underwater push the water surface upwards and conversely low
pressure sucks the water surface downwards. This causes waves to be created around

the hull. These waves are heavy and move at the same speed as the ship – potentially
absorbing a vast amount of energy.
The wave pattern created by ships is known as the ‘Kelvin’ wave pattern, and contains
two types of waves as shown in Figure 9.3.
Divergent stern wave system Divergent bow wave system
Transverse
wave system
▲ Figure 9.3 The features of the wave system generated by a vessel
Further information about wave making resistance can be found later in the book.
Bulbous bows reduce wave making resistance (ENG)
The wave making resistance of a ship can be reduced by the use of a bulbous bow,
as shown in Figure 9.4. Although bulbous bows can reduce residual resistance they
also increase frictional resistance because the hull has more area in contact with the
water (called the wetted surface area). When suitable vessels are fitted with bulbous
bows, the increase in frictional resistance will be smaller than the decrease in residual
resistance resulting in a reduction of the total resistance.
The method by which a bulbous bow reduces resistance has been the topic of some
debate but the most widely accepted explanation is that it works by creating a second
bow wave system which interferes with the hull’s bow wave system. The superposition
of the two waves results in a reduction of the bow wave which reduces the wave making
resistance. A schematic representation is shown in Figure 9.5.

▲ Figure 9.4 Bulbous bow of a container ship
Bow without bulb
Bulb in isolation
Complete system
▲ Figure 9.5 Effect of a bulbous bow on the size of a ship’s bow wave

Bulbous bows tend to work best with vessels at moderate Froude numbers, with U
and V shaped sections forward and with high block coefficients. Bulbous bows are
not suitable for all vessels as demonstrated by several unsuccessful attempts to use
bulbous bows on sailing yachts.
Eddy drag (ENG)
Eddy drag is similar to form drag, but acts in a smaller scale.
As fluid flows around underwater appendages and discontinuities (inlets, openings,

shafts, etc.), it oscillates and breaks away into small eddies. The creation of these eddies
adds to the resistance of the vessel. These eddies also create vibration which can
sometimes be heard, for example, in the case of rudder or propeller ‘singing’.
Air drag (ENG)
Most ships and boats do not typically operate at speeds where air drag is significant
and they need to be ‘streamlined’. Air drag is very small in comparison with other
components of resistance in normal operating conditions, and only becomes significant
when a ship is operating in extreme weather conditions.
Air drag is not generally considered in detail in the design process of a ship. However,
the air flow around the exhaust stack on passenger vessels is often analysed to ensure
that the exhaust fumes are carried clear of accommodation or passenger areas.
Calculating Frictional Resistance Using

Froude’s Method
(ENG)
Frictional resistance is the only component of resistance that can accurately be found
by direct calculation. The following method was developed over many years by William
Froude and his son Robert Edmund Froude at the end of the nineteenth and beginning
of the twentieth century. William Froude’s work on ship resistance resulted in the first
accurate method for calculating ship resistance and the building of the first towing
tanks for testing ships’ models.
Froude’s analysis of frictional resistance began by towing planks of wood of various

sizes and finishes and measuring their resistance. One of the most interesting results of
his experiments was that he found that if he doubled the wetted surface area of a plank

the resistance doubled, as common sense might suggest, but this was only true if its
length stayed the same. If the wetted surface area was doubled by doubling the length
of the plank he found that the resistance was somewhat less than doubled.
Another important finding related to how resistance increased with speed. According to
simple theory, the resistance should increase with the square of the speed, for example,
doubling the speed should theoretically increase the resistance fourfold. Froude
discovered that this was often not the case and again the resistance he measured was
less than theory suggested.
Froude derived an equation that calculated the frictional resistance of an object moving
at a speed, V, with wetted surface area, S, as:
Frictional resistance = RF ffSv n
where f is a friction coefficient and n is the power index of ship speed.
Over the years, Froude built up a set of values of f and n but in 1935, at the Paris
conference of Tank Superintendents, it was agreed internationally that all towing tanks
should use a value of n = 1.825 and also the formulae for calculating f were agreed. This
results in the calculation for frictional resistance being:
Frictional resistance
t = RF ffSv 1.825
▲ Formula 9.1 Frictional resistance by Froude’s method
Using the equation with SI units:
Rf is the frictional resistance in N.

f is the coefficient of friction. This can be found from tables of values for various ship
lengths or the graphs shown in Figures 9.6 and 9.7.
S is the wetted surface area of the vessel in m2.
v is the speed of the ship, in m/s.
QUESTIONS
Q9.1
A ship has a wetted surface area of 4,000 m2. The frictional coefficient, f, of the vessel is
1.392. Determine the frictional resistance of the vessel at a speed of 10 knots.
Q9.2
A ship has a frictional resistance of 134,044 N at 10 knots. Determine the frictional
resistance at 11 knots.

2.2
2.1
2
Friction coefficient (f )
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Vessel length (m)
▲ Figure 9.6 Froude friction coefficient, f, values for ship models and small boats
1.57
1.55
1.53
1.51
Friction coefficient (f )
1.49
1.47
1.45
1.43
1.41
1.39
1.37
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Vessel length (m)
▲ Figure 9.7 Froude friction coefficient, f, values for ships and large boats

The Froude Number

(ENG)
Naval Architects commonly refer to ship speed not in knots or metres per second, but
using the ‘Froude Number’. This is a non-dimensional measure of speed, and measures
how fast a vessel is travelling in relation to its length. For a vessel of length, L, travelling
at a speed, v, the Froude number is:
v
u be , Fn =
Froude number
gL
▲ Formula 9.2 Froude number
The Froude number is important because wave making drag is the biggest component
of resistance at higher speeds. As a vessel travels faster, the shape of the waves changes
significantly around the vessel, with the bow and stern waves growing in length as the
vessel accelerates.
To understand the significance of the Froude number, it is necessary to consider the

relationship between the speed, C, of a wave in deep water and it’s wavelength, LW,
which is found by the following formula:
gLW
C2 =
2π
As the speed of the vessel increases, and hence the speed of the waves it is generating,
the wave length of the waves will also increase.
At a Froude number of around 0.54, the wave system around a displacement hull
form vessel is such that the bow wave is approaching double the ship length,
resulting in the stern of the ship sitting in the trough of the bow wave. This causes
the ship to ‘squat’ with the result that adding further power simply causes the
stern to squat more and the bow to rise and does not give an appreciable extra
speed. The speed of a vessel at a Froude number of 0.54 is known as ‘hull speed’ or
‘displacement speed’.

For smaller craft, such as yachts, the hull speed is the limiting factor on the speed that
the vessel can realistically reach. For larger vessels, such as merchant ships, limiting
the Froude number to values significantly lower than 0.54 is essential for economic
running. A survey of the Froude numbers that relate to the service speed of many types
of merchant vessels is shown in Figure 9.8. It should be noted that all the vessels have
a Froude number between 0.15 and 0.33. A general rule of thumb is that slow vessels
have a Froude number around 0.15, and as a result are very economical to run for their
size, suiting large bulk carriers and VLCCs. Vessels where speed is important, and the
income from faster speeds offsets the increase in running costs, will tend to have a
Froude number of no more than 0.35 m. Vessels in this category tend to include ferries,
fast container vessels and ocean liners.
Froude number is also important in ship design as the form of a vessel underwater
affects its resistance curve. A typical resistance curve for a vessel, as shown in Figure 9.9,
has humps and hollows. The resistance of the vessel in the region of a hollow equates
to more economical running of the vessel and ideally the service speed, or Froude
number, should correspond to this area of the curve.
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
Froude number
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Length (m)
▲ Figure 9.8 Froude number comparison of different merchant vessels
The humps and hollows are caused by the characteristics of the wave system around a
vessel and this is considered later in the book.

Friction
Main hump
Residual
Resistance
Total
Prismatic hollow
Prismatic hump
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Froude number
▲ Figure 9.9 Resistance components versus Froude number
Corresponding Speed
(ENG)
When comparing the speed of two different length vessels, it is often important to
determine their corresponding speeds. The corresponding speeds occur when each
vessel has the same Froude number:
Froude number Vessel A = Froude number Vessel B
vA vB
=
gLA gLB
Simplifying and rearranging this gives:
LA
v A = vB ×
LB
When two geometrically similar vessels have the same Froude number, or corresponding
speed, their wave systems will also be to scale, that is, if one vessel is twice the length of
the other the wavelengths of its wave pattern will also be twice as long.

Model Testing Using Towing Tanks

(ENG)
As discussed previously, the mathematical process of determining the overall resistance

of a ship is too complex for direct calculation. Instead, we rely on the testing of a model
of the ship in a towing tank, as shown in Figure 9.10. Towing tanks are long, narrow
tanks in which model ships are towed at a range of speeds. The resistance of the model
is measured via a dynamometer, and is scaled up to predict the resistance of the ship
at the corresponding speed.
▲ Figure 9.10 The towing tank at Southampton Solent University
To ensure accuracy, the model should be as large as possible. This makes it easier to
build an accurate model, and the resistance data should therefore be more accurate.
However – if the model is too large compared to the tank, then ‘blockage’ effects will
occur. This means that the model may suffer from shallow water effects (squat), canal
effects and bank effects which will increase the resistance of the model.

Scale models of the ship are built from wood, GRP or wax. The accuracy is very
important – tolerances should be ±1 mm for beam and depth, and the larger of ±1 mm
or ±0.05% LBP for length. Often CNC machines are used to get the required accuracy –
although this is very expensive. The surface finish should be smooth – the equivalent
of 300 to 400 grit wet and dry. Often appendages such as rudders and bilge keels are
not modelled, as it is difficult to accurately model the appendages at small scales (ITTC
require ±0.2 mm). It can also be difficult to make model scale appendages strong
enough to resist deforming or breaking in the flow.
To ensure that the flow over the whole model is turbulent (as it would be at ship scale),
‘turbulent flow stimulators’ are fitted at the bow, around 5% of the LBP aft of the FP.
These are in the form of a thin wire, studs or strip of sand paper (with a grain size of
0.5 mm). These ‘trip’ the flow, increasing turbulence and creating a turbulent boundary
layer. The accuracy and surface finish mean that models are expensive – in the order
of £3,000 for a professionally built 2 m long model. For larger models for final testing
(length approx. 6 m), costs are much higher. A small model being tested is shown in
Figure 9.11.
▲ Figure 9.11 Testing a model in a towing tank

Calculating the Resistance of a Ship from

a Model Test Using Froude’s Method
(ENG)
Froude’s method splits the total resistance of both the vessel and its model into two
parts: the frictional resistance, RF , and the residuary resistance, RR .
RT RF + RR
▲ Formula 9.3 Total resistance components in Froude’s method
The frictional resistance of both the model and the vessel are calculated using Froude’s
formula for frictional resistance.
For geometrically similar vessels, such as a ship and its model, that are travelling at
corresponding speeds, the residuary resistance is considered to scale on displacement:
ΔS
RRS RRM
ΔM
▲ Formula 9.4 Froude’s method for scaling residuary resistance
The steps involved in determining the full sized vessel’s resistance from a model test is
as follows:
The model is towed down the tank and the towing speed, vM, and the total resistance,
RTM, of the model are measured and recorded
The frictional resistance of the model is calculated using Froude’s formula, and is
known as RFM. RFM fM SM v Mn
The difference between the total model resistance and the frictional model resistance
is the model residual resistance known as RRM. RRM RTM − RFM
The RRM is scaled up by the ratio of the displacement of the model, ΔM, and the ship,
ΔS
ΔS, to get the ship residual resistance known as RRS. RRS RRM
ΔM
The speed of the ship that corresponds to the model test is calculated from the
LS
model speed. v S = × vM
LM

The frictional resistance of the ship is then calculated using Froude’s formula and is
known as RFS. RFS fS SS v Sn
The ship frictional resistance is added to the ship residual resistance to get the total
ship resistance known as RTS. RTS = RFS + RRS
The process is typically repeated for a range of speeds to build up the ship’s resistance
curve.
QUESTION
Q9.3
A 4 m long, 179.2 kg model of a ship is tested at a speed of 2.2 m/s in a towing tank. At
this speed, the total measured resistance of the model is 70 N. The f coefficient for the
model is 1.609. The wetted surface area of the model is 4.5 m2. Determine the resistance
and speed of the ship, length 120 m, if the displacement is 4,959 tonnes, the wetted
surface area is 4,050 m2 and the f coefficient is 1.483.
Scaling of Geometrically Similar Vessels

(ENG)
The scale of a model can be used to determine its wetted surface area and displacement
from those of the ship if these values are not known. If the scale between the model
and the ship has the symbol λ such that:
LSHIP
=λ
LMODEL
Then areas and volumes will scale according to the principles shown in Figure 9.12.
These leads to the scaling of the wetted surface area and volume of displacement
being:
2
SSHIP ⎛ L ⎞
= λ 2 = ⎜ SHIP ⎟
SMODEL ⎝ LMODEL ⎠
3
∇ SHIP ⎛ L ⎞
= λ 3 = ⎜ SHIP ⎟
∇ MODEL ⎝ LMODEL ⎠

As volume × density = mass, we can express the ratio of the displacements in terms of
the lengths:
3
Δ SHIP ∇ SHIP × ρSSEAWATER ρ ⎛ L ⎞ ρ
= = λ 3 × SSEAWATER = ⎜ SHIP ⎟ × SEAWATER
Δ MODEL ∇ MODEL × ρFRESHWATEER ρFRESHWATER ⎝ LMODEL ⎠ ρFRESHWATER
Area scaling considerations
1
2
1
λ
Area = 1
2
Area = 22 = 4
λ
Area = λ2
Volume scaling considerations
2
2
1 1
2
1
Volume = 1
Volume = 23 = 8
Volume = λ3
▲ Figure 9.12 Scaling areas and volumes of geometrically similar shapes
QUESTIONS
Q9.4
A ship with a length of 150 m, a wetted surface area of 6,500 m2 and a displacement
of 9,800 tonnes is to be tested using a scale model, with a scale of 1:20. Determine the
length, wetted surface area and displacement of the model.

Q9.5
A 5 m long model of a ship, scale 1:20, is used to determine the resistance of a ship.
The model is tested at a speed of 1.4 m/s.
The f coefficient for the model is 1.655.
The f coefficient of the ship is 1.401.
The wetted surface area of the model is 5.60 m2.
The total resistance of the model is 25 N.
Determine the total resistance of the ship at the same Froude number.
Laminar and Turbulent Boundary

Layers
When fluid flows over a surface a boundary layer is created as discussed earlier. When
considering the flow over a flat surface, such as a simple plate rudder, as shown in
Figure 9.13, the boundary layer thickness increases. The edge of the boundary layer
is usually defined where the flow speed is 99% of the actual flow speed (referred to
as the free stream velocity). The boundary layer thickness at any point is given the
symbol δ.
The values of drag predicted by Froude’s formula for frictional resistance are good but
in 1883, Professor Osborne Reynolds conducted a set of experiments which led to a
Flow direction
Solid surface
Boundary layer
Boundary layer edge
▲ Figure 9.13 Boundary layer on a flat plate

much greater understanding of boundary layers. This work showed that, depending
on the speed of flow and length of the surface over which it was flowing, the boundary
layers behaved in two separate manners – laminar and turbulent flow.
In laminar flow, each layer within the boundary layer ‘slides’ smoothly over the previous
layer as shown in Figure 9.14.
When the roughness, speed or object size is such that turbulence is introduced into
the flow, the ‘layers’ within the boundary layer mix together and the velocity profile
changes dramatically, as shown in Figure 9.15.
Free stream velocity
y
Local velocity
Flow speed
Object surface
▲ Figure 9.14 Flow in a laminar boundary layer
Free stream velocity
y
Local velocity
Equilibrium turbulent
layer
Buffer layer
Laminar sublayer
Flow speed
▲ Figure 9.15 Flow in a turbulent boundary layer

The Reynolds Number
The actual flow type, and hence velocity profile depends on the Reynolds number,
named after Osborne Reynolds. The Reynolds number, based on the overall length of
a plate, is found from:
L ρLv
Rn = =
ν μ
where v is the kinematic viscosity (for FW @ 20°C taken as 1.004 × 10–6 m2 s–1. μ is the
dynamic viscosity, for FW @ 20°C taken as 1.002 × 10–3 N s m–2. ρ is the fluid density
in kg/m3, L is the length of the surface in metres and v is the free stream speed, in
m/s.
At low Reynolds numbers (below approx. 4.5 × 105), the flow can be considered to be
laminar, and at high Reynolds numbers, the flow can be considered to be turbulent. As
the Reynolds number depends on the length of flow, at the leading edge of the body,
the flow is normally laminar up to a point where the Reynolds number is approximately
4.5 × 105, then turbulent as shown in Figure 9.16.
Once the difference between laminar and turbulent flow was more understood,
scientists looked at a method of predicting friction drag based on the Reynolds number,
as turbulent flow clearly created more friction than laminar flow.
At transition speeds between laminar and turbulent flow, the drag will jump from low
values in laminar flow, to higher values in turbulent flow as shown in Figure 9.17.
Once turbulent flow was understood, more efforts were made to accurately predict
the friction drag based on the Reynolds number. Lots of different formulae were
Laminar Transition Turbulent
▲ Figure 9.16 Effect of laminar and turbulent flow on boundary layer thickness

Drag on a 10 m by 1 m plate
0.1
Turbulent flow drag
Laminar flow
0.08
drag
0.06
Drag (N)
0.04
0.02
0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000
Reynolds number
▲ Figure 9.17 Change of drag at the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
predicted, all based around different assumed boundary layers. Different shipyards
and designers used different methods – and hence got lots of different results. From
around 1932 onwards, the industry started to standardise the approach used, and
in 1957 settled on the ‘1957 ITTC Friction Line’. This is an experimentally derived
regression line.
Calculating Frictional Resistance Using

the 1957 ITTC Friction Line
This is a method based on non-dimensionalised force coefficients. The coefficient of

friction, known as CF, is found from:
0.075
CF =
( Rn − )2
This can then be used to determine the frictional resistance, in Newtons, using:
1
RF Sv 2 C F
2

where ρ is the water density in kg/m3, S is the surface area in contact with the fluid,
in m2, V is the flow speed in m/s, and CF is the friction coefficient as found using:
0.075
CF =
( Rn − )2
QUESTION
Q9.6
A plate is 10 m long and 1 m wide. The plate has water flowing past one side of it.
Calculate the drag of the plate at flow speeds of 0.1, 1 and 10 m/s using the 1957 ITTC
Friction Line.
Form Factors and Viscous Resistance
With the ITTC 1957 friction calculation, it became possible to use a simple method to
calculate the drag of a flat plate based on the Reynolds number. Assuming that the
underwater surface area of a hull could be realistically ‘unrolled’ into a flat plate, then
the ITTC 1957 method could be used to determine the frictional drag of that plate, and
hence give the frictional drag of the ship. However, ships are not flat plates – so how
realistic is this?
Any curved shaped will, when placed in a water flow, create changes in pressure around
it. This is caused by the flow accelerating around the shape – increases in flow speed
cause reductions in pressure, and vice versa. Figures 9.18 and 9.19 show the pressure
and flow speed around a simple ellipse, calculated using computational fluid dynamics
(CFD). It can be seen that at the leading edge, the pressure is high and the flow speed
is low. Around the sides, the pressure is lower, and the flow speed is higher. This can
change the local Reynolds number, but more importantly, compress or extend the
boundary layer.
In Figure 9.20 the effect of a curved body on the boundary layer is shown. Towards
the trailing edge, it can be seen that the boundary layer thickens significantly as the
pressure changes around the body distort the boundary layer – the effect of the
pressure changes around the shape is to change the boundary layer.

Flow direction
▲ Figure 9.18 Pressure field around a curved body
Flow direction
▲ Figure 9.19 Velocity field around a curved body
As can be seen, these pressure effects thicken and reverse the boundary layer.
Calculating the actual change in the boundary layer, and hence the drag, is beyond
the scope of this book.
It can be dealt with practically by the use of ‘form factors’. These are coefficients
which are used to increase the ‘flat plate’ friction drag coefficient to a value which
is appropriate for certain shapes, to model the effects of the viscous flow on the

Actual boundary layer
Note that the boundary layer thicknesses have been

exaggerated for clarity
‘Flat plate’ boundary layer
▲ Figure 9.20 Boundary layer development around a curved body
boundary layer. Most of these form factors are based on experimental data. Form
factors are given the notation (1+k).
When the frictional resistance coefficient is adjusted using a form factor, it is referred to
as the viscous resistance coefficient. When the frictional resistance is calculated using
the viscous resistance coefficient, it is referred to as the ‘viscous’ resistance.
es sta cee coefficient , CV = (1+ k ) C F

Viscous rresistanc
1
Viscous rresistance RV = ρSv 2 CV
es sta ce,
2
QUESTIONS
Q9.7
A ship has a length of 100 m and a wetted surface area of 4,000 m2. The vessel is in sea
water, with a kinematic viscosity of 1.05 ×10–6 m2 s–1. The k value in the form factor of
the ship is 0.10. Determine the viscous drag of the ship at a speed of 15 knots.
Q9.8
A rudder has a chord length, c, of 2 m and a span of 5 m. The thickness, t, of the rudder is
0.40 m. Using the 1957 ITTC friction line, determine the viscous resistance of the rudder
in sea water, if the flow speed is 8 m/s.

Note: The form factor of a rudder of thickness, t, and chord length, c, can be found
from:
4
(1 k ) = 1+ 2 ⎛⎝ ⎞⎠ ⎛t⎞
t
60
c ⎝ c⎠
Manufacturer’s data shows that the rudder wetted surface area can be found from:
Area Chord
C × Span × 2.24
The vessel is in sea water, with a kinematic viscosity, v, of 1.05 × 10–6 m2s–1.
Wave Interference Effects on Ship

Resistance
The largest component of the residual resistance is the wave making resistance. As the
name suggests, this is the resistance due to the creation of waves around the vessel
as it moves through the water. As a singular object moves along the water surface, a
specific wave pattern is created as shown in Figure 9.21.
Ships normally create two separate wave systems – one from the bow and one from
the stern, normally starting from the stern shoulders where the aft hull curvature starts
at the aft end of the parallel mid-body. The effect of this is that there is a disturbance
effect between the two wave systems, as shown in Figure 9.22.
Divergent system
Transverse system
▲ Figure 9.21 Wave pattern due to a singular body

Stern wave system
Bow wave system
Transverse system –
main influence at normal
Wave interference service speed
▲ Figure 9.22 Wave interference effect in the wave pattern about a ship
The transverse waves travel along at the same speed as the ship. As wave speed can be
expressed in terms of wave length, the wave length can be expressed in terms of the
ship speed, V. Therefore, it can be seen that the wave lengths are proportional to the
ship speed squared.
2πV 2
LW =
g
As the ship speed increases, this shows that the wave length of the bow and
stern transverse wave systems increases. At varying speeds, these waves either
superimpose or cancel each other, as shown in Table 9.1, with each scenario showing
an increasing speed. The shape of the hull means that the bow wave always starts
as a crest, normally just aft of the bow. The stern wave always starts as a trough, just
ahead of the stern.
As seen, the waves from the bow and stern transverse wave systems either
superimpose or cancel each other, and increasing or reducing the wave making
resistance. This results in the wave making resistance varying with speed in a non-
linear manner.
The Froude number of the vessel as waves form along the hull can be theoretically
determined. Due to the high pressure regions and hull form, the waves are assumed to
develop along around 90% of the hull length – known as the characteristic length. The
shape of the vessel’s hull changes the characteristic length but for most vessels this will
be between 85% and 95% of waterline length.

Table 9.1 Bow and stern wave interference at various speeds

Wave pattern Bow and stern
Scenario (Solid line shows the bow wave system, dashed wave
line shows the stern wave system) interaction
1 Cancellation
2 Superposition
3 Cancellation
4 Superposition
5 Cancellation
6 Superposition
At varying speeds where the wave systems either superimpose or cancel, the
wavelength of the wave systems can be expressed in terms of the LBP of the vessel, as
shown in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Wave length of bow and stern waves against characteristic length of 90%
LBP at various speeds
Scenario Wave pattern Wave lengths
0.9LBP
1 LW = ______
3
0.9LBP
2 LW = ______
2.5
0.9LBP
3 LW = ______
2
0.9LBP
4 LW = ______
1.5
0.9LBP
5 LW = ______
1
0.9LBP
6 LW = ______
0.5

The length and speed of these waves can be related to the Froude number. As seen
previously:
2π V 2 g LW
LW = ∴ =V
g 2π
Substituting in the constants gives an expression for wave length and wave speed:
g LW 9 81× LW
= = 1.561LW V
2π 2π
At each of these speeds, the wave speed can be expressed in terms of the LBP, by
combining the expressions for wave speed in Table 9.2 and this equation. This gives the
wave speed expressions shown in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3 Ship speed versus ship length

Wave pattern Wave speed
0.9LBP
1 V= 1.561LW = 1.561 X ______ = 0.468LBP
3
0.9LBP
2 V= 1.561LW = 1.561 X ______ = 0.562LBP
2.5
0.9LBP
3 V= 1.561LW = 1.561 X ______ = 0.702LBP
2
0.9LBP
4 V= 1.561LW = 1.561 X ______ = 0.937LBP
1.5
0.9LBP
5 V= 1.561LW = 1.561 X ______ = 1.405LBP
1
0.9LBP
6 V= 1.561LW = 1.561 X ______ = 2.801LBP
0.5
Finally the Froude number for each wave pattern can be determined, as shown in
Table 9.4.
Therefore, we can determine the Froude number, and hence ship speed, when the
waves either superimpose or cancel. A graph of wave making resistance against Froude
number shows a series of humps and hollows occurring at the Froude numbers found
in Table 9.5. An exaggerated example graph is shown in Figure 9.23.

Table 9.4 Ship wave pattern at various Froude numbers

V
Wave pattern Froude number = ________
g x LBP
V 0.468LBP
1 FN = ________ = ___________ = 0.22
g x LBP gLBP
V 0.562LBP
2 FN = ________ = ___________ = 0.24
g x LBP gLBP
V 0.702LBP
3 FN = ________ = ___________ = 0.27
g x LBP gLBP
V 0.937LBP
4 FN = ________ = ___________ = 0.31
g x LBP gLBP
V 1.405LBP
5 FN = ________ = ___________ = 0.38
g x LBP gLBP
V 2.801LBP
6 FN = ________ = ___________ = 0.54
g x LBP gLBP
Most higher-speed ships are designed to operate either at a Froude number around 0.35
known as the prismatic hollow as this gives the best speed for wave making resistance,
or around 0.25, below a peak known as the prismatic hump.
Superposition at F N = 0.54
drag
Cancellation at FN = 0.38
Wave making

Superposition at F
N = 0.31

Superposition at F N = 0.24
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Froude number
▲ Figure 9.23 Humps and hollows (exaggerated) in a wave making resistance curve

Modern Methods for Calculating the

Resistance of a Ship from a Model Test
Current towing tank test methods are agreed by the International Towing Tank
Conference (ITTC) and are based on the 1957 ITTC method.
The 1957 ITTC method makes use of ‘non-dimensional coefficients’. Subscripts M and S
are used to refer to model and ship scale.
Table 9.5 Force coefficients used in the 1957 ITTC method
Model total resistance Ship tota

total rresistance
CTM = CTS =
0 5ρSM v M2 0 5ρSS v S2
RT M RT S
CTM = CTS =
0 5ρ SM v M2 0 5ρ SS v S2
Model w
wav
a e resistance Ship wave
a e resistance
CWM = CWS =
RW M RW S
CWM = CWS =
Model vvisco
iscous
us resistance Ship viscous rresistance
CVM = CVS =
RVM RVS
CVM = CVS =
0 5ρ S v 2
M M 0 5ρ SS v S2
For each speed tested, the ‘viscous drag coefficient’ is determined, using the 1957 ITTC
Friction Line calculation:
V ( k )CF
As seen earlier the frictional resistance is based around the concept of equivalent
drag of a flat plate. The calculation of frictional drag can be made more accurate by
incorporating a ‘form factor’, which accounts for variations in the boundary layer
caused by the form of the ship, which in turn affects the frictional resistance.

The method used to determine the form factor is known as the ‘Prohaska Method’.
This is a method of determining the form factor – it assumes that at very low Froude
numbers, the wave making resistance is zero, and therefore the only resistance is the
actual frictional resistance. To determine the form factor, a plot of low speed values is
made of Fr4/CF on the x axis, against C TM/CFM on the y axis. A line of best fit is used, and
the intercept on the y axis gives (1 + k). An example of this is shown in Figure 9.24.
1.28
Prohaska
1.26
Linear (Prohaska)
1.24
1.22
1.2
CTM /CFM
1.18
1.16
1.14
1.12
1.1
1.08
–0.1 –0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Fr 4/CFM
▲ Figure 9.24 Prohaska plot
The total resistance of the model is assumed to consist of the viscous resistance and the
wave making resistance. In terms of coefficients:
CT M ( k )CF M CW M = C V M CW M
The coefficient of total resistance, CTM, can be found. Therefore, for each speed that the
model is tested, the wake making coefficient, CWM, can be determined.
For each speed, the wave making coefficient is assumed to be constant for the ship and
the model, therefore:
WM WS
For each speed tested, the ‘viscous drag coefficient’ for the ship is determined. The
form factor is assumed to be the same for the ship and model, therefore:
CV S ( k )CF S

CFS is found using the ITTC 1957 Friction Line and the total resistance of the ship is
assumed to consist of the viscous resistance and the wave making resistance. In terms
of coefficients:
CT S ( k )CF S CW S = C V S CW S
The total hull resistance can then be found.
The air drag of the vessel can be estimated for a ship in a head wind, using:
Air drag AT × VR2
In this equation, the AT term can be found from the projected area of the hull and
superstructure, as shown in Figure 9.25, and found from:
AT 0 3 A1 + A2
Area 1, A1
Area 2, A2
▲ Figure 9.25 Projected area of a hull
For more accurate determination of air drag, specific ship hull and superstructure
models are tested in wind tunnels. This is also undertaken to measure and check that
exhaust gases are safely ventilated away from accommodation areas.
To calculate the drag caused by appendages, published data is used to determine ‘drag
coefficients’, CD. These can then be used to determine the appendage drag due to eddy
making and form of appendages:
= 0 5 × ρ × S V 2 × CD
The friction drag from appendages can be found using the friction line.
In summary, for each tested speed, the flow chart shown in Figure 9.26 can be used.

Measure RTM using a Measure VM when

towing tank towing
Calculate CTM Calculate the model Calculate the model

Reynolds number Froude number
This will also be the

Calculate CFM
ship Froude number
Calculate CWM Calculate CVM
This will also be the Calculate the speed

CWS of the ship
Calculate CTS Calculate the ship

Reynolds number
Calculate RTS and Calculate CFS

add appendage and
air drag
Calculate CVS
▲ Figure 9.26 1957 ITTC method flow chart
QUESTION
Q9.9
A 5 m long 1:50 scale model ship, with a wetted surface area of 6.40 m2, is tested at
a speed of 1.10 m/s in fresh water. At that speed the total resistance is measured at
25.000 N. Data for the hull form indicates that the form factor, (1 + k), is 1.15. Calculate
the total resistance for the full size ship at the corresponding speed in sea water,

assuming that air drag and appendage drag are negligible. You may assume the
following:
ρFW 1 000 k / 3
ρSW
S = 1, 025
0 5 kg/m3
ν FW 1 00 × 10 −6 2 1
ν SW = 1.06 × 10 −6 m2 s-1
SHIP RESISTANCE  LEARNING CHECKLIST
Understand the causes of ship resistance ENG

Explain the components of ship resistance ENG
Calculate the frictional resistance of a ship using Froude’s ENG
method
Calculate the total resistance of a ship from a model test ENG
using Froude’s method
Calculate the frictional resistance of a ship using the 1957
ITTC Ship-Model Correlation Line
Calculate the total resistance of a ship from a model test
using the 1957 ITTC method
Calculate the total resistance of a ship from a model test
using the 1978 ITTC method

SHIP PROPULSION
10
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Explain the types of power that exist in a ship propulsion system

Identify the efficiencies of the components of a ship propulsion system
Estimate changes in the required shaft power of a vessel due to loading
Estimate changes in the required shaft power of a vessel due to speed changes
Estimate the powering requirements of geometrically similar ships
Estimate changes to daily and voyage fuel consumption
Converting Resistance to
Effective Power
(ENG)
The resistance of a ship is only part of the problem of determining the propulsive
requirements to propel a ship.
The resistance values need to be converted to power requirements, so the performance

of the vessel can be predicted for the size of engine installed, and the speed known for
any power setting.
The power required to tow a vessel through the water at a particular speed is known
as the effective power, PE. The first step in determining this is to calculate the effective
naked power, PEN.

This is calculated directly from the scaled up model resistance, which generally
measures the resistance without appendages (as they do not give reliable results at
small scales) or wave drag.
PEN RT × v
The naked effective power does not include the power requirements to overcome the
appendage drag or additional allowances for wind or waves.
A factor, known as the Ship Correlation Factor, or SCF, can be applied to the effective
naked power, PEN, to get the effective power, PE. Typically the SCF is between 1.1 and
1.2.
PE PEN × SCF
The SCF is made up of two further subfactors, which model the additional drag due to
appendages and a safety margin for heavy weather:
Ship co
correlation
e at o factor ( SCF
SC ) Weather
Weat e allowance Appendage allowanc
a e
QUESTION
Q10.1
A ship has a total resistance of 850 kN at a speed of 10 m/s.
The additional drag from appendages is 5%.
The additional drag due to weather is 12%.
Determine the effective power required.
Powering a Vessel
(ENG)
If we took the effective power required and installed an engine of the same size, we
would find that the losses over the whole propulsion system would mean that the
vessel would achieve significantly less than the intended service speed. Typically, the
installed engine power needs to be around double the effective power. To determine

Ship Propulsion • 355
the required power from the engines the various powers occurring in the system need
to be considered as shown in Figure 10.1.
Effective power
Installed
power
Thrust
Delivered power
power Shaft power
▲ Figure 10.1 Powers in a ship propulsion system
Losses in a Ship Propulsion System

(ENG)
A schematic representation of the losses in a typical propulsion system is shown in

Figure 10.2.
Mechanical efficiency (ENG)
The overall output of the engine at the drive shaft is less than the indicated power
of the engine. The losses occur through noise, heat, and so on, but also through the
engine driving its ancillary services such as the fuel system. For a modern diesel engine
the mechanical efficiency is around 80–85%.
Shaft
f power
Mechanical efficiency =
Installed power
PS
ηM =
PI

Installed
(indicated)
power
PI Mechanical
Engine efficiency
ηM
Shaft
power
PS
Transmission
Transmission efficiency
ηT
Delivered
power
PD
Propeller
Propeller efficiency
ηP
Thrust
power
PT
Hull
Hull efficiency
ηH
Effective
power
PE
▲ Figure 10.2 Powers and efficiencies in a ship propulsion system
Transmission efficiency (ENG)
The losses in the transmission system such as gearboxes, shaft bearings and thrust
blocks are termed the transmission efficiency. Without a gearbox the transmission
losses will typically be 2–3% giving a transmission efficiency of 97–98%.
Delivered
r power
Transmission efficiency =
Shaftf power
PD
ηT =
PS

Propeller efficiency (ENG)
The job of the propeller is to convert rotational force into linear force. This will be
covered in more detail later.
Propellers are generally pretty inefficient – this is one of the major problems still to be
tackled in ship design. Typically propeller efficiencies vary from 50 to 70%.
Thrust power
Propeller efficiency =
Delivered
r power
PT
ηp =
PD
Hull efficiency (ENG)
Ship models are towed without the propellers rotating as the scale is too small to give
reliable results.
As the propeller rotates, it creates areas of low pressure ahead of the propeller, and
areas of high pressure astern of the propeller. The area of low pressure has the effect of
creating a small aft force on the hull, which itself means the thrust power, PT, needed to
push the vessel is slightly greater than the effective power, PE.
Effective
v power
Hull efficiency =
Thrust power
PE
ηH =
PT
It is important to note that the hull efficiency is not a true efficiency measurement as
it compares the power produced by the propeller when driving the vessel with the
power required to tow the vessel. For this reason, hull efficiency values will sometimes
be greater than 100% which is impossible for a true efficiency value.
Methods for calculating the hull efficiency are considered later in the propeller section
of the book.

QUESTION
Q10.2
A ship has a bare hull total resistance of 900 kN at a speed of 11 m/s.
The ship correlation factor is 1.15.
The hull efficiency is 98%.
The propeller efficiency is 57%.
The transmission efficiency is 97%.
The mechanical efficiency is 80%.
Determine the installed power required.
Propulsive coefficients (ENG)
Several propulsive coefficients are used that combine various efficiencies together in
order that different propulsion systems can be compared.
The overall efficiency of the propulsion system is measured by the propulsive

coefficient, PC:
PE
PC = =η T × P ×ηH
PS
The overall efficiency of the propulsion system, excluding the transmission, is measured
by the quasi-propulsive coefficient, QPC:
PE
QPC = = ηP ×ηH
PD
Estimating Ship Power Requirements

(ENG)
As has been seen, the overall process for determining the required power for a ship
from model testing is time consuming and expensive – possibly costing over £250,000
for a simple analysis.

Admiralty coefficient (ENG)
For preliminary design purposes, and for assessing small changes in operating
conditions, the ‘admiralty coefficient’ can be used. This process is an estimation, but is
good for typical ship hull forms operating at moderate Froude numbers.
2
Δ 3v 3
AC =
PS
▲ Formula 10.1 Admiralty coefficient based on shaft power
The power used is the shaft power, PS in kW, the ship speed, v, has units of knots, and
the displacement, Δ, is measured in tonnes.
For small changes in either displacement, speed or power, the admiralty coefficient can
be assumed to remain constant.
Note: Care must be taken with units when using published admiralty coefficient values.
The formula has been routinely used, particularly in the past, with the displacement
measured in tons and shaft power measured in horsepower. The admiralty coefficient
values calculated with these units will be of a similar magnitude but differ by around
36% from those calculated using metric units.
QUESTIONS
Q10.3
A ship has a shaft power of 20,000 kW and travels at 15 knots. The displacement of the
vessel is 90,000 tonnes.
Estimate the power required if the speed is increased by 2 knots.
Q10.4
A ship has a shaft power of 10,000 kW and travels at 8 knots. Estimate the power
required if the speed is decreased by 1 knot.
For scaled vessels travelling at the same Froude number, the admiralty coefficient can
also be assumed to be constant.

QUESTION
Q10.5
A 100 m long vessel has a displacement of 7,000 tonnes and travels at a speed of 14
knots with a shaft power of 8,000 kW. What would the shaft power be for a scaled up
vessel which is 10% larger, travelling at the same Froude number?
Estimating Ship Fuel Requirements

(ENG)
In a very similar way to the admiralty coefficient, we have a method of estimating

changes in fuel consumption. This is based on the assumption that over the normal
power range, the specific fuel consumption of the engine (kg/kWh), remains constant.
Fuel coefficient (ENG)
For small changes in either displacement, speed or power, the fuel coefficient can be
assumed to remain constant.
2
Δ 3v 3
Fuel coefficient =
Daily fuel consumption
▲ Formula 10.2 Fuel coefficient
2
Δ 3v 3
Daily fuel consumption =
Fuel coefficient
QUESTION
Q10.6
A ship has a displacement of 90,000 tonnes, a shaft power of 20,000 kW and travels at
15 knots. At this speed, the daily fuel requirement is 35 tonnes. Estimate the daily fuel
required if the speed is increased by 2 knots.

Estimating voyage fuel requirements (ENG)
Changes in ship speed also have the effect of increasing the voyage time. Changes to
the voyage fuel consumption are usually required and can be found using the following
formula:
Voyage distance
a
Voyage fuel consumption = Daily fuel consumption ×
24 × Ship speed
QUESTIONS
Q10.7
A ship has a displacement of 80,000 tonnes. The fuel coefficient is 130,000. Estimate the
amount of fuel required to complete a 2,000 mile voyage at 16 knots.
Q10.8
Using the information in Question 10.7, estimate the amount and percentage of fuel
saved by reducing the ship speed to 14 knots?
SHIP PROPULSION  LEARNING CHECKLIST
Explain the types of power that exist in a ship propulsion ENG

system
Identify the efficiencies of the components of a ship propulsion ENG
system
Estimate changes in the required shaft power of a vessel due to ENG
loading
Estimate changes in the required shaft power of a vessel due to ENG
speed changes
Estimate the powering requirements of geometrically similar ENG
ships
Estimate changes to daily and voyage fuel consumption ENG

11 SCREW
PROPELLERS
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Understand the basic geometry and terminology associated with a propeller

Understand how the performance of a propeller can be measured
Calculate propeller slip

Screw Propellers • 363
The job of the propeller is to convert torque from the propeller shaft into linear thrust
to propel the vessel.
The mathematical process is complex, so this section covers simple analysis methods
and techniques to understand the basic aspects of propeller performance.
Screw Propeller Terminology

(ENG)
The terminology used to describe the features of a screw propeller is identified in

Figures 11.1 and 11.2.
Leading edge Blade tip
Blade
Trailing edge Hub root
Propeller
blade
Propeller back
blade (unseen side)
face
▲ Figure 11.1 Features of a propeller as viewed from astern of a vessel
Rake
Skew Rotation
Trailing Leading
edge edge
Looking forward
▲ Figure 11.2 Rake and skew of a propeller blade

Blade back and face
The back face of the propeller blade is the face seen from astern. This is the high
pressure side of the propeller. The forward face of the propeller blade is the face seen
from ahead. This is the low pressure side of the propeller.
Propeller rotation or walk
There is no set direction of rotation for all propellers. Each propeller is designed for a
particular direction of rotation. A propeller which is designed to rotate clockwise when
viewed from astern is known as a right handed propeller. This type of propeller will
tend to push the stern to starboard as it creates thrust ahead. Conversely, a propeller
which is designed to rotate anticlockwise when viewed from astern is known as a
left handed propeller. This type of propeller will tend to push the stern to port as it
creates thrust ahead. As the propeller rotates it creates lift over the blades, moving it
forward.
The ‘pitch’ of the propeller is the distance travelled forward in one revolution in an
unyielding fluid – effectively the distance that the propeller would ‘screw’ though
if it were rotated through a solid – just like turning a wood screw into a block of
wood.
The pitch and the diameter of a propeller are linked by the ‘pitch ratio’, which is a non-
dimensional ratio which measures the pitch of the propeller to the diameter of the
propeller
P Propeller pitch
Pitch rrat
atio
o, =
D Propeller diameter
The blade area ratio (BAR) is the actual area of all of the blades compared to the area of
the ‘propeller disc’, as shown in Figure 11.3, which is a solid disc of the same diameter
as the propeller.
Blade area
BAR =
Disc area
π D2
Disc area =
4

Propeller
diameter
Propeller
disc
▲ Figure 11.3 Propeller disc area
Propeller Performance
(ENG)
Theoretical speed (ENG)
As a propeller rotates, it tries to move forwards. In an unyielding material, the propeller

would move forward by the pitch of the propeller. The propeller could, in theory, not
travel faster than this speed under its own rotation.
The maximum theoretical speed, vT, of the propeller can be found in terms of the pitch
and the rotation speed, n, in revolutions per second:
ν T = Pn
▲ Formula 11.1 Propeller theoretical speed
QUESTION
Q11.1
A propeller has a pitch of 5 m and rotates at 2.5 rev/s. Determine the theoretical speed
of the propeller.

Apparent slip (ENG)
In practice, water is a yielding fluid, which means that the propeller moves forward
through the water with a certain amount of ‘slip’. This is the maritime equivalent of
‘wheel spin’. The propeller blades do not move the vessel by ‘gripping’ the water as a
traditional screw would, instead they create forward motion by creating a pressure
differential and hence lift across the propeller blades. This is not an entirely efficient
process, hence the actual distance moved in one rotation is less than the theoretical
distance that the propeller would move in one rotation.
The difference between the theoretical propeller speed and the actual ship speed is
known as the apparent slip, abbreviated to SA.
vT v
SA =
vT
▲ Formula 11.2 Apparent slip ratio
The apparent slip is almost always referred to as the apparent slip ratio, which
measures the apparent slip as a ratio to the theoretical speed. Typical values are
around 4 to 6%.
QUESTION
Q11.2
A ship has a speed of 12 m/s. The theoretical speed of the propeller is 12.6 m/s.
Determine the apparent slip ratio.
Advance speed and the Taylor wake fraction (ENG)
As the vessel travels through the water, a certain amount of water (‘entrained flow’) is
pulled along behind the vessel, as shown in Figure 11.4. This is the region in which the
propeller typically operates. Effectively, the speed through the water of the propeller is
less than the ship speed. The actual speed of the propeller through the water is known
as the advance speed, vA.

The difference between the ship speed and the advance speed is the wake speed, vW.
v = v A + vW
Entrained flow moving forward close to the ship speed
▲ Figure 11.4 Propeller operating in the ship's wake
The ship speed and the advance speed are linked by a factor known as the ‘Taylor wake
fraction’, often abbreviated to ω.
This is very hard to calculate exactly for ships and standard values are normally used.
For normal merchant vessel hull forms, it can be approximated by:
= 0.5C
5 B − 0.05
The ship speed and the advance speed are linked by:
vW ω ×v
vA v ( 1−ω )
▲ Formula 11.3 Advance speed using the Taylor wake fraction
QUESTION
Q11.3
A ship has a block coefficient of 0.6. The speed of the ship is 13 m/s. Determine the
advance speed and wake speed.

Real slip (ENG)
The difference between the theoretical speed and the advance speed is the real slip
speed.
The real slip is almost always referred to as the real slip ratio, which measures the real
slip as a ratio to the theoretical speed. Typical values are around 30 to 40%.
vT vA
SR =
vT
▲ Formula 11.4 Propeller real slip ratio
QUESTION
Q11.4
A ship has a theoretical speed of 10 m/s and an advance speed of 7 m/s. Determine the
real slip.
Speed relationships
It is helpful to note that the three speeds of interest are related by three factors as
SA ω
VT VA
SR
▲ Figure 11.5 Relationship between ship, advance and theoretical speed

QUESTION
Q11.5
A ship has a speed of 11 m/s, with a propeller with a pitch of 4.5 m, rotating at a speed
of 2.55 rev/s.
The block coefficient of the ship is 0.66.
Determine the theoretical speed, the apparent slip ratio, the advance speed, the wake
speed and the real slip ratio.
Propeller thrust and torque (ENG)
Previously, we looked at the powering of ships and found the thrust power, PT, produced
by the propeller and the delivered power, PD, required to turn the propeller.
The thrust, T, and torque, Q, of the propeller are linked to the thrust power and the
delivered power:
PT T
TvvA
▲ Formula 11.5 Propeller thrust
PD Qn
▲ Formula 11.6 Propeller torque
Manufacturers data can be used to compare propeller designs against thrust and
torque values obtained from tests.
This data can be used to specify a propeller which, for a given vA, will deliver enough
thrust.
This can be a bit of a trial and error process – often propellers are adjusted or changed
after sea trials, as predicting values such as the Taylor Wake Fraction can be difficult.
To try and reduce uncertainty, previous trial data on similar vessels, modern computing
methods and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are used to get good estimates

for VA – however these are not 100% fool-proof or reliable, and a certain amount of
judgement and experience is needed to predict these values.
We have seen that the propeller itself increases the resistance of the vessel. Therefore,
the thrust generated by the propeller must be more than the total resistance of the
ship. This is modelled by the thrust deduction factor, t:
RTS T ( 1− t )
▲ Formula 11.7 Thrust deduction factor
Typical values for t are around 0.1 to 0.3.
Hull efficiency (ENG)
We have previously seen that the hull efficiency is given by:
PE
ηH =
PT
We know that the effective power can be expressed in terms of the total ship resistance
and the ship speed, and the thrust power can be expressed in terms of the thrust.
PE RT v
ηH = =
PT Tv A
The total ship resistance and thrust are linked by the thrust deduction factor:
RTS T (1 − t )
This allows the hull efficiency to be expressed in terms of the thrust:
PE RT v T ( t ) v v (1 t )
ηH = = = =
PT Tv A Tv A vA
The advance speed can be linked to the ship speed using the Taylor wake fraction:
vA v (1 − ω )

This allows the hull efficiency to be expressed in terms of the thrust deduction factor
and the Taylor wake fraction:
PE RT v T ( t ) v v (1 t ) v (1 t )
ηH = = = = =
PT Tv A Tv A vA v (1 − ω )
Giving:
1− t
hH =
1−w
▲ Formula 11.8 Hull efficiency
Propeller Design
Propeller design principles
As with most aspects of naval architecture, the design of the propeller is a compromise
between a range of different requirements and conflicting parameters. The initial
design stages when selecting a propeller are to determine the maximum available
diameter, based on the space available and a suitable tip clearance from the hull, the
required number of blades and the BAR. In general, the diameter should be as large
as possible, however the tip clearance should be no less than around 10 to 15% of
the propeller diameter, to ensure that the flow around the blades does not cause
vibration or cavitation issues with the hull surface. It may also be advantageous to keep
the diameter below the maximum possible if it also keeps the propeller tips clear of
disturbances in the wake field around the vessel, and hence increase vibration. The
choice of number of blades depends on the individual vessel. Increasing the number of
blades typically allows ‘tuning’ of vibration issues if the propeller is operating in a varied
and turbulent in-flow, however increasing the number of blades generally results in
reduced efficiency. The desired BAR must then be selected. If the BAR is too small, the
loading on the propeller blades will be excessive and performance will be reduced
through the process of cavitation. Excessive BAR can result in reduced efficiency, so
it is important to select a propeller with the correct characteristics. Propeller selection
often requires a certain amount of trial and error with iterative improvement.

Propeller efficiency
The efficiency of a propeller operating behind a vessel differs from that obtained from
open water testing. The propeller efficiency ηP is found by multiplying the open water
efficiency η0 by the relative rotative efficiency ηR:
P ηR η0
The relative rotative efficiency is close to unity and typical values are
single-screw vessels – 1.0 to 1.1

twin-screw vessels – 0.95 to 1.0
The values for single-screw propellers may at first glance appear surprising as the
influence of the ship’s wake is generally responsible for a deterioration of performance.
However, this can be offset by the added turbulence in the flow about the propeller
due to the hull boundary layer and can have a beneficial effect.
BP-δ propeller design charts
These are charts showing the performance of a range of propellers tested systematically
for a range of blade numbers and BARs. Once the number of blades and BAR have been
selected, the charts allow the selection of a suitable pitch diameter ratio based on the
advance speed, rotation speed and delivered power.
These values are used to determine the power coefficient, BP:
NP 0 5
BP =
VA2 5
The design charts (see Figure 11.4) show the power coefficient along the x axis. To use
these charts, the predicted BP value is determined, and marked on the x axis. A vertical
line is then drawn up to the line of optimum efficiency (shown as the thick solid line
in Figure 11.4), The efficiency lines (long dashes on Figure 11.4) on the chart can be
used to determine the actual propeller efficiency. A horizontal line can then be drawn
across from this point to the y axis, which gives the optimum pitch diameter ratio for
the propeller.

The intersection between the vertical BP line and the optimum efficiency line can
also be used to determine a value known as the speed coefficient, or delta, shown in
Figure 11.4 by the short dashed line. The speed coefficient is given by:
ND
δ=
VA
This can then be used to determine the optimum diameter of the propeller.
nD
ηP ‘delta’ lines VA
P
D
Optimum ηP
BP
▲ Figure 11.4 Sample BP δ graph
KT-KQ-J diagrams
An alternative method of presenting propeller data is in the form of thrust and torque
curves. These are graphs which again make use of non-dimensionalised data to allow
the performance of a propeller to be predicted. In a similar way to the previous method,
a range of charts exist, with specific charts for propellers of a given BAR and number of
blades. These charts show three values on the y axis, known as the Thrust Coefficient,
KT, and the Torque Coefficient, KQ, and open water efficiency η0 . The thrust and torque
coefficients can be found from:
Torque coefficient:
Q
KQ =
ρ n2 D 5

Thrust coefficient:
T
KT =
ρ n2 D 4
The x axis of the chart shows a non-dimensional value known as the advance coefficient,
or J. This is found from:
VA
J=
nD
The open water efficiency of a propeller has previously been seen as the ratio of the
thrust power to the delivered power. By expressing the thrust and torque in terms of
their coefficients, the open water efficiency can be expressed in terms of the thrust and
torque coefficients and the advance ratio:
PT T × VA K T ρ n2 D 4 × VA K T ρn
ρ n2 D 4 × VA
η0 = = = =
πQ
PD 2π 2π × K Q ρ n2 D 5 × n 2π × K Q ρ n2 D 5 n
K T × VA KT V JK T
η0 = = × A =
2π K Q D 2π K Q nD 2π K Q
A typical KT-KQ chart is shown below. The thick solid lines show the open water
efficiency for a range of P/D ratios, while the thin solid lines show the thrust coefficient
for a range of P/D ratios. The dashed lines show the torque coefficient (multiplied by
10 to allow the same y axis to be used for all of the variables), again for a range of P/D
ratios.
At a simple level, the KT-KQ charts can be used to determine the propeller characteristics
for a propeller with a given BAR and number of blades. If the propeller rotation speed
is known (typically from the machinery and gearbox specification), and the advance
speed is known (which can be estimated from the Taylor Wake Fraction and the ship
speed), and diameter is known, then the advance coefficient J can be determined. For
the calculated value of J, the KT and KQ curves can be used to determine the torque
delivered and the thrust produced, along with the open water efficiency. Iterative
calculations can be used to determine the most suitable propeller specification. More
advanced methods exist to remove some of the iterative nature of this process, however
they are beyond the scope of this text.

1.2
P/D lines
1.1
1
Torque coefficient lines
0.9
0.8 Efficiency lines
KT, 10KQ, η
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Advance coefficient (J)
Thrust coefficient lines
▲ Figure 11.5 Features of KT-KQ-J diagram
Cavitation
Fresh water boils at 100°C in normal circumstances at sea level but at lower pressures
will boil at lower temperatures. Hence, the climbers lament that you cannot get a hot
cup of tea up a mountain due to the drop in atmospheric pressure at altitude.
The pressure drop over the blades of a propeller can be large enough to cause the
water to boil and this phenomena is called cavitation. The temperature and salt content
of the water will vary the pressure at which it boils and is called the vapour pressure, pv.
Typical values for salt and fresh water are shown in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Vapour pressure of fresh and salt water at various temperatures
Temperature (°C) 0.01 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fresh water pv (Pa) 611 872 1,228 1,704 2,377 3,166 4,241
Sea water pv (Pa) 590 842 1,186 1,646 2,296 3,058 4,097
Cavitation can cause extensive damage to a propeller as the collapse of bubbles of

water vapour is surprisingly violent. To reduce the potential for cavitation the blade
area of the propeller needs to be increased which reduces the loading and therefore

pressure acting over the blade. An empirical method for working out the minimum
blade area is:
AE (1.3 + 0.3 Z )T
= +K
A0 ( p0 pv ) D 2
Vessel type K value
Fast twin-screw 0
Other twin-screw 0.1
Single-screw 0.2
SCREW PROPELLERS  LEARNING CHECKLIST
Objective Completed
Understand the basic geometry and terminology associated with

a propeller
Understand how the performance of a propeller can be measured
Calculate propeller slip

PROPELLER
12
ALTERNATIVES FOR
HIGHSPEED CRAFT
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Discuss the use of surface piercing propellers for ship propulsion

Identify the role of waterjet propulsion systems for ship propulsion
At high speeds it becomes impractical to use a traditional screw propeller, this is largely
due to the loss of efficiency and problems overcoming cavitation. The most widely used
solutions to the problem are to fit surface piercing propellers or waterjets.
Surface Piercing Propellers

A surface piercing propeller is positioned so that when the vessel is underway the
waterline passes right through the propeller’s hub. The normal arrangement is to extend
the propeller shaft out through the transom of the vessel as shown in Figure 12.1.
In the case of articulated surface drive systems, the propeller shaft is driven
through a double universal joint inside an oil-tight ball joint, allowing the shaft to

▲ Figure 12.1 Typical articulated surface piercing propeller drive system
rotate athwartships for steering and to trim up and down for control of propeller
submergence. Fixed-shaft surface drives can use conventional shafts and stern tube
bearings, but require rudders. In many racing applications, outboards and outdrives
can be positioned sufficiently high on the vessel for the propellers to operate in a
surface piercing mode.
The important operating feature is that each propeller blade is out of the water for half
of each revolution. A summary of the principal reasons for the high performance of
surface propeller systems relative to conventional installations follows.
Propeller efficiency
Traditional propeller design and selection is almost always an exercise in trading off
diameter against several other performance-limiting parameters. Basic momentum theory
tells us that for a given speed and thrust, the larger the propeller, the higher the efficiency.
While there are exceptions, most notably the effects of frictional resistance on large,
slow-turning propellers, it is generally borne out in practice that a larger propeller with
a sufficiently deep gear ratio will be more efficient than a small one.
A number of design considerations conspire to limit the maximum feasible propeller

diameter to something considerably smaller than the optimal size. These include blade
tip clearance from the hull, maximum vessel draft, shaft angle and engine location. While
this may at times make life easy for the designer – the propeller diameter specified is
simply the maximum that fits – it can also result in a considerable sacrifice of propulsive

Propeller Alternatives for High-Speed Craft • 379
efficiency. And if these geometric limits on propeller diameter are exceeded, the result
can be excessive vibration and damage due to low tip clearances, or a steep shaft angle
with severe loss of efficiency and additional parasitic drag, or deep navigational draft
that restricts operation or requires a protective keel and its associated drag.
The surface piercing propeller frees the designer from these limitations. There is virtually
no limit to the size of propeller that will work. The designer is able to use a much deeper
reduction ratio, and a larger, lightly loaded, and more efficient propeller.
Cavitation
When a submerged propeller blade cavitates, the pressure on part of the blade becomes
so low that a near vacuum is formed. If the suction on the low-pressure side of the
propeller blade dips below ambient pressure – atmospheric plus hydrostatic head –
then a cavity forms.
When these cavities collapse, water impacts on the blade surface with a local pressure
singularity – that is, a point with theoretically infinite velocity and pressure. The effect
can approximate that of hitting the blade with a hammer on each revolution. Cavitation
is a major source of propeller damage, vibration, noise and loss of performance. And
although high-speed propellers are often designed to operate in a fully cavitating
(supercavitating) mode, problems associated with cavitation are frequently a limiting
factor in propeller design and selection.
The surface propeller effectively eliminates cavitation by replacing it with ventilation.

With each stroke, the propeller blade brings a bubble of air into what would otherwise
be the vacuum cavity region. The water ram effect that occurs when a vacuum cavity
collapses is suppressed because the air entrained in the cavity compresses as the
cavity shrinks in size. Although the flow over a superventilating propeller blade bears
a superficial resemblance to that over a supercavitating blade, most of the vibration,
surface erosion and underwater noise are absent.
In theory, there is a slight performance penalty for allowing surface air into the low-
pressure cavities but in practice, this effect is not significant considering the total thrust
pressures involved in high-speed propellers.
Note that cavitation can also be associated with sudden loss of thrust and high propeller
slip, often caused by a sharp manoeuvre or resistance increase. This can still occur with
surface propellers, although the propeller is ventilating rather than cavitating and the
result is not as damaging.

Appendage drag
Exposed shafts, struts and propeller hubs all contribute to parasitic drag. Inclined the
exposed shafts not only produces form and frictional drag, but there is also induced
drag associated with the Magnus-effect lift caused by their rotation. There is a surprising
amount of power loss resulting from the friction of the shaft rotating in the water flow.
In fact, for conventional installations a net performance increase can often be realised by
enclosing submerged shafts in non-rotating shrouds, despite the increase in diameter.
Surface propellers virtually eliminate drag from all of these sources, as the only surfaces
to contact the water are the propeller blades and a skeg or rudder.
Variable geometry
When a surface propeller is used in conjunction with an articulated drive system, the
vessel operator then has the ability to adjust propeller submergence underway. This
has roughly the same effect as varying the diameter of a fully submerged propeller, and
allows for considerable tolerance in selecting propellers – or it allows one propeller to
match a range of vessel operating conditions. This capability is somewhat analogous to
adjusting pitch on a controllable pitch propeller.
When the articulated drive is used for steering, the result can be exceptionally good
high-speed manoeuvring characteristics. On single-shaft applications, drive steering
can also be used to compensate for propeller-induced side force, without resorting to
an excessively large rudder or skeg.
Shallow draft
The vessel’s navigational draft can be as low as half a propeller diameter. Compared with
other options for shallow water propulsion, most notably waterjets, surface propellers
enjoy a very significant efficiency advantage.
In the case of articulated drives, the propellers can be trimmed up until just the tips
are submerged for intermittent operation in very shallow water, including beaching.
Sometimes the design allows the propellers to trim sufficiently above the baseline so
that the vessel can ‘dry out’ with the props well clear of the bottom.
These are the intrinsic performance advantages of surface propellers. Other desirable
characteristics include:

Flexibility in machinery arrangement

Ease of maintenance and repair
Simplified installation
In some applications involving hybrid propulsion systems, such as the combination of

diesel cruise engines with a gas turbine sprint engine, the ability to retract one set of
propellers completely clear of the water when not in use is an overriding consideration.
System selection
Having elected to investigate the surface propulsion option, the builder or designer is faced
with a series of major decisions and a very limited amount of reliable data. First is the issue
of fixed versus articulated. As outlined above, articulated drives have the advantage of
variable propeller submergence

superior manoeuvrability
extreme shallow draft capabilities.
Fixed systems, on the other hand, do not require the hydraulic cylinders and associated
pumps, control devices and high pressure plumbing. Furthermore, fixed systems are
often designed to work with conventional solid shafts and stern tubes, rather than the
more complex universal-joint drivelines found in articulated systems. It should also be
noted that articulated surface drives should not be relied upon to control vessel trim
angle. Trimming the drive up and down will have only a small effect on vessel running
trim, and separate trim tabs or other devices may still be desirable.
For fixed surface drives, the Levi Drive Unit is the most popular worldwide. This system
is distinctive for its inverted U-shaped rudder that encloses the propeller. A handful of
other fixed drive manufactures compete in certain areas. For articulated surface drives,
the Arneson Surface Drive is the dominant product, thanks to the ‘universal joint inside
a ball joint’ configuration patented by Howard Arneson.
Surface piercing propeller types
The distinguishing features of a surface piercing propeller are that the pressure face
of the blade is always concave, the leading edge is relatively sharp with a narrow
entry angle, and the hub and blade root are built to withstand heavy eccentric and
alternating loads. There is major incentive to keep the blade section thin. Nearly all
successful designs have moderate to heavy trailing edge cupping.

Surface propellers are usually associated with the stainless steel ‘cleaver’ style, shown in
Figure 12.2, common to race boat applications. These propellers have straight trailing
edges, razor-sharp leading edges, and sometimes as many as eight blades. The cleaver
propeller is typically manufactured out of stainless steel, with some larger configurations
made out of NiBrAl Bronze. Heavy cambered wedge sections, similar to super cavitating
propellers, are standard with a blunt, squared-off trailing edge. Up to 8-blade cleaver
propellers have been used to allow smoother operation and an increase in efficiency
with reduced propeller submergence. These propellers typically are used for vessel
speeds in excess of 50 knots. Depending on the size of the craft, the performance gains
fall off using cleavers for the slower speed applications. As a general rule, there are better
styles for the slower speed applications.
▲ Figure 12.2 Cleaver style surface piercing propeller
Low rake propellers have a very similar appearance to conventional propellers. Typically
blade areas range from 0.75 for a 4-blade to 1.25 for a 6-blade. These propellers
have a cambered blade section with a trailing edge cup. Sometimes, for slow speed
applications, the cup is extended forward of the maximum radius on the propeller. The
design and application for this style of propeller has come a long way recently. This is
the propeller of choice for most applications under 50 knots. Propeller geometry can
be altered on these propellers to enhance the slow and mid-speed performance.
The high rake propeller was developed primarily as a ‘poor man’s cleaver’. This is a
propeller that is easily manufactured and has evolved from the standard wedge-shaped
cleaver propeller. These propellers generally are for use on the light, high-speed, small
vessel applications.

Vibration
One of the amazing features of surface propulsion is its smoothness at high speed,
due mainly to the suppression of cavitation. This is contrary to intuition, and must
be experienced to be fully believed. However, some installations have experienced
serious vibration problems. In most cases, this is due to improper design or alignment
of the shafting between the gearbox and drive input shaft. When double universal-
joint drivelines are required, as is the case with articulated systems, it is especially
important to plan the driveline geometry so that operating angles of the two joints
are approximately equal and within accepted tolerances. This is because a universal
joint does not transmit rotational velocity evenly, causing angular acceleration and
deceleration twice with each shaft revolution. The less common vibration problems
that are not driveline-related can almost always be solved by using propellers with a
larger number of blades, although there is some cost penalty involved.
Backing performance
Surface propulsion has a reputation for very poor performance in reverse. A certain
amount of this reputation is based on the fact that until very recently, nearly all surface
propeller installations were on very high-speed vessels using ‘cleaver’ style propellers.
These propellers, due to the thick trailing edges, concave pressure face and often heavy
trailing edge cupping, are notoriously poor performers in reverse. And this is true
whether they are used as surface propellers or as cavitating fully submerged propellers.
However, there is an occasional problem with backing performance of surface propulsion

systems, regardless of propeller style. Part of the slipstream of the propellers is directed
right into the vessel’s transom, with an obvious loss of net astern thrust. Side curtains
(hull side extensions aft of the transom) can seriously aggravate this condition. In fact,
there has been at least one installation in which the vessel was actually propelled forward
when the propellers were turning backwards at certain speeds. The aft overhang and
side curtains combined to work like the reversing bucket on a waterjet, except that in
this case reverse thrust was being ‘reversed’ to forward thrust.
Fortunately there is an easy fix. The addition of baffle plates between the transom and
the propeller that direct the slipstream down and forward (the plates are dry when
the vessel is operating ahead at speed) has proved extremely effective. But for the
majority of applications, no such hardware is required to provide adequate, although
not outstanding, performance in reverse.

Transitional speeds
Most planing hull designs, especially moderately low-powered or heavy designs, are
subject to problems getting through ‘hump’ speed. High vessel resistance at pre-planing
speeds, high propeller slip and reduced engine torque output at less than full RPM can
sometimes combine to make it impossible to reach design speed, even though the
vessel may be perfectly capable of operating at design speed once it gets there. The
boat that ‘can’t get out of the hole’ is a phenomenon that should be quite familiar to
many designers and builders. With surface propulsion systems there is an additional
factor which may make the situation worse – the propeller is designed to operate with
only half of the blade area immersed. But at low speeds, before the transom aerates or
‘drys out’, the propeller must operate fully submerged. Not only is the submerged area
doubled, but the top half is operating in very strong wake turbulence right behind
the transom. The result is that it takes much more torque to spin the propeller at a
given RPM, and sometimes the engine is not capable of providing the torque necessary
to turn the propeller fast enough to get the boat up to the speed which allows the
transom to aerate and unload the top half of the propeller.
To reduce this potential problem, various methods of aerating the top half of the
propeller have been employed. The Levi Drive, for example, directs engine exhaust
into the water in front of the propeller. On some installations, passive ‘aeration pipes’
leading from above the static waterline to the forward side of the propeller have been
effective. When the lower surface of the aft overhang is below the static waterline, it
is sometimes advisable to leave cut-outs through the overhang to let air get to the
propellers. With articulated drives, maximum up-trim can sometimes reduce propeller
submergence sufficiently to achieve required RPM for take-off power.
Waterjet Propulsion
Waterjet propulsion may seem to be a recent innovation but production on a large

scale began in the late 1950s and they were used on a Great Lakes steamboat as far
back as the 1800s.
In recent years, large jet units have been installed in medium size ships with powers up
to 40 MW per unit.

High speeds can be reached and the ideal speed range for jets is around 30 to 55 knots.
Typical applications include:
Fast Passenger Ferries

Tourist Excursion Vessels
Crew Boats
Coast Guard & Police Patrol Vessels
Military & Combat Support Boats
Pilot Boats
Pleasure Cruisers & Recreational Craft
Search & Rescue Vessels
Fishing & Other Work Boats
Waterjet Operating Principles
Main features of waterjet system
A single or multi-stage pump is connected directly to a gas turbine, diesel, petrol or

other type of engine.
Water is drawn through an opening in the bottom of the hull and discharged at high
velocity out of the transom.
The discharge nozzle acts as the rudder and is turned to port or starboard through
conventional steering controls.
Advantages of waterjet propulsion
Engine reversing gear is not required since a deflector plate provides reverse thrust.
Boats can be operated in very shallow depths.
No external shafts, struts, propellers or rudders protruding below the hull.
Can have good acceleration characteristics.

Disadvantages of waterjet propulsion
Limited application for moderate and slow speed craft.

In certain cases waterjets can generate excessive noise and be less efficient than
conventional propulsion systems.
Installation tends to be heavier than the equivalent propeller based system. At higher
speeds this is the major limitation that promotes the use of surface piercing propellers.
Waterjet System Components

A waterjet system can be broken into three subsystems:
Jet system
Duct system
Pump system
The components of a waterjet system can be considered as in Figure 12.3.
Jet system
Generally the jet diameter is smaller than the equivalent propeller’s slipstream. For the
mechanical energy only, the theoretical efficiency is given by the ratio of useful work
done to the work input.
Useful work done

Efficiency =
Work input
Propulsion force (thrust) = Rate of change of momentum
T ρ Av j v abs
where ρ – water density (kg/m3)

A – nozzle CSA (m2)
vabs – the absolute velocity of the waterjet (m/s) = vj – vs
vs – the boat speed (m/s)
vj – the velocity of the waterjet relative to the boat (m/s)
ρ Av j
Note: mass flow rate, m

Engine
Service margin usually 10%
Brake power, PB
Transmission
Transmission efficiency, ηtransmission
Delivered power, PD
Pump
Pump efficiency, ηpump
Jet system
Pump power, PP Jet system efficiency, η js
Duct
Inlet, head, friction, η duct
Jet system power, PJS
Nozzle
Jet efficiency, η jet
Thrust power, PT = T.vs
Hull
Thrust deduction factor, 1 – t
Effective power, PE = PT ·Vs
▲ Figure 12.3 Schematic diagram of a waterjet propulsion system
Now the work done on the water by the pump is to increase the kinetic energy of the
water (no losses – ideal efficiency)
Work do
donee by pu
pump
p per o
ond
d ( pump
p p power
p )
1
2
(
ρ Av j v j − v s )

Then the ideal efficiency of waterjet is defined by
Tv s
η jet =
1
2
(
ρ Av j v j vs )
2v s
η jet =
v j + vs
In order to increase the jet efficiency, the jet speed must be as small as possible, that is,
big nozzle diameter.
QUESTION
Q12.1
The resistance of a boat is 50,000 N, the boat speed is 60 knots and the jet efficiency is
60%. Calculate the waterjet speed, flow rate and waterjet diameter.
With additional enlarging of the jet pipe and the pumping of more water with less
velocity change, the efficiency can be further increased. The type of pump best suited
for large flows at small head is the axial flow propeller pump. Increasing the size of the
pump and jet pipe would increase the weight greatly and take up useful space in the
boat.
Duct system
Due to the losses in the duct, the energy losses occurring in the ducting system can be
accounted for by a ducting efficiency, ηduct. The duct losses will include the losses due
to the inlet, friction within the duct, change of height of the fluid and flow through any
flow conditioning devices in the jet system.
Pump system
The pump system converts the delivered mechanical power PD into hydraulic power.
PP
η pump =
PD

where PP – Pumping power

PD – Delivered power
The pumping power required = increase in kinetic energy of water + energy losses in
system
PP
1
2
( )
A j v j − v s + ρ gAv j H
Av
where H is the head representing energy losses (m).
Interaction between the waterjet system and hull
The waterjet system affects the hull performance. The bare hull resistance is changed
due to a distortion in the flow about the aft body. At higher speeds this distortion can
furthermore cause a distinct equilibrium position of the hull, thus causing another
change in resistance. In an equilibrium situation, the actual resistance of the hull
balances the net thrust delivered by the jet system. The change in hull resistance from
the known bare hull resistance, RT, can be expressed by a thrust deduction factor, 1 – t
RTS T (1 − t )
PT TTvv s
Similarly, the jet system performance is affected by the flow distortion caused by the
hull. Due to this distortion, a boundary layer is ingested through the intake area and the
local flow velocity is likely to differ from the free stream or the hull’s velocity.
As a result, the ingested momentum and energy fluxes and thus the delivered thrust and
power will be affected. Analogous to interaction effects in the intake region, interaction
effects may also occur in the nozzle region. This occurs, for instance, when the nozzle
is submerged in the transom flow instead of in air. Correction on these fluxes can be
applied by introducing a momentum interaction and an energy interaction efficiency
respectively.
Overall efficiency of the waterjet system
PE RT v s
ηoa = = = η pump η duct
d η jet (1 − t ) js jet (1 t )
PD PD

QUESTION
Q12.2
A high-speed motor boat is designed to reach a speed of 60 knots. It is to be fitted
with two waterjet units. The shaft power of each engine is 1,300 kW and the effective
power of the boat is 1,600 kW. The efficiency of the axial pump of the waterjet unit is
87% and the internal and kinetic energy losses in the inlet manifold of the waterjet is
7%. Calculate the jet outlet diameter assuming an equivalent thrust deduction factor
of 0.08.
PROPELLER ALTERNATIVES FOR HIGHSPEED CRAFT  LEARNING

CHECKLIST
Objective Completed
Discuss the use of surface piercing propellers for ship propulsion

Identify the role of waterjet propulsion systems for ship propulsion

RUDDERS
13
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Understand how a rudder generates forces

Understand how the forces can be resolved into a transverse (turning) force and the
drag force
Calculate the forces generated by a rudder
Calculate the stresses in the rudder stock caused by the rudder forces
Rudder Forces
The role of the rudder is to see that all the vessels have directional control. To do this,
it must generate a force acting transversely to the direction of travel. The simplest way
to do this efficiently is to use an aerofoil section to generate lift forces, in a similar way
to an aircraft wing. These forces are transmitted into the ship’s structure via the rudder
stock, creating stress in the rudder. In order to understand and calculate the stress in
the rudder stock, it is important to understand the forces generated.
In the central position (and assuming that the vessel has no leeway) the rudder
generates hydrodynamic drag, which acts directly astern:
Drag
Water flow
Rudder
Rudder stock
blade

When the rudder is moved so that it is at an angle of attack to the water flow, it
generates a lift force, which acts at right angles to the rudder blade. This is referred to
as the Normal Force, or FN.
Normal force at right angles
to the rudder blade
Water flow
This ‘normal force’ effect acts both transversely and astern relative to the ship itself.
In order to determine the effects of these, the normal force must be resolved into the
transverse and drag components, relative to the centreline of the ship:
Transverse
FN force
Drag
Water flow
If the angle of attack of the rudder (given the symbol alpha, α) is known, then the
transverse and drag forces can be found from:
Transverse force FN cos α
Drag force FN sinα
QUESTION
Q13.1 (ENG)
A rudder generates 20kN of normal force at an angle of 15 degrees. Determine the drag
and the transverse force.
The normal force itself depends on a number of factors, such as the shape of the rudder,
the area of the rudder, the location of the rudder relative to the propellers and the flow
into the rudder around the hull. This means that there is no single formula that can be
used to determine the normal force. Instead, empirically determined formula can be
used, normally in the form of:
FN Coefficient Rudder plan area SSpeed 2 × Rudder angle

Rudders • 393
QUESTION
Q13.2 (ENG)
A rudder has an plan area of 20m2. Calculate the normal force at a speed of 10 knots and
a rudder angle of 15 degrees if the normal force is given by:
FN 560 A × V 2 sinα
(Note that V is in units of metres per second.)
Rudder Torque and Bending Moment

The rudder forces act at the centre of pressure of the rudder. This is also known as the centre
of effort. The actual centre of effort varies with dynamic factors such as speed and angle,
but can be approximated by taking the centre of area of the rudder. The hydrodynamic
drag and transverse forces act together through the centre of effort to create two moments
of force on the rudder stock, rudder torque and rudder bending moment:
FN
Torque Bending
FN moment
Viewed from above
Viewed
from astern
The distance from the centre of effort, and hence the normal force, and the centre of
the rudder stock is known as the Torque Lever, while the vertical distance from the
centre of effort to the lower rudder bearing is known as the bending lever:
FN
Bending
lever
FN
Torque lever

The Torque acting on the rudder can therefore be found from:
T FN × Torque lever
The bending moment acting on the rudder can be found from:

M FN × Bending lever
QUESTION
Q13.3 (ENG)
A rudder has an plan area of 10 m2. The torque lever is 1.00 m, and the bending moment
lever is 4.00 m. Calculate the torque and bending moment acting on the rudder stock at
a speed of 8 knots and a rudder angle of 10 degrees. You may assume that the normal
force is given by:
Equivalent Torque
As seen, the rudder forces generate both a torque in the rudder shaft and a bending
moment. The combined effect of these two stress generating mechanics is known as
the equivalent torque, and is given by:
TE = M + M 2 T2
Where TE is the equivalent torque, T is the actual torque, and M is the bending moment.
QUESTION
Q13.4 (ENG)
lever is 2.60 m. Calculate the equivalent torque acting in the rudder stock at a speed of
10 knots and a rudder angle of 25 degrees. You may assume that the normal force is
given by:

Rudders • 395
Rudder Stock Stress

Once the equivalent torque has been determined, the stress in the rudder stock (q) can be
determined. This depends on both the equivalent Torque, TE, and the stock diameter, D:
16TE
q=
π D3
QUESTIONS
Q13.5 (ENG)
lever is 2.30 m. Calculate the stress acting in the rudder stock at a speed of 13 knots and
a rudder angle of 35 degrees, if the rudder stock is 0.50 m in diameter. You may assume
that the normal force is given by:
Q13.6 (ENG)
A rudder has an area of 6 m2. At the maximum rudder angle of 35 degrees, the centre
of effort of the rudder is 0.15 m aft of the axis of rotation, and 1.65 m below the lower
edge of the rudder stock bearing. The stress in the stock must be limited to 77 MN/m2.
Determine the required diameter of the rudder stock for a ship speed of 18 knots. The
normal force is given by:
FN 8.0 AV 2α
Q13.7 (ENG)
Due to corrosion, the rudder stock in Question 13.6 is reduced in diameter to 0.400 m.
Determine the limiting ship speed to ensure the rudder stock is not overstressed.
RUDDERS  LEARNING CHECKLIST
Objective Completed
Understand how a rudder generates forces

Understand how the forces can be resolved into a transverse (turning) force
and the drag force
Calculate the forces generated by a rudder
Calculate the stresses in the rudder stock caused by the rudder forces

14
SOLUTIONS TO
QUESTIONS
These solutions provide a brief outline of the numerical solution to the questions in
the text.
Q1.1
Archimedes’ Principle tells us that:
∇×ρ = Δ
For a box shaped vessel, the underwater volume can be found from the length, beam
and volume:
∇= L×B×D
Therefore:
∇ = 30 × 5 × 2 = 300 m3
Substituting this into the formula for Archimedes’ Principle gives:

∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ 300 × 1.025 = 307.5 tonnes
Q1.2
∇×ρ = Δ
∴L × B × D × ρ = Δ
∴ 50 × 7 × D × 1.025 = 1, 076.25
D = 3.00
00 m
Q1.3
Before loading:
∇×ρ = Δ
9781408176122_Ch14_1_Rev_txt_prf.indd 396 11/16/2013 6:57:16 PM

Solutions to Questions • 397
∴ 60 × 8 × 3 × 1.025 = 1, 476 tonnes
After loading:
Δ = 1, 476 + 524 = 2, 000 tonnes
∇×ρ = Δ
∴ 60 × 8 × D × 1.025 = 2, 000
D = 4.07
07 m
Q1.4
In sea water:
∇×ρ = Δ
∴ 50 × 7 × 2 × 1.025 = 717.5 tonnes
In fresh water:
∇×ρ = Δ
∴ 50 × 7 × D × 1.000 = 717.5
D = 2.05 m
Q1.5
Waterplane area
CW =
LWL BWL
Waterplane area
0 65 =
100 × 20
∴Waterplane area = 0.65 × 100 × 20 = 1, 300 m2
Q1.6
Amidships area
CM =
BWL D
Amidships area
0 95 =
15 × 8
∴ Amidships area = 0 95 × 15 × 8 = 114 m2
Q1.7
From the 5.30 m draught row, the displacement can be read as 5,150 tonnes.

Q1.8
From the 6,008 tonne row, the draught can be read as 6.00 m.
Q1.9
At a draught of 3.48 m, the displacement will be between 3,136 and 3,030 tonnes, as
shown in the hydrostatics, and reproduced here:
3.50 3,136
3.40 3,030
From this we can determine the ratio of a/b and A/B:

3.48 3.40 A
=
3.50 3.40 3,136 − 3, 030
A = 84.8
The actual displacement will be:

3, 030 + 84
8 .8 3,114.8 tonnes
Q1.10
At a displacement of 3,365 tonnes, the draught will be between 3.70 and 3.80 m, as
shown in the hydrostatics, and reproduced here:
3.80 3,455
3.70 3,348
From this we can determine the ratio of a/b and A/B:
3, 365 − 3, 348 A
=
3, 455 − 3, 348 3.80 3.70
A = 0.016
The actual draught will be:
3.70 0.016 = 3.716 m = 3.72 m to 2 decimal places

Q1.11
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC
t t cm
Sinkage = = = cm
t t
cm
Q1.12
Mass 70
Sinkage = = = 2 cm
TPC 35
Q1.13
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC
Mass
20 = ∴ Mass = 500 tonnes
25
Q1.14
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC
Mass
5 2.5 = ∴ Mass = 195 tonnes
26
Q1.15
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC
Mass
9 2.5 = ∴ Mass = 143 tonnes
22
Q1.16
DSummer 9 80
ar =
Tropical to summer mark = = 0.204 m 20
0.4 cm
48 48
Mass
20.4 2.5 = ∴ Mass = 458 tonnes
20
Q1.17
TPC CW × L B × 0 01× ρ
TPC = 0.8 × 110 × 15 × 0.01× 1.025 = 13.52 t/cm

Q1.18
ρDDW 1.000
TPC DW T SW ×
TPC = 25 × = 24.39 t/cm
ρSSW 1.025
Q1.19
ρDDW 1.010
TPC DW T SW ×
TPC = 30 × = 29.56 t/cm
ρSSW 1.025
Q1.20
Δ SUMMER 10 , 000
W =
FWA E
= = 83.3 = 8.3
8. cm
4 × TPC SW AT THE SU
SUMMER
E MARK 4 × 30
Q1.21
The fresh water allowance can be found:
Δ SUMMER 15, 000

W =
FWA E
= = 107 mm
SUMMER
E MARK 4 × 35
The dock water allowance can then be found:
DWA
W FWA ×
FWA
( S
SW − DW
D ) = 107 × (1.025 − 1.015) = 43
4 mm
( SW − FFW ) (1.025 − 1.000 )
Q1.22
The fresh water allowance can be found:
Δ SUMMER 11, 000

W =
FWA E
= = 95 mm
SUMMER
E MARK 4 × 29
The dock water allowance can then be found:
DWA
W FWA ×
FWA
( S
SW − DW
D ) = 95 × (1.025 − 1.005) = 76 7.6 cm
( S
SW − FFW ) (1.025 − 1.000 )
The TPC can be adjusted for dock water:
ρDDW 1.005
TPC DW T SW ×
TPC = 29 × = 28.43
43 t/cm
ρSSW 1.025
The sinkage can be found and therefore the mass:

Mass
Sinkage =
TPC

Mass
5 2.5 7.6 = ∴ Mass = 429.3 tonnes
28.43
Q1.23
Δ SUMMER 14 , 000
W =
FWA E
= = 100 mm
4 × TPC SW AT THE SUMME
SUMMER
E MARK 4 × 35
DWA
W FWA ×
FWA
( SW − DW
D ) = 100 × (1.025 − 1.020) = 20
2 mm 2 cm
( SW − FFW ) (1.025 − 1.000 )
ρDDW 1.020
TPC DW T SW ×
TPC = 35 × = 34.83
83 t/cm
ρSSW 1.025
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC
Mass
15 − 2 = ∴ Mass = 452.8
8 tonnes
34.83
Q1.24
The winter displacement can be found from the TPC in sea water and the FWA:
ρDDW
TPC DW T SW ×
TPC
ρSSW
1.018
33 = TPC SW × ∴ TPC SW = 33.23 t/cm
1.025
ΔWinter
W =
FWA
4 × TPC SW AT THE WWINTEER MARK
ΔWinter
290 = ∴ ΔWinter = 38 , 546.8 tonnes
4 33 23
The Load Line data can be used to determine the required change in draught, and
hence the mass to load.
DSummer 10.60
ar =
Tropical to summer mark = = 0.221 m 22.1 cm
48 48
DWA
W FWA ×
FWA
( SW − DW
D ) = 290 × (1.025 − 1.018) = 81
8 .2 8.1 cm
( SW − FFW ) (1.025 − 1.000 )
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC

Mass
49 − 22.1 8.1 = ∴ Mass = 1155 tonnes
33
Q1.25
The fresh water allowance can be determined:
Δ SUMMER 7329
W =
FWA E
= = 133 mm
4 × TPC SW 4 × 13 77
The dock water allowance can be determined:
⎛ ρ −ρ ⎞ ⎛ 1.025 − 1.010 ⎞
DWA
W FWA ⎜ SW DDW ⎟ = 133 = 80 mm
⎝ ρSW − ρFFW ⎠ ⎝ 1.025 − 1.000 ⎠
Therefore, the vessel can have her Load Lines submerged by 80 mm, or 8 cm. The vessel
has a summer draught of 7.00 m, therefore the final draught will be 7.08 m. As the
starting waterline is 40 cm, or 0.4 m below the summer Load Line, the initial draught
must be 6.60 m. The TPC in seawater at 7.08 m can be interpolated as 13.85 t/cm, and
the TPC in seawater at 6.60 m is 13.33 t/cm.
The mean of these values can be found:
13.85 + 13.33
C=
Mean TPC = 13.59 t/cm
2
This is the seawater value, and must therefore be converted to the dock water value:
ρDDW 1.010
TPC DW T SW ×
TPC = 13.59 × = 13.39
39 t/cm
ρSSW 1.025
The allowable sinkage is 40 cm to the summer Load Line, and then 8 cm to the allowable
waterline, giving a total allowable sinkage of 48 cm. Therefore, the mass to add can be
determined:
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC
Mass
48 =
13.39
Mass = 642.72
72 tonnes
Therefore, using the mean TPC value, the mass to load is 642.72 tonnes.
Q2.1
The centre of buoyancy is at the overall centre of underwater volume. For a simple
box shape, this will be at half of the length, on the centreline, at half of the draught.

Therefore, the LCB will be 50 m FOAP, the TCB will be zero (as it is measured from the
centreline) and the KB will be 1.00 m.
Q2.2
In the Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1), look at the pages detailing the Upright
Hydrostatics. Find the 3,563 tonnes row, and read across to the LCB and KB columns.
The LCB value is 47.06 m FOAP, and the KB value is 2.11 m.
Q2.3
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615 7 18,305

Moment 19 , 555
KG = = = 6.83
83 m
Cargo 250 5 1,250 Mass 2, 865
Total 2,865 19,555

Item Mass LCG Moment
Lightship 2,615 44 115,060 Moment 128 , 810

LCG = = = 44.96 m
Cargo 250 55 13,750 Mass 2, 865
Total 2,865 128,810

Item Mass TCG Moment
Lightship 2,615 0 0 Moment 125

TCG = = = 0.044 (port of centreline )
Mass 2, 865
Cargo 250 0.5 125
Total 2,865 125
Q2.4
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615 7 18,305 Moment 22, 035

KG = = = 7.16
16 m
Cargo 500 8 4,000 Mass 3,115
Total 3,115 22,305

Lightship 2,615 44 115,060 Moment 139 , 060

LCG = = = 44.64 m
Cargo 500 48 24,000 Mass 3,115
Total 3,115 139,060

Lightship 2,615 0 0 Moment 0

TCG = = = 0.000 (on centreline)
Cargo 500 0 0 Mass 3,115
Total 3,115 0
Q2.5
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 2,915 6.79 19,792.9 Moment 18 , 592.9

KG = = = 6.72
72 m
Cargo –150 8 –1,200 Mass 2, 765
Total 2,765 18,592.9

Ship 2,915 45.13 131,554 Moment 124 , 814

LCG = = = 45.14 m
Cargo –150 45 –6,750 Mass 2, 765
Total 2,765 124,804

Ship 2,915 0.05 145.75 Moment 160.75

TCG = = = 0.058 (port of centreline )
Cargo –150 –0.1 15 Mass 2, 765
Total 2,765 160.75
Q2.6
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 5,000 6 30,000

Cargo off –500 2 –1,000
Cargo on 500 4 2,000
Total 5,000 31,000
Moment 31, 000

KG = = = 6.20
20 m
Mass 5, 000

Alternative solution for removing the mass from 10 m and replacing it at 12 m:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 5,000 6 30,000

Cargo off –500 10 –5,000
Cargo on 500 12 6,000
Total 5,000 31,000
Moment 31, 000

KG = = = 6.20 m
Mass 5, 000
Q2.7
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 6,615 5.79 38,300.9

Cargo off –500 100 –50,000
Cargo on 500 97 48,500
Total 6,615 36,800.9
Moment 36 , 800.9
KG = = = 5.56
56 m
Mass 6 , 615
Q2.8
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 6,000 7 42,000

Cargo off –50 3 –150
Cargo on 50 20 1,000
Total 6,000 42,850
Moment 42, 850

KG = = = 7.14
14 m
Mass 6 , 000

Q2.9
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 8,000 6 48,000

Cargo 4,000 x 4,000x
Total 12,000 48,000 + 4,000x
Moment
KG =
Mass
As the final KG is known, the equation for KG only contains one unknown, x, therefore
x can be found:
48 , 000 + 4 , 000 x
7 00 =
12, 000
7.00 12, 000 = 48 , 000 + 4 , 000 x
7.00 12, 000 − 48 , 000 = 4 , 000 x
7.00 12, 000 − 48 , 000

=x
4 , 000
x = 9.00 m
Q2.10
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 10,000 12 120,000

Cargo on x 7 7x
Total 10,000 + x 120,000 + 7x
Moment
KG =
Mass
120 , 000 + 7 x
11.00 =
10 , 000 + x
Bilged drau
r ght ginal draught + Parallel sinkage = 2 + 0.14 = 2.14
Original
O iginal 1 m
110 , 000 + 11 = 120 , 000 + 7 x

Moment 2, 060.81
KB = = = 1.04 m
Volume 1, 975.2
4 10 , 000
10 , 000
x= = 2,500
500 tonnes
4
Q2.11
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 20,000 9 180,000

Cargo off –x 5 ––5x
Total 20,000 – x 180,000 – 5x
Moment
KG =
Mass
180 , 000 − 5 x
10.00 =
20 , 000 − x
10.00 (20 ,000

, 000 ) = 180 , 000 − 5 x
200 , 000 −10x

10 = 180 , 000 − 5 x
200 , 000 = 180 , 000 − 5 10 x
200 , 000 − 180 , 000 = −5

5 10 x
20 , 000 = 5 x
20 , 000
= x = 4 , 000 tonnes
5
Q2.12
At a draught of 4.80 m, the KM in the hydrostatics is 6.94 m.
GM = KM − KG = 6.94 − 5.00 = 1.94 m
As GM is positive, the vessel is stable at small angles.

Q2.13
At a draught of 3.66 m, the KM in the hydrostatics can be interpolated to be 7.30 m.
GM = KM − KG = 7.30 − 7.32 = −0.02
02 m
As GM is negative, the vessel is unstable at small angles.
Q2.14
A loading table can be used to determine KG:
Lightship 2,615 7.00 18,305

Cargo 1,386 8.00 11,088
Total 4,001 29,393
Moment 29 , 393
KG = = = 7.35
35 m
Mass 4 , 001
From the hydrostatics, at 4,001 tonnes displacement the KM is 7.03 m. This allows GM
to be found:
GM = KM − KG = 7.03 − 7.35 = −0.32 m
GM is negative, therefore the vessel is unstable.
Q2.15
Ship 6,008 6.50 39,052

Cargo –374 7.00 –2,618
Total 5,634 36,434
Moment 36 , 434
KG = = = 6.47
47 m
Mass 5, 634
From the hydrostatics, at 4,001 tonnes displacement the KM is 6.96 m. This allows GM
to be found:
GM = KM − KG = 6.96 − 6.47 = 0.49 m
GM is positive, therefore the vessel is stable.

Q2.16
Item Mass (tonne) KG (m) Moment (tonne metres)
Ship 7,192 6.90 49,624.8

Remove cargo –500 9.00 –4,500
Replace cargo +500 6.00 3,000
Total 7,192 48,124.8
Moment 48 ,124.80
KG = = = 6.69 m
Mass 7,192
Alternatively, the distance moved can be used in the loading table:
Ship 7,192 6.90 49,624.8

Remove cargo –500 3.00 –1,500
Replace cargo +500 0.00 0
Total 7,192 48,124.8
Moment 48 ,124.80
KG = = = 6.69 m
Mass 7,192
Alternatively, the change in KG can be found:
Mass moved D sta ce moved 500 × 3

o ed Distance
Change in KG = = = 0 21 m
Δ 7,192
As the cargo has moved down, the KG must reduce, therefore:
Final K
KGG = 6.90 − 0.21 = 6 69 m
At 7,192 tonnes, KM is 7.23 m.

GM = KM − KG = 7.23 − 6.69 = 0.54 m
Q2.17
At a draught of 5.00 m, KM is 6.93 m. Therefore, in the starting condition GM can be
found:
GM = KM − KG = 6.93 − 6.00 = 0.93
93 m ← Starting GM

With the mass suspended, the KG can be found with a loading table:
Starting ship 4,796 6.00 28,776

Remove cargo –70 4.00 –280
Suspend cargo 70 30.00 2,100
Total 4,796 30,596
Moment 30 , 596
KG = = = 6.38 m
Mass 4 , 796
Alternatively, the distance moved can be used in the loading table:
Starting ship 4,796 6.00 28,776

Remove cargo –70 0 0
Suspend cargo 70 26 1,820
Total 4,796 30,596
Moment 30 , 596
KG = = = 6.38 m
Mass 4 , 796
Alternatively, the change in KG can be found:
Mass moved D sta ce moved 70 × 26

o ed Distance
Change in KG = = = 0 38 m
Δ 4 , 796
As the cargo has moved up, the KG must increase, therefore:
Final K
KGG = 6.00 + 0.38 = 6 38 m
The displacement is still 4,796 tonnes, so KM is still 6.96 m. Therefore, GM can be found
with the mass suspended:
GM = KM − KG = 6.93 − 6.38 = 0.55 m ← GM with tthee cargo

r suspended
With the mass suspended, the displacement is 4,796 tonnes with a KG of 6.38 m. When
the mass is stowed, the KG can be found with a loading table that removes the mass
from the suspended position and stows the mass on deck:

Ship with mass suspended 4,796 6.38 30,598.48

Remove cargo from –70 30 –2,100
suspension
Replace cargo on deck 70 12 840
Total 4,796 29,338.48
Moment 29 , 338.48
KG = = = 6.12 m
Mass 4 , 796
Alternatively, the same solution can be found by directly moving the mass from the
stowed position to the suspended position:
Starting ship 4,796 6.00 28,776

Remove cargo from hold –70 4.00 –280
Replace cargo on deck 70 12.00 840
Total 4,796 29,336
Moment 29 , 336
KG = = = 6.12 m
Mass 4 , 796
The displacement is still 4,796 tonnes, so KM is still 6.96 m. Therefore, GM can be found
with the mass stowed on deck:
GM = KM − KG = 6.93 − 6.12 = 0 81 ← GM with the cargo

r stowed on deck
Q2.18
The mass of cargo to load can be determined from the initial displacement and the final
displacement:
Cargo = Δ FINAL − Δ START

Cargo = 5,150 − 2, 615 = 2, 535 tonnes
At a displacement of 5,150 tonnes, the hydrostatic data shows that the KM is 6.93 m.
Therefore, for a GM of 1.50 m, the required final KG can be found:
GM = KM − KG
−10.500 × 6
Final K
KGG = 5 43 m

Using the final KG as a target value, a loading table can be created, with the KG of the
cargo as x:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615 7 18,305

Cargo on 2,535 x 2,535x
Total 5,150 18,305 + 2,535x
Moment
KG =
Mass
18 , 305 + 2, 535 x
5 43 =
5,150
x = 3.81 m
Q2.19
GM = KB + BM − KG
LB 3
3
D Inertia LB
KB = BBM = Inertia = ∴ BM = 12
2 ∇ 12 ∇
The individual formulae for KB and BM can be substituted:
LB 3 100 × 103
D 2
GM = + 12 − KG = + 12 − 4 = 1.16 m
2 ∇ 2 100 × 10 × 2
Q2.20
LB 3
D
GM = KB + BM − KG = + 12 − KG
2 ∇
60 × 83
1 12
h 0 15 K
KG
2 60 × 8 × 1
KG = 5.68 m

Q2.21
LB 3
D
GM = KB + BM − KG = + 12 − KG
2 ∇
L × B3
3
∴ GM = + 12 − 1.25
2 L×9×3
B2 92
∴ GM = 1.5 + − 1.25 = 1.5 + − 1.25 = 2.50 m
12 × 3 12 × 3
Q2.22
The initial displacement can be found:
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ Δ = 60 × 8 × 2 × 1.025
025 = 984 tonnes
A loading table can be used to determine the KG after loading:
Item Mass KG Moment
Start 984 3 2,952

Cargo on 492 5 2,460
Total 1,476 5,412
Moment 5, 412
KG = = = 3.67 m
Mass 1, 476
The new draught of the vessel must be found:
1, 476
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ Δ = 60 × 8 × D × 1.025
0 5 = 1, 476
6∴D = = 3.00 m
60 × 8 × 1.025
The new metacentric height can be found:

LB 3
D
GM = KB + BM − KG = + 12 − KG
2 ∇
L × B3
3
∴ GM = + 12 − 3 67
2 L×9×3
60 × 83
∴ GM = 1.50 + 12 − 3.67 = 1.50 + 1.78 − 3.67 = −0.39 m
60 × 8 × 3

The GM is negative, therefore the vessel will be unstable.
Q2.23
As has been seen previously, for this vessel after loading KB is 1.50 m and BM is 1.78. If
GM is to remain positive, the final maximum KG of the vessel can be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG ∴ 0 = 1.50 + 1.78 − KG ∴ KG = 3.28

28 m maximum
A loading table can be used to determine the KG of the cargo to give an overall KG of
3.28 m:
Item Mass KG Moment
Start 984 3 2,952

Cargo on 492 x 492x
Total 1,476 2,952 + 492x
Moment 2, 952 + 492 x

KG = ∴ 3 28 = ∴ x = 3.84
84 m
Mass 1, 476
Q2.24
TCG 0.043
tanθ tanθ =
GM 0 81
θ = 3.039 = 3.0 degrees (port)
Q2.25
LB 3
D
GM = KB + BM − KG = + 12 − KG
2 ∇
70 × 93
2 12
∴ GM = + − 4 = 0.38
38 m
2 70 × 9 × 2
w ×d 100 × −0 5
tanθ = =
Δ × GM (70 × 9 × 2 × 1.025) × 0.38
θ = −5.8 = 5.8 degrees to starboard
Alternatively, a loading table for TCG could be used:
∇×ρ = Δ
70 × 9 2 × 1.025 = 1, 291.5
5 tonnes

Ship 1,291.5 0 0
Cargo off –100 0 0
Cargo on 100 –0.5 –50
Total 1,291.5 –50
Moment −50
TCG = = = −0.039
039 m
Mass 1, 291.5
TCG
tanθ =
GM
−0.039
θ = tan−1 = −5.8 degrees (starboard)
0 38
Q2.26
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615 7 18,305

Cargo on 2,654 5 13,270
Total 5,269 31,575
Moment 31, 575

KG = = = 5.99
99 m
Mass 5, 269
At 5,269 tonnes, the KM is 6.93 m.

GM = KM − KG
GM = 6.93 − 5.99 = 0.94 m
A loading table can be used to determine the TCG after loading:
Lightship 2,615 0 0
Cargo on 2,654 0.050 132.700
Total 5,269 132.700

Moment 132.7
TCG = = = 0.025 m
Mass 5, 269
TCG
tanθ =
GM
0.025
θ 1
θ = 1 5 degrees to port
0 94
Q2.27
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615 7 18,305

Cargo on 1,000 5 5,000
Cargo on 497 8 3,976
Total 4,112 27,281
Moment 27, 281

KG = = = 6.63
63 m
Mass 4 ,112

GM = KM − KG
GM = 7.01 − 6.63 = 0.38

38 m
Lightship 2,615 0 0
Cargo on 1,000 0.300 300.000
Cargo on 497 –0.500 –248.500
Total 4,112 51.500
Moment 51.5
TCG = = = 0.013 m
Mass 4 ,112
TCG
tanθ =
GM
0.013
θ 1
θ = 2 0 degrees to port
0 38

Q2.28
GM = KM − KG
GM = 7.03 − 6.00 = 1.03

03 m
The initial list can be used to determine the TCG in the initial condition:
TCG
tanθ =
GM
TCG
tan4 = ∴ TCG
CG = 0 0
07 m
1 03
A loading table can be used to determine the KG in the final condition:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 4,001 6.00 24,006.00

Cargo on 1,000 5.50 5,500.00
Cargo on 500 5.00 2,500.00
Total 5,501 32,006
Moment 32, 006

KG = = = 5.82 m
Mass 5, 501

GM = KM − KG
GM = 6.95 − 5.82 = 1.13

13 m
A loading table can be used to determine the TCG in the final condition:
Ship 4,001 0.07 280.07

Cargo on 1,000 0.50 500
Cargo on 500 –1.00 –500
Total 5,501 280.07
Moment 280.07
TCG = = = 0.05 m
Mass 5, 501
TCG
tanθ =
GM

0 05
θ 1
θ = 2.5 = 2.5 degrees to port
1.13
Q2.29

GM = KM − KG
GM = 7.10 − 6.10 = 1.00

00 m
The initial list can be used to determine the TCG in the initial condition:
TCG
tanθ =
GM
TCG
tan − 3 = ∴ TCG = −0..052
052 m
1 00
A loading table can be used to determine the KG in the final condition:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 3,781 6.1 23,064.1

Cargo on 109 9 981
Total 3,890 24,045
Moment 24 , 045
KG = = = 6.18 m
Mass 3, 890

GM = KM − KG
GM = 7.06 − 6.18 = 0.88

88 m
A loading table can be used to determine the TCG in the final condition:
Ship 3,781 –0.052 –196.61

Cargo on 109 1 109
Total 3,890 –87.61
Moment −87.61
TCG = = = −0.023 m
Mass 3, 890

TCG
tanθ =
GM
−0.023
θ 1
θ = −1.5 = 1.5 degrees to starboard
0 88
Q2.30
The initial TCG can be found from the initial GM and list:
TCG TCG
tanθ ta − 4 =
tan
GM 1 00
TCG = −0.070
070 m
For the vessel to finish loading upright, the overall TCG must be zero. A TCG loading
table can be used, with x as the cargo TCG. The table can then be used to determine the
value of x so that the final TCG is zero:
Ship 5,000 –0.070 –350

Cargo on x 4.50 4.5x
Total 5,000 + x –350 + 4.5x
Moment
TCG =
Mass
−350 + 4 5 x
0=
5, 000 + x
0(5, 000 + ) 350 4.5 x

0 = −350 + 4 5 x
350 = 4 5 x
350
x= = 77.78 tonnes
45
Q2.31
The initial list and GM can be used to determine the starting TCG:
TCG
tanθ TCG tanθ × GM = tan ( −3) × 1.50 = −0.079 m
GM

To finish loading upright, the overall TCG must be zero. Therefore, a loading table can
be used to determine the amount of cargo to move to obtain a zero TCG:
Item Mass (tonnes) TCG (m) Moment (tonne metres)
Ship 3,781 −0.079 −298.699

Cargo off −x −4.000 4x
Cargo on x 6.000 6x
Total 3,781 −298.699 + 10x
To get a TCG of zero, the overall total of the moment column must be zero. Therefore:
−298.699 + 10 x = 0
Both sides can have 298.699 added to them, which gives:

10 x = 298.699
Both sides can be divided by 10, which gives:

∴ = 29.87
87 tonnes
Q2.32
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Cargo 1,386.00 7.10 9,840.60
Total 4,001 28,145.60
Moment 28 ,145.60
KG = = = 7.03 m
Mass 4 , 001
At a displacement of 4,001 tonnes, the KM, from the hydrostatics, is 7.03 m. Therefore,
GM can be found:
GM = KM − KG = 7.03 − 7.03 = 0.00 m
The angle of list can be found from the formula, noting that BM is the difference in KM
and KB. From the hydrostatics, at 4,001 tonnes displacement the KB is 2.33 m:
w ×d 1, 386 × 0.02
2× 2×
3 Δ = tanθ ∴ 3 4 001
= tanθ
BM 7.03 2.33
θ = 8.2 degrees to port

Q2.33
Ballast mass = Ballast volume × Ballast density
t
ass = 219.03 × 1.025 = 224.51 tonnes

Ballast mass
KG = 0.95 m
TCG = 4.13 m
LCG = 49.35 m
Q2.34
The mass and centre of mass of the fluid in the tanks can be determined from the tank
data in the stability book. These values can then be used in loading tables to find the
KG, LCG and TCG of the vessel:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Port bunker 116.54 7.81 910.15
Stb bunker 116.54 7.81 910.15
Fore peak 71.52 2.96 211.71
After peak 109.66 5.51 604.25
Total 3,029.26 20,941.27
Moment 20 , 941.27
KG = = = 6.91 m
Mass 3, 029.26
Lightship 2,615.00 0.00 0.00

Port bunker 116.54 6.93 807.60
Stb bunker 116.54 –6.93 –807.60
Fore peak 71.52 0.00 0.00
After peak 109.66 0.00 0.00
Total 3,029.26 0.00
Moment 0
TCG = = = 0.000 m
Mass 3, 029.26

Lightship 2,615.00 44.00 115,060.00

Port bunker 116.54 13.67 1,593.05
Stb bunker 116.54 13.67 1,593.05
Fore peak 71.52 98.04 7,012.26
After peak 109.66 2.40 263.20
Total 3,029.26 125,521.57
Moment 125, 521.57

LCG = = = 41.44
44 m FOAP
Mass 3, 029.26
Therefore, the displacement is 3,029.26 tonnes
Q2.35
The mass and centre of mass of the fluid in the tanks can be determined from the tank
data in the stability book. For each partially filled tank, the FSM must be read from the
tables and corrected for fluid density. These values can then be used in a loading table
to find the KG of the vessel:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

No. 3 DB port 8.39 0.06 0.50
No. 3 DB port FSM 0.00 0 238.14
No. 4 DB port 5.96 0.06 0.36
No. 4 DB port FSM 0.00 0 172.12
No. 3 DB Stb 8.39 0.06 0.50
No. 3 DB Stb FSM 0.00 0 238.14
No. 4 DB Stb 5.96 0.06 0.36
No. 4 DB Stb FSM 0.00 0 172.12
Cargo 282.00 11 3,102.00
Total 2,925.70 22,229.23
Moment 22, 229.23

KG = = = 7.60 m
Mass 2, 925.70
At 2,925 tonnes, the KM from the tables is 7.55 m. This allows GM to be found:
GM = KM − KG = 7.55 − 7.60 = −0.05 m
The GM is negative, therefore the vessel is unstable.

Q2.36
A loading table can be used to find the effective KG:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Port bunker 86.99 7.22 628.04
No. 3 DB Stb 53.29 0.27 14.39
Stb bunker 58.07 6.60 383.26
Port bunker FSM 0.00 0 11.01
No. 3 DB Stb FSM 0.00 0 378.99
Stb bunker FSM 0.00 0 8.96
Cargo 535.00 0.5 267.50
Total 3,348.35 19,997.15
Moment 19 , 997.15
KG = = = 5.97
97 m
Mass 3, 348.35
At 3,348 tonnes, the KM from the tables is 7.28 m. This allows GM to be found:
GM = KM − KG ∴ GM = 7.28 − 5.97 = 1.31
31 m
A loading table can be used to find the TCG:
Lightship 2,615.00 0.00 0.00

Port bunker 86.99 6.88 598.46
No. 3 DB Stb 53.29 –3.73 –198.77
Stb bunker 58.07 –6.81 –395.46
Cargo 535.00 0.2 107.00
Total 3,348.35 111.23
Moment 111.23
TCG = = = 0.033 m
Mass 3, 348.35
The TCG and the GM can be used to determine the list:
TCG 0.033
tanθ tanθ =
GM 1 31
θ = 1.4 degrees (port )

Q2.37
The tank data and fluid density can be used to determine the mass and centre of mass
of each of the fluid items, and a loading table can be used to determine KG:
Lightship 2,615 7.00 18,305.00

Port bunker 86.99 7.22 628.07
Port bunker FSM 0 0 11.01
Stb bunker 86.99 7.22 628.07
Stb bunker FSM 0 0 11.01
No. 3 DB P 183.25 0.80 146.60
No. 3 DB P FSM 0 0 525.43
No. 3 DB S 210.68 0.90 189.61
No. 3 DB S FSM 0 0 539.08
Cargo 3,209.1 5.50 17,650.05
Total 6,392.01 38,633.93
Moment 38 , 633.93
KG = = = 6.04 m
Mass 6 , 392.01
At 6,392 tonnes displacement, KM from the hydrostatics is 7.07 m. Therefore, GM can

be found:
GM = KM − KG = 7.07 − 6.04 = 1.03 m
Lightship 2,615 0.000 0.000

Port bunker 86.99 6.878 598.317
Stb bunker 86.99 –6.878 –598.317
No. 3 DB P 183.25 4.072 746.194
No. 3 DB S 210.68 –4.111 –866.105
Cargo 3,209.1 0.145 465.320
Total 6,392.01 345.409
Moment 345.409
TCG = = = 0.054 m
Mass 6 , 392.01

This allows the list to be found:
TCG TCG 0.054

tanθ θ = tan−1 tan−1
= tan = 3 0 degrees (port)
GM GM 1 03
Q2.38
A loading table can be used to determine the KG after removing all of the ballast:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 5,150 6.80 35,020.00

No. 4 DB P –94.21 0.54 –50.87
No. 4 DB P FSM 0 0 –380.85
Total 5,055.79 34,588.28
Moment 34 , 588.28
KG = = = 6.84
84 m
Mass 5, 055.79
Q2.39
A loading table can be used to determine the KG after de-ballasting and re-ballasting:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 5,150 6.80 35,020.00

Completely empty the No. 4 DB P @ 1.00 m –94.21 0.54 –50.87
No. 4 DB Port No. 4 DB P FSM @ 1.00 m 0 0 –380.85
Refill the No. 4 DB Port No. 4 DB P @ 0.50 m 41.45 0.27 11.19
to the new sounding No. 4 DB P FSM @ 0.50 m 0 0 291.63
Total 5,097.24 34,891.10
Moment 34 , 891.10
KG = = = 6.85 m
Mass 5, 097.24
Q2.40
The lightship displacement can be found:
∇×ρ = Δ
60 7 3 × 1.025 = 1, 291.5
5 tonnes
The mass of fluid in the tank can be found:

Fluid mass Fluid
F volume × Fluid density

ass = (10 × 6 × 1) × 0.97 = 58

Oil mass 58.2 tonnes
The centre of mass of the oil will be at half of the depth of the oil, or 0.50 m.
As the tank is partially filled, it will create free surface effect, so the free surface moment
must be found:
lb3 10 × 63
FSM = = = 180 m4
12 12
This must be corrected by density to get the moment into units of tonne metres:
180 × 0.97 = 174.6 tonne metres
A loading table can be used to determine the effective KG:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 1,291.5 2.60 3,357.9

Oil 58.2 0.50 29.1
Oil FSM 0 0 174.6
Total 1,349.7 3,561.6
Moment 3, 561.6
KG = = = 2.64 m
Mass 1, 349.7
The draught can be found in the final condition:

∇×ρ = Δ
L B×D×ρ = Δ
60 × 7 D 1.025 = 1, 349.7
D = 3.14
14 m
This can be used with the equations for KB and BM to determine the GM:
LB 3
D
GM = KB + BM − KG = + 12 − KG
2 ∇
60 × 73
3 14 12
∴ GM = + − 2.64 = 0.23 m
2 60 × 7 × 3.14

Q2.41
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Cargo 1,386.00 7.20 9,979.20
Total 4,001 28,284.20
Moment 28 , 282.40
KG = = = 7.07
07 m
Mass 4 , 001
At a displacement of 4,001 tonnes, the KM, from the hydrostatics, is 7.03 m. Therefore,
GM can be found:
GM = KM − KG = 7.03 − 7.07 = −0.04 m
The angle of list can be found from the formula, noting that BM is the difference in KM
and KB. From the hydrostatics, at 4,001 tonnes displacement the KB is 2.33 m:
−2 × GM −2 × −0 04
tanθ = = = 0.131
KM − KB 7.02 − 2.33
θ = 7.4
4 degrees
Q2.42
The displacement after filling the pool can be found from the length, beam and
draught:
Δ FINAL = Δ FINAL × ρ = 50 × 8 × 3 × 1.025 = 1, 230 tonnes
Therefore, the mass of pool water can be determined:
Mass loaded = Δ FINAL − Δ LIGHTSHIP = 1, 230 − 1

1110
, = 120 tonnes
The depth of pool water can be determined from the mass of the water:
Mass = Volume × Density

t ( d ) × 1.000 ∴ d = 1.50 m
The KG of the pool water can be determined from the depth of the water:
Water depth 1 50
Water K
KGG Height of the base above K +
Height = 5+ = 5..75 m
2 2

The FSM of the pool water can be determined from the geometry of the pool:
lb3 10 × 83
FSM = ×ρ = × 1.000 = 426.67 tonne metres
12 12
The overall effective KG after loading can be found from a loading table:
Ship 1,110 3.15 3,496.5

Water 120 5.75 690
FSM 0 0 426.67
Total 1,230 4,613.17
Moment 4 , 613.17
KG = = = 3.75 m
Mass 1, 230
The KB can be found from the final draught:
D 3 00
KB = = = 1.50 m
2 2
The BM can be found from the final draught:
50 × 83
I 12
BM = = = 1.78 m
∇ 50 × 8 × 3
This allows the GM to be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.50 + 1.78 − 3.75 = −0.47 m
This allows the loll angle to be found:
−2 × GM −2 × −0 47
tanθ tanθ = ∴θ = 36 degrees
KM − KB 1.78
Q2.43
At a draught of 5.05 m, the KM can be interpolated as 6.93 m. This allows GM to be
found:
GM = KM − KG ∴ 0.740 = 7.746 − KG ∴ KG = 7.006
006 m
GM = 6.93 − 6.20 = 0.73 m

At a draught of 5.05 m, the KB can be interpolated as 2.74 m. This allows the heel in the
turn to be found, remembering that the speed must be in metres per second, and the
turn radius is half of the turn diameter.
V 2 × B ~ G (16 × 0.514 )2 × (6.20 − 2.74 )

tanθ = =
g × r × GM 9.81×
400
× 0.73
2
∴θ = 9.3 degrees to port
Q2.44
The initial data can be used to determine the initial KG. For a box shaped vessel, KB is
half of the draught:
D 2 00
KB = = = 1.00 m
2 2
For a box shaped vessel, BM is found from the length and beam of the waterplane and
the underwater volume:
LB 3 90 × 93
Inertia 12 12
BM = = = = 3.38
38 m
∇ ∇ 90 × 9 × 2.00
This allows the initial KG to be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG
0.48 1+ 3.38 − KG
KG = 3.90
90 m
The initial displacement of the vessel can be found:

Δ = ∇×ρ
Δ = LBD × ρ
Δ = 90 × 9 × 2 × 1.025 = 1660.5 tonnes
The mass of the ballast can be found:
Mass = Volume × ρ = 10 × 9 × 1.5 × 1.025 = 138.38 tonnes
The KG of the ballast will be at half of the depth of the ballast measured from the keel:
Ballast depth
t 15
Ballast KG = = = 0 75 m
2 2

The tank is partially filled, therefore there will be a free surface moment:
lb3 10 × 93
FSM IFS × ρFS = × ρFFS = × 1.025 = 622.69 tonne metres
12 12
These values can be used in a loading table to determine the fluid KG after loading.
Ship 1,660.50 3.90 6,475.95

Ballast 138.38 0.75 103.78
Ballast FSM 0.00 0.00 622.69
Total 1,798.88 7,202.42
Total moment 7, 202.42

KG = = = 4.00
00 m
Total mass 1, 798.88
The new displacement can be used to determine the draught after ballasting:
∇ ρ ∴ ×ρ= Δ
1, 798.88
90 × 9 D 1.025
0 5 = 1, 798
98.88 ∴ D = = 2.17
17 m
90 × 9 1.025
For a box shaped vessel, KB is half of the draught:
D 2.17
KB = = = 1.09
09 m
2 2
For a box shaped vessel, BM is found from the length and beam of the waterplane and
LB 3 90 × 93
Inertia 12 12
BM = = = = 3.11 m
∇ ∇ 90 × 9 × 2.17
This allows GM to be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.09 + 3.11 − 4.00 = 0.20 m
The heel in the turn can be found. Note that the speed needs to be in metres per second,
and the turn radius is needed:
tanθ =
( ×( − ))
=
( × ×( − ))
θ = 11.1 degrees
g × r × GM 9.81×
400
× 0.20
2
2

The heeled draught can now be found:
B 9
Heeled drau
r ght D cosθ + sinθ = 2.17cos11.1+ sin11.1 = 3.00 m
2 2
This allows the under-keel clearance to be determined:

UKC
K Water dept
Water depth
t Greatest
eatest draught
K = 4 − 3 = 1.00 m
UKC
Q2.45
At 6,008 tonnes, the hydrostatics can be used to determine the KB, which gives 3.28 m,
and the KM which is 7.01 m. This allows BM to be found:
BM = KM − KB = 7.01 − 3.28 = 3.73 m
The new KB can be found using a table of moments of volume:
Ship 5,861.46 3.28 19,225.59

Slice 97.56 6.04 589.26
Total 5,959.02 19,814.85
Moment 19 , 814.85
KB = = = 3.33 m
Volume 5, 959.02
The new BM can be found:
BMOrigin
r al × ∇Origin
r al 3.73 × 5, 861.46
BMNew = = = 3.67 m
∇New 5, 959.02
The new KG can be found using a table of moments of mass:
Ship 6,008 6.50 39,052

Added mass 100 13 1,300
Total 6,108 40,352
Moment 40 , 352
KG = = = 6.61
61 m
Mass 6 ,108

This allows the new GM to be found:

GM = KB + BM − KG = 3.33 + 3.67 − 6.61 = 0.39 m
Q2.46
At 7,329 tonnes, the hydrostatics can be used to determine the KB, which gives 3.86 m,
and the KM which is 7.26 m. This allows BM to be found:
BM = KM − KB = 7.26 − 3.86 = 3.40 m
The new KB can be found using a table of moments of volume:
Item Volume KB Moment
Ship 7,150.24 3.86 27,599.93

Slice –48.78 6.98 –340.48
Total 7,101.46 27,259.45
Moment 27, 259.45

KB = = = 3.84 m
Volume 7,101.46
The new BM can be found:
BMOrigin
r al × ∇Origin
r al 3.40 × 7,150.24
BMNew = = = 3.42 m
∇New 7,101.46
The new KG can be found using a table of moments of mass:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 7,329 6.90 50,570.1

Added mass –50 8 –400
Total 7,279 50,170.1
Moment 50 ,170.1
KG = = = 6.89 m
Mass 7, 279
This allows the new GM to be found:

GM = KB + BM − KG = 3.84 + 3.42 − 6.89 = 0.37 m

Q3.1
The KN values can be read from the data book at 3,200 tonnes:
Angle (degrees) KN (m)
0 0.00
10 1.29
20 2.57
30 3.79
40 4.86
50 5.86
60 6.51
70 6.74
80 6.66
90 6.32
At each angle, GZ can be found using:

GZ = KN − KG × sinθ
For example, at 10 degrees:

GZ = KN − KG × sinθ 1 29 7 18 × sin10 = 0.04 m
This gives:
Angle (degrees) GZ (m)
0 0.00
10 0.04
20 0.11
30 0.20
40 0.24
50 0.36
60 0.29
70 –0.01
80 –0.41
90 –0.86

These values can be plotted on a GZ curve:
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.100
GZ (m)
–0.200
–0.300
–0.400
–0.500
–0.600
–0.700
–0.800
–0.900
–1.000
Heel (degrees)
Q3.2
A loading table can be used to determine the KG after loading and bunkering:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Port bunker 116.54 7.81 910.15
Stb bunker 116.54 7.81 910.15
Cargo 1 352.00 7 2,464.00
Cargo 2 1,000.00 6 6,000.00
Total 4,200.07 28,589.30
Moment 28 , 589.3
KG = = = 6.81 m
Mass 4 , 200
The KN values can be read from the data book at 4,200 tonnes, and the GZ values
calculated:
Angle (degrees) KN (m) GZ (m)
0 0.00 0.00
10 1.22 0.04

20 2.47 0.14
30 3.71 0.31
40 4.89 0.51
50 5.85 0.63
60 6.41 0.52
70 6.62 0.22
80 6.54 –0.16
These values can be plotted on a GZ curve:
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
GZ (m)
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
–0.100
–0.200
Heel (degrees)
Q3.3
Part 1: The increase in KG will reduce the GZ values. The loss in GZ can be found from:
Change in GZ = Change in KG × sinθ
For example, at 10 degrees, the correction is:
Change in GZ = 0.1× sin10 = 0.02 m
The increase in KG reduces GZ, therefore:

GZ = 0.15 − 0.02 = 0 13 m
New G

This process can be applied to all of the angles:
Angle (degrees) GZ (m) Correction (m) New GZ (m)
0 0 0 0
10 0.15 0.02 0.13
20 0.31 0.03 0.28
30 0.39 0.05 0.34
40 0.39 0.06 0.33
50 0.46 0.08 0.38
60 0.46 0.09 0.37
70 0.21 0.09 0.12
80 –0.17 0.1 –0.27
Part 2: The reduction in KG will increase the GZ values. The increase in GZ can be found
from:
For example, at 10 degrees, the correction is:
Change in GZ = 0.1× sin10 = 0.02 m
The decrease in KG increases GZ, therefore:

GZ = 0.15
New G 5 + 0.02 = 0 17 m
This process can be applied to all of the angles:
Angle (degrees) GZ Correction New GZ
0 0 0 0
10 0.15 0.02 0.17
20 0.31 0.03 0.34
30 0.39 0.05 0.44
40 0.39 0.06 0.45
50 0.46 0.08 0.54
60 0.46 0.09 0.55
70 0.21 0.09 0.3
80 –0.17 0.1 –0.07

The curves from parts 1 and 2 can be plotted and compared:
0.6
Original GZ
0.5 Increased KG
Reduced KG
0.4
0.3
0.2
GZ (m)
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
–0.1
–0.2
–0.3
Heel (degrees)
Q3.4
At 3,000 tonnes, the KN values can be read from the hydrostatics, and the GZ values
calculated:
0 0.00 0.00
5 0.65 0.06
10 1.31 0.13
15 1.96 0.21
20 2.61 0.30
The GZ at each angle can be corrected for the TCG value. This correction always reduces
GZ. The correction is found from:
Loss in GZ = TCG cosθ
For example, at 5 degrees:

Loss in GZ = TCG cosθ
Loss in GZ = 0.289cos
289 5 = 0.29
GZ at 5 degrees 0.06 − 0.29 0.23 m

Angle (degrees) KN (m) GZ (m) Loss in GZ (m) Corrected GZ (m)
0 0.00 0.00 0.29 –0.29

5 0.65 0.06 0.29 –0.23
10 1.31 0.13 0.29 –0.15
15 1.96 0.21 0.28 –0.07
20 2.61 0.30 0.27 0.03
The corrected GZ values can be plotted:
0.100
0.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
GZ (m)
–0.100
–0.200
–0.300
Heel (degrees)
The intersection with the heel axis shows the list will be 18.7 degrees to port.
From interpolation of the hydrostatics, the KM is 7.49 m at 3,000 tonnes. Therefore, GM

can be found:
GM = KM − KG
GM = 7.49 − 6.77 = 0.72 m
This allows the list to be found:
TCG 0.289
tanθ tanθ =
GM 0 72
θ = 21.9 degrees (port)

Q3.5
The GZ values can be corrected for the change in KG and the change in TCG, using:
Loss in GZ = TCG × cosθ
Angle (degrees) GZ (m) Loss in GZ due to Loss in GZ due to New GZ (m)

KG increase (m) TCG increase (m)
0 0 0.00 0.40 –0.40

10 0.1 0.04 0.39 –0.33
20 0.25 0.08 0.38 –0.21
30 0.5 0.12 0.35 0.03
40 0.72 0.15 0.31 0.26
50 0.69 0.18 0.26 0.25
60 0.49 0.21 0.20 0.08
70 0.2 0.23 0.14 –0.17
80 –0.12 0.24 0.07 –0.43
90 –0.46 0.24 0.00 –0.70
The GZ curve can be plotted after the cargo shift:
0.8
0.7 Original GZ
0.6 New GZ
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
GZ (m)
0
–0.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.2
–0.3
–0.4
–0.5
–0.6
–0.7
–0.8
Heel (degrees)

Q3.6
The initial draught can be used to determine the displacement and KM. At 4.10 m
draught the displacement is 3,781 tonnes. At this displacement, the KM is 7.10 m. This
can be used to determine the GM:
GM = KM − KG
GM = 7.10 − 5.49 = 1.61 m
The initial list can be used to determine the initial TCG:
TCG TCG
tanθ tan − 1.1 =
GM 1 61
TCG = −0.031 m
Loading tables can be used to determine the KG and TCG with the load suspended and
swung out:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 3,781 5.49 20,757.69

Un-stowed cargo –100 0 0
Suspended cargo 100 11 1,100
Total 3,781 21,857.69
Moment 21, 857.69

KG = = = 5.78 m
Mass 3, 781
Ship 3,781 –0.031 –117.211

Un-stowed cargo –100 0 0
Suspended cargo 100 17 1,700
Total 3,781 1,582.789
Moment 1, 582.789
TCG = = = 0.419 m
Mass 3, 781
At 3,781 tonnes, and a KG of 5.78 m, the KN values can be interpolated, and the GZ
values calculated, including the correction for the TCG:

Angle (degrees) KN (m) GZ (m) TCG correction (m) Corrected GZ (m)
0 0.00 0.00 0.42 –0.42

5 0.62 0.12 0.42 –0.30
10 1.24 0.24 0.41 –0.18
15 1.87 0.37 0.41 –0.03
20 2.50 0.52 0.39 0.13
These corrected GZ values can be plotted and the list angle read from the graph:
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
–0.100
GZ (m)
–0.200
–0.300
–0.400
–0.500
Heel (degrees)
It can be seen that the list angle is 16 degrees.
Q3.7
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Cargo 1,985.00 7.5 14,887.50
Total 4,600.00 33,192.50

Moment 33,192.5
KG = = = 7.22
22 m
Mass 4 , 600
values calculated:
0 0.00 0.00
10 1.22 –0.04
20 2.45 –0.02
30 3.71 0.10
40 4.91 0.27
50 5.83 0.30
60 6.36 0.11
70 6.57 –0.21
These corrected GZ values can be plotted and the list angle read from the graph:
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
GZ (m)
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–0.100
–0.200
–0.300
Heel (degrees)
It can be seen that the loll angle is 22.5 degrees.

Q3.8
The KN values can be read off at 4,000 tonnes and GZ calculated:
0 0.00 0.00
5 0.61 –0.02
10 1.23 –0.03
15 1.85 –0.02
20 2.48 0.01
30 3.72 0.11
40 4.88 0.23
50 5.86 0.32
60 6.44 0.18
70 6.65 –0.15
These values can be plotted:
0.350
0.300
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
GZ (m)
0.050
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
–0.050
–0.100
–0.150
–0.200
–0.250
Heel (degrees)

A vertical line can be drawn at 57.3 degrees, a diagonal line can be drawn between 0
and 5 degrees, and extended to the vertical line at 57.3 degrees, and a horizontal line
can be drawn across the graph at the intersection. The intersection of this line and the
y axis gives the GM of the vessel:
0.350
0.300
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
GZ (m)
0.050
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
–0.050
–0.100
–0.150
–0.200
–0.250
Heel (degrees)
As can be seen, this occurs at –0.20 m. From the hydrostatics, KM at 4,000 tonnes is
7.03 m. As KG is 7.23 m, this also gives a GM of –0.20 m.
Q3.9
The KN values can be read from the hydrostatics and GZ calculated:
0 0.00 0.00
5 0.61 0.00
10 1.23 0.01
20 2.47 0.07
30 3.75 0.25
40 4.93 0.42
50 5.72 0.35

These can be plotted:
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
GZ (m)
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
–0.05
Angle (degrees)
If a vertical line is drawn at 57.3 degrees, and a diagonal line through 0 and 5 degrees,
then the intersection between these lines will be at a y value of zero (as the diagonal
line will actually be horizontal). Therefore, the GM of the vessel is zero.
Q3.10
Task 1:
Angle KN (m) GZ (m)
0 0.000 0.000
5 0.611 0.017
10 1.220 0.037
15 1.840 0.077
20 2.471 0.142
25 3.102 0.224

Task 2:
Angle KN (m) GZ (m)
0 0.000 0.000
5 0.611 0.000
10 1.220 0.003
15 1.840 0.026
20 2.471 0.073
25 3.102 0.139
Task 3:
Angle KN (m) GZ (m)
0 0.000 0.000
5 0.611 –0.017
10 1.220 –0.032
15 1.840 –0.026
20 2.471 0.005
25 3.102 0.055
0.300
7.21
7.01
0.200 6.81
0.100
GZ (m)
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–0.100
–0.200
–0.300
Angle (degrees)

A vertical line can be drawn at 57.3 degrees, a diagonal line through the initial slope
and a horizontal line through the intersection of the previous two lines. This gives:
0.300
7.21
7.01
0.200 6.81
0.100
GZ (m)
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–0.100
–0.200
–0.300
Angle (degrees)
The GM values can be found at the intersection of the horizontal line and the y axis. For
task 1, this gives 0.16 m for task 1, 0.00 m for task 2 and –0.18 m for task 3.
Q3.11
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Cargo 2,985.00 7.5 22,387.50
Total 5,600.00 40,692.50
Moment 40 , 692.5
KG = = = 7.27
27 m
Mass 5, 600
Lightship 2,615.00 0.00 0.00

Cargo 2,985.00 0.1 298.50
Total 5,600.00 298.50

Moment 298.5
TCG = = = 0.053
053 m
Mass 5, 600
values calculated, including the correction for the TCG:
Angle (degrees) KN (m) GZ (m) TCG correction Corrected GZ

(m) (m)
0 0.00 0.00 0.05 –0.05

5 0.61 –0.03 0.05 –0.08
10 1.22 –0.05 0.05 –0.10
15 1.83 –0.05 0.05 –0.10
20 2.45 –0.03 0.05 –0.08
25 3.09 0.01 0.05 –0.04
30 3.73 0.09 0.05 0.05
35 4.37 0.20 0.04 0.16
These corrected GZ values can be plotted and the combined list and loll angle read
from the graph:
0.200
0.150
0.100
0.050
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
GZ (m)
0.000
–0.050
–0.100
–0.150
–0.200
Heel (degrees)
It can be seen that the combined list and loll angle is 27.5 degrees.

Q3.12
For each sounding, the KG and TCG must be calculated, along with the corrected GZ
values. These can be plotted to determine the combined list and loll angle.
As an example, for a sounding of 0.50 m in the No. 3 and No. 4 Port Double Bottoms a
loading table can be used to determine the KG:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

No. 3 DB Port 53.29 0.27 14.39
No. 4 DB Port 41.45 0.27 11.19
Port bunker 117.76 7.81 919.73
No. 3 DB Stb 29.92 0.16 4.79
No. 4 DB Stb 22.59 0.17 3.84
Stb bunker 117.76 7.81 919.73
No. 3 DB Port FSM 0.00 0 378.99
No. 4 DB Port FSM 0.00 0 291.63
No. 3 DB Stb FSM 0.00 0 323.23
No. 4 DB Stb FSM 0.00 0 243.14
Cargo 3,245.00 7.5 24,337.50
Total 6,242.78 45,753.17
Moment 45, 753.17

KG = = = 7.33
33 m
Mass 6 , 242.78
Lightship 2,615.00 0.000 0.000

No. 3 DB Port 53.29 3.730 198.771
No. 4 DB Port 41.45 3.430 142.177
Port bunker 117.76 6.930 816.099
No. 3 DB Stb 29.92 –3.590 –107.412
No. 4 DB Stb 22.59 –3.300 –74.550
Stb bunker 117.76 –6.930 –816.099
Cargo 3,245.00 0.000 0.000
Total 6,242.78 158.985

Moment 158.985
TCG = = = 0.025
025 m
Mass 6 , 242.78
At 6,242.78 tonnes, and a KG of 7.33 m, the KN values can be interpolated, and the GZ
values calculated (up to an angle where GZ becomes positive), including the correction
for the TCG:
Angle (degrees) KN (m) GZ (m) TCG correction (m) Corrected GZ (m)
0 0.00 0.00 0.03 –0.03

5 0.61 –0.02 0.03 –0.05
10 1.23 –0.04 0.03 –0.07
15 1.85 –0.05 0.02 –0.07
20 2.48 –0.03 0.02 –0.05
25 3.12 0.02 0.02 –0.01
30 3.76 0.10 0.02 0.08
These corrected GZ values can be plotted and the combined list and loll angle read
from the graph:
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
–0.05
GZ (m)
–0.10
–0.15
–0.20
–0.25
–0.30
Heel (degrees)
It can be seen that the combined list and loll angle is 25.5 degrees.

This process can be repeated for each step in the range of soundings:
Sounding KG TCG GZ @ 0 GZ @ 5 deg GZ @ 10 GZ @ 15 GZ @ 20 GZ @ 25 GZ @ 30

(m) (m) (m) deg (m) (m) deg (m) deg (m) deg (m) deg (m) deg (m)
0.30 7.36 0.000 0.00 –0.03 –0.05 –0.05 –0.04 0.00 0.08
0.50 7.33 0.025 –0.03 –0.05 –0.07 –0.07 –0.05 –0.01 0.08
0.70 7.29 0.053 –0.05 –0.07 –0.09 –0.08 –0.06 –0.01 0.08
0.90 7.26 0.082 –0.08 –0.10 –0.11 –0.10 –0.08 –0.02 0.07
1.10 7.22 0.113 –0.11 –0.13 –0.13 –0.12 –0.09 –0.03 0.07
1.30 7.18 0.144 –0.14 –0.15 –0.15 –0.14 –0.10 –0.04 0.06
1.50 7.14 0.176 –0.18 –0.18 –0.17 –0.16 –0.12 –0.05 0.06
1.70 7.10 0.208 –0.21 –0.21 –0.20 –0.17 –0.13 –0.06 0.06
1.90 7.06 0.241 –0.24 –0.24 –0.22 –0.19 –0.14 –0.06 0.05
2.00 6.89 0.257 –0.26 –0.24 –0.21 –0.16 –0.10 –0.01 0.12
These GZ values can be plotted and the largest combined angle of list and loll read off:
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
–0.05
GZ (m)
–0.10
0.30 m Sounding
0.50 m Sounding
–0.15 0.70 m Sounding
0.90 m Sounding
1.10 m Sounding
–0.20
1.30 m Sounding
1.50 m Sounding
1.70 m Sounding
–0.25
1.90 m Sounding
2.0 m Sounding
–0.30
Heel (degrees)
As can be seen, the largest combined list and loll angle is 28 degrees, at a sounding of
1.90 m.
Q3.13
The KN values can be found at 4,800 tonnes displacement. This allows the GZ values to
be found using:

GZ = KN − KG sinθ
The righting moment can be found from:
Righting moment = Δ × GZ
This gives the following values:
Angle (degrees) KN (m) GZ (m) Righting moment

(tonne metres)
0 0 0 0
10 1.21 0.03 144
20 2.45 0.12 576
30 3.71 0.31 1,488
40 4.93 0.56 2,688
50 5.82 0.61 2,928
60 6.34 0.45 2,160
70 6.54 0.15 720
80 6.48 –0.22 –1,056
Plotting the GZ values gives:
GZ
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
GZ (m)
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
–0.1
–0.2
–0.3
Heel (degrees)

Plotting the righting moment gives:
Righting moment
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
–500
–1,000
–1,500
Heel (degrees)
Q3.14
A loading table can be used to determine the displacement, TCG and KG after loading:
Ship 2,615 7.00 18,305

Cargo 4,185 7.00 29,295
Total 6,800 47,600
Moment 47, 600

KG = = = 7.00 m
Mass 6 , 800
Ship 2,615 0.00 0

Cargo 4,185 0.10 418.5
Total 6,800 418.5
Moment 418.5
TCG = = = 0.062
062 m
Mass 6 , 800
For the displacement of 6,800 tonnes, the KN values can be found. The basic GZ values
can be determined using:

The TCG correction can be determined using:

T × cosθ
TCG correction TCG
The corrected GZ is then found by subtracting the TCG correction from the basic GZ.
Finally, the corrected righting moment can be found by multiplying the corrected GZ
by the displacement of the vessel. This gives the following values:
Angle KN (m) Basic GZ TCG correction Corrected GZ Corrected righting

(degrees) (m) (m) (m) moment
(tonne metres)
0 0.00 0.00 0.06 –0.06 –408.00

10 1.25 0.03 0.06 –0.03 –204.00
20 2.51 0.12 0.06 0.06 408.00
30 3.80 0.30 0.05 0.25 1,700.00
40 4.89 0.39 0.05 0.34 2,312.00
50 5.64 0.28 0.04 0.24 1,632.00
60 6.09 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00
70 6.28 –0.30 0.02 –0.32 –2,176.00
The corrected GZ values can be plotted to give the GZ curve, and the intersection used
to determine the angle of list, which is at 14. 5 degrees:
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
GZ (m)
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–0.10
–0.20
–0.30
–0.40
Heel (degrees)

The corrected righting moment values can be plotted to give the righting moment
curve, and the intersection used to determine the angle of list, which is again at 14.5
degrees:
2,500.00
2,000.00
1,500.00
1,000.00
500.00
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–500.00
–1,000.00
–1,500.00
–2,000.00
–2,500.00
Heel (degrees)
Q3.15
The basic GZ values from Q3.14 can be used to determine the uncorrected righting
moment, found by multiplying the basic GZ by the displacement. This gives:
Angle (degrees) Basic GZ (m) Basic righting moment

(tonne metres)
0 0.00 0
10 0.03 204
20 0.12 816
30 0.30 2,040
40 0.39 2,652
50 0.28 1,904
60 0.03 204
70 –0.30 –2,040

The listing moment caused by the cargo can be found from the cargo mass and distance
from the centreline:
Listing moment w × d = 4 ,185 × 0.10 = 418.5 tonne metres
This can be superimposed on the uncorrected righting moment curve, and the
intersection read off to give the list angle, which is at 14.5 degrees:
3,000.00
2,500.00
Listing moment and righting moment (tonne metres)
2,000.00
1,500.00
1,000.00
500.00
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–500.00
–1,000.00
–1,500.00
–2,000.00
–2,500.00
Heel (degrees)
Q3.16
The basic GZ values from Q3.14 can be plotted to give the uncorrected GZ curve. The
listing arm can be determined from formula:
w d 4 ,185 × 0.10
arm =
Listing a = = 0 06 m
Δ 6 , 800
This can be superimposed on the uncorrected GZ curve, and the intersection read off
to give the list angle, which again is at 14.5 degrees:

0.40
0.30
Listing arm and GZ (m)
0.20
0.10
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
–0.10
–0.20
–0.30
–0.40
Heel (degrees)
Q3.17
The top of the three curves has the greatest area under the curve, and therefore will
require the most energy to roll to 40 degrees.
Q3.18
X Y Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 5 1 5
2 6 4 24
4 5.25 2 10.5
6 4 4 16
8 2 1 2
Total 57.5
Spacing
p g 2
Area = × Σ Area product = × 57.5 = 38
38.3 m2
3 3
Q3.19
A loading table can be used to determine the displacement and KG after loading:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Cargo 3,985.00 6 23,910.00
Total 6,600.00 42,215.00

Moment 42, 215

KG = = = 6.40
40 m
Mass 6 , 600
At 6,600 tonnes, and a KG of 6.40 m, the KN values can be found, and the GZ values
calculated:
0 0.00 0
10 1.24 0.13
20 2.50 0.31
30 3.79 0.59
40 4.91 0.80
Each of the GZ values can be multiplied by the displacement of the vessel to obtain the
righting moment:
Angle (degrees) GZ (m) Righting moment

(tonne metres)
0 0.00 0
10 0.13 858
20 0.31 2,046
30 0.59 3,894
40 0.80 5,280
Simpson’s Rule can then be applied to the righting moment values to determine the
area under the righting moment curve, and hence the dynamic stability:
Angle (degrees) Righting moment Simpson’s Area product

(tonne metres) Multiplier
0 0 1 0
10 858 4 3,432
20 2,046 2 4,092
30 3,894 4 15,576
40 5,280 1 5,280
Total 28,380

Spacing
p g 10
Area = × Σ Area product = × 28 , 380 = 94 , 600 tonne metre degrees
3 3
This can be divided by 57.3 to convert the units to tonne metre radians:
94 , 600
Area = = 1, 650.96 tonne metre radians
57.3
Q3.20
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00
Cargo 1 785.00 7.2 5,652.00
Total 3,400.00 23,957.00
Moment 23, 957

KG = = = 7.05
05 m
Mass 3, 400
calculated:
0 0.00 0.00
10 1.27 0.04
20 2.54 0.13
30 3.77 0.24
35 4.33 0.29
40 4.86 0.33
9781408176122_Ch14_2_Rev_txt_prf.indd 459 11/16/2013 2:43:41 AM

0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
GZ (m)
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
It can be seen that the peak GZ value is in excess of 0.20 m, and will occur above 30
degrees. The area can be found between 0 and 40 degrees:
Angle (degrees) GZ (m) Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 0.00 1 0
10 0.04 4 0.176
20 0.13 2 0.264
30 0.24 4 0.976
40 0.33 1 0.33
Total 1.746
Spacing
p g 10
Area = × Σ Area product = × 1.746 = 5.820 m degrees
3 3
This can be divided by 57.3 degrees to convert the units to metre radians:
5.820
= 0.102 m radians
57.3
The minimum area from 0 to 40 degrees is 0.09 m radians, therefore the vessel passes
the 0 to 40 degrees criteria.

The area can be found between 30 and 40 degrees:
30 0.24 1 0.244
35 0.29 4 1.14
40 0.33 1 0.33
Total 1.714
Spacing
p g 5
3 3
2.857
= 0.050 m radians
57.3
The minimum area from 30 to 40 degrees is 0.03 m radians, therefore the vessel passes
the 30 to 40 degrees criteria.
The area between 0 and 30 degrees can be found by subtracting the area between 30
and 40 degrees from the area between 0 and 40 degrees:
AREA0 to 30 = AREA0 to 40 − AREA30 to 40
AREA0 to 30 = 0.102 − 0.05 0.052

052 m radians
The minimum area from 0 to 30 degrees is 0.055 m radians, therefore the vessel fails the
0 to 30 degrees criteria. This means that the vessel is not in a legal condition.
Q3.21
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

Cargo 4,585.00 7.10 32,553.50
Total 7,200.00 50,858.50
Moment 50 , 828.50
KG = = = 7.06
06 m
Mass 7, 200
calculated:

0 0.00 0.00
10 1.26 0.03
20 2.54 0.13
30 3.82 0.29
35 4.38 0.33
40 4.86 0.32
0.350
0.300
0.250
0.200
GZ (m)
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)
It can be seen that the peak GZ value is in excess of 0.20 m, and will occur above 30
degrees. The area can be found between 0 and 40 degrees:
0 0 1 0
10 0.03 4 0.12
20 0.13 2 0.26
30 0.29 4 1.16
40 0.32 1 0.32
Total 1.86

Spacing
p g 10
3 3
6 20
= 0.108 m radians
57.3
However, the down-flooding angle is 36 degrees, therefore the area between 36 and
40 degrees must be subtracted from this value. From the GZ curve, at 36 degrees, the
GZ is 0.33 m. Trapezoidal integration can be used to find the area between 36 and
40 degrees:
0.33 0.32
AREA36 to 40 = × ( 40 − 36 ) = 1.30 m degrees
2
1 30
= 0.023 m radians
57.3
Therefore, the area between 0 and 36 degrees can be found:
AREA0 to 36 = 0.108 − 0.023 = 0.085

085 m radians
The minimum area from 0 to down-flooding is 0.09 m radians, therefore the vessel fails
the 0 to down-flooding degrees criteria.
The area can be found between 30 and 40 degrees:
30 0.29 1 0.29
35 0.33 4 1.32
40 0.32 1 0.32
Total 1.93
Spacing
p g 5
Area = × Total area product = × 1.93 = 3.217 m degrees
3 3
3.217
= 0.056 m radians
57.3

However, the down-flooding angle is 36 degrees, therefore the area between 36 and 40
degrees must be subtracted from this value.
Therefore, the area between 30 and 36 degrees can be found:
AREA0 to 36 = 0.056 − 0.025 = 0.031

031 m radians
The minimum area from 30 to down-flooding is 0.03 m radians, therefore the vessel
passes the 30 to down-flooding degrees criteria.
The area between 0 and 30 degrees can be found by subtracting the area between 30
and 40 degrees from the area between 0 and 40 degrees:
AREA0 to 30 = 0.108 − 0.056 = 0.052

052 m radians
The minimum area from 0 to 30 degrees is 0.055 m radians, therefore the vessel fails the
0 to 30 degrees criteria.
Q3.22
The KB can be found:
D 3
KB = = = 1.50
50 m
2 2
The BM can be found:
LB 3 40 × 73
Inertia 12 12
BM = = = = 1.36
36 m
∇ LBD 40 × 7 × 3
The GM can be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.50 + 1.36 − 2 = 0.86
86 m
At 5 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 1 36 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ si 5 0.86 +
sin tan2 5 = 0.08
08 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
At 10 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 1 36 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ si 10 0 86 +
sin tan2 10 = 0.15 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

At 15 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 1 36 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = siin15 0 86 + tan2 15 = 0.24 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Q3.23
The KB, from the hydrostatics, is 3.86 m in the summer condition, and the KM is 7.26 m.
This allows BM to be found:
KM = KB + BM
7.26 3.86 + BM
BM = 3.40
40 m
At 0 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 3 40 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = si 0 1 55 + tan2 0 = 0.16 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
At 5 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 3 40 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = siin 5 1 55 + tan2 5 = 0.14 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
At 10 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 3 40 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = siin10 1 55 + tan2 10 = 0.28 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
At 15 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 3 40 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = sin
in15 1 55 + tan2 15 = 0.43 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
At 20 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 3 40 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = si 20 1 55 + tan2 20 = 0.61
61 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
At 25 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 3 40 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = sin
n 25 1 55 + tan2 25 = 0.81 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
At 30 degrees:
⎛ BM ⎞ ⎛ 3 40 ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ = siin 30 1 55 + tan2 30 = 1.06 m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

These values can be plotted onto the GZ curve:
1.100
Actual GZ
1.000
Wall-sided formula GZ
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
GZ (m)
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Heel (degrees)
Q3.24
The displacement can be found from the dimensions:
∇×ρ = Δ
40 × 6 1× 1.025
025 = 246 tonnes
The original KB can be found from the draught:
Draught 1
KB = = = 0.50 m
2 2
The BM can be determined before ballasting:
⎛ LB 3 ⎞ ⎛ 40 × 63 ⎞
Inertia ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
BM = = = = 3.00 m
∇ ∇ 40 × 6 × 1
This allows the KG to be determined, as GM is known:
GM = KB + BM − KG

1.2 = 0.5 + 3 − KG
KG = 2.30
30 m
The mass of ballast in the double bottom can be determined:

Mass = Volume × ρ = 8 × 0.2 × 6 × 1.025 = 9.84 tonnes
The KG of the ballast will be at half the depth of the ballast, which is 0.10 m.
The free surface effect of the ballast can be determined:
8 × 63
FSM InertiaFS × ρFFS = × 1.025 = 147.6 tonne metres
12
A loading table can be used to determine the effective KG:
Barge 246 2.3 565.8

Ballast 9.84 0.1 0.984
Ballast FSM 0 0 147.6
Cargo 40 4 160
Totals 295.84 874.384
Moment 874.384
KG = = = 2.96
96 m
Mass 295.84
The draught after loading can be determined:
Δ 295.84
D= = = 1.20 m
LB ρ 40 × 6 × 1.025
The new KB can be found from the draught:
Draught 1.20
KB = = = 0.60 m
2 2
The new BM can be determined after ballasting:
⎛ LB 3 ⎞ ⎛ 40 × 63 ⎞
Inertia ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
BM = = = = 2.50 m
∇ ∇ 40 × 6 × 1.2
This allows the KG to be determined, as GM is known:
GM = KB + BM − KG

GM = 0.6 + 2.5 − 2 96
GM = 0.14 m
A loading table can be used to determine the final TCG:
Barge 246 0 0
Ballast 9.84 0 0
Cargo 40 0.5 20
Total 295.84 20
Moment 20
TCG = = = 0.068
068 m
Mass 295.84
This allows the list to be determined from the GM and heeling moment:
TCG
tanθ =
GM
0.068
tanθ =
0 14
θ = 25.9
9 degrees, above limits of small angle theory
As the angle is above the limits of small angle theory, large angle theory must be used.
As the vessel is wall-sided, the wall-sided formula can be used to determine GZ.
Angle (degrees) GZ (m) TCG correction (m) Final GZ (m)
0 0.00 0.07 –0.07

5 0.01 0.07 –0.05
10 0.03 0.07 –0.04
15 0.06 0.07 –0.01
20 0.10 0.06 0.04
25 0.17 0.06 0.11
30 0.28 0.06 0.22
By linear interpolation, the list angle is 16 degrees.

Q3.25
The values for the loll and GM can be entered into the formula:
−2GMI
= GM at the angle of loll
cosθ
−2 × −0.1
= 0 20 m
cos10
Q3.26
At 4,600 tonnes, and a KG of 6.74 m, the KN values can be used to determine GZ:
0 0.00 0.00
5 0.61 0.02
10 1.22 0.05
15 1.83 0.09
These can be multiplied by the displacement to find the righting moment values:
Angle (degrees) GZ (m) Righting moment (tonne metres)
0 0.00 0
5 0.02 87.4
10 0.05 207
15 0.09 391
From Figure 3.83, at a wind speed of 75 knots, the wind pressure would be 95 kg/m2.
This equates to 0.095 t/m2.
The wind heeling moment can be found by:
W d pressure × Lateral area Lever

Wind heeling moment Win
Wind feeling moment = 0.095 × 617 × 5.17 = 303.14 tonne metres
The curve of righting moments can be drawn, and the heeling moment value
superimposed on that:

700
Righting moment
600 Heeling moment
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Heel (degrees)
It can be seen that the heeling moment and righting moment are equal at 12.8 degrees,
therefore the vessel will heel at 12.8 degrees.
Q3.27
The mass can be determined from the volume of the grain and the stowage factor. At a
sounding of 4.00 m, the grain hold shows a volume of 600 m3. Therefore:
Grain volume 600

Grain mass = = = 428.57 tonnes
Stowage ffactor 1.4
At a sounding of 4.00 m, the grain hold shows a volumetric heeling moment of 1,006.8 m4.
Therefore:
Grain volumetric
o u et c heeling moment
Grain mass
Stowage
t factor
1, 006.8
Grain mass o e t=
ass heeling moment = 719.14 tonne metres
1.4

Q3.28
The mass and volumetric heeling moment of the grain can be found from the stowage
factor and the grain hold data. The mass can be determined from the volume of the
grain and the stowage factor. At a sounding of 5.00 m, the grain hold shows a volume
of 750 m3. Therefore:
Grain volume 750

Grain mass = = = 517.24 tonnes
Stowage ffactor 1.45
The KG of the grain will be 4.50 m.

At a sounding of 5.00 m, the grain hold shows a volumetric heeling moment of 1,006.8 m4.
Therefore:
Grain volumetric
o u et c heeling moment
Grain mass
Stowage
t factor
1, 006.8
Grain mass = 694.35 tonne metres
1.45
A loading table can be used to determine the KG of the vessel after loading:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615.00 7.00 18,305.00

No. 2 DB Port 39.22 0.60 23.33
Port bunker 117.76 7.81 919.73
No. 2 DB Stb 39.22 0.60 23.53
Stb bunker 117.76 7.81 919.73
No. 2 DB Port FSM 0.00 0 62.15
No. 2 DB Stb FSM 0.00 0 62.15
Grain 517.241 4.5 2,327.59
Total 3,446.20 22,643.20
Moment 22, 643.2

KG = = = 6.57
57 m
Mass 3, 446.2
At 3,446.2 tonnes, the KM can be interpolated. This gives a value of 7.23 m for KM. This
allows GM to be found:
GM = KM − KG = 7.23 − 6.57 = 0.66 m

The minimum GM for a vessel carrying grain is 0.30 m, therefore the vessel is legal with
respect to the initial GM.
The KN values can be interpolated, and the GZ values found:
0 0.00 0.00
5 0.63 0.06
10 1.26 0.12
15 1.90 0.20
20 2.54 0.29
25 3.16 0.39
30 3.76 0.48
35 4.33 0.56
40 4.86 0.64
The λ0 value can be found:
Total gra
grain mass heeling moment 694.35
λ0 = = = 0.201 m
Δ 3, 446.2
The λ40 value can be found:
λ 40 λ 0 ×0.8 = 0.201× 0.8 = 0.161 m
The GZ curve and the grain heeling line can be plotted:
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
GZ (m)
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Heel (degrees)

It can be seen that the grain heeling line and the GZ curve intersect at 14.4 degrees,
therefore the vessel fails the list criteria.
The area under the curve from 0 to 40 degrees can be found using Simpson’s Rule:
0 0.00 1 0.00
10 0.12 4 0.48
20 0.29 2 0.58
30 0.48 4 1.92
40 0.64 1 0.64
Total 3.62
Spacing
p g 10
Area = × Total area product = × 3.62 = 12
12.07 m degrees
3 3
12.07
Area = = 0.211 m radians
57.3
Using the GZ, it can be seen that the GZ value at the intersection of the lines is 0.188
m. Therefore, the area under the grain heeling line can be found between 0 and 14.4
degrees, assuming that the area can be approximated by a triangle:
1 1
Area Length Height = × 14.4 × 0.188 = 1.354 m degrees
t Height
2 2
1.354
= 0.024 m radians
57.3
The area under the grain heeling line can be found between 14.4 and 40 degrees,
assuming that the area can be approximated by a trapezoid:
0.188 + 0.161
Area Mean height t =
eight Lengt
Length × ( 40 − 14.4 ) = 4.467 m degrees
r
2
4.467
= 0.078 m radians
57.3
Therefore, the residual area between the GZ curve and the grain heeling line can be
found:
Area = 0.211 − 0.024 − 0.078 = 0.109 m radians
The vessel therefore passes the residual area criteria.

Q3.29
There is no direct row in the tables for 4,050 tonnes displacement, or a column for
a KG of 5.35 m. The row and column must be created using linear interpolation. The
displacement of 4,050 tonnes lies 44.1% of the range between 4,001 and 4,112 tonnes,
and the KG of 5.35 m lies 75% of the range between 5.20 and 5.40 m.
Displacement\KG 5.20 m 5.35 m 5.40 m
4,112 1,635.9 1,464.9

4,050 1,623.7 1,497.6 1,455.55
4,001 1,614.1 1,447.7
The maximum allowable grain mass heeling moment is therefore 1,497.6 tonne metres.
The actual grain mass heeling moment is 1,550 tonne metres, therefore the vessel fails
the criteria as the actual value exceeds the allowable value.
Q3.30
There is no direct row in the tables for 6,300 tonnes displacement, or a column for
a KG of 5.05 m. The row and column must be created using linear interpolation. The
displacement of 6,300 tonnes lies 28.7% of the range between 6,263 and 6,392 tonnes,
and the KG of 5.05 m lies 25% of the range between 5.00 and 5.20 m.
6,392 1,528.0 1,262.2

6,300 1,485.9 1,420.4 1,224.0
6,263 1,469.5 1,209.1
The maximum allowable grain mass heeling moment is therefore 1,420.4 tonne metres.
The actual grain mass heeling moment is 1,400 tonne metres, therefore the vessel
passes the criteria as the actual value does not exceed the allowable value.
Q3.31
The appropriate values can be found in the table of maximum allowable grain mass
heeling moments:
4,796 1,219.7 1,020.3

4,700 ? ?? ?
4,680 1,197.4 1,002.8

Interpolation is not actually needed to answer this question. The interpolated value
of the maximum allowable mass grain heeling moment cannot be greater than any of
the four boundary values in the table above. Therefore, for any displacement between
4,680 and 4,796 tonnes, and any KG between 5.85 and 6.00 m, the vessel will not pass
with an actual grain mass heeling moment of 1,300 tonne metres.
Q3.32
The appropriate values can be found in the table of maximum allowable grain mass
heeling moments:
KG = 6.80 m KG = 6.74 m KG = 7.00 m
7,192 tonnes 758.8 459.8

7,100 tonnes ? ?? ?
7,056 tonnes 701.4 408.0
As with the previous question, interpolation is not actually needed to answer this
question. The interpolated value of the maximum allowable mass grain heeling moment
cannot be less than any of the four boundary values in the table above. Therefore, for
any displacement between 7,056 and 7,192 tonnes, and any KG between 6.80 and
7.00 m, the vessel will pass with an actual grain mass heeling moment of 400 tonne
metres.
Q3.33
The mass and volumetric heeling moment of the grain can be found from the stowage
factor and the grain hold data. The mass can be determined from the volume of the
grain and the stowage factor. At a sounding of 6.00 m, the grain hold shows a volume
of 900 m3. Therefore:
Grain volume 900

Grain mass = = = 652.17 tonne
t s
Stowage ffactor 1 38
The KG of the grain will be 5.00 m.

At a sounding of 6.00 m, the grain hold shows a volumetric heeling moment of 925.2 m4.
Therefore:
Grain volumetric
olumet c heeling moment
Grain mass
Stowage
t factor
925.2
Grain mass = 670.44 tonne metres
1 38

A loading table can be used to determine the KG of the vessel after loading:
Item Mass KG Moment
Lightship 2,615 7 18,305

Port bunker 120.22 7.81 938.92
Starboard bunker 120.22 7.81 938.92
Grain 652.17 5 3,260.85
Total 3,507.61 23,443.69
Moment 23, 443.69

KG = = = 6.68 m
Mass 3, 507.61
From the maximum permissible grain heeling moment tables, the following mass
heeling moments are permitted:
KG = 6.60 m KG = 6.80 m
3,563 tonnes 512.2 364.1

3,455 tonnes 532.1 388.5
The values can be interpolated for the displacement of 3,507.6 tonnes.
KG = 6.60 m KG = 6.80 m
3,563 tonnes 512.2 364.1

3,507.6 tonnes 522.4 376.6
3,455 tonnes 532.1 388.5
The values can be then be interpolated for the KG of 6.68 m.
KG = 6.60 m KG = 6.68 m KG = 6.80 m
3,563 tonnes 512.2 364.1

3,507.6 tonnes 522.4 464.1 376.6
3,455 tonnes 532.1 388.5
As can be seen, the limiting mass heeling moment is 464.1 tonne metres, while the
actual mass heeling moment is 670.44 tonne metres, therefore the vessel fails to meet
the criteria.

The approximate list angle can be found from:
Actual mass
ass heeling moment
Approximate list angle = 12 ×
Maximum mass heeling momemt
670.44
Approximate list angle = 12 × = 17.3 degrees
464.4
Q4.1
D 6
KB = = = 3.00 m
2 2
The BML can be found, remembering that it requires the longitudinal inertia:
BLL3 11× 703

InertiaL
BML = = 12 = 12 = 68.06
06 m
∇ LBD 70 × 11× 6
The GML can be found in a similar way to GM:
GML = KB
B + BML − KG = 3 + 68.06 − 4 = 67.06 m
Clearly the very large value indicates great stability in the longitudinal sense.
Q4.2
D 5
KB = = = 2.50 m
2 2
BLL3 13 × 74 3
InertiaL
BML = = 12 = 12 = 91.28 m
∇ LBD 74 × 13 × 5
GML = KB + BML − KG = 2.50 + 91.28 − 3.50 = 90.28 m
The MCTC can be found (note the displacement for a box shaped vessel can be found
from the water density and the dimensions):
Δ × GML 74 × 13 × 5 × 1.025 × 90.28

MCTC = = = 60.15 tonne mettres
100 × LBP 100 × 74

Q4.3
D 2
KB = = = 1.00
00 m
2 2
BLL3 8 × 40 3
InertiaL
BML = = 12 = 12 = 66.67
67 m
∇ LBD 40 × 8 × 2
GML = KB
B + BML − KG = 1.00 + 66.67 − 2.50 = 65.17 m
The MCTC can be found (note the displacement for a box shaped vessel can be found
from the water density and the dimensions):
Δ × GML 40 × 8 × 2 × 1.025 × 65.17

MCTC = = = 10.69
69 tonne metre
r s
100 × LBP 100 × 40
The LCB will be at the centre of underwater volume, which for a box shaped vessel will
be at half of the length:
L 40
LCB = = = 20 m FOAP
2 2
The trim can be found:
(LCB LCG ) Δ
Trim =
MCTC
(20 − 19 )( 40 × 8 × 2 × 1.025)
Trim = = 61.4
4 = 0.61 m stern trim
10.69
Q4.4
At 2,615 tonnes, the hydrostatics can be read from the data, and substituted into the
trim formula:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 47.18 − 44 ) 2, 615

Trim = = = 189.6 = 1.90 m sttern trim
MCTC 43.87
Q4.5
Trimming moment 5 × 10
Change in trim = = = 10.8 cm
MCTC 4.613

This change of trim will be by the stern as the mass has moved aft.
Q4.6
Trimming moment = Mass × Distance to LCF
Trimming moments that push the stern down are treated as positive, while trimming
moments that push the bow down are treated as negative. Therefore:
Trimming moment = (7 × 5) + ( − ( × ))
Trimming moment (7 × 5) + ( − ( × ))
Change in trim = = = 1.50
0 cm
MCTC 7.324
This will be by the stern as the change in trim is positive.
Q4.7
The LCF is at the centre of the waterplane area, therefore for a box shaped vessel, this
will be at half of the length of the vessel:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 3 + 1.10 = 3.55 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 3.55 − 1.10 = 2.45 m
Q4.8
In the lightship condition, the hydrostatics show that the true mean draught is 3.00 m,
and the LCF is 47.14 m FOAP. The LBP of the vessel is 100 m.
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 47.14 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 3.00 + 1.90 = 3.90
90 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 3.90 − 1.90 = 2.00 m
Q4.9
A loading table can be used to determine the LCG and displacement after loading:
Lightship 2,615.00 44.00 115,060.00

Port bunker 101.15 13.83 1,398.86
Stb bunker 101.15 13.83 1,398.86
Cargo 1 212.71 90 19,143.90
Total 3,030 137,001.61

Moment 137, 001.61

LCG = = = 45.22 m FOAP
Mass 3, 030
At 3,030 tonnes, the hydrostatics can be found from the data book, giving the LCB as
47.15 m FOAP, the LCF as 46.81 m FOAP, the MCTC as 45.16 tonne metres/cm and the true
mean draught as 3.40 m. These can be used to find the trim and the end draughts:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 47.15 − 45.22) 3, 030

Trim = = = 129.5
MCTC 45.16
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 46.81⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 3.40
0 + 1.30 = 4.01
01 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 4.01 − 1.30 = 2.71 m
Q5.1
The underwater volume can be found from the dimensions:
∇ = LBD = 100 × 10 × 2 = 2, 000 m3
The displacement can be found from the underwater volume:
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ 2, 000 × 1.025 = 2, 050 tonnes
The KB can be found from the draught:
D 2
KB = = = 1.00
00 m
2 2
LB 3 100 × 103
Inertia 12 12
BM = = = = 4.17
17 m
∇ LBD 100 × 10 × 2
The KM can be found:
KM = KB + BM = 1.00 + 4.17 = 5.17
17 m
The LCF is the longitudinal centre of the waterplane area. The waterplane area is 100 m
long, 10 m wide and rectangular. The centre of the waterplane will therefore be at half
the length of the length of the vessel, or 50.00 m FOAP.
The LCB is the longitudinal centre of the underwater volume. The underwater volume is
100 m long, 10 m wide, 2 m deep and rectangular. The centre of the underwater volume
will therefore be at half the length of the length of the vessel, or 50.00 m FOAP.
To determine the MCTC, the longitudinal metacentric height must be found:

BLL3
D I D
GML = KB + BML − KG = + L − KG = + 12 − KG
2 ∇ 2 LBD
10 × 1003
2 12
∴ GML = + − 3 = 414.67
67 m
2 100 × 10 × 2
Δ × GML 2, 050 × 414.67

MCTC = = = 85.01 tonne metres
100 × LBP 100 × 100
The TPC can be found by formula:
Waterplane
p area 100 × 10
TPC = ×ρ= × 1.025 = 10.25 t/cm
100 100
Q5.2
The underwater volume can be found from the dimensions:
∇ = LBD = 100 × 10 × 2 = 2, 000 m3
The displacement can be found from the underwater volume:
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ 2, 000 × 1.000 = 2, 000 tonnes
The KB can be found from the draught:
D 2
KB = = = 1.00 m
2 2
LB 3 100 × 103
Inertia 12 12
BM = = = = 4.17
17 m
∇ LBD 100 × 10 × 2
The KM can be found:
KM = KB + BM = 1.00 + 4.17 = 5.17
17 m
The LCF is the longitudinal centre of the waterplane area. The waterplane area is 100 m
long, 10 m wide and rectangular. The centre of the waterplane will therefore be at half
the length of the length of the vessel, or 50.00 m FOAP.
The LCB is the longitudinal centre of the underwater volume. The underwater volume is
100 m long, 10 m wide, 2 m deep and rectangular. The centre of the underwater volume
will therefore be at half the length of the length of the vessel, or 50.00 m FOAP.

To determine the MCTC, the longitudinal metacentric height must be found:
BLL3
D I D
B + BML − KG = + L − KG = + 12 − KG
GML = KB
2 ∇ 2 LBD
10 × 1003
2 12
∴ GML = + − 3 = 414.67
67 m
2 100 × 10 × 2
Δ × GML 2, 000 × 414.67

MCTC = = = 82.93
93 tonne metres
100 × LBP 100 × 100
The TPC can be found by formula:
Waterplane
p area 100 × 10
TPC = ×ρ = × 1.000 = 10.00 t/cm
100 100
Q5.3
The hydrostatics at 4.00 m draught can be read from the data book. These are the sea
water values:
Draught (m) Displacement LCB LCF KB KM TPC MCTC

metres)
4.00 3,671 47.04 46.17 2.16 7.13 10.88 47.70
Any value with tonnes in the units must be corrected to be the dock water value by
multiplying by the ratio of the dock water density to the sea water density.
For example, the displacement is corrected by:
ρDDW 1.010
Δ DW Δ SW × = 3, 671× = 3, 617.3 tonnes
ρSSW 1.025

metres)
4.00 3,617.3 47.04 46.17 2.16 7.13 10.72 47.00

Q5.4
The hydrostatics for sea water at 4.10 m and 4.20 m show:

metres)
4.20 3,890 46.99 45.95 2.27 7.06 11.02 48.91

4.10 3,781 47.01 46.06 2.22 7.10 10.95 48.29
These can be corrected for dock water:

metres)
4.20 3,821.7 46.99 45.95 2.27 7.06 10.83 48.05

4.10 3,714.6 47.01 46.06 2.22 7.10 10.76 47.44
Finally, the values can be interpolated for 4.15 m:

metres)
4.20 3,821.7 46.99 45.95 2.27 7.06 10.83 48.05

4.15 3,768.15 47.00 46.01 2.25 7.08 10.80 47.86
4.10 3,714.6 47.01 46.06 2.22 7.10 10.76 47.44
Q5.5
The hydrostatics for sea water at the two displacements closest to 3,600 tonnes show:

metres)
4.00 3,671 47.04 46.17 2.16 7.13 10.88 47.70

3.90 3,563 47.06 46.29 2.11 7.18 10.82 47.23

These can be corrected for dock water:

metres)
4.00 3,617.3 47.04 46.17 2.16 7.13 10.72 47.00

3.90 3,510.9 47.06 46.29 2.11 7.18 10.66 46.54
Finally, the values can be interpolated for 4.15 m:

metres)
4.00 3,617.3 47.04 46.17 2.16 7.13 10.72 47.00

3.98 3,600 47.04 46.19 2.15 7.14 10.70 46.92
3.90 3,510.9 47.06 46.29 2.11 7.18 10.66 46.54
Q5.6
The hydrostatics at 4.00 m draught can be read from the data book. These are the sea
water values:

metres)
4.00 3,671 47.04 46.17 2.16 7.13 10.88 47.70
Therefore, at a draught of 4.00 m in sea water, the displacement is 3,671 tonnes. The
hydrostatics can be read off at a draught of 5.00 m in sea water:

metres)
5.00 4,796 46.69 44.89 2.71 6.93 11.64 55.31
The hydrostatics can be corrected to be for fresh water:

metres)
5.00 4,679.0 46.69 44.89 2.71 6.93 11.36 53.96

It can be seen that at a draught of 5.00 m in sea water, the displacement is 4,679 tonnes.
As the vessel started with a displacement of 3,671 tonnes, a total of 1,008 tonnes of
cargo can be loaded.
Q5.7
At 5.00 m, the displacement in sea water is 4,796 tonnes. Corrected for dock water gives
a displacement of 4,702.4 tonnes at 5.00 m.
At her summer draught, the displacement in sea water is 7,329 tonnes. Therefore, the
total mass that can be added to the vessel is 2,626.6 tonnes.
Q5.8
The fresh water allowance can be determined:
Δ SUMMER 7, 329
W =
FWA E
= = 133 mm
4 × TPC SW 4 × 13 77
The dock water allowance can be determined:
⎛ ρ −ρ ⎞ ⎛ 1.025 − 1.015 ⎞
DWA
W FWA ⎜ SW DDW ⎟ = 133 = 53 mm
⎝ ρSW − ρFFW ⎠ ⎝ 1.025 − 1.000 ⎠
Therefore the vessel can have her Load Lines submerged by 53 mm. The vessel has a
summer draught of 7.00 m, therefore the final draught will be 7.05 m. As the starting
waterline is 20 cm, or 0.2 m below the summer Load Line, the initial draught must be
6.80 m. The TPC in seawater at 7.05 m can be interpolated as 13.82 t/cm, and the TPC in
seawater at 6.80 m is 13.56 t/cm.
The mean of these values can be found:
13.82 + 13.56
C=
Mean TPC = 13.69 t/cm
2
This is the seawater value, and must therefore be converted to the dock water value:
ρDDW 1.015
TPC DW T SW ×
TPC = 13.69 × = 13.56
56 t/cm
ρSSW 1.025
The allowable sinkage is 20 cm to the summer Load Line, and then 5.3 cm to the
allowable waterline, giving a total allowable sinkage of 25.3 cm. Therefore, the mass to
add can be determined:
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC

Mass
25.3 =
13.56
Mass = 343.07 tonnes
Therefore, using the mean TPC value, the mass to load is 343.07 tonnes. The relevant
hydrostatic values can be corrected for the dock water density:
Sea water values:
6.8 7,056
Dock water values:
6.8 6,987.2
Therefore, at a draught of 6.80 m in dock water, the displacement is 6,987.2 tonnes. The
summer displacement of the vessel is 7,329 tonnes, therefore the mass to load can be
found:
Mass to load = Δ SSUMMER

ER − Δ START = 7 , 329 − 6 , 987.2 = 341.8 tonnes
This is the more accurate solution, as the solution using the TPC assumes that the vessel
is wall-sided over the change in draught.
Q5.9
In the lightship condition, the displacement is 2,615 tonnes. After 3,000 tonnes is
loaded, the displacement will be 5,615 tonnes.
In sea water, the hydrostatics show the following close to the final displacement:
5.80 5,757
5.70 5,634
These can be corrected to the dock water values:
5.80 5,728.9
5.70 5,606.5

Interpolating between these displacements for the draught gives a draught of 5.71 m
in dock water. This allows the UKC to be found:
UKC
K Depth − Draught = 10.00 − 5.71 = 4.29 m
Depth
Q5.10
In the starting condition, the displacement at 6.00 m in sea water is 6,008 tonnes. After
100 tonnes is unloaded, the displacement will be 5,908 tonnes.
In sea water, the hydrostatics show the following close to the final displacement:
6.10 6,135
6.00 6,008
These can be corrected to the fresh water values:
6.10 5,985.4
6.00 5,861.5
Interpolating between these displacements for the draught gives a draught of 6.04 m
in fresh water.
Q5.11
The mean draught can be found:
DA DF 7+3
DM = = = 5.000 m
2 2
This can be used to determine the approximate LCF position from the hydrostatics. This
gives a value of 44.889 m FOAP. This can then be used to determine the approximate
true mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 44.889 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim ∴ 7.000 = DLCF .000 L F = 5.204
DLC 204 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
This can be used to determine a more accurate LCF position from the hydrostatics. This
gives an interpolated value of 44.571 m FOAP. This can be used to calculate a more
accurate value for the true mean draught:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 44.571⎞
DA DLCF + Trim ∴ 7.000 = DLCF .000 L F = 5.217
DLC 217 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 44.550 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim ∴ 7.000 = DLCF .000 L F = 5.218 m
DLC
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 44.548 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim ∴ 7.000 = DLCF .000 L F = 5.218 m
DLC
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 5.218 m.
Q5.12
DA DF 7+4
DM = = = 5.50 m
2 2
gives a value of 44.05 m FOAP. This can then be used to determine the approximate true
mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
44.05 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 7 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.68 m
100 ⎠
This can be used to determine a more accurate LCF position from the hydrostatics.
This gives an interpolated value of 43.70 m FOAP. This can be used to calculate a more
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.70 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 7 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.69 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 5.69 m. The displacement can be
interpolated at this draught, giving a displacement of 5,621.7 tonnes
Q5.13
DA DF 6 + 5.31
DM = = = 5.66 m
2 2

mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.74 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.70
70 m
100 ⎠
gives a value of 43.66 m FOAP. This can be used to calculate a more accurate value for
the true mean draught:
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.66 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.70 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 5.70 m. The displacement can be
read directly at this draught giving a displacement of 5,634 tonnes. The KM can be read
directly giving a value of 6.96 m. This allows GM to be found:
GM = KM − KG = 6.96 − 6.00 = 0.96
96 m
Q5.14
DA DF 5 + 5.23
DM = = = 5.12
12 m
2 2
mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
44.71⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 5 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.10 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
44.76 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 5 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.10
10 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 5.10 m. The displacement can be read
directly at this draught, giving a displacement of 4,913 tonnes.

Q5.15
The layer correction process can be used to determine the displacement of the vessel
in the initial condition:
DA DF 6 + 5.31
DM = = = 5.66 m
2 2
This can be used to determine the approximate LCF position from the hydrostatics.
This gives a value of 43.74 m FOAP. Note that the LCF is independent of density, and
therefore no density correction is needed. This can then be used to determine the
approximate true mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.74 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.70
70 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.66 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.70 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 5.70 m. At 5.70 m in sea water, the
displacement is 5,634 tonnes. This can be corrected for dock water:
ρDDW 1.020
Δ DW Δ SW × = 5, 634 × = 5, 606.5 tonnes
ρSSW 1.025
DA DF 4 + 3.15
DM = = = 3.58
58 m
2 2
mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.63 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.60 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.61⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.60
60 m
100 ⎠

Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 3.60 m. The hydrostatics can be read
directly at this draught, giving a displacement of 3,241 tonnes, an LCB of 47.13 m FOAP
and an MCTC of 45.84 tonne metres/cm.
(LCB LCG ) Δ (47.13 − LCG ) × 3, 241

Trim = ∴100 ( 4 − 3.15) =
MCTC 45.84
13 − LCG ) × 70
85 = ( 47.13 0.7 ∴1.20
0 = 47.13
3 − LCG ∴ LCG = 45.93 m FOAP
Q5.17
On an even keel, the draught aft must be the same as all of the other draught values,
therefore the true mean draught must also be 4.50 m. As the trim of the vessel is zero,
the LCB must be the same as the LCG. Therefore, the LCG of the vessel is 46.89 m FOAP
and the displacement is 4,224 tonnes.
A loading table can be used to determine the LCG and displacement after loading:
Ship 4,224 46.89 198,063.36

Cargo 1,000 35.00 35,000
Total 5,224 233,063.36
Moment 233, 063.36

LCG = = = 44.61 m FOAP
Mass 5, 224
At 5,224 tonnes, the hydrostatics can be interpolated from the data book, giving the
LCB as 46.52 m FOAP, the LCF as 44.30 m FOAP, the MCTC as 59.34 tonne metres/cm
and the true mean draught as 5.36 m. These can be used to find the trim and the end
draughts:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 46.52 − 44.64 ) 5, 224

Trim = = = 165.5
MCTC 59.34
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 44.30 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 5.36 + 1.66 = 6.10
10 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 6.10 − 1.66 = 4.44
44 m
Q5.18
On an even keel, the draught aft must be the same as all of the other draught values,
therefore the true mean draught must also be 4.00 m. As the trim of the vessel is zero,
the LCB must be the same as the LCG. Therefore, the initial LCG of the vessel is 47.04 m
FOAP, and the initial displacement is 3,671 tonnes.

For the final condition, the layer correction process can be used to find the required
hydrostatics to achieve the required final condition. The mean draught can be found:
DA DF 6.23 + 5.23
DM = = = 5.73 m
2 2
mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.60 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6.23
23 = DLCF ( C = 5.79 m
DLCF
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.48 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6.23
23 = DLCF ( C = 5.80 m
DLCF
100 ⎠
Therefore, the final true mean draught can be taken as 5.80 m. The hydrostatics can be
read directly at this draught, giving a displacement of 5,757 tonnes, an LCB of 46.28
m FOAP and an MCTC of 65.43 tonne metres/cm. These can be used to determine the
required LCG in the final condition:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (46.27 − LCG ) × 5, 757

Trim = ∴100 = ∴ LCG = 45.13
13 m FOAP
MCTC 65.43
The amount of cargo to load can be found from the difference between the starting
displacement and the final displacement:
Cargo = Δ FINAL − Δ INITIAL = 5, 757 − 3, 671 = 2, 086 tonnes
A loading table can be used to determine the position of the cargo so that the vessel
finishes loading with the correct final LCG:
Ship 3,671 47.04 172,683.84

Cargo 2,086 x 2,086x
Total 5,757 172,683.84 + 2,086x
Moment 172, 683.84 + 2, 086 x

LCG = = = 45.13 m FOAP
Mass 5, 757

172, 683.84 + 2, 086 x

= 45.13
3 ∴172, 683.84 + 2, 086 = 45.13 × 5, 757
.13
5, 757
∴ 2, 086 = ( 45.13 × 5, 757) − 172, 683.84
(45.13 × 5, 757) − 172, 683.84

∴ = = 41.77 m FOAP
2, 086
Q5.19
For the initial condition, the layer correction process can be used to find the required
DA DF 4.00 + 2.71
DM = = = 3.36
36 m
2 2
mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.85 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.40
40 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.81⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.40
40 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the initial true mean draught can be taken as 3.40 m. The hydrostatics can
be read directly at this draught, giving a displacement of 3,030 tonnes, an LCB of 47.15
m FOAP and an MCTC of 45.16 tonne metres/cm. These can be used to determine the
required LCG in the initial condition:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (47.15 − LCG ) × 3, 030
Trim = ∴129 = ∴ LCG = 45.23 m FOAP
MCTC 45.16
For the final condition, the true mean draught is given. Therefore, layer correction is not
required. The hydrostatics can be read directly at this draught, giving a displacement of
4,179.2 tonnes, an LCB of 46.90 m FOAP and an MCTC of 50.71 tonne metres/cm. These
can be used to determine the required LCG in the final condition:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (46.90 − LCG ) × 4 ,179.2
Trim = ∴ 34 = ∴ LCG = 46.49 m FOAP
MCTC 50.71

Cargo = Δ FINAL − Δ INITIAL = 4 ,179.2 − 3, 030 = 1
1149
, .2 tonnes
If x tonnes of cargo is loaded aft, then 1,149.2 − x tonnes of cargo must be loaded
forward. A loading table can be used to determine the position of the cargo so that the
vessel finishes loading with the correct final LCG:
Ship 3,030 45.23 137,046.9

Aft cargo x 30 30x
Fwd cargo 1,149.2 – x 80 91,936 – 80x
Total 4,179.2 228,982.9 – 50x
Moment 228 , 982.9 − 50 x

LCG = = = 46.49
49 m FOAP ∴ x = 693.84 to
t nnes aft
f
Mass 4 ,179.2
We know that we must load 1,149.2 − x tonnes forward, therefore:
,149.2 − 693.84 = 455.36 tonnes forward

1149
Q5.20
For the initial condition, the layer correction process can be used to find the required
DA DF 5.00 + 3.90
DM = = = 4.45 m
2 2
This gives a value of 45.65 m FOAP. This can then be used to determine the
approximate true mean draught. Note that at a given draught the LCF value is
not affected by water density, therefore no density corrections are required to the
hydrostatics.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
45.65 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 5 = DLCF ( DLCF = 4.50
50 m
100 ⎠
accurate value for the true mean draught. Again, at a given draught the LCF value is
hydrostatics.

⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
45.58 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 5 = DLCF ( DLCF = 4.50
50 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the initial true mean draught can be taken as 4.50 m. This can be used to
determine the hydrostatics of the vessel. The hydrostatics at a true mean draught of
4.50 m give the following values for sea water:

metres)
4.50 4,224 46.888 45.579 2.437 6.987 11.244 51.004
These must be corrected to dock water values, by multiplying the hydrostatic value by
the ratio of dock water density to sea water density:
ρDW
yd ostat c vvalue = Sea w
rrected hydrostatic ate hydrostatic vvalue ×
water DW
ρSSW
Remember – only the hydrostatics which have tonnes in the units need correcting.
Therefore, the corrected dock water values at 1.005 t/m3 are:

metres)
4.50 4,141.6 46.888 45.579 2.437 6.987 11.025 50.009
These can be used to determine the LCG in the initial condition:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (46.89 − LCG ) × 4 ,141.6

Trim = ∴110 = ∴ LCG = 45.56
56 m FOAP
MCTC 50.01
For the final condition, the summer draught is 7.00 m (see the principle data in the
stability book. The vessel is required to be on an even keel, therefore layer correction is
not required. The hydrostatics can be read directly at this draught, giving a displacement
of 7,329 tonnes, and an LCB of 45.40 m FOAP. The vessel will be on an even keel, therefore
the LCG will be the same as the LCB. As the vessel will be in sea water in this condition,
no corrections to the hydrostatics are required.
Cargo = Δ FINAL − Δ INITIAL = 7, 329 − 4 ,141.6 = 3,187.4 tonnes

If x tonnes of cargo is loaded aft, then 3,187.4 − x tonnes of cargo must be loaded
forward. A loading table can be used to determine the position of the cargo so that the
vessel finishes loading with the correct final LCG:
Ship 4,141.6 45.56 188,691.3

Aft cargo x 25 25x
Fwd cargo 3,187.4 – x 75 239,055 – 75x
Total 7,329 427,746.3 – 50x
Moment 427, 746.3 − 50 x

LCG = = = 45.40
0 m FOAP ∴ x = 1, 900.2 tonnes
o afft
Mass 7, 329
We know that we must load 3,187.4 − x tonnes forward, therefore:
3,187.4 1, 900.2 1, 287.2 tonnes forward
Q5.21
DA DF 4.00 + 3.57
DM = = = 3.79 m
2 2
At 3.79 m, the LCF is 46.41 m FOAP. The approximate true mean draught can be found:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 46.41⎞
DA DLCF + Trim ∴ 4.00 = DLCFF DLCF = 3.80
80 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
At 3.80 m, the LCF is 46.40 m FOAP. The true mean draught can be found:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 46.40 ⎞
80 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught in the initial condition is 3.80 m. At this draught in
sea water, the displacement is 3,455 tonnes, and the MCTC is 46.74 tonne metres. These
must be corrected to the fresh water values, which is 3,370.73 tonnes displacement and
an MCTC of 45.60 tonne metres. The LCB is 47.09 m FOAP. These values can be used to
determine the initial LCG:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (47.09 − LCG )3, 370.73

Trim = ∴ 43 = ∴ LCG = 46.51 m FOAP.
MCTC 45.60

In the final condition, an under-keel clearance of 2.00 m in water of a depth of 8.00 m

means that the navigation draught must be 6.00 m. As the vessel needs stern trim,
the draught aft after loading must therefore be 6.00 m. The trim after loading must be
0.47 m, therefore the final draught forward must be 5.53 m. These values can be used
with the layer correction process to determine the true mean draught after loading.
DA DF 6.00 + 5.53
DM = = = 5.77
77 m
2 2
At 5.77 m, the LCF is 43.52 m FOAP. The approximate true mean draught can be found:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 43.52 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim ∴ 6.00 = DLCFF DLCF = 5.80 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
At 5.80 m, the LCF is 43.46 m FOAP. The true mean draught can be found:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 43.46 ⎞
80 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught in the final condition is 5.80 m. At this draught in sea
water, the displacement is 5,757 tonnes and the MCTC is 65.43 tonne metres. The LCB is
46.28 m FOAP. These values can be used to determine the final LCG:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (46.28 − LCG )5, 757

Trim = ∴ 47 = ∴ LCG = 45.75 m FO
OAP.
MCTC 65.75
As the starting and final displacements are known, the total mass of cargo to load can
be found:
Cargo = Δ Finall − Δ Start = 5, 757 − 3, 370.73 = 2, 386.27 tonnes
If x tonnes are loaded aft, then 2,386.27 − x tonnes must be loaded forward. A loading
table can be used to determine the cargo distribution:
Item Mass (tonnes) LCG (m FOAP) Moment (tonne metres)
Ship 3,370.73 46.51 156,772.65

Aft cargo x 30 30x
Fwd cargo 2,386.27 – x 70 167,038.9 – 70x
Total 5,757 323,811.55 – 40x

Moment 323, 811.55 − 40 x

LCG = ∴ 45.75 = ∴ x = 1, 510.7 tonnes
Mass 5, 757
Therefore 1,510.7 tonnes must be loaded in the aft hold, and 2,386.27 − 1,510.7 =
875.55 tonnes must be loaded forward.
Q5.22
As the two conditions are based on the true mean draught of the vessel, no layer
correction is required.
The displacement of the vessel at a draught of 3.00 m in dock water can be determined
from the hydrostatics. At 3.00 m in sea water, the displacement would be 2,615.00
tonnes.
This can be converted to the dock water displacement:
ρDDW 1.008
Δ DOCKWATER Δ SW × = 2, 615.00 × = 2, 571.63 tonnes
ρSSW
E
1.025
The displacement of the vessel at a draught of 7.00 m in sea water can be determined
tonnes. As the sea is salt water, no corrections are needed.
The difference between the displacements must be the cargo to load:
ass = 7, 329.00 − 2, 571.63 = 4 , 757.37 tonnes

Cargo mass
The conditions are both based on true mean draughts, so no draught correction is
required. In the initial condition, the hydrostatics, corrected for density as appropriate,
can be used to determine the initial LCG of the vessel.
The SW LCB initially is 47.18 m FOAP. This does not require correction for density. The
SW MCTC initially is 43.87 tonne metres. This must be corrected for density, which gives
a value of 43.14 tonne metres.
(LCB LCG ) Δ
Trim =
MCTC
(47.18 − LCG )2, 571.63

0= ∴ LCG = 47.18 m FOAP
43.14
In the final condition, the vessel is on an even keel, therefore the LCB must equal the
LCG. No correction for density is required for the LCB. In the final condition, the LCB and
hence LCG is 45.40 m FOAP.

Assuming that x tonnes of cargo is loaded in the aft hold, 4,757.37 – x tonnes of cargo
must be loaded in the forward hold. A loading table can be used to determine the
distribution of the cargo.
Ship 2,571.63 47.18 121,329.5

Aft cargo x 25 25x
Fwd cargo 4,757.37 – x 75 356,802.75 – 75x
Total 7,329.00 478,132.25 – 50x
Moment
LCG =
Mass
478 ,132.25 − 50 x
45.40 = ∴ = 2, 907.91 tonnes
7, 329.00
Therefore, 2,907.91 tonnes must be loaded in the aft hold and in the forward hold:
4 , 757.37 − 2, 907.91 = 1, 849.46 tonnes
Therefore, 1,849.46 tonnes must be loaded in the forward hold.
Q5.23
DA DF 4.00 + 3.15
DM = = = 3.58 m
2 2
gives a value of 46.63 m FOAP. This can then be used to determine the approximate
true mean draught. Note that at a given draught the LCF value is not affected by water
density, therefore no density corrections are required to the hydrostatics.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.63 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.60
60 m
100 ⎠
accurate value for the true mean draught. Again, at a given draught the LCF value is
hydrostatics.

⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.61⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.60
60 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the initial true mean draught can be taken as 3.60 m. This can be used to
determine the hydrostatics of the vessel. The hydrostatics at a true mean draught of
3.60 m gives the following values for sea water:
Draught (m) Displacement LCB (m LCF (m KB (m) KM (m) TPC (t/cm) MCTC
(tonnes) FOAP) FOAP) (tonne
metres)
3.60 3,241 47.13 46.61 1.95 7.34 10.62 45.84
These must be corrected to dock water values, by multiplying the hydrostatic value by
the ratio of dock water density to sea water density:
ρDW
Corrected hydrostatic vvalue = Sea w
water hydrostatic vvalue × DW
ρSSW
Remember – only the hydrostatics which have tonnes in the units need correcting.
Therefore, the corrected dock water values at 1.015 t/m3 are:
Draught (m) Displacement LCB (m LCF (m KB (m) KM (m) TPC (t/cm) MCTC
(tonnes) FOAP) FOAP) (tonne
metres)
3.60 3,209.4 47.13 46.61 1.95 7.34 10.51 45.39
These can be used to determine the LCG in the initial condition:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (47.13 − LCG ) × 3, 209.4

Trim = ∴ 85 = ∴ LCG = 45.93
93 m FOAP
MCTC 45.39
The displacement of the vessel at a draught of 6.00 m in sea water can be determined
tonnes. As the sea is salt water, no corrections are needed.
The difference between the displacements must be the cargo to load:
Cargo mass = 6 , 008.00 − 3, 209.38 = 2, 798.62 tonnes
In the final condition, the vessel is on an even keel, therefore the LCB must equal the
LCG. No correction for density is required for the LCB. In the final condition, the LCB and
hence LCG is 46.15 m FOAP.

Assuming that x tonnes of cargo is loaded in the aft hold, 2,798.62 – x tonnes of cargo
must be loaded in the forward hold. A loading table can be used to determine the
distribution of the cargo.
Ship 3,209.38 45.93 147,406.8234

Aft cargo X 30 30x
Fwd cargo 2,798.62 – x 50 139,931 – 50x
Total 6,008.00 287,337.8234 – 20x
Moment
LCG =
Mass
287, 337.8 , 234 − 20 x
46.15 = ∴ = 503.43 tonnes
6 , 008.00
Therefore, 503.43 tonnes must be loaded in the aft hold and in the forward hold:
2, 798.62 − 503.43 = 2, 295.19 tonnes
Therefore, 2,295.19 tonnes must be loaded in the forward hold.
Q5.24
in the initial condition:
DA DF 4+3
DM = = = 3.50 m
2 2
This gives a value of 46.71 m FOAP. Note that the LCF is independent of density, and
therefore no density correction is needed. This can then be used to determine the
approximate true mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.71⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.53 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.68 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.53 m
100 ⎠

Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 3.53 m. The hydrostatic values for
draughts of 3.50 and 3.60 m can be corrected for fresh water, and interpolated for 3.53
m to give the displacement, LCB and MCTC in the initial condition, in fresh water:
Sea water values:
Draught (m) Displacement LCB LCF KB (m) KM (m) TPC MCTC

(tonnes) (m FOAP) (m FOAP) (t/cm) (tonne
metres)
3.60 3,241 47.125 46.605 1.947 7.335 10.619 45.838

3.50 3,136 47.141 46.713 1.893 7.399 10.557 45.498
Fresh water values:

metres)
3.60 3,161.95 47.125 46.605 1.947 7.335 10.360 44.720

3.50 3,059.51 47.141 46.713 1.893 7.399 10.300 44.388
At 3.53 m in fresh water:
Δ = 3, 090.24 LCB = 47.14

.14 m FOAP
O T = 44.49 tonne metres
MCTC
As an alternative method, it is possible to interpolate using the sea water values, and
then convert the interpolated values to fresh water values. This will give the same result.
These values can be used to determine the initial LCG of the vessel:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (47.14 − LCG ) × 3, 090.24

Trim = ∴100 = ∴ LCG = 45.70 m FOAP
MCTC 44.49
The arrival destination data can be used to determine the arrival condition. As the water
depth is 7 m, with 1 m UKC required, the maximum possible draught is 6.00 m, with a
trim of 1.00 m by the stern. Therefore, the arrival condition will be with a draught aft of
6.00 m, and a trim of 1.00 m by the stern, giving a draught forward of 5.00 m.
in the final condition:
DA DF 6+5
DM = = = 5.50
50 m
2 2

This gives a value of 44.05 m FOAP. This can be used to determine the approximate true
mean draught:
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
44.05 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.56 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
43.94 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 6 = DLCF ( DLCF = 5.56 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 5.56 m. The hydrostatic values for
draughts of 5.50 and 5.60 m can be corrected for dock water, and interpolated for 5.56
m to give the displacement, LCB and MCTC in the arrival condition, in dock water.
Sea water values:

metres)
5.60 5,511 46.393 43.858 3.049 6.948 12.205 62.479

5.50 5,390 46.448 44.049 2.993 6.939 12.104 61.104
Dock water values:

metres)
5.60 5,430.35 46.393 43.858 3.049 6.948 12.03 61.57

5.50 5,311.12 46.448 44.049 2.993 6.939 60.21
At 5.56 m in dock water:
Δ = 5, 382.66 LCB = 46
6.41
.41 m FOAP T = 61.03 tonne metres
O P MCTC
Again, as an alternative method, it is possible to interpolate using the sea water values,
and then convert the interpolated values to dock water values. This will give the same
result.

These values can be used to determine the target LCG of the vessel:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (46.41 − LCG ) × 5, 382.66
Trim = ∴100 = ∴ LCG = 45.28
8 m FOAP
MCTC 61.03
On arrival, the displacement will be 5,382.66 tonnes. The difference between the initial
condition and the arrival condition gives the amount of cargo to load:
Δ Final Δ Start = 5, 382.66 − 3, 090.24 = 2, 292.42 tonnes
However, on passage, the ship will burn 59.7 tonnes from each bunker, and so the
vessel can load additional cargo to compensate for the reduction in draught due to
fuel consumption. Therefore, the final cargo to load can be found from:
2, 292.42 + 59.7
.7 59.7 = 2, 411.82 tonnes
A loading table can be used to determine the cargo distribution, assuming that x tonnes
are loaded in the aft hold, and 2,411.82 − x tonnes in the forward hold. Note that the
fuel burn must also be accounted for. The simplest way to undertake this is to remove
all of the fuel, and replace it with the fuel at the arrival condition.
The tank data for the bunkers shows that when full, the bunkers have a capacity of
122.67 m3 (corresponding to 117.76 tonnes of fuel at a RD of 0.96), with an LCG of 13.67
m FOAP. Therefore, at the arrival port, each bunker will contain 58.06 tonnes of fuel,
which corresponds to a fuel volume in each bunker of 60.48 m3. This corresponds to a
sounding of 5.00 m, at which point the LCG of the tank will be 14.65 m FOAP.
Therefore:
Initial condition 3,090.24 45.70 141,223.97

Fuel out −117.76 × 2 13.67 −3,219.56
Fuel in 58.06 × 2 14.65 1,701.16
Aft hold cargo x 35 35x
Fwd hold cargo 2,411.82 − x 75 180,886.5 − 75x
Total 5,382.66 320,593.07 − 40x
The target LCG is 45.29 m FOAP, therefore:
Moment 320 , 592.07 − 40 x

LCG = ∴ 45.28 =
Mass 5, 382.66
∴ x = 1,921.63 tonnes in No. 4 and 2,411.82 − 1,921.63 = 490.19 tonnes in No. 2

Q5.25
At 3.085 m draught, the displacement can be interpolated. This gives a displacement
of 2,702.55 tonnes.
For each step in the inclining process, the net number of masses to port and starboard
can be found, and hence the overall listing moment determined. This can be used with
the pendulum length and deflection to find GM. For example, for step 2, four masses to
port and two to starboard gives a net two masses to port.
Σ(w d ) 2 × ((10 × 2.5)

GM = = = 0.740 m
⎛ Pendulum deflection ⎞ ⎛ 0 15 ⎞
Δ×⎜ 2 , 702 .55 ×
⎝ Pendulum length ⎟⎠ ⎝ 6 00 ⎠
Repeating this process for the other steps gives the following:
Step Port masses Stb masses Net masses GM (m)
1 3 3 None –
2 4 2 2 Port 0.740
3 5 1 4 Port 0.743
4 6 0 6 Port 0.734
5 5 1 4 Port 0.723
6 4 2 2 Port 0.760
7 3 3 None –
8 2 4 2 Stb 0.750
9 1 5 4 Stb 0.733
10 0 6 6 Stb 0.743
11 1 5 4 Stb 0.723
12 2 4 2 Stb 0.750
13 3 3 None –
MEAN 0.740
At 2,702.55 tonnes, the KM is 7.746 m. Therefore, KG can be found based on the

mean GM:
= KM − KG ∴ 0.740 = 7.746 − KG ∴ KG = 7.006 m

A loading table can be used to unload the inclining masses to obtain the lightship values:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 2,702.55 7.006 18,934.07

Inclining masses –60 8.000 –480.00
Total 2,642.55 18,454.07
Moment 18 , 454.07
KG = = = 6.983 m
Mass 2, 642.55
Therefore, the lightship displacement is measured at 2,642.55 tonnes, and the lightship
KG is measured at 6.983 m.
Q5.26
The dimensions of the vessel can be used to determine the displacement:
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ 50 × 6 × 2.033 × 1.025 = 625.15
15 tonnes
KB and BM and be found to determine KM:

50 × 63
D 2.033 I 12
KB = = = 1.017 m BM = = = 1.476 m
2 2 ∇ 50 × 6 × 2.033
The GM can be found from the inclining data:

Σ(w d ) ( × )
GM = = = 0.365 m
⎛ Pendulum deflection ⎞ ⎛ 0.219 ⎞
Δ×⎜ 6
625 .15 ×
⎝ Pendulum length ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 50 ⎠
The KG can be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG
0.365 = 1.017 + 1.476 − KG ∴ KG = 2.128 m
A loading table can be used to remove the inclining mass to determine the lightship
condition:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 625.15 2.218 1,386.58

Inclining masses –10 4.00 –40.00
Total 615.15 1,346.58

Moment 1, 346.58
KG = = = 2.189 m
Mass 615.15
Therefore, the lightship displacement is measured at 615.15 tonnes, and the lightship
Q5.27
At 3.029 m draught, the displacement can be interpolated. This gives a displacement
of 2,644.87 tonnes.
For each step in the inclining process, the net number of masses to port and starboard
can be found, and hence the overall listing moment determined. This can be used with
the pendulum length and deflection to find GM. For example, for step 3, five masses to
port and one to starboard gives a net four masses to port.
Σ(w d ) 4 × ((5 × 3))

GM = = = 0.727 m
Δ×⎜ 2 , 644 .87 ×
⎝ Pendulum length ⎟⎠ ⎝ 7.50 ⎠
Repeating this process for the other steps gives the following:
Step Port masses Stb masses Net masses GM (m)
1 3 3 None –
2 4 2 2 Port 0.709
3 5 1 4 Port 0.727
4 6 0 6 Port 0.762
5 5 1 4 Port 0.709
6 4 2 2 Port 0.740
7 3 3 None –
8 2 4 2 Stb 0.760
9 1 5 4 Stb 0.791
10 0 6 6 Stb 0.638
11 1 5 4 Stb 0.740
12 2 4 2 Stb 0.692
13 3 3 None –
MEAN 0.727

At 2,644.87 tonnes, the KM is 7.804 m. Therefore, KG can be found based on the

mean GM:
GM = KM − KG ∴ 0.727 = 7.804 − KG ∴ KG = 7.077
077 m
A loading table can be used to unload the inclining masses to obtain the lightship
values:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 2,644.87 7.077 18,717.745

Inclining masses –30 11.000 –330
Total 2,614.87 18,387.745
Moment 18 , 387.745
KG = = = 7.032
032 m
Mass 2, 614.87
Therefore, the lightship displacement is measured at 2,614.87 tonnes, and the lightship
3.000
List angle
2.000
1.000
Heeling moment
0.000
–120 –90 –60 –30 0 30 60 90 120
–1.000
–2.000
–3.000
–4.000
Q5.28
The mean deflection, mass and distance moved can be used to determine GM:
Σ(w d ) 10.50 × 5.100
GM = = = 0.790 m
Δ×⎜ 2 , 710 .00 ×

At 2,710.00 tonnes, the KM can be found from the hydrostatics. This gives a value of
7.738 m. This allows KG to be found during the inclining test:
GM = KM − KG ∴ 0.790 = 7.738 − KG ∴ KG = 6.948 m
A loading table can now be used to convert the vessel to the lightship condition:
Ship 2,710.00 6.948 18,829.08

Inclining masses −10.500 × 6 8.100 −510.30
Staff and crew −0.50 7.900 −3.95
Total 2,646.50 18,314.83
Moment 18 , 314.83
KG = = = 6.920 m
Mass 2, 646.50
Therefore, the lightship displacement is 2,646.50 tonnes, and the lightship KG is 6.920 m.
Q5.29
The mean deflection, mass and distance moved can be used to determine GM:
Σ(w d ) 9.50 × 5.000

GM = = = 0.722 m
Δ×⎜ 2 , 700 .00 ×
At 2,700.00 tonnes, the KM can be found from the hydrostatics. This gives a value of
7.748 m. This allows KG to be found during the inclining test:
GM = KM − KG ∴ 0.722 = 7.748 − KG ∴ KG = 7.026 m
A loading table can now be used to convert the vessel to the lightship condition:
Ship 2,700.00 7.026 18,970.20

Inclining masses −9.500 × 6 8.500 −484.50
Staff and crew −0.75 8.000 −6.00
Total 2,642.25 18,479.70
Moment 18 , 479.70
KG = = = 6.994
994 m
Mass 2, 642.25
Therefore, the lightship displacement is 2,642.25 tonnes, and the lightship KG is 6.994 m.

Q5.30
DA DF 4.00 + 2.94
DM = = = 3.47
47 m
2 2
mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.74 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.50
50 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.71⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.50
50 m
100 ⎠
Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 3.50 m. The MCTC can be read directly
at this draught, giving a value of 45.50 tonne metres. This can be used to determine the
up-thrust at the critical moment:
Change in trim × MCTC 100 × ( 4 − 2.94 ) × 45.50
Up − thrust = = = 103
0 .25
25 tonnes
LCF 46.71
Q5.31
DA DF 4.00 + 3.15
DM = = = 3.58 m
2 2
mean draught.
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.63 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.60 m
100 ⎠
⎛ LCF ⎞
) ⎛⎝
46.61⎞
DA DLCF + Trim
⎝ LBP ⎠
∴ 4 = DLCF ( DLCF = 3.60
60 m
100 ⎠

Therefore, the true mean draught can be taken as 3.60 m. The hydrostatics can be read
directly at this draught, giving an MCTC value of 45.84 tonne metres, with a KM of 7.34
m and a displacement of 3,241 tonnes.
The KM can be used to find the initial GM:
GM = KM − KG = 7.34 − 7.19 = 0.15

15 m
The hydrostatics can be used to determine the up-thrust at the critical moment:
Change in trim × MCTC 100 × ( 4 − 3.15) × 45.84

Up − thrust = = = 83.6 tonnes
LCF 46.61
A loading table can be used to determine the effect on KG:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 3,241 7.19 23,302.79

Up-thrust –83.6 0 0
Total 3,157.4 23,302.79
Moment 23, 302.79

KG = = = 7.38
38 m
Mass 3,157.4
This can be used to determine GM at the critical moment:
GM = KM − KG = 7.34 − 7.38 = −0.04

04 m
Q5.32
At 4,112 tonnes, the MCTC is 50.27 tonne metres/cm. The LCF is 45.71 m FOAP. This
allows the up-thrust to be found:
Change in trim × MCTC 100 × 50.27

Up − thrust = = = 110 tonnes
LCF 45.71
The KM at 4,112 tonnes is 7.01 m. Therefore, to keep GM positive, KG at the critical

moment cannot be above 7.01. Using this as the limiting value, a loading table can be
used to determine the limiting initial ship KG:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 4,112 x 4,112x

Up-thrust –110 0 0
Total 4,002 4,112x

Moment 4 ,112 x
KG = = = 7.01
01 m
Mass 4 , 002
4 ,112 x
= 7.01 6.82 m
4 , 002
Q5.33
The KM at 4,112 tonnes is 7.01 m. Therefore, to keep GM positive, KG at the critical
moment cannot be above 7.01. Using this as the limiting value, a loading table can be
used to determine the limiting up-thrust:
Item Mass KG Moment
Ship 4,112 6.85 28,167.2

Up-thrust –x 0 0
Total 4,112 – x 28,167.2
Moment 28 ,167.2
KG = = = 7 01 m
Mass 4 ,112 − x
28 ,167.2
= 7.01 93.86 tonnes
4 ,112 − x
At 4,112 tonnes, the MCTC is 50.27 tonne metres/cm. The LCF is 45.71 m FOAP. This
allows the change in trim to cause the limiting up-thrust to be found:

Up − thrust =
LCF
Change in trim × 50.27
93.86 = ∴ Change in trim = 85 cm∴ Initial
a trim = 0 85 m
45.71
Q5.34
The density corrected hydrostatics can be determined from the sea water hydrostatics in
the Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1). Correcting for the dock water density gives:
Sea water values:

metres)
3.60 3,241 47.13 46.61 1.95 7.34 10.62 45.84

Dock water values:

metres)
3.60 3,184.09 47.13 46.61 1.95 7.34 10.43 45.04
The up-thrust can be determined:

Up − thrust = = = 96.63 tonn
t es
e
LCF 46.61
A loading table can be used to determine the effect of the up-thrust on the KG of the
vessel:
Item Mass (t) KG (m) Moment (tonne metres)
Ship 3,184.1 7.18 22,861.838

Up-thrust –96.63 0 0
Total 3,087.47 22,861.838
Moment 22, 861.84

KG = = = 7.41
41 m
Mass 3, 087.47
As KM is assumed to remain constant, GM can be found:

GM = KM − KG = 7.34 − 7.41 = −0.07 m
The GM is negative, and so is therefore not safe to dry-dock. In order for GM to remain
above 5 cm, the KG must not exceed a certain value:
GM = KM − KG
0.05 7.34 − KG
KG = 7.29 m maximum
Ship 3,184.1 7.18 22,861.838

Up-thrust −x 0 0
Total 3,184.1 − x 22,861.838
Moment
KG =
Mass

22, 861.34
7.29 =
3,184.1 − x
x = 48.1 tonnes
The change in trim that would result in an up-thrust of 48.1 tonnes can be found:

Up − thrust =
LCF
Change in trim × 45.04
48.1 =
46.61
Change in trim = 49.8 cm
Therefore, the initial trim should not exceed 50 cm by the stern.
Q5.35
The hydrostatics can be determined from the hydrostatics in the Stability Data Book
(see Appendix 1).

metres)
3.50 3,136 47.14 46.71 1.89 7.40 10.56 45.50

Up − thrust = = = 107.15 ton
t n nes
LCF 46.71
A loading table can be used to determine the effect of the up-thrust on the KG of the
vessel:
Ship 3,136 7.25 22,736

UP-thrust −107.15 0 0
Total 3,028.85 22,736
Moment 22, 736

KG = = = 7.51
51 m
Mass 3, 028.85
As KM is NOT assumed to remain constant, it must be interpolated at the effective

displacement of 3,028.85 tonnes. This gives a KM of 7.47 m. This allows GM to be found:
GM = KM − KG = 7.47 − 7.51 = −0.04 m
The GM is negative, and so is therefore not safe to dry-dock.

If we had assumed KM to remain constant, we would have a KM of 7.40 m. This would

give a GM of:
GM = KM − KG = 7.40 − 7.51 = −0.11 m
It can be seen that the assumption gives a ‘worst-case’ scenario.
Q5.36
At the point when the bow grounds, the effective displacement can be found:
EffectiveΔ = 3, 241 − 83.6 = 3,157.4 tonnes
Interpolating in the hydrostatics for the above displacement gives a true mean draught
of 3.52 m. This will be the true mean draught when the vessel grounds.
Q5.37
At the displacement of 3,563 tonnes, the hydrostatics can be found from the data book.
This gives the following values:
KM = 7.18 m
MCTC = 47.23 tonne metres
LCB = 47.06 m FOAP
These can be used to determine the trim of the vessel when re-floating:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 47.06 − 44.60 ) 3, 563

Trim = = = 186 cm
MCTC 47.23
This can be used to determine the up-thrust acting on the vessel during re-floating:
Change of trim × MCTC 186 × 47.23

P= = = 189.76 tonnes
LCF 46.29
A loading table can be used to determine KG at the critical instant:
Ship 3,563 6.90 24,584.7

Up-thrust –189.76 0 0
Total 3,373.24 24,584.7
Moment 24 , 584.7
KG = = = 7.29 m
Mass 3, 373.24
This can be used to determine GM at the critical instant:

GM = KM − KG = 7.18 − 7.29 = −0.11
11 m

Therefore, as GM at the critical instant is negative, it would be unsafe to re-float the

vessel.
Q5.38
The relevant hydrostatics can be rewritten at the correct density:
Draught (m) Displacement LCB LCF KM (m) MCTC (tonne

(tonnes) (m FOAP) (m FOAP) metres)
3.30 2,897.46 47.16 46.90 7.55 44.39
The final trim can be determined:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 47.16 − 46.00 ) 2, 897.46

Trim = = = 76 cm
MCTC 44.39
The up-thrust can be found:
CoT MCTC
T 76 × 44.39
P= = = 71.93
93 tonnes
LCF 46.90
A loading table can be used to determine the KG at the critical moment:
Ship 2,897.46 7.05 20,427.09

P –71.93 0 0
Total 2,825.53 20,427.09
Moment 20 , 427.09
KG = = = 7.23
23 m
Mass 2, 825.53
This allows GM to be found at the critical instant:
GM = KM − KG = 7.55 − 7.23 = 0.32

32 m
At the critical moment, when the bow lifts, the effective displacement will be 2,825.53
tonnes.
The hydrostatics can be corrected for dock water:
3.30 2,897.45
3.20 2,794.47

The draught can be interpolated for the displacement of 2,825.53 tonnes. This gives a
true mean draught of 3.23 m. As the trim is zero at this point, the draught aft and the
draught forward would also be 3.23 m.
Q5.39
Draught survey m
1 Draught forward 6.000 6.000

2 FP correction Dist .marks
k displaced −3 −0.032
× Observed trim × (7.000 − 6.000 )
Dist .between marks
k 100 − 2 5 − 3
3 Draught at FP 6.000 + −0.032 5.968
4 Draught aft 7.000 7.000
5 AP correction Dist .marks
k displaced 25 0.026
× Observed trim × ((7
7.000 − 6.000 )
Dist .between marks
k 100 − 2 5 − 3
6 Draught at AP 7.000 + 0.026 7.026
7 True trim 7.026 − 5.968 1.058
8 Draught (M) port 6.530 6.530
9 Draught (M) Stb 6.514 6.514
10 Draught midships 6.530 + 6.514 6.522
mean 2
11 Amidship line Dist .marks
marks
k displaced −2 −0.021
× True trim × 1.058
correction LBP 100
12 Draught at 6.522+ −0.021 6.501
amidships
13 Corrected dFP ( d M ) + d AP 968 + (6 6.501) + 7.026
5.968 6.500
midship draught 8 8
14 TPC 13.214 LCF FOAP 41.953
15 Displacement 6,654
16 1st trim corrn CF from midships × Trim × TPC
Dist .CF 953) × 105.8 13.214
(50 − 41.953 112.50
(layer) LBP 100
17 2nd trim corrn 50 × True trim2 × ( MCTC 2 − MCTC1 ) 50 × 1.0582 × (86.961 − 68.639 ) 10.254
(form) LBP 100
18 Corrected 6,654.00+112.50+10.254 6,776.754

displacement
19 Dock water 6,677.58
R.D.Dock water 1.010
displacement Δ× 6776.754 ×
1.025 1.025

Q5.40
Draught survey m
1 Draught forward 4.000

k displaced 2.000 0.021
× Observed trim × (5.000 − 4.000 )
Dist .between marks
k 100 − 2.000 − 3.000
3 Draught at FP 4.000−0.021 3.979

4 Draught aft 5.000
k displaced 3.000 0.032
× Observed trim × (5.000 − 4.000 )
Dist .between marks
k 100 − 2.000 − 3.000
6 Draught at AP 5.000+0.032 5.032

7 True trim 5.032−3.979 1.053
8 Draught (M) port 4.500
9 Draught (M) Stb 4.486
10 Draught 4.500 + 4.486 4.493
midships mean 2

marks
k displaced 2.000 –0.011
× True trim × 1.053
correction LBP 100
12 Draught at 4.493 − 0.011 4.504

amidships
13 Corrected dFP ( d M ) + d AP 979 + (6 4.504 ) + 5.032
3.979 4.504
midship draught 8 8
14 TPC 11.247(1) LCF FOAP 45.574

15 Displacement 4,228.52
Dist .CF 574 ) × 105.3
(50 − 45.574 11.247 52.420
(layer) LBP 100
17 2nd trim corrn 50 × True trim2 × ( MCTC 2 − MCTC1 ) 50 × 1.0532 × (55.345 − 47.727) 4.220
(form) LBP 100
18 Corrected 4,228.52 + 52.420 + 4.220 4,285.160

displacement
19 Dock water R.D.Dock water 1.006 4,205.730
Δ× 4 , 285.160 ×
displacement 1.025 1.025

Q5.41
Draught survey m
1 Draught Forward 6.000 6.000

k displaced −2 0.020
× Observed trim × (5.000 − 6.000 )
Dist .between marks
k 100 − 2 + 1.5
3 Draught at FP 6.000 + 0.020 6.020

4 Draught aft 5.000 5.000
k displaced −1 5 0.015
× Observed trim × (5.000 − 6.000 )
Dist .between marks
k 99.5
6 Draught at AP 5.000 + 0.015 5.015

7 True trim 5.015 − 6.020 −1.005
8 Draught (M) port 5.517 5.517
9 Draught (M) Stb 5.500 5.500
10 Draught 5.517 + 5.500 5.509
midships mean 2

k displaced 15 −0.015
× True trim × −1.005
correction LBP 100
12 Draught at 5.509 + −0.015 5.494

amidships
13 Corrected dFP ( d M ) + d AP 020 + (6 5.494 ) + 5.015
6.020 5.500
midship draught 8 8
14 TPC 12.104 LCF FOAP 44.049

15 Displacement 5,390
Dist .CF + (50 − 44.049 ) × −100.5 × 12.104 −72.39
(layer) LBP 100
17 2nd trim corrn 50 × True trim2 × ( MCTC 2 − MCTC1 ) 50 × ( −1.005)2 × (68.639 − 55.305) 6.73
(form) LBP 100
18 Corrected 5,390.00 − 72.39 + 6.73 5,324.34

displacement
19 Dock water R.D.Dock w
water 1.010 5,246.43
Δ× 5324.34 ×
displacement 1.025 1.025

Q6.1
20 m
2m
100 m
10 m
For the vessel shown above, determine the final draught of the vessel if the 20 m
long amidships compartment is bilged, and the overall underwater ‘dry’ volume and
displacement before and after bilging.
Before bilging, the underwater volume can be found from the dimensions of the
vessel:
∇ = L × B × D = 100 × 10 × 2 = 2, 000 m3
This can be used to find the initial displacement:
Δ = ∇ × ρ = 2, 000 × 1.025 = 2, 050 tonnes
The lost volume can be found from the original dimensions of the bilged
compartment:
Lost volume = Compartment length

t Compartment beam × Compartment depth
o u e = 20 × 10 × 2 = 400 m3
Lost volume
The final waterplane area can be found from the original dimensions of the vessel and
the bilged compartment:
Final w
water
aterp
pla ate p a e area − Bilged waterrpl
anee area Initial waterplane p ane area
Final w rplane area = (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 ) = 800 m2

water
aterpl

Therefore, the parallel sinkage can be found:
Lost volume 400

Parallel sinkage = = = 0..50 m
Final w
water
aterpl
rplane area 800
The initial draught was 2.00 m, and so the bilged draught will be 2.50 m.
After bilging, the underwater volume can be found from the dimensions of the two
remaining dry compartments:
∇ = (L − l ) × B × DBilged = ( − ) × 10 × 2.5 = 2, 000 m3
This can be used to find the final displacement:
Δ = ∇ × ρ = 2, 000 × 1.025 = 2, 050 tonnes
Q6.2
15 m
1m
1.1 m
100 m
10 m
For the vessel shown above, determine the final draught of the vessel if the amidships
compartment is bilged below the watertight flat.
The lost volume can be found from the dimensions of the bilged compartment to the
original waterline:
Lost volume l b × D 15 × 10
0 × 1 150 m3
The volume gained as the vessel sinks lower in the water can be found. This needs to be
determined in two steps, first between the original waterline and the watertight flat,
and then from the watertight flat to the final waterline.

From the original waterline to the watertight flat, the gained volume will be in the two
end compartments:
Gained volume att = 2 × 42.5 × 10 × (1.1 − 1 0 ) = 85 m3

o u e to tthee WT ffla
Therefore, when the vessel has sunk so that the waterline is on the watertight flat, a
total of 85 m3 of volume has been regained. Therefore, from the original 150 m3 lost,
another 65 m3 needs to be gained through sinkage until the vessel is back in equilibrium.
Therefore, the further sinkage above the WT flat can be found:
Gained volume
o u e past tthee W
WT fla
att S age = 65 m3
Sinkage
65
∴ Sinkage = = 0.065 m
100 × 10
Therefore, the sinkage to the watertight flat is 0.10 m, and the sinkage above that is
0.065 m, giving a total sinkage of 0.165 m. This gives a total draught after bilging of
1.165 m, or 1.17 m to the nearest centimetre.
Q6.3
Lost volume
Parallel sinkage =
Final w
water
aterp
pla
anee area
l × 10 × 2 20l
2.857 − 2 = ∴ 0.857 =
(50 × 10 ) − (l 10) 500 − 10l
0.857 (500 − 10l ) = 20l ∴ 428.5 8.57l = 20l ∴428

428.5 20l 8.57l
428.5
428.5 28.57l ∴ l = = 15.00 m
28.57
Q6.4
Lost volume 5 × 6 × 1× 0.95

9
Parallel sinkage = = = 0.11
11 m
Final w
waterrplane area (50 × 6 ) (5 × 6 0.95)
aterpl
∴ Bilged d a ghtt = 1.11 m

drau
raug
Q6.5
Lost volume 8 × 10 × 3 × μ
Parallel sinkage = =
Final w
water
aterp
pla 7 × 10 ) − (8 10 × μ )
anee area (70
8 10 3 × μ 240 × μ
3.34 3.00 = =
(70 × 10 ) − (8
(8 10 μ ) (700 ) − (80
(80 μ )

240 μ
0.34 = 0.34 (700 − 80 μ ) = 240 μ∴ 238 − 27.2 μ = 240 μ
∴0
700 − 80 μ
238 − 27.2
2 μ = 240 μ ∴238
∴ 238 = 240 μ + 27.2 μ μ 0.89
Q6.6
Lost volume 20 × 10 × 2
50 m
Final w
water
aterpl 0 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 )
rplane area (100
Q6.7
Lost volume 20 × 10 × 1.5

5
30 m
Final w
waterrplane area (100 × 10 ) − (0 )
aterpl
Q6.8
Lost volume 15 × 12 × 1× 0 95
Parallel sinkage = = = 0 18 m
Final w
water
aterp
pla
anee area (80 × 12) − (0)
Q6.9
Lost volume 20 × 10 × (2 − 1.5)

Parallel sinkage = = = 0.13 m
Final w
waterrplane area (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 )
aterpl
Q6.10
Lost volume 25 × 8 × (5 − 3) × 0 77
Final w
water
aterp anee area (70 × 8 ) − (25 × 8 × 0.77)
pla
Q6.11
Item Underwater volume Centre from keel Vertical moment of

(m3) (m) volume (m4)
Ship at the bilged 80 × 3.379 × 9 = 2,432.88 3.379 4,111.57

= 1.690
draught 2
Bilged compartment −(22 × 9 × 2) = −396 2 −396

= 1 00
1
Total 2,036.88 3,715.57

Moment 3, 715.57
KB = = = 1.82 m
Mass 2, 036.88
Q6.12
Item Underwater volume (m3) Centre from keel (m) Vertical

moment of
volume (m4)
Ship at the 80 × 3.379 × 9 = 2,432.88 3.379 4,111.57

= 1.690
bilged draught 2
Bilged −( × ×( − )× ) = −191.13 ((3.379 − 2) 0.5) 2 = 2.690 −514.14

compartment
Total 2,241.75 3,597.43
Moment 3, 597.43
KB = = = 1.60
60 m
Mass 2, 241.75
Q6.13
Item Underwater volume (m3) Centre from AP (m) Longitudinal

moment of
volume (m4)
Ship at the 80 × 3.379 × 9 = 2,432.88 80 97,315.20

= 40
bilged draught 2
Bilged −( × ×( − )× ) = −191.13 22 –13,187.97

80 − ( ) = 69.00
compartment 2
Total 2,241.75 84,127.23
Moment 84 ,127.23
LCB = = = 37.53 m
Mass 2, 241.75
Q6.14
Item Underwater volume (m3) Centre from centreline (m) Transverse moment
of volume (m4)
Ship at the 100 × 4 × 10 = 4,000 0 0

bilged draught
Bilged −(2 × 8 × 4) = −64 10 2 −256
− =4
compartment 2 2
Total 3,936 −256

Moment −256
TCB = = = −0.065 (starboard)
Mass 3, 936
Q6.15
LB 3 lb3 100 × 103 20 × 103

−μ −
I
BM = = 12 12 = 12 12 = 3.33
33 m
∇ ∇ 100 × 10 × 2
Q6.16
The parallel axes formula can be used:
IREMOTE = ICENTRO
The values can be substituted in:
IREMOTE ,8 , 30.8 ( )∴ I REMOTE = 17, 315, 678.8 m4
Q6.17
The parallel axes formula can be used:
IREMOTE = ICENTRO
The values can be substituted in:
33, 333.33 = ICENTRO

E (
ID + 1,000
000 × 52 ) CENTRO
E ID 8 , 333.3 m4
Q6.18
LB 3 60 × 203
Inertia = = = 160 ,000
000 m4
3 3
Q6.19
Item Waterplane area (m2) Centre from Transverse moment

centreline (m) of area (m3)
Ship at the bilged draught 100 × 10 = 1,000 0 0

Bilged compartment −(8 × 2) = −16 4 −64
Total 984 −64

Total moment
Centre of waterplane area after bilging =
Total waterplane
w area
−64
Centre of waterplane area after bilging = = −0.065 m
984
Therefore, the centre of the waterplane is 0.065 m to starboard of the centreline of

the ship.
Q6.20
The new roll axis can be found by finding the transverse centre of the waterplane area
after bilging:
Item Waterplane area (m2) Centre from Transverse moment

centreline (m) of area (m3)
Ship at the bilged draught 100 × 10 = 1000 0 0

Bilged compartment −(20 × 4) = −80 −3 240
Total 920 240
Total moment
Total waterplane
w area
240
Centre of waterplane area after bilging = = 0.261 m
920
The new roll axis is therefore 0.261 m to port of the centreline of the vessel. This means
the new roll axis must be 5.261 m from the damaged starboard edge. The inertia can be
found, measured at the starboard edge:
LB 3 lb3 100 × 103 20 × 4 3

IEDGE = − = − = 32, 906.67 m4
3 3 3 3
The parallel axes theorem can be used to determine the inertia measured at the new
roll axis:
IROLL AAXIS DG − (Waterplane area
IEDGE New rollll a
Ne dg 2 )
axis to edge
IROLL AXIS
A = 32, 906.67 − ( × . ) = 7, 442.79 m3
This can be used to determine BM:

Inertia 7, 442.79
BM = = = 3.72 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2

Q6.21
The longitudinal inertia can be found from:
(L l )3 B (80 − 10 )3 × 15
IL = = = 428 , 750.00 m4
12 12
This allows the longitudinal BM to be found. Note that the overall underwater volume
remains constant, therefore the original length, beam and draught can be used to find
IL 428 , 750.00
BML = = = 119.10 m
∇ 80 × 15 × 3
Q6.22
As the bilging is contained below a watertight flat, which itself is below the waterline,
the waterplane area will not change during bilging. Therefore:
L3 B 903 × 20
IL = = = 1, 215, 000.00
00 m4
12 12
This allows the longitudinal BM to be found. As in the previous examples, the overall
underwater volume remains constant during bilging, so the original length, beam and
draught can be used:
IL 1, 215, 000
BML = = = 135.00
00 m
∇ 90 × 20 × 5
Q6.23
The table of moments of area can be constructed:
Item Waterplane area (m2) Centre from AP Longitudinal

(m FOAP) moment of area (m3)
Waterplane area of the 1,200.00 40 48,000.00

ship at the bilged draught
Bilged compartment –112.50 45 –5,062.50
waterplane area
Total 1,087.50 42,937.50
Longitudinal moment
o e t of area 42, 937.50
LCF a te bilging =
after = = 39.48 m FOAP
Total w
waterrplan
a e area 1, 087.50

Q6.24
Using the question data, it can be seen that the waterplane can be split into three
sections, the aft, bilged and forward sections. It is easiest to visualise the problem by
drawing the sections of waterplane area and the overall LCF:
Centre of bilged waterplane Centre of forward

Centre of aft waterplane waterplane
40.00 10.00 30.00
15.00
Bilged LCF
19.48 5.52
25.52
For each of these, the area can be determined:

Aft section:
Waterplane area = 40 × 15 = 600 m2
Bilged section:
a ea = 10 × 15 × (1 − 0.75) = 37.50 m2
Waterplane area
Forward section:
Waterplane area = 30 × 15 = 450 m2
For each of these sections of waterplane, the longitudinal inertia about the centre of
the section can be determined:
Aft section:
Bl 3 15 × 403
Longitudinal inertia about the centroid = = = 80,000
0 m4
12 12
Bilged section:
Bl 3 (1 − 0.75) × 15 × 10
3
1
Longitudinal inertia about the centroid = = = 312.5 m4
12 12
Forward section:
Bl 3 15 × 303
7 m4
12 12

For each of these sections of waterplane, the (remote) longitudinal inertia about the
LCF can be determined using the parallel axes formula:
Aft section:
InertiaREMOTE InertiaCENTRO
E (
ID + Area Distance )
InertiaREMOTE = 80 , 000 + ( × ) = 307, 682.24 m 4
Bilged section:
E (
InertiaREMOTE = 312.5 + ( × ) = 1, 455.14
14 m 4
Forward section:
E (
InertiaREMOTE = 33, 750 + ( × ) = 326, 821.68 m 4
The remote inertia values can be summed to give the overall longitudinal inertia
measured about the LCF:
Longitudinal inertia = 307, 682.24 + 1, 455.14 + 326 , 821.68 = 635, 958 06 m4
8.06
This can be divided by the underwater volume to determine the BML:

IL 635, 958.06
BML = = = 264.98
98 m
∇ 80 × 15 × 2
Q6.25
A table of moments of area of the waterplane can be used to determine the waterplane
area and the LCF position after bilging:
Item Area (m2) Lever (m FOAP) Area (m3)
Aft waterplane section 600 15 9,000

Bilged waterplane 40 35 1,400
Forward waterplane section 1,200 70 84,000
1,840 94,400
Moment 94 , 400
LCF = = = 51.30 m FOAP
Area 1, 840

For each of these sections of waterplane, the longitudinal inertia about the centre of
the section can be determined:
Aft section:
Bl 3 20 × 303
0 .00 m4
12 12
Bilged section:
Bl 3 (1 − 0.80 ) × 20 × 10
3
1
e t a about tthee centroid =
Longitudinal inertia = = 333.33 m4
12 12
Forward section:
Bl 3 20 × 603
Longitudinal inertia about the centroid = = = 360,, 000.00 m4
12 12
For each of these sections of waterplane, the (remote) longitudinal inertia about the
LCF can be determined using the parallel axes formula:
Aft section:
E (
⎛ ⎛ ⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎞ ⎞
2
InertiaREMOTE = 45, 000 + ⎜ 600.00 × 51.30 − ⎟⎠ ⎟ = 835

3 , 614.00 m4
⎝ ⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
Bilged section:
E (
InertiaREMOTE = 333.33 + ( ×( − ) ) = 10, 960.93 m4
Forward section:
E (
InertiaREMOTE = 360 , 000.00 + ( × − ) = 779, 628.00 m 4
The remote inertia values can be summed to give the overall longitudinal inertia
measured about the LCF:
Longitudinal inertia = 835, 6
614.00 + 10 , 960.93 + 779 , 6 8.00 = 1, 626,
628 626 , 202.90 m4
This can be divided by the underwater volume to determine the BML:

IL 1, 626 , 202.90
BML = = = 271.03 m
∇ 100 × 20 × 3

Q6.26
The parallel sinkage can be found:
Lost volume 20 × 10 × (2 − 1)
Final w
water
aterp anee area (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 )
pla
Therefore, after bilging the true mean draught will be 2.25 m. The KB and LCB can be
found after bilging:
Item Underwater volume (m3) Centre from keel (m) Vertical

moment of
volume (m4)
Ship at the 100 × 10 × 2.25 = 2250 2.25 2531.25

= 1.125
bilged draught 2
Bilged −( × ×( − )) = −250 ((2.25 1) × 0.5) + 1 = 1.625 −406.25

compartment
Total 2,000.00 2,125.00
Moment 2,125
KB = = = 1.063
063 m
Mass 2, 000
Item Underwater volume (m3) Centre from AP (m) Longitudinal

moment of
volume (m4)
Ship at the 100 × 10 × 2.25 = 2250 100 112,500.00

= 50
bilged draught 2
Bilged −( × ×( − )) = −250 100 − (20 × 0.5) = 90 −22,500

compartment
Total 2,000.00 90,000
Moment 90 , 000
LCB = = = 45.00
00 m
Mass 2, 000
The BML can be found, using the longitudinal inertia:
10 × 803
I 12
BML = L = = 213.33 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2

This can be used to determine the GML:
GML = KB
B + BML − KG = 1.063 + 213
3.33 − 1.40 = 212.99 m
This can be used to determine the MCTC:
ΔGML (100 × 10 × 2) × 1.025 × 212.99

MCTC = = = 43.66 tonne metres
100LBP 100 × 100
As the vessel was initially floating on an even keel, the LCG before bilging must be
equal to the LCB before bilging. Therefore before bilging, the LCG must have been
50 m FOAP. As the position of the centre of gravity remains constant during bilging,
the LCG must also be 50 m FOAP after bilging. This can be used to determine the trim
of the vessel:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 45 − 50 ) (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025)

Trim = = = −235 cm
MCTC 43.66
∴ Trim = 2.35 m bow trim
Q6.27
Lost ∇ 5.00 × 10.00 × 4.00 × 0.6 120.00

Sinkage = = = = 0.21 m
Final w
water
aterp
pla
anee area 600.00 − 30 570.00
Therefore, the bilged true mean draught can be found:
Bilged DLCF i l DLCF + Sinkage = 4.00 + 0.21 = 4.21 m

Original
O iginal
The KB can be found after bilging:
Whole vessel 2,526.00 2.11 5,329.86

Bilged compartment –126.30 2.11 –266.49
Total 2,399.70 5,063.37
Moment 5, 063.37
Bilged KB = = = 2.11 m
Volume 2, 399.70

The LCB can be found after bilging:
Whole vessel 2,526.00 30.00 75,780.00

Bilged compartment –126.30 42.50 –5,367.75
Total 2,399.70 70,412.25
Moment 70 , 412.25
CB =
Bilged LCB = = 29.34 m FOAP
Volume 2, 399.70
The LCF can be found after bilging:
Item Area (m2) LCF (m) Moment (m3)
Whole vessel 600.00 30.00 18,000.00

Total 570.00 16,725.00
Moment 16 , 725.00
C =
Bilged LCF = = 29.34 m FOAP
Area 570.00
For each section of the waterplane, the area, the longitudinal inertia and the distance
from the centre of the section to the overall LCF can be found. These can be used to
determine the longitudinal inertia of each section of the waterplane measured about
the overall LCF of the vessel, and hence the total longitudinal inertia of the waterplane,
measured about the overall LCF of the vessel:
Item Area (m2) Section IL (m4) Distance to LCF Section IL GG

(m) (m4)
Aft waterplane section 400.00 53,333.33 9.34 88,227.57

Bilged compartment 20.00 41.67 13.16 3,505.38
Forward waterplane section 150.00 2,812.50 23.16 83,270.34
Total 570.00 175,003.29
This allows the bilged BML to be found:

IL 175, 003.29
BML = = = 72.92
92 m
∇ 2, 400.00
This allows the bilged GML to be found:
GML = KB + BML − KG = 2.11+ 72.92 − 2.00 = 73.03 m

This allows the bilged MCTC to be found:
Δ × GML 2, 460.00 × 73.03

MCTC = = = 29.94 tonne metre
es
100 × LBP 100 × 60.00
This allows the bilged trim to be found:
(LCB LCG ) Δ (29.34 − 30.00 ) × 2, 460.00

Trim = = = −54.23 cm = 0.54
54 m by the bow
MCTC 29.94
Finally the bilged end draughts can be found:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 29.34 ⎞
1+ −0.54 = 3.95
95 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 60.00 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 3.95 − −0.54 = 4.49 m
Q6.28
Lost ∇ 30.00 × 20.00 × 6.00 × 0.7 2, 520.00

Sinkage = = = = 1.27 m
Final w
water
aterp
pla
anee area 0 .00 − 420
2, 400 1, 980.00
Bilged DLCF i l DLCF + Sinkage = 6.00 + 1.27 = 7.27 m

Original
O iginal
Whole vessel 17,448.00 3.64 63,510.72

Bilged compartment –3,053.40 3.64 –11,114.38
Total 14,394.60 52,396.34
Moment 52, 396.34

Bilged KB = = = 3 64 m
Volume 14 , 394.60
Whole vessel 17,448.00 60.00 1,046,880.00

Total 14,394.60 756,807.00

Moment 756 , 807.00

CB =
Bilged LCB = = 52.58 m FOAP
Volume 14 , 394.60
Whole vessel 2,400.00 60.00 144,000.00

Total 1,980.00 104,100.00
Moment 104 ,100.00

LCF =
Bilged LC = = 52.58 m FOAP
Area 1, 980.00
Item Area Section IL Distance to Section IL GG

(m2) (m4) LCF (m) (m4)
Aft waterplane section 1,600.00 853,333.33 12.58 1,106,543.57

Bilged compartment 180.00 13,500.00 42.42 337,402.15
Total 1,980.00 2,224,863.67
IL 2, 224 , 863.67
BML = = = 154.5
5m
∇ 14 , 400.00
GML = KB
B + BML − KG = 3.64 + 154
5 .5 − 5.00 = 153.14 m
Δ × GML 14 , 760.00 × 153.14

MCTC = = = 188.36
36 tonne metres
m
100 × LBP 100 × 120.00

(LCB LCG ) Δ (52.58 − 60.00 ) × 14 , 760.00

Trim = = = −581.44 c = 5 81 m by the bow
44 cm
MCTC 188.36
Finally, the bilged end draughts can be found:
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 52.58 ⎞
7 + −5.81 = 4.72
72 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 120.00 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 4.72 − −5.81 = 10.53

53 m
Q6.29
Lost ∇ 10.00 × 10.00 × 1.50 × 0.9 135.00

Sinkage = = = = 0 14 m
Final w
water
aterpl
rplane area 0 .00 − 0
1, 000 1, 000.00
Bilged DLCF igi al DLCF + Sinkage = 2.00 + 0.14 = 2.14 m

Original
O
Whole vessel 2,140.00 1.07 2,289.80

Total 2,005.00 2,188.55
Moment 2,188.55
Bilged KB = = = 1 09 m
Volume 2, 005.00
Whole vessel 2,140.00 50.00 107,000.00

Total 2,005.00 98,225.00
Moment 98 , 225.00
Bilged LCB = = = 48.99 m FOAP
Volume 2, 005.00

As the waterplane remains intact, the LCF will remain at the centre of the waterplane
area, which is 50.00 m FOAP.
Item Area Section IL Distance to LCF Section IL GG

(m2) (m4) (m) (m4)

Bilged compartment 100.00 833.33 15.00 23,333.33
Total 1,000.00 833,333.33
IL 833, 333.33
BML = = = 416.67 m
∇ 2, 000.00
GML = KB
B + BML − KG = 1.09 + 416
6.67 − 3.50 = 414.26 m
Δ × GML 2, 050.00 × 414.26

MCTC = = = 84.92
92 tonne mettres
100 × LBP 100 × 100.00
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 48.99 − 50.00 ) × 2, 050.00

Trim = = = −24.38
38 cm = 0.24
24 m by the bow
MCTC 84.92
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 50.00 ⎞
4 + −0.24 = 2.02
02 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100.00 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 2.02 − −0.24 = 2.26

26 m

Q6.30
Lost ∇ 15.00 × 15.00 × 2.00 × 0.75 337.50

Sinkage = = = = 0.28 m
Final w
water
aterpl
rplane area 1, 200.00 − 0 1, 200.00
Bilged DLCF i l DLCF + Sinkage = 3.00 + 0.28 = 3 28 m

Original
O iginal
Whole vessel 3,936.00 1.64 6,455.04

Total 3,598.50 6,117.54
Moment 6 ,117.54
B=
Bilged KB = = 1.70 m
Volume 3, 598.50
Whole vessel 3,936.00 40.00 157,440.00

Total 3,598.50 136,346.25
Moment 136 , 346.25

Volume 3, 598.50
As the waterplane remains intact, the LCF will remain at the centre of the waterplane
area, which is 40.00 m FOAP.

Item Area Section IL Distance to LCF Section IL GG

(m2) (m4) (m) (m4)

Total 1,200.00 640,000.00
IL 640 , 000.00
BML = = = 177.78 m
∇ 3, 600.00
GML = KB + BML − KG = 1.70 + 177.78 − 4.00 = 175.48 m
Δ × GML 3, 690.00 × 175.48

MCTC = = = 80.94 tonne metre
r s
100 × LBP 100 × 80.00
(LCB LCG ) Δ (37.89 − 40.00 ) × 3, 690.00

Trim = = = −96.19 cm = 0.96
96 m by the bow
MCTC 80.94
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 40.00 ⎞
8 + −0.96 = 2.80 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 80.00 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 2.8 − −0.96 = 3.76

76 m
Q6.31
Lost ∇ 15.00 × 10.00 × 3.50 × 0.6 315.00

Sinkage = = = = 0 44 m
Final w
water
aterp
pla
anee area 800 00 90 710.00

Original
O iginal

Whole vessel 4,352.00 2.72 11,837.44

Total 3,997.40 10,606.98
Moment 10 , 606.98
B=
Bilged KB = = 2 65 m
Volume 3, 997.40
Whole vessel 4,352.00 40.00 174,080.00

Total 3,997.40 157,236.50
Moment 157, 236.50

Volume 3, 997.40
Whole vessel 800.00 40.00 32,000.00

Total 710.00 27,725.00
Moment 27, 725.00

LCF =
Bilged LC = = 39.05 m FOAP
Area 710.00

Item Area Section IL Distance to Section IL GG

(m2) (m4) LCF (m) (m4)

Total 710.00 419,274.94
IL 419 , 274.94
BML = = = 104.82 m
∇ 4 , 000.00
GML = KB + BML − KG = 2.65 + 104.82 − 3.00 = 104.47 m
Δ × GML 4 ,100.00 × 104.47

MCTC = = = 53.54
54 tonne metre
r s
100 × LBP 100 × 80.00
(LCB LCG ) Δ (39.33 − 40.00 ) × 4 ,100.00

Trim = = = −51.31
31 cm = 0.51
51 m by the bow
MCTC 53.54
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 39.05 ⎞
4 + −0.51 = 5.19
19 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 80.00 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 5.19 − −0.51 = 5.70 m
Q6.32
Lost ∇ 30.00 × 20.00 × 4.00 × 0.75 1, 800.00

Sinkage = = = = 0.77 m
Final w
water
aterp
pla
anee area 2, 800.00 − 450 2, 350.00

Original
O iginal

Whole vessel 18,956.00 3.39 64,260.84

Total 16,809.50 54,837.70
Moment 54 , 837.70
B=
Bilged KB = = 3 26 m
Volume 16 , 809.50
Whole vessel 18,956.00 70.00 1,326,920.00

Total 16,809.50 1,144,467.50
Moment 1144
,144 , 467.50
Volume 16 , 809.50
Whole vessel 2,800.00 70.00 196,000.00

Total 2,350.00 157,750.00
Moment 157, 750.00

C =
Bilged LCF = = 67.13 m FOAP
Area 2, 350.00

Item Area (m2) Section IL (m4) Distance to Section IL GG

LCF (m) (m4)
Aft waterplane section 1,400.00 571,666.67 32.13 2,016,938.33

Forward waterplane section 800.00 106,666.67 52.87 2,342,856.19
Total 2,350.00 4,418,945.06

IL 4 , 418 , 945.06
BML = = = 263.03
03 m
∇ 16 , 800.00

GML = KB
B + BML − KG = 3.26 + 263
63.03 − 6.00 = 260.29 m

Δ × GML 17, 220.00 × 260.29
MCTC = = = 320.16
16 tonne metres
m
100 × LBP 100 × 140.00

(LCB LCG ) Δ (68.08 − 70.00 ) × 17, 220.00
Trim = = = −103.27 c = 1 03 m by the bow
27 cm
MCTC 320.16
⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 67.13 ⎞
7 + −1.03 = 6.28 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 140.00 ⎠
DF DA − Trim = 6.28 − −1.03 = 7.31

31 m
Q6.33
Lost volume 20 × 3 × 2
Final w
water
aterpl 0 10 ) (20 3)
rplane area (100
The bilged true mean draught will therefore be 2.127 m. As there are no watertight
flats, the KB can be taken as half this value:
DBilged 2.127
KB = = = 1.064 m
2 2

The new roll axis can be found by finding the transverse centre of the waterplane area
after bilging:
Item Waterplane area Centre from Transverse moment

(m2) centreline (m) of area (m3)
Ship at the bilged draught 100 × 10 = 1000 0 0

Bilged compartment −(20 × 3) = −60 −3.5 210
Total 940 210
Total moment
Total waterplane
w area
210
Centre of waterplane area after bilging = = 0.223 m
940
The new roll axis is therefore 0.223 m to port of the centreline of the vessel. This means
the new roll axis must be 5.223 m from the damaged starboard edge. The inertia can be
found, measured at the starboard edge:
LB 3 lb3 100 × 103 20 × 33

IEDGE = − = − = 33,153.34 m4
3 3 3 3
The parallel axes theorem can be used to determine the inertia measured at the new
roll axis:
IROLL AXIS DG − (Waterplane area × Ne

IEDGE New rollll a dg 2 )
axis to edge
IROLL AXIS = 33,153.34 − ( × ) = 7, 510.39 m3
This can be used to determine BM:
Inertia 7, 510.39
BM = = = 3.755 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
This can be used to determine the GM:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.064 + 3.755 − 4.00 = 0.819 m
The TCB after bilging can be found from the bilged dimensions:

Item Underwater volume (m3) Centre from Transverse moment

centreline (m) of volume (m4)
Ship at the bilged 100 × 2.127 × 10 = 2,127 0 0

draught
Bilged compartment −(20 × 3 × 2.127) = −127.62 ⎛ 10 3 ⎞ 446.67
− − = −3 5
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
Total 1,999.38 446.67
Moment 446.67
TCB = = = 0.223 (port )
Mass 1, 999.38
Therefore the list can be found:
d ⎛ 0.223 ⎞
tanθ θ = tan−1 ∴θ = 15.2
2 degrees
GM ⎝ 0.819 ⎠
Q6.34
The original KB can be found from the draught:
Draught 2
Overall K
KBB= = = 1 00 m
2 2
The original BM can be determined:

⎛ LB 3 ⎞ ⎛ 50 × 83 ⎞
Inertia ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
BM = = = = 2.66 m
∇ ∇ 50 × 8 × 2
The KM can be found from KB and BM:
KM = KB + BM = 1.00 + 2.66 = 3.66

66 m
The permeability can be determined from the sinkage, lost volume and final waterplane
area:
Lost volume
Sinkage =
Final w
water
aterpl
rplane area
10 × 8 (2 − 1.2) × μ
2.15 2 =
(50 × 8 ) (10 8 μ )
64 μ
0 15 =
400 − 80 μ
0.15( 400 − 80μ

80 ) = 64 μ

60 −12μ
12 = 64 μ
60 = 64μ
64 + 12 μ
60
= μ = 0 79
76
A table of moments of volume can be used to determine the KB after bilging:
Item Underwater volume (m3) Centre from eel (m) Vertical moment
of volume (m4)
Ship at the 50 × 8 × 2.15 = 860 2.15 924.50

= 1.075
bilged draught 2
Bilged −( × ×( − )× ) ((2.15 5) 1.2
1.2) 0.5 −100.57
compartment = −60.04 = 1.675
Total 799.96 823.93
Moment 823.93
Overall K
KBB= = = 1 03 m
∇ 799.96
The BM can be determined after bilging:

⎛ LB 3 ⎞ ⎛ lB 3 ⎞ ⎛ 50 × 83 ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 83 ⎞
− μ − 0 79
Inertia ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 ⎟⎠
BM = = = = 2.25
25 m
∇ ∇ 799.96
The KM can be found from KB and BM:
KM = KB + BM = 1.03 + 2.25 = 3.28 m
As KG is constant, the change in GM is the same as the change in KM. Therefore, the
change in GM is:
New K
KM Old KM = 3.28 − 3.66 = −0 38 m
M Old
Therefore, GM reduces by 0.38 m.
Q6.35
Lost volume 20 × 2 × 10 × 1 400

Parallel sinkage = = = = 0.50 m
Final w
water
aterp anee area (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 × 1) 800
pla

Bilged d
drau
raug
ghtt Original
O iginal d aught + Parallel sinkage = 2 + 0.50 = 2.50
g a draught 5 m
This can be used to determine the KB. As there are no watertight flats creating a double
bottom, the bilged KB can be taken as half of the bilged draught:
Bilged drau
r ght 2 50
KB = = = 1.25 m
2 2
The waterplane area will have been reduced, therefore the inertia will have been
reduced, and needs to be recalculated:
LB 3 μ lb3 100 × 103 1× 20 × 103

Inertia = − = − = 6 , 666.67 m4
12 12 12 12
This can be used to find BM in the bilged condition:
Inertia 6 , 666.67
BM = = = 3.33 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
Note that as the overall underwater volume remains constant during bilging, the easiest
way to determine the underwater volume in the BM equation is to use the original
length, beam and draught.
As KG remains constant during bilging, the metacentric height can now be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.25 + 3.33 − 4.00 = 0.58 m
Q6.36
Lost volume 20 × 2 × 10 × 0 8 320

Parallel sinkage = = = = 0 38 m
Final w
waterrplane area (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 × 0 8 ) 840
aterpl
Bilged d
drau
raug
ghtt Original
O iginal d aught + Parallel sinkage = 2 + 038 = 2.38
g a draught 38 m
Bilged drau
r ght 2 38
KB = = = 1.19 m
2 2

LB 3 μllb3 100 × 103 0 8 × 20 × 103

Inertia = − = − = 7, 000 m4
12 12 12 12
Inertia 7, 000
BM = = = 3.50 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.19 + 3.50 − 4.00 = 0.69 m
Q6.37
Lost volume 20 × 0 9 × 10
0 1 180
Parallel sinkage = = = = 0.18
18 m
Final w
waterrplane area (100 × 10 ) − (0 ) 1, 000
aterpl
Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 1 m
This can be used to determine the KB. As there is a watertight flat creating a double
bottom, the bilged KB must be determined by a table of moments of volume:
Whole vessel at the bilged 100 × 10 × 2.18 = 2,180 2.18 2,376.2

= 1 09
draught 2
Bilged compartment −(20 ×0.9 × 10 × 1) = −180 09 −81
= 0 45
2
Total 2,000 2,295.2
Moment 2, 295.2
KB = = = 1.15 m
Volume 2, 000
The waterplane area will not have been reduced, therefore the inertia remains constant,
and can be calculated:
LB 3 100 × 103
Inertia = = = 8 , 333.33 m4
12 12

Inertia 8 , 333.33
BM = = = 4.16
16 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.15 + 4.16 − 4.00 = 1.31 m
Q6.38
0 0.8 144
Final w
water
aterpl
rplane area (100 × 10 ) − (0 ) 1, 000
Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 1 m
Whole vessel at the bilged 100 × 10 × 2.14 = 2,140 2.14 2,289.8

= 1 07
draught 2
Bilged compartment −(20 × 0.9 × 10 × 0.8) = −144 09 −64.8
= 0 45
2
Total 1,996 2,225.0
Moment 2, 225.0
KB = = = 1.11
11 m
Volume 2, 000
Note that the difference in the total volume column and the directly calculated volume
is due to rounding, and gives a rounding error of 0.2%.
The waterplane area will not have been reduced, therefore the inertia remains constant,
and can be calculated:
LB 3 100 × 103
Inertia = = = 8 , 333.33 m4
12 12

Inertia 8 , 333.33
BM = = = 4.16
16 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.11+ 4.16 − 4.00 = 1.27 m
Q6.39
Lost volume 20 × (2 − 0.9 ) 10

10 1 220
Final w
waterrplane area (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 2 1) 800
aterpl
Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 2 m
Whole vessel at the 100 × 10 × 2.28 = 2,280 2.28 2,599.2

= 1.14
bilged draught 2
Bilged − (20 × (2.28 − 0.9 ) × 10 × 1) = −276 ( .28 0. ) −438.84
+ 0.9 = 1.59
compartment 2
Total 2,004 2,160.36
Moment 2,160.36
KB = = = 1.08
08 m
Volume 2, 004
LB 3 μlb3 100 × 103 1× 20 × 103
Inertia = − = − = 6 , 666.67 m4
12 12 12 12
Inertia 6 , 666.67
BM = = = 3.33 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2

GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.08 + 3.33 − 4.00 = 0.41
41 m
Q6.40
Lost volume 20 × (2 − 0.9 ) 10 0.8 176

Final w
waterrplane area (100 × 10 ) − (20 2 0.8 ) 968
aterpl

Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 1 m
Whole vessel at the 100 × 10 × 2.18 = 2,180 2,376.2

2.18
bilged draught = 1 09
2
Bilged − (20 × (2.18 − 0.9 ) × 10 × 0.8 ) ( .18 0. ) −315.39
+ 0.9 = 1.54
compartment = −204.8 2
Total 1,975.2 2,060.81
Moment 2, 060.81
KB = = = 1.04 m
Volume 1, 975.2
LB 3 μlb3 100 × 103 0 8 × 20 × 103

Inertia = − = − = 7, 000 m4
12 12 12 12

Inertia 7, 000
BM = = = 3.50
50 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2

GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.04 + 3.50 − 4.00 = 0.54 m
Q6.41
Lost volume 20 × 2 × 10 × 1 400

Final w
water
aterp anee area (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 × 1) 800
pla
Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 5 m
Bilged drau
r ght 2 50
KB = = = 1.25 m
2 2
The waterplane length has been reduced to an effective length of 80 m due to the
bilging. Therefore, the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane must be calculated based
on this effective length:
B (L − l ) 10 × (100 − 20 )
3 3
InertiaL = = = 426 , 666.67 m4

12 12
This can be used to determine the longitudinal BM:
IL 426 , 666.67
BML = = = 213.33 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
Note that as the overall underwater volume remains constant during bilging, the
easiest way to determine the underwater volume in the longitudinal BM equation is to
use the original length, beam and draught. This volume can also be used to determine
the displacement for the MCTC equation later.
The longitudinal BM can be used to determine the longitudinal metacentric height:
GML = KB + BML − KG = 1.25 + 213.33 − 4.00 = 210.58 m
This allows the MCTC to be found:
Δ × GML (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025) × (210.58 )

MCTC = = = 43.17
17 to
onne metres
100 × LBP 100 × 100

The LCB will be at the longitudinal centre of underwater volume. As the vessel now has
an effective length of 80 m, the LCB will be at half this value:
Effective
v length
t 80
LCB = = = 40 m FOAP
2 2
As the vessel was initially on an even keel, the LCG must be at amidships. The position
of the centre of gravity remains constant during bilging. Therefore, the LCG must be 50
m FOAP. This allows the trim to be found:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 40 − 50 ) × (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025)
Trim = = = −474.9
9 cm
m 4.75 m
MCTC 43.17
The LCF will be at the longitudinal centre of the waterplane. As the vessel now has an
effective length of 80 m, the LCF will be at half this value:
Effective length
t 80
LCF = = = 40 m FOAP
2 2
This allows the draught aft to be found:

⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 2.50 − 4.75 = 0.60
60 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
This allows the draught forward to be found:

DF DA − Trim = 0.60 − −4.75 = 5.35
35 m
Q6.42
0 1 180
18 m
Final w
waterrplane area (100 × 10 ) − (0 ) 1, 000
aterpl
Bilged d
drau
raug
ghtt Original
O iginal d aught + Parallel sinkage = 2 + 0.18 = 2.18
g a draught 1 m
Whole vessel at the bilged draught 100 × 10 × 2.18 = 2,180 2.18 2,376.2
= 1 09
2
Bilged compartment −(20 × 0.9 × 10 × 1) = −180 09 −81
= 0 45
2
Total 2,000 2,295.2

Moment 2, 295.2
KB = = = 1.15 m
Volume 2, 000
As the bilging is contained in the double bottom, the waterplane area is unchanged.
Therefore, the longitudinal inertia and BM will be the same as the vessel before
bilging:
BLL3 10 × 1003
InertiaL = = = 833, 333.33 m4
12 12
IL 833, 333.33
BML = = = 416.67 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
GML = KB + BML − KG = 1.15 + 416.67 − 4.00 = 413.82 m
Δ × GML (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025) × (413.82)

MCTC = = = 84.83
83 to
onne metres
100 × LBP 100 × 100
The LCB will be at the longitudinal centre of underwater volume. As there is a watertight
flat creating a double bottom, the bilged LCB must be determined by a table of moments
of volume:
Item Volume (m3) LCB (m) Moment (m4)
Whole vessel at the bilged 100 × 10 × 2.18 = 2,180 100 109,000

= 50
draught 2
Bilged compartment −(20 × 0.9 × 10 × 1) = −180 20 −16,200
100 − = 90
2
Total 2,000 92,800
Moment 92, 800

LCB = = = 46.40 m FOAP
Volume 2, 000

of the centre of gravity remains constant during bilging. Therefore, the LCG must be
50 m FOAP. This allows the trim to be found:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 46.40 − 50 ) × (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025)
Trim = = = −87 cm
m 0 87 m
MCTC 84.83
The LCF will be at the longitudinal centre of the waterplane. As the waterplane has a
length of 100 m, the LCF will be at half this value:
Length 100
LCF = = = 50 m FOAP
2 2

⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 2.18 − 0.87 = 1.75 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

DF DA − Trim = 1.75 − −0.87 = 2.62 m
Q6.43
0 0.8 144
Final w
water
aterp
pla
anee area (100 × 10 ) − (0 ) 1, 000
Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 1 m

= 1 07
bilged draught 2
Bilged compartment −(20 × 0.9 × 10 × 0.8) = −144 09 −64.8
= 0 45
2
Total 1,996 2,225
Moment 2, 225
KB = = = 1.11 m
Volume 1, 996

As the bilging is contained in the double bottom, the waterplane area is unchanged.
Therefore, the longitudinal inertia and BM will be the same as the vessel before
bilging:
BLL3 10 × 1003
InertiaL = = = 833, 333.33 m4
12 12
IL 833, 333.33
BML = = = 416.67 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
GML = KB + BML − KG = 1.11+ 416.67 − 4.00 = 413.78 m
Δ × GML (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025) × (413.78 )

MCTC = = = 84.83 to
onne metres
100 × LBP 100 × 100
The LCB will be at the longitudinal centre of underwater volume. As there is a watertight
flat creating a double bottom, the bilged LCB must be determined by a table of moments
of volume:
Whole vessel at the 100 × 10 × 2.14 = 2,140 100 107,000

= 50
bilged draught 2
Bilged compartment −(20 × 0.9 × 10 × 0.8) = −144 20 −12,960
100 − = 90
2
Total 1,996 94,040
Moment 94 , 040
LCB = = = 47.11 m FOAP
Volume 1, 996

(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 47.11 − 50 ) × (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025)
Trim = = = −69.7
7 cm 0 70 m
MCTC 84.83
Length 100
LCF = = = 50 m FOAP
2 2

⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 2.14 − 0.70 = 1.79
79 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

DF DA − Trim = 1.79 − 0.70 = 2.49 m
Q6.44
Lost volume 20 × (2 − 0.9 ) 10

10 1 220
Final w
water
aterp anee area (100 × 10 ) − (20 × 10 × 1) 800
pla
Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 2 m

= 1.14
bilged draught 2
Bilged − (20 × (2.28 − 0.9 ) × 10 × 1) = −276 ( .28 0. ) −438.84
+ 0.9 = 1.59
compartment 2
Total 2,004 2,160.36
Moment 2,160.36
KB = = = 1.08
08 m
Volume 2, 004

The waterplane length has been reduced to an effective length of 80 m due to the
bilging. Therefore, the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane must be calculated based
on this effective length:
B (L − l ) 10 × (100 − 20 )
3 3
InertiaL = = = 426 , 666.67 m4

12 12
IL 426 , 666.67
BML = = = 213.33 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
GML = KB + BML − KG = 1.08 + 213.33 − 4.00 = 210.41 m
Δ × GML (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025) × (210.41)

MCTC = = = 43.13 to
onne metres
100 × LBP 100 × 100
The LCB will be at the longitudinal centre of underwater volume. As there is a

watertight flat creating a double bottom, the bilged LCB must be determined by a
table of moments of volume:
Whole vessel at the 100 × 10 × 2.28 = 2,280 100 114,000

= 50
bilged draught 2
Bilged compartment − (20 × (2.28 − 0.9 ) × 10 × 1) = −276 20 −24,840
100 − = 90
2
Total 2,004 89,160
Moment 89 ,160
LCB = = = 44.49 m FOAP
Volume 2, 004

(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 44.49 − 50 ) × (100 × 10 × 2 × 1.025)
Trim = = = −262 cm
c = −2 62 m
MCTC 43.13
Length 80
LCF = = = 40 m FOAP
2 2

⎛ LCF ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
DA DLCF + Trim = 2.28 − 2.62 = 1.23 m
⎝ LBP ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

DF DA − Trim = 1.23 − −2.62 = 3.85
85 m
Q6.45
Lost volume 20 × 1× 2 40
04 m
Final w
water
aterp
pla 0 10 ) (20 1) 980
anee area (100

Bilged drau
Original
O iginal 0 m
Bilged drau
r ght 2 04
KB = = = 1 02 m
2 2
The loss of waterplane will have moved the roll axis away from the centreline, therefore
the new roll axis must be found via a table of moments of area:
Item Area (m2) Lever (m) Moment (m3)
Whole waterplane 100 × 10 = 1,000 10 5,000

=5
2
Bilged section −(20 × 1) = −20 1 −10
= 0 50
2
Total 980 4,990

Moment 4 , 990
x =
Roll axis = = 5 09 m FOAP
Area 980
reduced, and needs to be recalculated. However, this must be done in two stages, using
the parallel axes theorem. The inertia at the damaged edge can be found:
LB 3 lb3 100 × 103 20 × 13

InertiaEDGE = − = − = 33, 326.67 m4
3 3 3 3
The parallel axis theory can be used to convert this value to be about the new roll axis:
IRoll Axis IEDGE (

DG − Area Lever ) = 33, 326.67 − ( × ) = 7, 936.73 m
4
Inertia 7, 936.73
BM = = = 3.97 m
∇ 100 × 10 × 2
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.02 + 3.97 − 4.00 = 0.99 m
Finally, the list can be determined:
d 5 09 − 5
tanθ tan−1
θ = ta = 5 2 degrees
GM 0 99
Q7.1
The lightship displacement can be found:
Δ = ∇ × ρ = 60 × 10 × 0.524 = 322.26 tonnes
The structural loading rate can be found:
Δ LS 322.26
atee =
Structual rrat = = 5 37 t/m
L 60
The loaded displacement can be found:
Δ Load = Δ Lightshipi + C g o = 314.4 + 300 + 300 = 922.26 tonnes

The buoyancy loading rate can be found:

Δ LOAD 922.26
Buoyancy rate = O
= = 15.37 t/m
L 60
The cargo loading rate can be found:

Cargo 300
Cargo load g rrate (hold 1) =
loading = = 15 t/m
Hold length 20
Cargo 0
loading = = 0 t/m
Hold length 20
Cargo 300
loading = = 15 t/m
Hold length 20
These values can be tabulated to determine the overall load:
Hold Structure (t/m) Cargo (t/m) Buoyancy (t/m) Load (t/m)
1 –5.37 –15 15.37 –5

2 –5.37 0 15.37 10
3 –5.37 –15 15.37 –5
This allows the load diagram to be plotted:
Load diagram
12.000
10.000
8.000
Load (tonnes/metre)
6.000
4.000
2.000
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–2.000
–4.000
–6.000
Position (m)
Between 0 and 20 m, the total area under the load diagram is:
−5 × 20 = −100 tonnes

10 × 20 = 200 tonnes
−5 × 20 = −100 tonnes
Therefore at 0 m, the cumulative total area under the load diagram is 0 tonnes. At 20 m,
the cumulative total area is:
0 − 100 = −100 tonnes
At 40 m, the cumulative total area is:

0 − 100 + 200 = 100 tonnes

0 − 100 + 200 − 100 = 0 tonnes
These values can be plotted to give the shear force diagram:
Shear force diagram

150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
–10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–20
–30
–40
–50
–60
–70
–80
–90
–100
–110
–120
–130
–140
–150
Position (m)

−100 × 20 × 0.5 = −1, 000 tonne metres
−100 × 10 × 0.5 = −500 m
100 × 10 × 0.5
5 = 500 tonne metres
100 × 20 × 0.5 = 1, 000 tonne metres
Therefore at 0 m, the cumulative total area under the shear force diagram is 0 tonnes.
0 1, 000 = −1, 000 tonne metres

0 1, 000 − 500 = −1, 500 tonne metres

0 1, 000 − 500 + 500 = −100 tonne metres

0 1, 000 − 500 + 500 − 1, 000 = 0 tonne metres
This can be used to plot the bending moment diagram:
Bending moment diagram

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
–200
Bending moment (tonnes metres)
–400
–600
–800
–1,000
–1,200
–1,400
–1,600
Position (m)

Q7.2
The vessel floats on an even keel in the lightship condition. Therefore, for the vessel
to finish loading on an even keel, the LCG of the combined cargo must also be at
amidships, or 50 m FOAP. A loading table can be used to determine the cargo to load:
Item Mass (t) LCG (m) Moment (tm)
Hold 1 Cargo 300 10 3,000

Hold 2 Cargo 700 30 21,000
Hold 3 Cargo 400 50 20,000
Hold 4 Cargo 200 70 14,000
Hold 5 Cargo x 90 90x
Totals 1,600 + x 58,000 + 90x
Moment
LCG =
Mass
58 , 000 + 90 x
50 =
1, 600 + x
50 (1, 600 + x ) = 58 , 000 + 90 x
80 , 000 − 58 , 000 = 90 x − 50 x
22, 000
x= = 550 tonnes
40
Therefore, the lightship displacement can be found:

Δ LS Δ LOAD
O D − Cargo
Δ LS = 5, 840 − 300 − 700 − 400 − 200 − 550 = 3, 690 tonnes
The structural loading rate can be found:

Δ LS 3, 690
atee =
Structual rrat = = 36.9 t/m
L 100
The buoyancy loading rate can be found:
Δ LOAD 5, 840
ate =
Buoyancy rate O
= = 58.4 t/m
L 100
The cargo loading rate can be found:
Cargo 300
Cargo loading o d 1) =
oad g rrate (hold = = 15 t/m
Hold length 20

Cargo 700
loading = = 35 t/m
Hold length 20
Cargo 400
loading = = 20 t/m
Hold length 20
Cargo 200
Cargo load g rrate (hold 4 ) =
loading = = 10 t/m
Hold length 20
Cargo 550
loading = = 27.5 t/m
Hold length 20
These values can be tabulated to determine the overall load:
Hold Buoyancy (t/m) Structure (t/m) Cargo (t/m) Load (t/m)
1 58.4 36.9 15 6.5

2 58.4 36.9 35 −13.5
3 58.4 36.9 20 1.5
4 58.4 36.9 10 11.5
5 58.4 36.9 27.5 −6
These can be plotted to form the load diagram:
15
10
5
Laod (dm)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
–5
–10
–15
Position (m FOAP)

The areas for each hold can be determined from the graph:
Hold Load (t/m) Area (t)
1 6.5 130
2 −13.5 −270
3 1.5 30
4 11.5 230
5 −6 −120
The cumulative total area can be determined at each bulkhead:
Position (m FOAP) Total Area (t)
0 0
20 130
40 −140
60 −110
80 120
100 0
These values can be plotted to form the shear force diagram:
150
100
50
29.63 m FOAP
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
–50
69.57 m FOAP
–100
–150
–200
Position (m FOAP)

Linear interpolation can be used to determine the crossing points, as shown on the
shear force diagram. The areas for each section can be determined from the graph:
Hold Load (t/m) Area (t)
1 6.5 130
2 −13.5 −270
3 1.5 30
4 11.5 230
5 −6 −120
The cumulative total area can be determined at each bulkhead and crossing point:
Position (m FOAP) Total Area (tm)
0 0
20 1,300
29.63 1,925.95
40 1,200.05
60 −1,299.95
69.57 −1,826.3
80 −1,200.5
100 −0.5
These values can be plotted to form the bending moment diagram:
2,500
2,000
Bending moment (tonnes metres)
1,500
1,000
500
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
–500
–1,000
–1,500
–2,000
–2,500
Position (m FOAP)

The peak bending moment value is therefore 1,926 tonne metres hogging at
29.63 m FOAP.
Q8.1
Ordinate Offset Offset2 Simpson’s Multiplier MomentX product
0 5 25 1 25
1 6 36 4 144
2 5.25 27.5625 2 55.125
3 4 16 4 64
4 2 4 1 4
Total 292.125
⎛ Spacing ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Moment o axis =
of area about the X a × o ent X product )
× Σ ( Mom
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Moment o axis =
of area about the X a × × 292.125 = 97.375
375 units3
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
In Q3.18, we saw that the area under a graph with these coordinates, also found via
Simpson’s Rule, was 38.333 units2.
Moment o
of area about the X ax
axis
x =
Centre of area from the X axis
Area under the graph
97.375
x =
Centre of area from the X axis = 2.540 units
38.333
Q8.2
Ordinate Offset Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0 5 0 1 0
1 6 1 4 24
2 5.25 2 2 21
3 4 3 4 48
4 2 4 1 8
Total 101
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Moment o x =
of area bout the Y axis × Spacing (Momen
e tY product )
⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 2⎞
a s=
Moment of area about the Y axi × 2 × 101 = 134.67 unit
its3
⎝ 3⎠
As before, in question Q3.18, we saw that the area under this graph, also found via
Simpson’s Rule, was 38.333 units2.
Moment o
of area about the Y ax
axis
x =
Centre of area from the Y axis
Area u
under
de the graph
134.67
x =
Centre of area from the Y axis = 3.513 units
38.333
Q8.3
Ordinate Offset Offset3 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaX product
0 5 125 1 125
1 6 216 4 864
2 5.25 144.7 2 289.41
3 4 64 4 256
4 2 8 1 8
Total 1,542.41
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × Σ (InertiaX product )
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 1, 542.41 = 342.758
8 units 4
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
Q8.4
Ordinate Offset Lever2 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaY product
0 5 0 1 0
1 6 1 4 24
2 5.25 4 2 42
3 4 9 4 144
4 2 16 1 32
Total 242

⎛ Spacing ⎞
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × Spacing2 (InertiaY product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 2⎞
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 22 × 242 = 645.34 units 4
⎝ 3⎠
Q8.5
In the x direction:
InertiaREMOTE InertiaCENTRE
E (
+ Area Distance )
342.758 CENTRE
E (38.333 × 2.5402 )
InertiaCENTRE
E = 95.449
449 units 4
In the y direction:
E (
+ Area Distance )
645.340 CENTRE
E (38.333 × 3.5132 )
InertiaCENTRE
E = 172.226 units 4
Q8.6
The area can be found using:
Ordinate Offset Simpson’s Multipliers Area product
0 0 1 0
4 8 4 32
8 15 2 30
12 20 4 80
16 17 2 34
20 10 4 40
24 0 1 0
Total 216
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Area = × Σ ( Area product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 4⎞
Area = × 216 = 288.00 m2
⎝ 3⎠

The moment of area relative to the x axis can be found using:
Ordinate Offset Offset2 Simpson’s Multipliers MomentX product
0 0 0 1 0
4 8 64 4 256
8 15 225 2 450
12 20 400 4 1,600
16 17 289 2 578
20 10 100 4 400
24 0 0 1 0
Total 3,284
Moment o axis =
× Σ ( Mom
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Moment o axis =
of area about the X a × × 3, 284 = 2,189 33 m3
1 .33
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
The centre of area from the x axis can be found using:
Moment of area about the X a

axxis 2,189.33
x =
Centre of area from the X axis = = 7 60 m
Area u
under
de the graph 288.00
The moment of area relative to the y axis can be found using:
Ordinate Offset Lever Simpson’s Multipliers MomentY product
0 0 0 1 0
4 8 1 4 32
8 15 2 2 60
12 20 3 4 240
16 17 4 2 136
20 10 5 4 200
24 0 6 1 0
Total 668
⎛ Spacing ⎞
a s=
Moment of area about the Y axi × Spacing (Moment
m Y product )
⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 4⎞
a s=
Moment of area about the Y axi × 4 × 688 = 3, 532.67
⎝ 3⎠
The centre of area from the y axis can be found using:
Moment o
of area about the Y a
axxis 3, 532.67
Centre o
of area from x =
o the Y axis = = 12.37 m
Area u
under
de the graph 288.00
The inertia at the x axis, relative to the x axis can be found using:
Ordinate Offset Offset3 Simpson’s Multipliers InertiaX product
0 0 0 1 0
4 8 512 4 2,048
8 15 3,375 2 6,750
12 20 8,000 4 32,000
16 17 4,913 2 9,826
20 10 1,000 4 4,000
24 0 0 1 0
Total 54,624
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 54 , 624 = 24 , 277.33
3m4
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
The inertia at the y axis, relative to the y axis can be found using:
Ordinate Offset Lever2 Simpson’s Multipliers InertiaY product
0 0 0 1 0
4 8 1 4 32
8 15 4 2 120
12 20 9 4 720
16 17 16 2 544
20 10 25 4 1,000
24 0 36 1 0
Total 2,416

⎛ Spacing ⎞
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 4⎞
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 4 2 × 2, 416 = 51, 541.33 m4
⎝ 3⎠
The inertia at the centre, relative to the x axis can be found using:
E (
+ Area Distance )
24 , 277.33 = InertiaCENTRE
E (
+ 288.00 × 7.602 )
InertiaCENTRE
E = 7, 642.45 m4
The inertia at the centre, relative to the y axis can be found using:
E (
+ Area Dstance )
51, 541.33 = InertiaCENTRE
E (
+ 288.00 × 12.372 )
InertiaCENTRE
E = 7, 472.46 m4
Q8.7
0 5 0.5 2.5
1 5.6 2 11.2
2 6 1.5 9
4 5.25 4 21
6 4 1.5 6
7 3 2 6
8 2 0.5 1
Total 56.7
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Area = × Σ( Area p
product
d )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 2⎞
Area = × 56.7 = 37
37.8 units2
⎝ 3⎠

Q8.8
Ordinate Offset Simpson’s Multipliers Area product
0 0 0.5 0
2 4 1 4
4 8 1.5 12
8 15 4 60
12 20 2 40
16 17 4 68
20 10 1.5 15
22 5 2 10
24 0 0.5 0
Total 209
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Area = × Σ( Area p
product
d )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 4⎞
Area = × 209 = 278.67
67 m2
⎝ 3⎠
Q8.9
0 0 0.5 0
2 1 2 2
4 2 1.5 3
8 3 4 12
12 4 2 8
16 5 4 20
20 5 2 10
24 4 4 16
28 2 1.5 3
30 1 2 2
32 0 0.5 0
Total 76

⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 4⎞
Area = × 76 = 101.33 m2
⎝ 3⎠
X Y Y2 Simpson’s Multiplier MomentX product
0 0 0 0.5 0
2 1 1 2 2
4 2 4 1.5 6
8 3 9 4 36
12 4 16 2 32
16 5 25 4 100
20 5 25 2 50
24 4 16 4 64
28 2 4 1.5 6
30 1 1 2 2
32 0 0 0.5 0
Total 298
axis =
Moment of area about the X a × o ent X product )
× Σ ( Mom
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
axis =
Moment of area about the X a × × 298 = 198.67
6 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Moment of area about the X a

axxis 198.67
Centre o
of area from x =
o the X axis = = 1.96 m
Area under the graph 101.33

X Y Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0 0 0 0.5 0
2 1 0.5 2 1
4 2 1 1.5 3
8 3 2 4 24
12 4 3 2 24
16 5 4 4 80
20 5 5 2 50
24 4 6 4 96
28 2 7 1.5 21
30 1 7.5 2 15
32 0 8 0.5 0
Total 314
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Moment o a s=
of area about the Y axi × Spacing (Moment
m Y product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 4⎞
Moment o a s=
of area about the Y axi × 4 × 314 = 1, 674.67
⎝ 3⎠
Moment o
axxis 1, 674.67
x =
Centre of area from the Y axis = = 16.53 m
Area u
under
de the graph 101.33
X Y Y3 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaX product
0 0 0 0.5 0
2 1 1 2 2
4 2 8 1.5 12
8 3 27 4 108
12 4 64 2 128
16 5 125 4 500
20 5 125 2 250

24 4 64 4 256
28 2 8 1.5 12
30 1 1 2 2
32 0 0 0.5 0
Total 1,270
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 1, 270 = 564.44 m4
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
X Y Lever2 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaY product
0 0 0 0.5 0
2 1 0.25 2 0.5
4 2 1 1.5 3
8 3 4 4 48
12 4 9 2 72
16 5 16 4 320
20 5 25 2 250
24 4 36 4 576
28 2 49 1.5 147
30 1 56.25 2 112.5
32 0 64 0.5 0
Total 1,529
⎛ Spacing ⎞
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 4⎞
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 4 2 × 1, 529 = 32, 618.67 m4
⎝ 3⎠

E (
+ Area Distance )
44 = I
564.44 ti CENTRE
E (
+ 101.33 × 1.962 )
InertiaCENTRE
E = 175.17 m4
E (
+ Area Distance )
32, 618.67 = InertiaCENTRE
E (
+ 101.33 × 16.532 )
InertiaCENTRE
E = 4 , 931.17 m4
Q8.10
0 4 0.5 2
3 5 2 10
6 6 1.5 9
12 7 4 28
18 7 2 14
24 6 4 24
30 5 2 10
36 4 4 16
42 3 1.5 4.5
45 2 2 4
48 0 0.5 0
Total 121.5
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 6⎞
Area = × 121.5 = 243 m2
⎝ 3⎠
X Y Y2 Simpson’s Multiplier MomentX product
0 4 16 0.5 8
3 5 25 2 50
6 6 36 1.5 54
12 7 49 4 196
18 7 49 2 98
24 6 36 4 144
30 5 25 2 50
36 4 16 4 64
42 3 9 1.5 13.5
45 2 4 2 8
48 0 0 0.5 0
Total 685.5
Moment o axis =
× Σ ( Mom
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Moment o axis =
of area about the X a × × 685.5 = 6
6885 5 m3
5.5
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Moment o
of area about the X a
axxis 685.5
x =
Centre of area from the X axis = = 2 82 m
Area under the graph 243
0 4 0 0.5 0
3 5 0.5 2 5
6 6 1 1.5 9
12 7 2 4 56

18 7 3 2 42
24 6 4 4 96
30 5 5 2 50
36 4 6 4 96
42 3 7 1.5 31.5
45 2 7.5 2 30
48 0 8 0.5 0
Total 415.5
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Moment o a s=
m Y product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 6⎞
Moment o a s=
of area about the Y axi × 6 × 415.5 = 4 , 986
⎝ 3⎠
Moment o
axxis 4 , 986
x =
Centre of area from the Y axis = = 20.52 m
Area u
under
de the graph 243
0 4 64 0.5 32
3 5 125 2 250
6 6 216 1.5 324
12 7 343 4 1,372
18 7 343 2 686
24 6 216 4 864
30 5 125 2 250
36 4 64 4 256
42 3 27 1.5 40.5
45 2 8 2 16
48 0 0 0.5 0
Total 4,090.5

x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 4 , 090.5 = 2, 727 m4
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
X Y Lever2 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaY product
0 4 0 0.5 0
3 5 0.25 2 2.5
6 6 1 1.5 9
12 7 4 4 112
18 7 9 2 126
24 6 16 4 384
30 5 25 2 250
36 4 36 4 576
42 3 49 1.5 220.5
45 2 56.25 2 225
48 0 64 0.5 0
Total 1,905
⎛ Spacing ⎞
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 6⎞
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 62 × 1, 905 = 137,160 m4
⎝ 3⎠
E (
+ Area Distance )
727 = I
2,727 ti CENTRE
E + (243 × 2.82 )
2
InertiaCENTRE
E = 794.57 m4
E (
+ Area Distance )

160 = I
137,160 ti CENTRE
E (
+ 243 × 20.522 )
InertiaCENTRE
E = 34 , 839.89 m4
Q8.11
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the area under the graph:
0 0 1 0
1 0.115 4 0.460
2 0.392 2 0.784
3 0.702 4 2.808
4 0.933 2 1.866
5 1.008 4 4.032
6 0.904 2 1.808
7 0.66 4 2.640
8 0.353 2 0.706
9 0.097 4 0.388
10 0 1 0
Total 15.492
The vessel has a waterline length of 9.414 m, and a total of 11 measuring points (and
therefore ten ‘spacings’ between the points). This allows the spacing to be found:
9.414
Spacing = = 0.941
941 m
10
This allows the area to be found:
Spacing
p g
Area = × Σ(Totall a
area
ea p
product
d )
3
0.914
Area = × 15.492 = 4.861 m3
3

Note that as the units of the x axis are metres, and the units of the y axis are metres2,
therefore the overall units of the area of the graph are these multiplied together, giving
units of metres3, or volume. Therefore, the underwater volume of the lifeboat at the
design draught is 4.861 m3. This can then be used to determine the displacement of
the lifeboat:
Δ = ∇ × ρ = 4.861× 1.025 = 4.983 tonnes
Q8.12
The area of the section area curve can be found using Simpson’s Rule:
Position (m FOAP) Immersed area (m2) Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 0.0 1 0.00
12 25.6 4 102.40
24 65.9 2 131.84
36 79.4 4 317.44
48 80.0 2 160.00
60 80.0 4 320.00
72 80.0 2 160.00
84 79.4 4 317.44
96 74.2 2 148.48
108 42.9 4 171.52
120 0.0 1 0.00
Total 1,829.12
⎛ Spacing ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞
Area under the graph = × Σ ( Area product ) = ×1, 829.12
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
Area u
under
de the g ap = 7, 316.48 m3
graph
∴∇ = , 3
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ 7, 316.48 × 1.025 = 7, 499..392
392 tonnes

Q8.13
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the area under the graph:
Draught (m) Waterplane area (m2) Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 0 1 0
0.063 1.797 4 7.188
0.125 3.544 2 7.088
0.188 5.199 4 20.796
0.250 6.754 2 13.508
0.313 8.208 4 32.832
0.375 9.559 2 19.118
0.438 10.807 4 43.228
0.500 11.951 2 23.902
0.563 12.989 4 51.956
0.625 13.92 1 13.92
Total 233.536
The vessel has a draught of 0.625 m, and a total of 11 measuring points (and therefore
ten ‘spacings’ between the points). This allows the spacing to be found:
0.625
Spacing = = 0.063 m
10
This allows the area to be found:
Spacing
p g
Area = × Σ(Totall a
area
ea p
product
d )
3
0.063
Area = × 233.536 = 4.904 m3
3
Note that as with the section area curve, the units of the x axis are metres, and the units
of the y axis are metres2, therefore the overall units of the area of the graph are these
multiplied together, giving units of metres3, or volume.
The moment of area about the y axis can now be found, which can then be used to find
the centre of area of the graph from the y axis:

Draught (m) Waterplane area (m2) Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0 0 0 1 0
0.063 1.797 1 4 7.188
0.125 3.544 2 2 14.176
0.188 5.199 3 4 62.388
0.250 6.754 4 2 54.032
0.313 8.208 5 4 164.16
0.375 9.559 6 2 114.708
0.438 10.807 7 4 302.596
0.500 11.951 8 2 191.216
0.563 12.989 9 4 467.604
0.625 13.92 10 1 139.2
Total 1,517.268
⎛ Spacing ⎞
a s=
m Y product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 0.063 ⎞
a s=
Moment of area about the Y axi × 0.063 × 1, 517.268
26 = 2.007 m4
⎝ 3 ⎠
Once the moment of area about the y axis has been found, the centre of the graph from
the y axis, which is the KB value, can be found using:
Moment of area about the Y ax
axis
Centre o
of area from x =
o the Y axis
Area under the graph
2.007
∴ KB = = 0.409 m
4.904
Q8.14
The moment of area of the draught waterplane area curve can be found about the
y axis:
Draught (m) Waterplane area (m)2 Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0.00 0.0 0 1 0
0.90 1,807.2 1 4 7,228.8
1.80 2,620.8 2 2 10,483.2
2.70 2,808.0 3 4 33,696

Draught (m) Waterplane area (m)2 Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
3.60 2,880.0 4 2 23,040

4.50 2,952.0 5 4 59,040
5.40 3,024.0 6 2 36,288
6.30 3,096.0 7 4 86,688
7.20 3,168.0 8 2 50,688
8.10 3,240.0 9 4 116,640
9.00 3,312.0 10 1 33,120
Total 456,912
⎛ Spacing ⎞
a s=
m Y product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 0 90 ⎞
a s=
Moment of area about the Y axi × 0.90 × 456 , 912 = 123
2 , 366.24 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠
This allows the centre of area from the y axis to be found, which is the KB value:
Moment o
of area about the Y axi
a s
x = KB =
Centroid from the Y axis
Area
To use this formula, we need to know the area of the graph. We know that the area of
the draught waterplane area curve is also equal to the underwater volume, which is
given in the question as 24,693.12 m3. Therefore:
123, 366.24
x = KB =
Centroid from the Y axis = 5 00 m
24 , 693.12
Q8.15
The underwater volume can be found from the displacement:
7, 000
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴∇ = = 6 , 829.27 m3
1.025
This can be used in Morrish’s formula:
1 ⎛ 5D ⎛ ∇ ⎞ ⎞ 1 ⎛ 5 × 7 ⎛ 6 , 829.27 ⎞ ⎞
KB = ×⎜ −⎜ = × −⎜ ⎟ = 4.32
32 m
3 ⎝ 2 ⎝ Waterplane area ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎝ 1, 5000 ⎠ ⎟⎠

Q8.16
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the inertia of the waterline half beam curve,
relative to the x axis:
Ordinate Half beam Half beam3 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaX product
0 0 0 1 0
1 0.366 0.049 4 0.196
2 0.712 0.361 2 0.722
3 0.976 0.93 4 3.719
4 1.129 1.439 2 2.878
5 1.179 1.639 4 6.555
6 1.108 1.36 2 2.721
7 0.935 0.817 4 3.27
8 0.661 0.289 2 0.578
9 0.305 0.028 4 0.113
10 0 0 1 0
Total 20.752
The vessel has a waterline length of 9.414 m, and a total of 11 measuring points (and
therefore ten ‘spacings’ between the points). This allows the spacing to be found:
9.414
Spacing = = 0.941
941 m
10
This allows the inertia about the x axis to be found:
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 0.941⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 20.752 = 2.170 m4
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
This value is based on the half beams, so it needs to be doubled to take into account
the entire waterplane:
e t a = 2.170 × 2 = 4.340 m4
Transverse inertia
This can be used with the volume to determine BM:
Inertia 4.340
BM = = = 0.885
885 m
∇ 4.904

Q8.17
The transverse inertia of the waterplane area can be found from the waterline half
beam curve:
Position Waterplane half Offset3 (m3) Simpson’s InertiaX product

(m FOAP) beam (m) Multiplier
0 0.00 0 1 0
23 9.45 843.91 4 3,375.64
45 12.90 2,146.69 2 4,293.38
68 13.80 2,628.07 4 10,512.28
90 13.80 2,628.07 2 5,256.14
113 13.80 2,628.07 4 10,512.28
135 13.80 2,628.07 2 5,256.14
158 13.80 2,628.07 4 10,512.28
180 12.75 2,072.67 2 4,145.34
203 8.85 693.15 4 2,772.6
225 0.00 0 1 0
Total 56,636.08
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 23 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 56 , 636.08 = 141,5 2 m4
590.2
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
This value is for the half beams, so should be doubled to take into account the entire
waterplane area:
ate p a e inertia = 141, 590.2 × 2 = 283,180.4 m4

Transverse waterplane
This can be divided by the volume (which is given in the question) to give the BM
value:
I 283,180.4
BM = = = 5.87 m
∇ 48 , 228.75

Q8.18
Position Immersed Simpson’s Area product

(m FOAP) area (m2) Multiplier
0 0.0 1 0
15 40.0 4 160
30 103.0 2 206
45 124.0 4 496
60 125.0 2 250
75 125.0 4 500
90 125.0 2 250
105 124.0 4 496
120 116.0 2 232
135 67.0 4 268
150 0.0 1 0
Total 2,858
⎛ Spacing ⎞ ⎛ 15 ⎞
Area u
under
de the g ap =
graph ea product ) =
× Σ ( Area × 2, 858 = 14 , 290 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
∴∇ = , 3
∇ × ρ = Δ ∴14 , 290
90 × 1.0 5 = 14 , 6
025 647.25
5 tonnes
The moment of area of the draught waterplane area curve can be found about the y
axis:
Draught (m) Waterplane Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product

area (m2)
0.00 0.0 0 1 0
0.75 1,255.0 1 4 5,020
1.50 1,820.0 2 2 7,280
2.25 1,950.0 3 4 23,400
3.00 2,000.0 4 2 16,000
3.75 2,050.0 5 4 41,000
4.50 2,100.0 6 2 25,200
5.25 2,150.0 7 4 60,200

Draught (m) Waterplane Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product

area (m2)
6.00 2,200.0 8 2 35,200

6.75 2,250.0 9 4 81,000
7.50 2,300.0 10 1 23,000
Total 317,300
⎛ Spacing ⎞
a s=
m Y product )
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 0 75 ⎞
a s=
Moment of area about the Y axi × 0.75 × 317, 300 = 59 , 493.75 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠
Moment o
a s
x = KB =
Area
To use this formula, we need to know the area of the graph. This can be found via
Simpson’s Rule, however we know that the area of the draught waterplane area curve is
also equal to the underwater volume, which we have previously found from the section
area curve to be 14,290 m3. Therefore:
59 , 493.75
x = KB =
Centroid from the Y axis = 4.16 m
14 , 290
The transverse inertia of the waterplane area can be found from the waterline half
beam curve:
Position Waterplane Offset3 (m3) Simpson’s InertiaX product

(m FOAP) half beam (m) Multiplier
0 0.00 0 1 0
15 6.30 250.05 4 1,000.2
30 8.60 636.06 2 1,272.12
45 9.20 778.69 4 3,114.76
60 9.20 778.69 2 1,557.38
75 9.20 778.69 4 3,114.76
90 9.20 778.69 2 1,557.38

Position Waterplane Offset3 (m3) Simpson’s InertiaX product

105 9.20 778.69 4 3,114.76

120 8.50 614.13 2 1,228.26
135 5.90 205.38 4 821.52
150 0.00 0 1 0
Total 16,781.14
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 16 , 781.14 = 27, 968
96 .57 m4
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
waterplane area:
Transverse waterplane inertia = 27, 968.57 × 2 = 55, 937.14 m4
This can be divided by the volume (which we have already found) to give the BM
value:
I 55, 937.14
BM = = = 3.91
91 m
∇ 14 , 290
Finally, GM can be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 4.16 + 3.91 − 7.07 = 1.00 m
Q8.19

0 0.0 1 0
18 57.6 4 230.4
36 148.3 2 296.64
54 178.6 4 714.24
72 180.0 2 360


90 180.0 4 720
108 180.0 2 360
126 178.6 4 714.24
144 167.0 2 334.08
162 96.5 4 385.92
180 0.0 1 0
Total 4,115.52
⎛ Spacing ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞
Area under the graph = × Σ ( Area product ) = × 4 ,115.52 = 24 , 693.12 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
∴∇ = , 3
, ∇ × ρ = Δ ∴ 24 , 693.12 ×1
× 1.025 = 25, 310.448 tonnes
The moment of area of the draught waterplane area curve can be found about the y
axis:
Draught (m) Waterplane Lever Simpson’s MomentY

area (m2) Multiplier product
0.00 0.0 0 1 0
0.90 1,807.2 1 4 7,228.8
1.80 2,620.8 2 2 10,483.2
2.70 2,808.0 3 4 33,696
3.60 2,880.0 4 2 23,040
4.50 2,952.0 5 4 59,040
5.40 3,024.0 6 2 36,288
6.30 3,096.0 7 4 86,688
7.20 3,168.0 8 2 50,688
8.10 3,240.0 9 4 116,640
9.00 3,312.0 10 1 33,120
Total 456,912
⎛ Spacing ⎞
Moment o a s=
m Y product )
⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 0 90 ⎞
axis =
Moment of area about the Y a × 0.90 × 456 , 912 = 123
2 , 366.24 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠
Moment o
a s
x = KB =
Area
To use this formula, we need to know the area of the graph. This can be found via
Simpson’s Rule, however we know that the area of the draught waterplane area curve is
also equal to the underwater volume, which we have previously found from the section
area curve to be 24,693.12 m3. Therefore:
123, 366.24
Centroid from x = KB =
o the Y axis = 5 00 m
24 , 693.12
The transverse inertia of the waterplane area can be found from the waterplane half
beam curve:
Position Waterplane half Offset3 (m3) Simpson’s InertiaX product

(m FOAP) beam (m) Multiplier
0 0.00 0 1 0
18 7.56 432.08 4 1,728.32
36 10.32 1,099.1 2 2,198.2
54 11.04 1,345.57 4 5,382.28
72 11.04 1,345.57 2 2,691.14
90 11.04 1,345.57 4 5,382.28
108 11.04 1,345.57 2 2,691.14
126 11.04 1,345.57 4 5,382.28
144 10.20 1,061.21 2 2,122.42
162 7.08 354.89 4 1,419.56
180 0.00 0 1 0
Total 28,997.62
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 28 , 997.62 = 57, 995.24 m4
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

waterplane area:
Transverse waterplane inertia = 57, 995.24 × 2 = 115, 990.48 m4
This can be divided by the volume (which we have already found) to give the BM
value:
I 115, 990.48
BM = = = 4.70
70 m
∇ 24 , 693.12
Finally, GM can be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 5.00 + 4.70 − 9.55 = 0.15 m
Q8.20
The waterplane area can be determined:
Ordinate Half beam (m) Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 (AP) 0 1 0
1 0.366 4 1.464
2 0.712 2 1.424
3 0.976 4 3.904
4 1.129 2 2.258
5 1.179 4 4.716
6 1.108 2 2.216
7 0.935 4 3.74
8 0.661 2 1.322
9 0.305 4 1.22
10 (FP) 0 1 0
Total 22.264
Spacing
p g
Area = × Σ Area product
3
0.941
Area = × 22.264 = 6.983 m2
3
This must be doubled to account for the entire waterplane area:

a ea = 6.983 × 2 = 13
Waterplane area 13.996 m2

This allows the TPC to be found:
TPC W rplane a
Water ea × 0.01×
area 01× ρ = 13
13.996 × 0.01× 1.025 = 0.143 t/cm
Q8.21
The waterplane area can be determined:
Position Waterplane Simpson’s Area product

0 0 1 0
15 6.3 4 25.2
30 8.6 2 17.2
45 9.2 4 36.8
60 9.2 2 18.4
75 9.2 4 36.8
90 9.2 2 18.4
105 9.2 4 36.8
120 8.5 2 17
135 5.9 4 23.6
150 0 1 0
Total 230.2
Spacing
p g
Area = × Σ Area product
3
15
Area = × 230.20 = 1
1151
, .00 m2
3
This must be doubled to account for the entire waterplane area:
Waterplane area = 1,151.00 × 2 = 2, 302.00 m2
This allows the TPC to be found:
TPC W rplane a
Water ea × 0.01×
area 01× ρ = 2, 302.00 × 0.01× 1.025 = 23.60 t/cm

Q8.22
The first stage is to plot the shape of the tank on an x–y graph. The 3 m wide aft
transverse bulkhead is plotted on the y axis, and the 5 m long longitudinal bulkhead
is plotted on the x axis. The 0.10 m wide forward transverse bulkhead forms the right
hand vertical side of the graph, and the hull plating shape forms the curve of the
graph:
2
Y
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
X
The first stage is to determine the area. This is calculated using Simpson’s Rule as
before:
0 3 1 3
1.25 2.6 4 10.4
2.5 1.9 2 3.8
3.75 1.1 4 4.4
5 0.1 1 0.1
Total 21.7
⎛ Spacing ⎞ ⎛ 1.25 ⎞
Area = × Σ ( Area product ) = × 21.7 = 9.04 m2
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

The next stage is to determine the first moment of area about the x axis:
Ordinate Offset2 Simpson’s Multiplier MomentX product
0 9 1 9
1.25 6.76 4 27.04
2.5 3.61 2 7.22
3.75 1.21 4 4.84
5 0.01 1 0.01
Total 48.11
Moment o axis =
× Σ ( Mom
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 1.25 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
axis =
Moment of area about the X a × × 48.11 = 10.02 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
This allows the centre of area from the x axis to be found:

Moment o
of area about the X a
axxis 10.02
x =
Centre of area from the X axis = = 1.11 m
Area under the graph 9 04
The inertia about the x axis can be found:
Ordinate Offset3 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaX product
0 27 1 27
1.25 17.58 4 70.32
2.5 6.86 2 13.72
3.75 1.33 4 5.32
5 0 1 0
Total 116.36
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 1.25 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
Finally, the parallel axes theory can be used to determine the inertia through an axis
parallel to the x axis but through the centroid:
E + ( Area Distance 2 )

16 = I
16.16 tiaCENTRE
E (
+ 9.04 1.11
112 ∴ ) CENTRE
E = 5.02 m4
This value is the free surface moment of the tank, and is used in the same way as the
values in the hydrostatic databook.
Q8.23
The plan area of the tank can be found:
0.00 2.50 1 2.50

2.50 2.40 4 9.60
5.00 2.30 2 4.60
7.50 2.20 4 8.80
10.00 2.00 1 2.00
Total 27.50
Spacing
p g 2 50
Area = × Σ Area p oduct =
product × 27.50 = 22.9
92 m2
3 3
The plan area can be multiplied by the depth of the fluid to determine the volume
of fluid, which can be multiplied by the density of the fluid to determine the mass of
ballast:
Volume = Plan a ea × Dept
area e h = 22.92 × 3.00 = 68 76 m3
Volume × ρ = Mass ∴ 68.76 × 1.025 = 70.48 tonnes
The KG of the ballast can be found:

3 00
KG = Distance from keel to centre of mass = 2 00 + = 3 50 m
2
The centre of area of the tank from the longitudinal bulkhead can be found:
Ordinate Offset Offset2 Simpson’s Multiplier MomentX product
0 2.50 6.30 1 6.30

2.5 2.40 5.80 4 23.00
5 2.30 5.30 2 10.60
7.5 2.20 4.80 4 19.40
10 2.00 8.00 1 8.00
Total 67.20

⎛ Spacing ⎞ 1
axis =
Moment about the X a × × Σ Moment X product
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2
⎛ 2 5⎞ 1
axis =
Moment about the X a × × 67.20 = 28.01 m3
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2
Moment about the X a

axis 28.01
Centre o
of Area ffro axis =
om the X a = = 1.22
22 m
Area 22.92
Therefore, the centre of the tank from the centreline of the ship can be found:
Tank centre from centreline = 7.00 + 1.22 = 8 22 m
The inertia of the area about the x axis can be found:
Ordinate Offset Offset3 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaX product
0 2.50 15.60 1 15.60

2.5 2.40 13.80 4 55.30
5 2.30 12.20 2 24.30
7.5 2.20 10.60 4 42.60
10 2.00 8.00 1 8.00
Total 145.80
⎛ Spacing ⎞ 1
x =
Inertia about the X axis c )
× × Σ (InertiaX product
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3
⎛ 2 5⎞ 1
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3
The parallel axes formula can then be used to find the inertia at the centre of the
planform area:
E + ( Area Distance 2 )
51 = I
40.51 tiaCENTRE
E (
+ 22.92 × 1.22
222 ) CENTRE
E 6.40 m4
This is the free surface moment of the tank. It can be multiplied by the ballast density,
and used in the loading table to account for the free surface effect:
FS = 6.40 × 1.025 = 6 56 tonne metres

Corrected FSM

A loading table can then be used to find the new fluid KG:
Ship 5,000 7.00 35,000.00

Ballast 70.48 3.50 246.68
Ballast FSM 0 0 6.56
Total 5,070.48 35,253.24
Moment 35, 253.24

KG = = = 6.95 m
Mass 5, 070.48
GM = KM − KG = 8.00 − 6.95 = 1.05 m
A loading table can be used to determine the TCG (note the TCG is negative as the tank
is to starboard of the centreline):
Ship 5,000 0.00 0.00

Ballast 70.48 –8.22 –579.35
Total 5,070.48 579.35
Moment −579.35
TCG = = = −0.11
11 m
Mass 5, 070.48
Finally, this allows the list to be found:
TCG ⎛ 0.11⎞
tanθ θ tan−1 − ∴θ = −6.0 degrees (starboard)
d
GM ⎝ 1.05 ⎠
Q8.24
The remote inertia through the parallel can be found:
InertiaRemote = 8 , 000 + ( × ) = 88, 000 m 4

Q8.25
The area can be found:
t Beam = 60 × 20 = 1,200
Area Length 200 m2
The transverse inertia through the centre line can be found:
LB 3 60 × 203
Inertia = = = 40 , 000 m4
12 12
The remote inertia through axis XX can be found:
InertiaRemote = 40 , 000 + ( × ) = 1120

,120 , 000 m 4
Q8.26
The KB of one hull can be found:
D 3
KB = = = 1.50 m
2 2
Note that as described previously, the overall KB of both hulls will be the same. The
underwater volume of one hull can be found:
∇ = L × B × D = 40 × 4 × 3 = 480 m3
The waterplane area of one hull can be found:
Area L × B = 40 × 4 = 160 m2
The transverse inertia of the waterplane area of one hull about the centreline of the hull
can be found:
LB 3 40 × 4 3
I= = = 213.34
34 m4
12 12
This can be converted to be the transverse inertia of the waterplane area of one hull
about the centreline of the ship:
E (
InertiaREMOTE = 213.3
34 + ( × ) = 5, 973.34 m 4

This can be used to determine the BM:
Inertia 5, 973.34 × 2
BM = = = 12.45 m
Volume 480 × 2
Note that we have doubled the transverse inertia of the waterplane area of one hull
about the centreline of the ship to obtain the overall value for both hulls, and doubled
the underwater volume of one hull to obtain the overall underwater volume. Finally,
GM can be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.50 + 12.45 − 5.00 = 8.95 m
Q8.27
The waterplane area can be found:
Station Waterline half beam (m) Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 0.1 1 0.1
1 1.0 4 4
2 1.7 2 3.4
3 2.0 4 8
4 1.5 2 3
5 0.7 4 2.8
6 0.0 1 0
Total 21.3
⎛ 60 ⎞
Spacing
p g ⎜ ⎟
Area = × Σ ( Area product ) = ⎜ 6 ⎟ × 21.3 = 71
71.0 m2
3
⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
This value is for half of the waterplane area of one hull, therefore the total waterplane
area of one hull can be found:
Total w
water
aterp
pla
anee area o u = 71.0 × 2 = 142.0 m2
of one hull

The transverse inertia about the hull centreline can be found:
Station Waterline half beam3 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaX product
0 0.001 1 0.001
1 1 4 4
2 4.913 2 9.826
3 8 4 32
4 3.375 2 6.75
5 0.343 4 1.372
6 0 1 0
Total 53.95
Spacing
p g 1
InertiaX = × × Σ (InertiaX product )
3 3
60
1
InertiaX = 6 × × 53.95 = 59.94 m4
3 3
This value is for half of the transverse inertia of the waterplane area of one hull
(measured about the hull centreline), therefore the total transverse inertia of the
waterplane area of one hull (measured about the hull centreline) can be found:
Total transverse wwaterrplane area of one hull about

the huull centreline = 59.94 × 2 = 119.89 m2
The transverse inertia of the waterplane area of one hull about the ship centreline can
be found:
E (
⎛ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎞
2
InertiaREMOTE = 119.89 + ⎜ 142.0 × = 3, 669.89 m4

⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠
This value is for one hull (about the centreline of the ship), so it must be doubled to
account for both hulls:
Total transverse waterpl

r ane area of two hulls about
the p centreline = 3, 669.89 × 2 = 7, 339.78 m2
h sship

This allows BM to be found:

Inertia 7, 339.78
BM = = = 13.85
85 m
∇ 530

GM = KB + BM − KG = 1+ 13.85 − 6 = 8.85 m
Q8.28
The waterplane area can be determined for each sponson:
Waterplane a ea = l b = 15 × 1.5 = 22.5 m2
area
The centre of the waterplane area from the centreline of the ship can be found:
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 1 5 ⎞
Sponson w
water
aterp anee centre =
pla + = 5.75 m from the centreline
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
The additional underwater volume for each sponson can be found:
∇ SPONSON = Sponson waterpl

aterp aanee area × Sponson drau
r ght = 22.5 × 2 = 45
draught 45 m3
The total underwater volume including the sponsons can be found:
∇ = ∇HULL + ∇ SPONSONS = (50 × 10 × 2) + 45 + 45 = 1,090

090 m3
The transverse inertia of each sponson waterplane, measured about the centreline of
the sponson, can be found:
I=
LB 3
=
( × ) = 4.22 m4
12 12
This can be converted (using the parallel axes formula) to be about the centreline of the
ship – note that for the sponson waterplane, this will be the remote inertia, as it does
not go through the centre of the sponson waterplane area:
IREMOTE = ICENTRO
E ID + Area (
Distance )
IREMOTE = 4.22
2+ ( × ) = 748.13 m 4
The transverse inertia of the hull waterplane measured about the centreline can be
found:
I=
LB 3
=
( × ) = 4 ,166.67 m 4
12 12

The total transverse inertia of the main hull and the two sponsons can be found by
adding up the transverse inertia of the components:
Total transverse inertia = Hull transverse inertia Spo

S nsons transverse
t inertia
a s e se inertia = 4 ,166
Total ttransverse 66.67 + 748.13 + 748
8.13 = 5, 662.92 m4
This allows the overall BM to be found:
I 5, 662.92
BM = = = 5.20
20 m
∇ 1, 090
D 2 00
KB = = = 1.00 m
2 2
Therefore, GM can be found:
GM = KB + BM − KG = 1.00 + 5.20
0 − 5.00 = 1.20
20 m
Q8.29
The first stage in determining the effect of the sponsons on BM is to determine the
waterplane area of each sponson. This can be found using Simpson’s Rule:
0 0.00 1 0.00
1 1.00 4 4.00
2 1.50 2 3.00
3 1.00 4 4.00
4 0.00 1 0.00
Total 11.00
Spacing
p g 1
Area = × Σ ( Area product ) = × 11.00
.00 = 3.6
67 m2
3 3
As the sponson can be assumed to be a constant planform, the underwater volume of

the sponson can be found (the question states that the vessel floats with the waterline
at half of the depth of the sponson):
⎛ 2.10 ⎞
∇ Sponson = 3 67 × = 3.85 m3
⎝ 2 ⎠

The next stage is to determine the centre of area of the sponson waterplane from the
side of the ship. This can be found by determining the moment of the waterplane area
about the x axis of the waterplane area:
0 0.00 1 0.00
1 1.00 4 4.00
2 2.25 2 4.50
3 1.00 4 4.00
4 0.00 1 0.00
Total 12.50
Spacing
p g 1 1 1
axis =
Moment about the X a o e t X product ) = × ×12
× × Σ ( Moment 12.50 = 2.08 m3
3 2 3 2
This allows the centre of the sponson waterplane from the x axis to be found:

axis 2 08
Centre o
of area from x =
o the X axis = = 0.57
57 m
Area 3 67
The inertia of the waterplane about the x axis can be found:
0 0.00 1 0.00
1 1.00 4 4.00
2 3.38 2 6.75
3 1.00 4 4.00
4 0.00 1 0.00
Total 14.75
Spacing
p g 1
x =
Inertia about the x axis × × Σ (InertiaX product )
3 3
1 1
x =
Inertia about the x axis × × 14.75 = 1.64 m4
3 3
This is the remote value measured through the x axis. The parallel axes formula can be
used to determine the inertia through an axis parallel to the x axis but running through
the centre of the shape:

1.64 CENTRO
E ID (3.67 × 0.572 ) CENTRO
E ID 0.46 m4
As the vessel will roll about the centreline of the ship, the inertia of the waterplane area
must be found relative to the centreline of the ship. This is a remote axis, away from the
centre of the sponson waterplane area:
⎛ ⎛7 ⎞ ⎞
2
6 + ⎜ 3.67 × + 0.57 ⎟ = 61.24 m4
⎝ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎠
The new total inertia and total underwater volume can be used to determine the new
BM:
Inertia 857.43 + 61.24 + 62.14
BM = = = 1.54 m
∇ 645.75
+ (3 85 × 2)
1.025
Q8.30
The first stage in determining the effect of the sponsons on BM is to determine the
original waterplane inertia of the vessel. This can be found from the displacement and
the original BM:
Inertia Inertia
BM = ∴11.39 = ∴ Inertia = 33, 336.59 m4
∇ 3, 000
1.025
The next stage is to calculate waterplane area of each sponson. This can be found using
Simpson’s Rule:
0 0.00 1 0.00
1 2.00 4 8.00
2 3.00 2 6.00
3 2.00 4 8.00
4 0.00 1 0.00
Total 22.00

Spacing
p g 4
Area = × Σ ( Area p oduct ) = × 22.00 = 29
product 9.33 m2
3 3
As the sponson can be assumed to be a constant planform, the underwater volume of

the sponson can be found (the question states that the vessel floats with the waterline
at half of the depth of the sponson):
⎛ 4⎞
∇ Sponson = 29.33 × = 58.66 m3
⎝ 2⎠
The next stage is to determine the centre of area of the sponson waterplane from the
side of the ship. This can be found by determining the moment of the waterplane area
about the x axis of the waterplane area:
0 0.00 1 0.00
1 4.00 4 16.00
2 9.00 2 18.00
3 4.00 4 16.00
4 0.00 1 0.00
Total 50.00
Spacing
p g 1
axis =
Moment about the X a × × Σ ( Moment X product )
3 2
4 1
= × × 50.00 = 33.33 m3
3 2
This allows the centre of the sponson waterplane from the x axis to be found:
axis 33.33
x =
Centre of area from the X axis = = 1.14 m
Area 29.33
The inertia of the waterplane about the x axis can be found:
0 0.00 1 0.00
1 8.00 4 32.00
2 27.00 2 54.00
3 8.00 4 32.00
4 0.00 1 0.00
Total 118.00

Spacing
p g 1
x =
Inertia about the x axis × × Σ (InertiaX product )
3 3
4 1
x =
Inertia about the x axis × × 118.00 = 52.44 m4
3 3
This is the remote value measured through the x axis. The parallel axes formula can be
used to determine the inertia through an axis parallel to the x axis but running through
the centre of the shape:
52.44 CENTRO
E ID (29.33 ×1
1.14 2 ) CENTRO
E ID 14.32 m4
As the vessel will roll about the centreline of the ship, the inertia of the waterplane area
must be found relative to the centreline of the ship. This is a remote axis away from the
centre of the sponson waterplane area:
⎛ ⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎞
2
32 + ⎜ 29.33 × + 1.14 ⎟ = 1,120.05
05 m4
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
The new total inertia and total underwater volume can be used to determine the
new BM:
Inertia 33, 336.59 + 1120
,120.05 + 1120
,120.05
BM = = = 11.69 m
∇ 3, 000
+ (58.66 × 2)
1.025
Q8.31
The spacing between the stations can be determined:
60
Spacing = = 10.00
00 m
6
The section area data can be used to determine the underwater volume:
Station Section area (m2) Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 1.57 0.5 0.785

0.5 25.13 2 50.26
1 56.55 1.5 84.825
2 76.97 4 307.88
3 76.97 2 153.94

4 56.55 4 226.2
5 25.13 1.5 37.695
5.5 6.28 2 12.56
6 0.00 0.5 0
Total 873.36
S ⎛ 10.00 ⎞
Area = × Σ ( Area product ) = × 873.36 = 2, 911.2 m3
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
Therefore, the underwater volume is 2,911.2 m3.

The section area data can be used to determine the LCB by finding the moment of area
of the section area curve about the Y axis, and therefore the centre of area from the
Y axis:
Station Section area (m2) Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0 1.57 0 0.5 0
0.5 25.13 0.5 2 25.13
1 56.55 1 1.5 84.825
2 76.97 2 4 615.76
3 76.97 3 2 461.82
4 56.55 4 4 904.8
5 25.13 5 1.5 188.475
5.5 6.28 5.5 2 69.08
6 0.00 6 0.5 0
Total 2,349.89
S
x =
Moment about Y axis ×S ( MomentY p
product
d )
3
10.00
Moment about Y axs=
axis × 10.00 × 2, 349.89 = 78 , 329.67 m4
3
The moment about the y axis can be divided by the area of the graph to give the
centroid from the y axis, which is the LCB:
Moment about Y axis
x 78 , 329.67
LCB = = = 26.91 m FOAP
Area 2, 911.2

Q8.32
The station spacing can be determined:
120
Spacing = = 20 m
6
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the area under the curve of waterline half
beams:
Station Waterline half beam Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 0 1 0
1 6 4 24
2 12 2 24
3 12 4 48
4 12 2 24
5 3 4 12
6 0 1 0
Total 132
Spacing
p g 20
Area = × Σ (Total a ea product ) =
area × 132 = 880 m2
3 3
This is derived from the half beams, so is half of the waterplane area. Therefore, this
value needs to be doubled to determine the overall waterplane area:
a ea = 880 × 2 = 1, 760 m2
Waterplane area
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the moment of area under the curve about
the y axis:
Station Waterline half beam Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0 0 0 1 0
1 6 1 4 24
2 12 2 2 48
3 12 3 4 144
4 12 4 2 96
5 3 5 4 60
6 0 6 1 0
Total 372

Spacing
p g
axis =
Moment about the Y a × Spacing (Total
T Moment o uct )
o e tY prod
3
20
= × 20 × 372 = 49 , 600 m3
3
This is derived from the half beams, so is half of the total moment of area of the
waterplane about the y axis. Therefore, this value needs to be doubled to determine
the overall moment of area of the waterplane about the y axis:
Moment of area of the water x = 49 , 600 × 2 = 99 ,200

w rplane about the Y axis 200 m2
The LCF is the centre of area of the waterplane, which can be found by dividing the
moment of area of the waterplane by the waterplane area:
Moment o
of area o
of the w
water
aterp
pla
anee about tthee Y axis
x 99 , 200
LCF = = = 56.36 m FOAP
Waterrpl
p ane area 1, 760
Q8.33
The station spacing can be determined:
90
Spacing = = 15 m
6
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the area under the curve of waterline half
beams:
Station Waterline half beam Simpson’s Multiplier Area product
0 0 0.5 0
0.5 4 2 8
1 8 1.5 12
2 10 4 40
3 10 2 20
4 9 4 36
5 6 1.5 9
5.5 3 2 6
6 0 0.5 0
Total 131

Spacing
p g 15
Area = × Σ (Total area product ) = × 131 = 665 m2
3 3
This is derived from the half beams, so is half of the waterplane area. Therefore, this
value needs to be doubled to determine the overall waterplane area:
a ea = 665 × 2 = 1, 310 m2
Waterplane area
Simpson’s Rule can be used to determine the moment of area under the curve about
the y axis:
Station Waterline half beam Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0 0 0 0.5 0
0.5 4 0.5 2 4
1 8 1 1.5 12
2 10 2 4 80
3 10 3 2 60
4 9 4 4 144
5 6 5 1.5 45
5.5 3 5.5 2 33
6 0 6 0.5 0
Total 378
Spacing
p g
a s=
Moment about the Y axi × Spacing (TTotal Moment o uct )
o e tY prod
3
15
= × 15 × 378 = 28 ,350
350 m3
3
This is derived from the half beams, so is half of the total moment of area of the
waterplane about the y axis. Therefore, this value needs to be doubled to determine
the overall moment of area of the waterplane about the y axis:
Moment of area of the waterpl x = 28 , 350 × 2 = 56 , 700 m2

r ane about the Y axis
The LCF is the centre of area of the waterplane, which can be found by dividing the
moment of area of the waterplane by the waterplane area:
Moment o
of area o
of the waterpl
aterp a
anee about tthee Y axis
x 56 , 700
LCF = = = 43.28 m FOAP
Waterrpl
p ane area 1, 310

Q8.34
The waterline half beam values can be used to draw the waterline half beam curve.
Simpson’s Rule can then be used to determine the inertia, or second moment of area,
of the area under the curve about the y axis:
Station Waterline half beam Lever2 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaY product
0 0 0 1 0
1 10 1 4 40
2 20 4 2 160
3 20 9 4 720
4 16 16 2 512
5 8 25 4 800
6 0 36 1 0
Total 2,232
⎛ Spacing ⎞
x =
⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 30 ⎞
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 302 × 2, 232 = 20 , 088 , 000 m4
⎝ 3⎠
As the curve is based on the waterline half beams, this value is for half of the waterplane,
and so must be doubled to give the overall inertia of the waterplane area about the y
axis. This gives a value for the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane measured through
the y axis of 40,176,000 m4.
As this value is measured about the y axis, and not the centre of the waterplane, it
is a remote value. To determine the longitudinal inertia of the waterplane measured
through the centre (the LCF), the parallel axes formula needs to be used:
REMOTE = ICENTRO
40 ,176 , 000 = ICENTRO

E (
ID + 4 , 480 × 86.79
2
)
ID = 6 , 430 , 381.63 m
4
ICENTRO
E
Finally, BML can be found:

IL 6 , 430 , 381.63
BML = = = 214.35 m
∇ 30 , 000

Q8.35
90
Spacing = = 15.00
00 m
6
0 1.57 0.5 0.785

0.5 14.14 2 28.28
1 39.27 1.5 58.905
2 76.97 4 307.88
3 100.53 2 201.06
4 76.97 4 307.88
5 39.27 1.5 58.905
5.5 14.14 2 28.28
6 0.00 0.5 0
Total 991.19
S ⎛ 15.00 ⎞
Area = × Σ ( Area p oduct ) =
product × 99 9 = 4 , 955.95 m3
991.19
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
Therefore, the underwater volume is 4,955.95 m3. This can be used to determine the
displacement:
Δ = ∇ × ρ = 4 , 955.95 × 1.025 = 5, 079.85 tonnes
The section area data can be used to determine the LCB by finding the moment of
area of the section area curve about the Y axis, and therefore the centre of area from
the Y axis:
0 1.57 0 0.5 0
0.5 14.14 0.5 2 14.14
1 39.27 1 1.5 58.905
2 76.97 2 4 615.76
3 100.53 3 2 603.18

4 76.97 4 4 1,231.52
5 39.27 5 1.5 294.525
5.5 14.14 5.5 2 155.54
6 0.00 6 0.5 0
Total 2,973.57
S
x =
product
d )
3
15.00
Moment about Y axs=
axis × 15.00 × 2, 973.57 = 223, 017.75 m4
3
Moment about Y axis

x 223, 017.75
LCB = = = 45.00 m FOA
O P
Area 4 , 955.95
The waterline half beam values can be used to determine the transverse inertia of the
waterplane area:
Station Waterline half Waterline half Simpson’s InertiaX product

beam (m) beam3 Multiplier
0 1.00 1.00 0.5 0.50

0.5 3.00 27.00 2 54.00
1 5.00 125.00 1.5 187.50
2 7.00 343.00 4 1,372.00
3 8.00 512.00 2 1,024.00
4 7.00 343.00 4 1,372.00
5 5.00 125.00 1.5 187.50
5.5 3.00 27.00 2 54.00
6 0.00 0.00 0.5 0.00
Total 4,251.50
S 1
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × Σ(InertiaX p
product
d )
3 3

15.00 1
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 4 , 251.50 = 7, 085.83 m4
3 3
This uses the half beams, so the value must be doubled for the overall waterplane
inertia about the centreline:
Waterplane inertia about the centreline = 7, 085.83 × 2 = 14 ,171.66

6 m4
This, along with the underwater volume allows BM to be found:
I 14 ,171.66
BM = = = 2.86 m
∇ 4 , 955.95
The waterline half beam values can also be used to determine the area of the
waterplane:
0 1.00 0.5 0.50

0.5 3.00 2 6.00
1 5.00 1.5 7.50
2 7.00 4 28.00
3 8.00 2 16.00
4 7.00 4 28.00
5 5.00 1.5 7.50
5.5 3.00 2 6.00
6 0.00 0.5 0.00
Total 99.50
S
a= × Σ( Area product
p d )
3
15.00
Area = × 99.50 = 497.5 m2
3
area:
a ea = 497.5 × 2 = 995 m2
Waterplane area

The waterline half beam values can be used to determine the moment of area of the
waterplane about the y axis:
Station Waterline half Lever Simpson’s MomentY

beam (m) Multiplier product
0 1.00 0 0.5 0.00

0.5 3.00 0.5 2 3.00
1 5.00 1 1.5 7.50
2 7.00 2 4 56.00
3 8.00 3 2 48.00
4 7.00 4 4 112.00
5 5.00 5 1.5 37.50
5.5 3.00 5.5 2 33.00
6 0.00 6 0.5 0.00
Total 297.00
S
x =
product
d )
3
15.00
x =
Moment about Y axis × 15.00 × 297.00 = 22, 275 m4
3
This uses the half beams, so the value must be doubled for the overall moment of
waterplane area about the y axis:
axis = 22, 275 × 2 = 44

Moment of waterplane area about the y a 44 , 550 m3
centroid from the y axis, which is the LCF:
Moment about Y axis

x 44 , 550
LCF = = = 44.77 m FOAP
Area 995
The waterline half beam values can be used to determine the inertia of area of the
Station Waterline half Lever2 Simpson’s InertiaY

0 1.00 0 0.5 0.00

0.5 3.00 0.25 2 1.50
1 5.00 1 1.5 7.50


2 7.00 4 4 112.00
3 8.00 9 2 144.00
4 7.00 16 4 448.00
5 5.00 25 1.5 187.50
5.5 3.00 30.25 2 181.50
6 0.00 36 0.5 0.00
Total 1,082.00
S
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × S2 (Total
T l inertiaY p
product
d )
3
15.00
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 15.002 × 1, 082.00 = 1, 217, 250 m4
3
This uses the half beams, so the value must be doubled for the overall inertia of the
Inertia o
of w
waterrplane a
area x = 1, 217, 250 × 2 = 2,4
ea about tthee y axis 500 m4
434 ,500
This is about the y axis, which is a remote axis. To use to determine the longitudinal BM,
this must be converted to be about the LCF:
IREMOTE AXIS = ICENTRO

E ID AXIS + ( Area Distance 2 )
2, 434 , 500 = ICENTRO

E ID AXIS + ( 995 44.772 )
ID AXIS = 440 ,168.86 m

4
ICENTRO
E
This, along with the underwater volume allows BML to be found:
IL 440 ,168.86
BML = = = 88.82 m
∇ 4 , 955.95
Q8.36

120
Spacing = = 20.00 m
6

0 0.00 0.5 0
0.5 25.13 2 50.26
1 76.97 1.5 115.455
2 157.08 4 628.32
3 190.07 2 380.14
4 157.08 4 628.32
5 56.55 1.5 84.825
5.5 14.14 2 28.28
6 0.00 0.5 0
Total 1,915.60
S ⎛ 20.00 ⎞
Area = × Σ ( Area product ) = × 1, 915.60 = 12, 770.67 m3
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
displacement:
Δ = ∇ × ρ = 12, 770.67 × 1.025 = 13, 089.94
94 tonnes
the Y axis:
0 0.00 0 0.5 0
0.5 25.13 0.5 2 25.13
1 76.97 1 1.5 115.455
2 157.08 2 4 1,256.64
3 190.07 3 2 1,140.42
4 157.08 4 4 2,513.28
5 56.55 5 1.5 424.125
5.5 14.14 5.5 2 155.54
6 0.00 6 0.5 0
Total 5,630.59

S
x =
product
d )
3
20.00
Moment about Y axs=
axis × 20.00 × 5, 630.59 = 750 , 745.33 m4
3
Moment about Y axis

x 750 , 745.33
LCB = = = 58.79 m FO
OAP
A
Area 12, 770.67
waterplane area:

0 0.00 0.00 0.5 0.00

0.5 4.00 64.00 2 128.00
1 7.00 343.00 1.5 514.50
2 10.00 1,000.00 4 4,000.00
3 11.00 1,331.00 2 2,662.00
4 10.00 1,000.00 4 4,000.00
5 6.00 216.00 1.5 324.00
5.5 3.00 27.00 2 54.00
6 0.00 0.00 0.5 0.00
Total 11,682.50
S 1
x =
product
d )
3 3
20.00 1
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 11, 682.50 = 25, 961.11 m4
3 3
Waterplane inertia about the centreline = 25, 961.11× 2 = 51, 922.2

922. 2 m4

I 51, 922.22
BM = = = 4.07 m
∇ 12, 770.67
waterplane:
0 0.00 0.5 0.00

0.5 4.00 2 8.00
1 7.00 1.5 10.50
2 10.00 4 40.00
3 11.00 2 22.00
4 10.00 4 40.00
5 6.00 1.5 9.00
5.5 3.00 2 6.00
6 0.00 0.5 0.00
Total 135.50
S
a= × Σ( Area p
product
d )
3
20.00
Area = × 135.50 = 903.33 m2
3
area:
Waterplane area = 903.33 × 2 = 1, 806.66 m2

0 0.00 0 0.5 0.00

0.5 4.00 0.5 2 4.00
1 7.00 1 1.5 10.50
2 10.00 2 4 80.00
3 11.00 3 2 66.00


4 10.00 4 4 160.00
5 6.00 5 1.5 45.00
5.5 3.00 5.5 2 33.00
6 0.00 6 0.5 0.00
Total 398.50
S
Moment about Y axs=
axis ×S ( Moment
o e tY p
product
d )
3
20.00
x =
Moment about Y axis × 20.00 × 398.50 = 53,133.33 m4
3
axis = 53,133.33 × 2 = 106 , 266.66 m3

Moment of waterplane area about the y a
Moment about Y axis
x 106 , 266.66
LCF = = = 58.82 m FOA
O P
Area 1, 806.66

0 0.00 0 0.5 0.00

0.5 4.00 0.25 2 2.00
1 7.00 1 1.5 10.50
2 10.00 4 4 160.00
3 11.00 9 2 198.00
4 10.00 16 4 640.00
5 6.00 25 1.5 225.00
5.5 3.00 30.25 2 181.50
6 0.00 36 0.5 0.00
Total 1,417.00

S
x =
T l inertiaY p
product
d )
3
20.00
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 20.002 × 1, 417.00 = 3, 778 , 666.67
6 m4
3
Inertia o
of w x = 3, 778 , 666.67 × 2 = 7, 557, 333.34 m4
waterrplane area about the y axis
IREMOTE AXISS = ICENTRO

CE D AXIS + ( Area
OID Distance 2 )
7, 557, 333.34 CENTRO

E ID AXIS (1, 806.66 × 58.822 )
ID AXIS = 1, 306 , 664.8 m

4
ICENTRO
E

IL 1, 306 , 664.8
BML = = = 102.32 m
∇ 12, 770.67
Q8.37
105
Spacing = = 17.50 m
6
0 14.14 0.5 7.07

0.5 56.55 2 113.1
1 100.53 1.5 150.795
2 127.23 4 508.92
3 127.23 2 254.46
4 100.53 4 402.12
5 39.27 1.5 58.905
5.5 14.14 2 28.28
6 0.00 0.5 0
Total 1,516.58

S ⎛ 17.50 ⎞
Area = × Σ ( Area product ) = × 1, 516.58 = 8 , 846.72 m3
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
displacement:
Δ = ∇ × ρ = 8 , 846.72 × 1.025 = 9 , 067.89
89 tonnes
waterplane area:

0 3.00 27.00 0.5 13.50

0.5 6.00 216.00 2 432.00
1 8.00 512.00 1.5 768.00
2 9.00 729.00 4 2,916.00
3 9.00 729.00 2 1,458.00
4 8.00 512.00 4 2,048.00
5 5.00 125.00 1.5 187.50
5.5 3.00 27.00 2 54.00
6 0.00 0.00 0.5 0.00
Total 7,877.00
S 1
x =
product
d )
3 3
17.50 1
x =
Inertia about the X axis × × 7, 877.00 = 15, 316.39 m4
3 3
e t a about tthee centreline = 15, 316.39 × 2 = 30 , 632.7

Waterplane inertia 632. 8 m4
I 30 , 632.78
BM = = = 3.46 m
∇ 8 , 846.72

waterplane:
0 3.00 0.5 1.50

0.5 6.00 2 12.00
1 8.00 1.5 12.00
2 9.00 4 36.00
3 9.00 2 18.00
4 8.00 4 32.00
5 5.00 1.5 7.50
5.5 3.00 2 6.00
6 0.00 0.5 0.00
Total 125.00
S
a= × Σ( Area p
product
d )
3
17.50
Area = × 125.00 = 729.17 m2
3
area:
Waterplane area = 729.17 × 2 = 1, 458.34 m2
The waterplane area and volume can be used with Morrish’s method to determine KB:
1 ⎛ 5D ⎛ ∇ ⎞ ⎞ 1 ⎛ 5 × 9 ⎛ 8 , 846.72 ⎞ ⎞
KB = ×⎜ −⎜ = × −⎜ ⎟ = 5 48 m
3 ⎝ 2 ⎝ Waterplane area ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 2 5 .34 ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝ 1, 458
GM = KB + BM − KG = 5.48 + 3.46 − 7.00 = 1.94 m

Station Waterline half beam (m) Lever Simpson’s Multiplier MomentY product
0 3.00 0 0.5 0.00

0.5 6.00 0.5 2 6.00
1 8.00 1 1.5 12.00
2 9.00 2 4 72.00
3 9.00 3 2 54.00
4 8.00 4 4 128.00
5 5.00 5 1.5 37.50
5.5 3.00 5.5 2 33.00
6 0.00 6 0.5 0.00
Total 342.50
S
x =
about Y axis ×S ( MomentY p
product
d )
3
17.50
Moment about Y axs=
axis × 17.50 × 342.50 = 34 , 963.54 m4
3
Moment o
of waterplane a
area axis = 34 , 963.54 × 2 = 69 ,927
ea about tthee y a 9 .08 m3
Moment about Y axis

x 69 , 927.08
LCF = = = 47.95 m FOAP
Area 1, 458.34
Station Waterline half beam (m) Lever2 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaY product
0 3.00 0 0.5 0.00

0.5 6.00 0.25 2 3.00
1 8.00 1 1.5 12.00
2 9.00 4 4 144.00
3 9.00 9 2 162.00

Station Waterline half beam (m) Lever2 Simpson’s Multiplier InertiaY product
4 8.00 16 4 512.00
5 5.00 25 1.5 187.50
5.5 3.00 30.25 2 181.50
6 0.00 36 0.5 0.00
Total 1,202.00
S
x =
T l inertiaY p
product
d )
3
17.50
x =
Inertia about the Y axis × 17.502 × 1, 202.00 = 2,147, 322.92
9 m4
3
Inertia o
of w x = 2,147, 322.92 × 2 = 4 , 294 , 645.84 m4
waterrplane area about the y axis
IREMOTE AXISS = ICENTRO

CE D AXIS + ( Area
OID Distance 2 )
4 , 294 , 645.84 CENTRO

E ID AXIS (1, 458.34 × 47.952 )
ID AXIS = 941, 626.87 m

4
ICENTRO
E
IL 941, 626.87
BML = = = 106.44
44 m
∇ 8 , 846.72
This allows GML to be found:
GML = KB
B + BML − KG = 5.48 + 106
06.44 − 7.00 = 104.92 m
This can be used to determine the MCTC:
ΔGML 9 , 067.89 × 104.92

MCTC = = = 90.61
61 tonne metres
100LBP 100 × 105

the Y axis:
0 14.14 0 0.5 0
0.5 56.55 0.5 2 56.55
1 100.53 1 1.5 150.795
2 127.23 2 4 1,017.84
3 127.23 3 2 763.38
4 100.53 4 4 1,608.48
5 39.27 5 1.5 294.525
5.5 14.14 5.5 2 155.54
6 0.00 6 0.5 0
Total 4,047.11
S
Moment about Y axs=
axis ×S ( Moment
o e tY p
product
d )
3
17.50
Moment about Y axs=
axis × 17.50 × 4 , 047.11 = 413,142.48 m4
3
Moment about Y axis
x 413,142.48
LCB = = = 46.70 m FOA
O P
Area 8 , 846.72
This can be used to determine the trim:
(LCB LCG ) Δ ( 46.70 − 45.00 ) 9 , 067.89

Trim = = = 170 cm by the
h stern
MCTC 90.61
Q9.1
Ship speed , v = 10 × 0.514 = 5.14 m/s
Frictional resistance = fSv 1.825

825
= 1.392 × 4 , 000 × 5.141.825 = 110 , 460
6 N = 110.5 kN

Q9.2
Although both the coefficient of friction and wetted surface area are unknown in this
question, it is important to know that neither property will vary with the speed of the
vessel. This information is used to solve the problem.

134 , 044 f (10 × 0.514 )1.825
134 , 044
∴ fS = = 6 , 756.8
(10 × 0.514 )1.825
The frictional resistance of the vessel at any speed can now be found:
825
= 6 , 756.8 × (11× 0.514 )1.825 = 159 , 511 N
Q9.3
The first stage is to determine the speed of the ship at the corresponding speed to the
test (the Froude number of the ship and model should be the same):
vM vS
=
gLM gLS
2.2 vS
=
9.81 4 9.81× 120
2.2 9.81× 120

vS = = 12.05 m/s
9 81× 4
The next stage is to determine the frictional resistance of the model, RFM:
RFM fM sM v Mn = 1.609 × 4.5 × 2.21.825 = 30.527 N
Now the frictional resistance has been found, the residual resistance of the model, RRM,
can be found. This is the difference between the total model resistance, RTM, and the
model friction resistance, RFM:
RRM RTM − RFM = 70 − 30.527 = 39.473 N
The next step is to scale up the residual resistance of the model, RRM, to find the residual
resistance of the ship, RRS. The scale factor for residual resistance is the displacement:
ΔS 4 , 959
RRS RRM = × 39.473 = 1, 092.404 N = 1, 092.404 kN
ΔM 0.1792

The next stage is to determine the frictional resistance of the ship, RFS:
RFS fS sS v Sn = 1.483 × 4 , 050 × 12.051.825 = 564.145 N = 564.145 kN
The frictional resistance of the ship, RFS, can now be added to the residual resistance of
the ship, RRS, to find the total resistance of the ship, RTS:
RTS = RFS + RRS = 564.145
5 + 1, 092.404 = 1, 656.549
549 kN
Q9.4
LSHIP L 150
= λ ⇒ LMODEL = SHIP = = 7.5 m
LMODEL λ 20
SSHIP S 6 , 500
= λ 2 ⇒ SMODEL = SHIP = = 16.25 m2
SMODEL λ2 202
Δ SHIP ρ Δ SHIP 9 , 800

= λ 3 × SEAWATER ⇒ Δ MODEL = = = 1.195 tonnes
Δ MODEL ρFFRESHWATER ρ 1.025
λ ×
3 SEAWATTTEEER
20 ×
3
ρFRESHWATER 1.000
Q9.5
The first step is to find the ship properties from the model from the length scale:
LSHIP
= λ ⇒ LSHIP λ LMODEL
OD = 20 × 5 = 100 m
LMODEL
SSHIP
= λ 2 ⇒ SSHIP λ 2 SMODEL
OD = 20 × 5.6 = 2 , 240 m
2 2
SMODEL
The next stage is to determine the speed of the ship at the corresponding speed to the
test (the Froude number of the ship and model should be the same):
vM vS
=
gLM gLS
1.4 vS
=
9.81 5 9.81× 100
1.4 9.81× 100

vS = = 6.261
261 m/s
9 81× 5
The next stage is to determine the frictional resistance of the model, RFM:
RFM fM sM v Mn = 1.655 × 5.6 × 1.41.825 = 17.127 N

The next stage is to determine the residual resistance of the model, RRM. This is the
difference between the total model resistance, RTM, and the model friction resistance,
RFM:
RRM RTM − RFM = 25 − 17.127 = 7.873 N
The next stage is to scale up the residual resistance of the model, RRM, to find the residual
resistance of the ship, RRS:
3
ΔS ⎛ L ⎞ ρ
RRS RRM = ⎜ SHIP ⎟ × SSEAWATER × RRM
ΔM ⎝ LMODEL ⎠ ρFFRESHWATER
1.025
= 203 × × 7.873 = 64 , 562N = 64
6 .562
56 kN
1.000
The next stage is to determine the frictional resistance of the ship, RFS:
RFS fS sS v Sn = 1.401× 2, 240 × 6.2611.825 = 89 , 240 N = 89.24 kN
The frictional resistance of the ship, RFS, can now be added to the residual resistance of
the ship, RRS, to find the total resistance of the ship, RTS:
RTS = RFS + RRS = 89.240 + 64.562 = 153.802 kN
Q9.6
Lv 10 × v
Rn = =
ν 1.004 × 10 −6
0.075
CF =
( Rn − )2
RF SSv 2 C F
Speed (m/s) Reynolds number CF Friction (N)
0.1 996,016 0.0047 0.235

1 9,960,159 0.0030 15.000
10 99,601,594 0.0021 1,050.000
Q9.7
Lv 100 × (15 × 0.5144 )
Rn = = = 734 , 857,142
ν 1 05 × 10 −6

0.075 0.075
CF = = = 0.0021
( Rn − )2
( − )2
CV C F (1+ k ) = 0.0021× (1+ 0.1) = 0.0023
SSv 2 CV = 0.5 × 1, 025 × 4 , 000 × (15 × 0.5144 ) × 0.0023 = 280 , 715.3 N

2
RV
RV = 280.7 kN
Q9.8
Lv 2×8
Rn = = = 15, 238 , 095
ν 1 05 × 10 −6
0.075 0.075
CF = = = 0.0028
( Rn − ) 2
( − )2
4
⎛t⎞ ⎛t⎞
(1 k ) = 1+ 2 60
⎝ c⎠ ⎝ c⎠
4
⎛ 0.4
4⎞ ⎛ 0.4 ⎞
(1 k ) = 1+ 2 + 60 = 1.496
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
CV C F (1+ k ) = 0.0028 × 1.496 = 0.0042
RV SSv 2 CV = 0.5 × 1, 025 × (2 × 5 × 2.24 ) × 82 × 0.0042 = 3, 085.8 N
Q9.9
The geometry of the full scale ship can be determined:
LS
= λ ∴ LS LM × λ = 5 × 50 = 250 m
LM
SS
= λ 2 ∴ SS SM × λ 2 = 6.40 × 502 = 16
16 , 000 m2
SM
The total resistance coefficient of the model can be determined:

RT M 25
CTM = = = 6.457 × 10 −3
0.5ρSM v M2 0.5 × 1, 000 × 6.40 × 1.102
The Reynolds number of the model can be determined:

Lv 5 × 1.10
RnM = = = 5, 500 , 000
ν 1 00 × 10 −6

The frictional resistance coefficient of the model can be determined:

0.075 0.075
CF M = = = 3.338 × 10 −3
( Rn − )
2
( − ) 2
The viscous resistance coefficient of the model can be determined:

CV M C F M (1+ k ) = 3.338 × 10 −3 × (1.15) = 3.838 × 10 −3
The wave resistance coefficient of the model can be determined:
CW M CT M − CV M = 6.457 × 10 −3 − 3.838 × 10 −3 = 2.618 × 10 −3
This will be the same for the ship. The speed of the ship can be determined from the
Froude number:
vM vS 1.10 vS
Fn = = ∴ = ∴ v S = 7.775 m/s
(g LM ) (g LS ) ( g × 5) (g × 250 )
The Reynolds number of the ship can be determined:
Lv 250 × 7.775
RnS = = = 1, 833, 726 , 415
υ 1 06 × 10 −6
The frictional resistance coefficient of the ship can be determined:

0.075 0.075
CF S = = 0 −3
= 1.422 × 10
( Rn − ) 2
( − )
2
The viscous resistance coefficient of the ship can be determined:
CV S C F S (1+ k ) = 1.422 × 10 −3 × (1.15) = 1.635 × 10 −3
The total resistance coefficient of the ship can be determined:

CT S CV S + CW S = 1.635 × 10 −3 + 2.618 × 10 −3 = 4.254 × 10 −3
The total resistance of the ship can be found:

Total sship
ip resistance ρSS v S2 CTS
ip resistance = 0.5 × 1, 025 × 16 , 000 × 7.7752 × 4.254 × 10 −3 = 2,

Total sship 2,108 , 481.4 N
∴ Total sship
ip resistance = 2,108.5 kN
Q9.10
Ship correlation factor ( SCF

SC ) Weather
Weather allowance Appendage allowanc
a e

SCF = 1.05 × 1.12 = 1.176

PEN RT × v = 850 × 10 = 8 , 500 kW
PE PEN × SCF = 8 , 500 × 1.176 = 9 , 996 kW
Q10.1
PEN RT × v = 900 × 11 = 9 , 900 kW
PE PEN × SCF = 9 , 900 × 1.15 = 11,385

385 kW
PE P 11, 385
ηH = ⇒ PT = E = = 11, 617.45 kW
PT ηH 0 98
PT P 11, 617.35
ηp = ⇒ PD = T = = 20 , 381.3 kW
PD ηp 0 57
PD P 20 , 381.3
ηT = ⇒ PS = D = = 21, 011.7 kW
PS ηT 0 97
PS P 21, 011.7
ηM = ⇒ PI = S = = 26 , 264.6 kW
PI ηM 08
Q10.2
2 2
Δ 3 v 3 90 , 000 3 × 153
AC = = = 339
PS 20 , 000
2 2
Δ 3 v 3 90 , 000 3 × 173
PS = = = 29 ,105
105 kW
AC 339
Q10.3
2 2
Δ 3 v 3 Δ 3 × 83 2
AC = = = 0.0512 Δ 3
PS 10 , 000
2 2
Δ 3v 3 Δ 3 × 73
PS = = 2
= 6 , 699 kW
AC 0.0512 Δ 3
Q10.4
For the original vessel:
2 2
Δ 3 v 3 7, 000 3 × 14 3
AC = = = 125.5
PS 8 , 000

V 14 × 0.514
u be , Fn =
Froude number = = 0.23
gL 9.81× 100
For the scaled up vessel:

V
Fn = ⇒V FFn gL
gL
V = 0.23 9.81× 110 = 7.55 /s = 14

14.7 knots
2 2
Δ 3v 3 Δ 3v 3
AC = ⇒ PS =
PS AC
( )
2
× 3
× 14.73
PS = = 11,207
207 kW
125.5
Q10.5
2 2
Δ 3v 3 90 , 000 3 × 153
Fuel coefficient = = = 193, 657
Daily fuel consumption 35
At the new speed of 15 + 2 17 knots

2 2
Δ 3v 3 90 , 000 3 × 173
ue consumption =
Daily fuel = = 50.9 tonnes/day
Fuel coefficient 193
9 , 657
Q10.6
2 2
Δ 3v 3 80 , 000 3163
Daily fuel consumption = = = 58.50 tonnes/day
Fuel coefficient 130 ,000
Voyage distance
a
24 × Ship speed
2, 000
= 58.50 × = 304.7 tonnes
24 × 16
Q10.7
2 2
ν 3 v3 80 , 000 314 3
ue consumption =
Daily fuel = = 39.19 tonnes/day
Fuel coefficient 130 ,000
Voyage distance
a
24 × Ship speed

2, 000
= 39.19 × = 233.3 tonnes
24 × 14
Reduction in ffuel co su pt o = 304.7 − 233.3 = 71.4 tonnes
consumption
71.4
mpti (%) =
Reduction in ffuel consumption
c × 100 = 23. %
304.7
Q11.1
vT Pn = 5 × 2.5 = 12
12.5 m/s
Q11.2
vT v 12.6 − 12
SA = = = 0.048 = 4.8%
vT 12.6
Q11.3
ω = 0.5C
5 b − 0.05
ω = 0.5Cb − 0.05 = 0.5 × 0.6 − 0.05 = 0.25
vA v (1 −ω ) = 13 (1 − 0.25) = 9.75 m/s
v = v A + vW ⇒ vW = v v A
vW = 13 − 9.75 = 3.25 m/s
Q11.4
vT vA 10 − 7
SR = = = 0.3 = 30%
vT 10
Q11.5
vT Pn = 4.5 × 2.55 = 11.475

475 m/s
vT v 11.475 − 11
SA = = = 0.041 = 4.1%
vT 11.475
ω = 0.5Cb − 0.05 = 0.5 × 0.66 − 0.05 = 0.28
vA v (1 − ω ) = 11(1 − 0.28 ) = 7.92 m/s
vW v − v A = 11 − 7.92 = 3.08 m/s

vT vA 11.475 − 7.92
SR = = = 0.31 = 31%
vT 11.475
Q12.1
First convert the boat speed to metres per second:
1, 852
ν s = 60 × = 30.87
87 m/s
3, 600
Now the jet velocity can be found from the jet efficiency:
2ν s 2ν 2 × 30 87
η jet = ⇒ν j = s − ν s = − 30.87 = 72.02 m/s
ν j +ν s η jet 0 60
The required thrust is approximately equal to the resistance, T = 50kN, allowing the
flowrate to be found:
T ρ Aν j ν abs
b = ρ Aν j ( j − s )
T 50 , 000
⇒ fl t = Aν j = = = 1.185
185 m3 s
ρ ( − ) 1, 025 (72.02 − 30.87)
Now the cross-sectional area and diameter of the jet are calculated:
1.185 1.185
Aν j ⇒ A= = = 0.01646 m2
νj 72.02
π D2 4A 4 × 0.1646
A= ⇒D = = 0.1448 m = 144.8 mm
4 π π
Q12.2
First convert the boat speed to metres per second:
1, 852
v s = 60 × = 30.87
87 m/s
3, 600
Next the boat resistance is found from the effective power:
PE 1, 600
PE RT v s RT = = = 51.84 kN
v s 30.87

Using the thrust deduction factor the total thrust requirement is obtained:
RT 51.84
RT T (1 − t ) ⇒ T = = = 56.34 kN
1 − t 1 − 0.08
The thrust requirement for each waterjet unit is 28.17 kN and the thrust power
requirement is:
PT Tv s = 28.17 × 30.87 = 869.7 kW
Tv
Next the jet system power can be found from the engine shaft power and the efficiencies
of the pump, inlet and duct:
PJs Ps × 0.87 × (1 − 0.07) = 1, 300 × 0.87 × (1 − 0.07) = 1, 051.8 kW
The jet efficiency must therefore be:
PT 869.7
η jet = = = 0.827
PJJs 1, 051.8
Now the jet velocity can be found from the jet efficiency:
2v s 2v 2 × 30 87
η jet = ⇒ v j = s − vs = − 30.87 = 43.79 m/s
v j + vs η jet 0.827
Now the cross-sectional area and diameter of the jet are calculated:
T ρ Av bs = ρ Av j v j
A j v aabs
b ( vs )
T 28.17 × 103
⇒ A= = = 0.04860
04860 m2
ρvj ( − ) 1, 025 × 43.79 ( 43.79 − 30.87)
π D2 4A 4 × 0.04860
A= ⇒D= = = 0.249 m = 249 mm
4 π π
Q13.1
Transverse force FN cosa = 20 × cos15 = 19.32 kN
Drag force
o ce s a = 20 × sin
FN sina s 15 = 5 18 kN
Q13.2
FN 560 A × V 2 sina
FN ( . )2 sin = 76 , 584 N = 76.58 kN

sin15

Q13.3
FN 500 A × V 2 sina 500 × 10 × (10 × 0.514 )2 × sin (10 ) = 22939 N
T FN × Torque lever = 22, 939 × 1.00 = 22, 939 Nm
M FN × Bendinglever = 22, 939 × 4.00 = 91, 754 Nm
Q13.4
The normal force can be determined:
FN 480 A × V 2 sina 480 × 15 × (10 × 0.514 )2 × sin25
sin = 80 , 391 N
The torque can be found:

T FN × Torque lever = 80 , 391× 0.5 = 40 ,195 Nm
The bending moment can be found:

M FN × Bendinglever = 80 , 391× 2.60 = 209 ,017
017 Nm
These can be combined to give the equivalent torque:

TE = M + M 2 + T 2 = 209 , 017 + 209 , 0172 + 40 ,1952 = 421, 864 Nm
Q13.5
FN 505 A × V 2 sina 505 × 12 × (13 × 0.514 )2 × sin 35 = 155,195 N

T FN × Torque lever = 155,195 × 0.60 = 93,117
117 Nm

M FN × Bendinglever = 155,195 × 2.30 = 356 ,949
949 Nm
TE = M + M 2 + T 2 = 356 , 949 + 356 , 9492 + 93,1172 = 725, 844 Nm
This allows the stress to be found:

16TE 16 × 725, 844
q= = = 29 , 573, 545 Nm = 28.
28.57
57 MNm
π D3 π × 0 53

Q13.6
FN 18.01AV 2α = 18.01× 6 × (18 × 0.154 )2 × 35 = 323, 746 N

T FN × Torque lever = 323, 746 × 0.15 = 48 , 562 Nm

M FN × Bendinglever = 323, 746 × 1.65 = 534 ,180 Nm
TE = M + M 2 + T 2 = 534 ,180 + 53
534 ,1802 + 48 , 5622 = 1, 070 , 563 Nm
The limiting stress can be used to find the allowable diameter:

16TE 16TE 16 × 1, 070 , 563
q= ∴3 =D D= 3 = 0.414 m
πD 3
q ×π 77 × 10 6 × π
Q13.7
From the stock diameter and limiting stress, we can find the maximum allowable
equivalent torque:
16TE q D 3 77 × 10 6 × π × 0.4003
q= ∴ = TE TE = = 967, 611 Nm
π D3 16 16
The bending moment and torque can be written in terms of the normal force:
T 0 5 FN
M 65 FN
These two equations can be substituted into the equivalent torque formula:
TE = M + M 2 T2
TE . FN + (1.65FN )2 FN )2
This can be simplified:

TE FN + 1.652 FN2 2
FN2
TE FN + 2.723FN2 FN2 = 1.65FFN FN2

TE FN + 1.657FN FN
As the maximum equivalent torque is known, this can be rewritten in terms of the
formula for normal force, and appropriate values substituted so that the limiting speed
can be found:
TE FN = 3.307 × (18.01AV 2α ) = 59.559 AV 2α
∴ 967, 611 = 59.559 AV 2α
967, 611
∴ 967, 6
611 = 59.559 × 6 × V 2 × 35 ∴V = = 8 80 m/s
59.559 × 6 × 35
8 80
= 17.12 knots
0.514

APPENDIX 1
MV REED – SAMPLE
STABILITY DATA BOOKLET
Principal Dimensions
Length between perpendiculars = 100.00 m
Lightship displacement = 2,615.0 tonnes

Lightship KG = 7.000 m
Lightship TCG = 0.000 m
Lightship LCG = 44.000 m FOAP
Tropical displacement = 7,530.9 tonnes

Summer displacement = 7,329.0 tonnes
Winter displacement = 7,129.4 tonnes
Tropical draught fresh water allowance = 135 mm

Summer draught fresh water allowance = 133 mm
Winter draught fresh water allowance = 131 mm
Tropical draught = 7.146 m

Summer draught = 7.000 m
Winter draught = 6.854 m
9781408176122_App01_1_Rev_txt_prf.indd 643 12/3/2013 5:32:59 PM

Upright Hydrostatics
Draught Displacement LCB LCF KB (m) KM (m) TPC MCTC

(m) (tonnes) (m FOAP) (m FOAP) (tonnes/ (tonne
cm) metres)
8.00 8,750 44.607 40.272 4.451 7.581 14.600 101.238

7.90 8,604 44.681 40.299 4.392 7.548 14.530 100.002
7.80 8,460 44.755 40.335 4.333 7.515 14.458 98.735
7.70 8,315 44.832 40.381 4.273 7.482 14.383 97.429
7.60 8,172 44.909 40.436 4.214 7.450 14.306 96.081
7.50 8,029 44.988 40.502 4.155 7.418 14.225 94.683
7.40 7,887 45.068 40.578 4.096 7.385 14.141 93.239
7.30 7,746 45.149 40.667 4.036 7.354 14.054 91.742
7.20 7,606 45.231 40.770 3.977 7.322 13.962 90.191
7.10 7,467 45.313 40.888 3.918 7.291 13.868 88.601
7.00 7,329 45.395 41.023 3.859 7.260 13.770 86.961
6.90 7,192 45.477 41.174 3.800 7.230 13.667 85.254
6.80 7,056 45.559 41.341 3.741 7.200 13.560 83.475
6.70 6,921 45.639 41.526 3.682 7.172 13.449 81.624
6.60 6,787 45.718 41.732 3.624 7.144 13.333 79.698
6.50 6,654 45.796 41.953 3.566 7.118 13.214 77.725
6.40 6,522 45.871 42.175 3.507 7.092 13.095 75.799
6.30 6,392 45.944 42.395 3.449 7.068 12.978 73.925
6.20 6,263 46.015 42.614 3.392 7.046 12.861 72.102
6.10 6,135 46.084 42.830 3.334 7.025 12.747 70.337
6.00 6,008 46.150 43.043 3.277 7.006 12.634 68.639
5.90 5,882 46.215 43.254 3.219 6.988 12.524 67.005
5.80 5,757 46.276 43.460 3.162 6.973 12.415 65.433
5.70 5,634 46.336 43.662 3.106 6.959 12.309 63.924
5.60 5,511 46.393 43.858 3.049 6.948 12.205 62.479
5.50 5,390 46.448 44.049 2.993 6.939 12.104 61.104
5.40 5,269 46.501 44.233 2.937 6.931 12.005 59.800
5.30 5,150 46.552 44.409 2.880 6.927 11.910 58.573
5.20 5,031 46.600 44.578 2.825 6.925 11.818 57.407
5.10 4,913 46.647 44.738 2.769 6.925 11.728 56.315
5.00 4,796 46.691 44.889 2.713 6.928 11.643 55.305

Appendix 1 • 645
Draught Displacement LCB LCF KB (m) KM (m) TPC MCTC

(m) (tonnes) (m FOAP) (m FOAP) (tonnes/ (tonne
cm) metres)
4.90 4,680 46.734 45.035 2.658 6.934 11.559 54.340

4.80 4,565 46.775 45.174 2.603 6.942 11.477 53.425
4.70 4,451 46.815 45.309 2.547 6.954 11.397 52.558
4.60 4,337 46.853 45.446 2.492 6.969 11.319 51.751
4.50 4,224 46.888 45.579 2.437 6.987 11.244 51.004
4.40 4,112 46.922 45.706 2.382 7.009 11.168 50.265
4.30 4,001 46.954 45.828 2.328 7.034 11.095 49.574
4.20 3,890 46.985 45.947 2.273 7.063 11.023 48.913
4.10 3,781 47.013 46.061 2.219 7.097 10.951 48.286
4.00 3,671 47.040 46.173 2.164 7.134 10.882 47.704
3.90 3,563 47.064 46.292 2.110 7.177 10.816 47.229
3.80 3,455 47.087 46.400 2.055 7.224 10.749 46.737
3.70 3,348 47.107 46.505 2.001 7.276 10.684 46.273
3.60 3,241 47.125 46.605 1.947 7.335 10.619 45.838
3.50 3,136 47.141 46.713 1.893 7.399 10.557 45.498
3.40 3,030 47.154 46.811 1.839 7.470 10.496 45.155
3.30 2,926 47.165 46.905 1.785 7.549 10.434 44.831
3.20 2,822 47.173 46.992 1.731 7.635 10.372 44.517
3.10 2,718 47.179 47.064 1.677 7.730 10.309 44.155
3.00 2,615 47.182 47.141 1.623 7.834 10.247 43.868
2.90 2,513 47.181 47.212 1.569 7.949 10.185 43.587
2.80 2,412 47.179 47.273 1.515 8.076 10.122 43.291
2.70 2,311 47.173 47.327 1.461 8.215 10.057 42.992
2.60 2,211 47.165 47.375 1.407 8.368 9.992 42.696
2.50 2,111 47.154 47.416 1.353 8.536 9.925 42.394
2.40 2,012 47.140 47.45 1.299 8.722 9.856 42.083
2.30 1,914 47.123 47.479 1.245 8.928 9.786 41.767
2.20 1,816 47.104 47.499 1.191 9.155 9.713 41.431
2.10 1,720 47.082 47.511 1.137 9.407 9.638 41.089
2.00 1,624 47.057 47.506 1.083 9.688 9.557 40.659
These hydrostatic values have been calculated with the vessel floating on an even
keel.


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
1.880 0.000 100.000 13.483 84.877 1.413 1.348 0.000
1.858 0.023 97.900 13.199 84.871 1.411 1.334 1.938
1.800 0.081 92.600 12.486 84.853 1.404 1.299 1.842
1.700 0.181 83.700 11.284 84.816 1.392 1.239 1.678
1.600 0.281 75.100 10.119 84.771 1.379 1.178 1.516
1.500 0.381 66.700 8.994 84.717 1.366 1.116 1.359
1.400 0.481 58.700 7.913 84.650 1.353 1.054 1.206
1.300 0.581 51.000 6.879 84.569 1.339 0.992 1.058
1.200 0.681 43.700 5.897 84.470 1.324 0.929 0.915
1.100 0.781 36.900 4.970 84.349 1.309 0.865 0.779
1.000 0.881 30.400 4.105 84.199 1.294 0.801 0.651
0.900 0.981 24.500 3.306 84.015 1.277 0.736 0.529
0.800 1.081 19.100 2.581 83.789 1.260 0.670 0.418
0.700 1.181 14.400 1.936 83.516 1.243 0.603 0.314
0.600 1.281 10.200 1.382 83.209 1.223 0.536 0.223
0.500 1.381 6.800 0.921 82.873 1.202 0.468 0.146
0.400 1.481 4.100 0.555 82.509 1.177 0.401 0.086
0.300 1.581 2.100 0.283 82.092 1.147 0.332 0.042
0.220 1.661 1.000 0.135 81.710 1.120 0.277 0.019
0.200 1.681 0.800 0.106 81.596 1.112 0.263 0.015
0.100 1.781 0.100 0.018 80.977 1.067 0.193 0.002
0.000 1.881 0.000 0.000 80.977 1.067 0.193 0.000

Appendix 1 • 647
No. 1 Double Bottom Starboard

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
1.880 0.000 100.000 13.483 84.877 –1.413 1.348 0.000
1.858 0.023 97.900 13.199 84.871 –1.411 1.334 1.938
1.800 0.081 92.600 12.486 84.853 –1.404 1.299 1.842
1.700 0.181 83.700 11.284 84.816 –1.392 1.239 1.678
1.600 0.281 75.100 10.119 84.771 –1.379 1.178 1.516
1.500 0.381 66.700 8.994 84.717 –1.366 1.116 1.359
1.400 0.481 58.700 7.913 84.650 –1.353 1.054 1.206
1.300 0.581 51.000 6.879 84.569 –1.339 0.992 1.058
1.200 0.681 43.700 5.897 84.470 –1.324 0.929 0.915
1.100 0.781 36.900 4.970 84.349 –1.309 0.865 0.779
1.000 0.881 30.400 4.105 84.199 –1.294 0.801 0.651
0.900 0.981 24.500 3.306 84.015 –1.277 0.736 0.529
0.800 1.081 19.100 2.581 83.789 –1.260 0.670 0.418
0.700 1.181 14.400 1.936 83.516 –1.243 0.603 0.314
0.600 1.281 10.200 1.382 83.209 –1.223 0.536 0.223
0.500 1.381 6.800 0.921 82.873 –1.202 0.468 0.146
0.400 1.481 4.100 0.555 82.509 –1.177 0.401 0.086
0.300 1.581 2.100 0.283 82.092 –1.147 0.332 0.042
0.220 1.661 1.000 0.135 81.710 –1.120 0.277 0.019
0.200 1.681 0.800 0.106 81.596 –1.112 0.263 0.015
0.100 1.781 0.100 0.018 80.977 –1.067 0.193 0.002
0.000 1.881 0.000 0.000 80.977 –1.067 0.193 0.000


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 100.860 67.769 2.579 1.172 0.000
1.965 0.030 97.900 98.740 67.759 2.572 1.154 113.437
1.900 0.096 93.400 94.170 67.738 2.555 1.116 109.882
1.800 0.196 86.600 87.307 67.704 2.529 1.058 104.425
1.700 0.296 79.900 80.591 67.667 2.502 1.000 98.922
1.600 0.396 73.400 74.030 67.628 2.474 0.942 93.413
1.500 0.496 67.100 67.628 67.585 2.445 0.884 87.899
1.400 0.596 60.900 61.393 67.539 2.415 0.826 82.398
1.300 0.696 54.900 55.330 67.488 2.384 0.768 76.927
1.200 0.796 49.000 49.448 67.432 2.351 0.710 71.471
1.100 0.896 43.400 43.755 67.370 2.317 0.652 66.035
1.000 0.996 37.900 38.260 67.300 2.282 0.595 60.632
0.900 1.096 32.700 32.975 67.221 2.244 0.537 55.241
0.800 1.196 27.700 27.911 67.130 2.204 0.479 49.859
0.700 1.296 22.900 23.084 67.022 2.161 0.422 44.493
0.600 1.396 18.400 18.513 66.891 2.113 0.364 39.131
0.500 1.496 14.100 14.219 66.726 2.061 0.306 33.736
0.400 1.596 10.200 10.238 66.505 1.999 0.248 28.245
0.300 1.696 6.600 6.626 66.188 1.922 0.190 22.406
0.200 1.796 3.500 3.492 65.670 1.817 0.130 15.538
0.100 1.896 1.100 1.075 64.617 1.645 0.069 6.986
0.096 1.899 1.000 1.004 64.557 1.636 0.067 6.638
0.000 1.996 0.000 0.000 64.557 1.636 0.067 0.000

Appendix 1 • 649

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 100.860 67.769 –2.579 1.172 0.000
1.965 0.030 97.900 98.740 67.759 –2.572 1.154 113.437
1.900 0.096 93.400 94.170 67.738 –2.555 1.116 109.882
1.800 0.196 86.600 87.307 67.704 –2.529 1.058 104.425
1.700 0.296 79.900 80.591 67.667 –2.502 1.000 98.922
1.600 0.396 73.400 74.030 67.628 –2.474 0.942 93.413
1.500 0.496 67.100 67.628 67.585 –2.445 0.884 87.899
1.400 0.596 60.900 61.393 67.539 –2.415 0.826 82.398
1.300 0.696 54.900 55.330 67.488 –2.384 0.768 76.927
1.200 0.796 49.000 49.448 67.432 –2.351 0.710 71.471
1.100 0.896 43.400 43.755 67.370 –2.317 0.652 66.035
1.000 0.996 37.900 38.260 67.300 –2.282 0.595 60.632
0.900 1.096 32.700 32.975 67.221 –2.244 0.537 55.241
0.800 1.196 27.700 27.911 67.130 –2.204 0.479 49.859
0.700 1.296 22.900 23.084 67.022 –2.161 0.422 44.493
0.600 1.396 18.400 18.513 66.891 –2.113 0.364 39.131
0.500 1.496 14.100 14.219 66.726 –2.061 0.306 33.736
0.400 1.596 10.200 10.238 66.505 –1.999 0.248 28.245
0.300 1.696 6.600 6.626 66.188 –1.922 0.190 22.406
0.200 1.796 3.500 3.492 65.670 –1.817 0.130 15.538
0.100 1.896 1.100 1.075 64.617 –1.645 0.069 6.986
0.096 1.899 1.000 1.004 64.557 –1.636 0.067 6.638
0.000 1.996 0.000 0.000 64.557 –1.636 0.067 0.000


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 245.966 49.375 4.159 1.057 0.000
1.961 0.038 97.900 240.800 49.369 4.153 1.037 539.733
1.900 0.098 94.600 232.574 49.360 4.144 1.005 536.830
1.800 0.198 89.000 219.031 49.345 4.128 0.953 531.593
1.700 0.298 83.600 205.546 49.330 4.111 0.900 525.930
1.600 0.398 78.100 192.126 49.313 4.092 0.848 519.630
1.500 0.498 72.700 178.778 49.296 4.072 0.795 512.618
1.400 0.598 67.300 165.511 49.278 4.050 0.743 504.900
1.300 0.698 61.900 152.334 49.260 4.026 0.690 496.119
1.200 0.798 56.600 139.259 49.240 4.001 0.637 486.390
1.100 0.898 51.300 126.299 49.220 3.972 0.584 475.297
1.000 0.998 46.100 113.469 49.198 3.941 0.532 462.694
0.900 1.098 41.000 100.786 49.175 3.907 0.479 448.363
0.800 1.198 35.900 88.271 49.150 3.870 0.426 431.958
0.700 1.298 30.900 75.949 49.122 3.828 0.373 413.302
0.600 1.398 26.000 63.846 49.089 3.781 0.320 392.560
0.500 1.498 21.100 51.992 49.048 3.727 0.268 369.749
0.400 1.598 16.400 40.423 48.994 3.664 0.215 344.387
0.300 1.698 11.900 29.191 48.917 3.585 0.162 315.354
0.200 1.798 7.500 18.382 48.787 3.475 0.109 280.723
0.100 1.898 3.300 8.194 48.497 3.282 0.056 232.330
0.037 1.961 1.000 2.459 47.978 2.963 0.023 165.470
0.000 1.998 0.000 0.000 47.978 2.963 0.023 0.000

Appendix 1 • 651

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 245.966 49.375 –4.159 1.057 0.000
1.961 0.038 97.900 240.800 49.369 –4.153 1.037 539.733
1.900 0.098 94.600 232.574 49.360 –4.144 1.005 536.830
1.800 0.198 89.000 219.031 49.345 –4.128 0.953 531.593
1.700 0.298 83.600 205.546 49.330 –4.111 0.900 525.930
1.600 0.398 78.100 192.126 49.313 –4.092 0.848 519.630
1.500 0.498 72.700 178.778 49.296 –4.072 0.795 512.618
1.400 0.598 67.300 165.511 49.278 –4.050 0.743 504.900
1.300 0.698 61.900 152.334 49.260 –4.026 0.690 496.119
1.200 0.798 56.600 139.259 49.240 –4.001 0.637 486.390
1.100 0.898 51.300 126.299 49.220 –3.972 0.584 475.297
1.000 0.998 46.100 113.469 49.198 –3.941 0.532 462.694
0.900 1.098 41.000 100.786 49.175 –3.907 0.479 448.363
0.800 1.198 35.900 88.271 49.150 –3.870 0.426 431.958
0.700 1.298 30.900 75.949 49.122 –3.828 0.373 413.302
0.600 1.398 26.000 63.846 49.089 –3.781 0.320 392.560
0.500 1.498 21.100 51.992 49.048 –3.727 0.268 369.749
0.400 1.598 16.400 40.423 48.994 –3.664 0.215 344.387
0.300 1.698 11.900 29.191 48.917 –3.585 0.162 315.354
0.200 1.798 7.500 18.382 48.787 –3.475 0.109 280.723
0.100 1.898 3.300 8.194 48.497 –3.282 0.056 232.330
0.037 1.961 1.000 2.459 47.978 –2.963 0.023 165.470
0.000 1.998 0.000 0.000 47.978 –2.963 0.023 0.000


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 209.601 31.529 3.893 1.088 0.000
1.963 0.035 97.900 205.198 31.542 3.886 1.069 471.414
1.900 0.098 94.100 197.302 31.566 3.873 1.034 466.058
1.800 0.198 88.200 184.953 31.605 3.852 0.979 457.376
1.700 0.298 82.400 172.750 31.644 3.829 0.925 448.425
1.600 0.398 76.700 160.698 31.685 3.806 0.870 439.064
1.500 0.498 71.000 148.802 31.726 3.782 0.816 429.341
1.400 0.598 65.400 137.068 31.769 3.756 0.762 419.155
1.300 0.698 59.900 125.504 31.813 3.729 0.707 408.404
1.200 0.798 54.400 114.117 31.859 3.700 0.653 396.988
1.100 0.898 49.100 102.916 31.907 3.670 0.599 384.795
1.000 0.998 43.900 91.912 31.959 3.637 0.544 371.561
0.900 1.098 38.700 81.118 32.015 3.602 0.490 357.127
0.800 1.198 33.700 70.552 32.077 3.564 0.436 341.253
0.700 1.298 28.700 60.233 32.147 3.522 0.382 323.809
0.600 1.398 23.900 50.186 32.230 3.477 0.328 304.900
0.500 1.498 19.300 40.440 32.332 3.426 0.274 284.519
0.400 1.598 14.800 31.036 32.463 3.369 0.220 262.250
0.300 1.698 10.500 22.036 32.645 3.301 0.166 237.208
0.200 1.798 6.500 13.548 32.928 3.214 0.112 207.886
0.100 1.898 2.800 5.808 33.476 3.076 0.057 167.918
0.045 1.954 1.000 2.095 34.169 2.899 0.027 125.991
0.000 1.998 0.000 0.000 39.786 1.950 0.002 0.000

Appendix 1 • 653

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 209.601 31.529 –3.893 1.088 0.000
1.963 0.035 97.900 205.198 31.542 –3.886 1.069 471.414
1.900 0.098 94.100 197.302 31.566 –3.873 1.034 466.058
1.800 0.198 88.200 184.953 31.605 –3.852 0.979 457.376
1.700 0.298 82.400 172.750 31.644 –3.829 0.925 448.425
1.600 0.398 76.700 160.698 31.685 –3.806 0.870 439.064
1.500 0.498 71.000 148.802 31.726 –3.782 0.816 429.341
1.400 0.598 65.400 137.068 31.769 –3.756 0.762 419.155
1.300 0.698 59.900 125.504 31.813 –3.729 0.707 408.404
1.200 0.798 54.400 114.117 31.859 –3.700 0.653 396.988
1.100 0.898 49.100 102.916 31.907 –3.670 0.599 384.795
1.000 0.998 43.900 91.912 31.959 –3.637 0.544 371.561
0.900 1.098 38.700 81.118 32.015 –3.602 0.490 357.127
0.800 1.198 33.700 70.552 32.077 –3.564 0.436 341.253
0.700 1.298 28.700 60.233 32.147 –3.522 0.382 323.809
0.600 1.398 23.900 50.186 32.230 –3.477 0.328 304.900
0.500 1.498 19.300 40.440 32.332 –3.426 0.274 284.519
0.400 1.598 14.800 31.036 32.463 –3.369 0.220 262.250
0.300 1.698 10.500 22.036 32.645 –3.301 0.166 237.208
0.200 1.798 6.500 13.548 32.928 –3.214 0.112 207.886
0.100 1.898 2.800 5.808 33.476 –3.076 0.057 167.918
0.045 1.954 1.000 2.095 34.169 –2.899 0.027 125.991
0.000 1.998 0.000 0.000 39.786 –1.950 0.002 0.000


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 27.847 15.490 1.793 1.213 0.000
1.936 0.029 97.900 27.261 15.486 1.787 1.196 12.820
1.900 0.064 95.300 26.543 15.482 1.781 1.176 12.352
1.800 0.164 88.200 24.562 15.471 1.762 1.118 11.145
1.700 0.264 81.200 22.625 15.464 1.744 1.061 10.076
1.600 0.364 74.500 20.733 15.460 1.725 1.004 9.124
1.500 0.464 67.800 18.883 15.461 1.707 0.947 8.269
1.400 0.564 61.300 17.075 15.466 1.689 0.890 7.495
1.300 0.664 55.000 15.309 15.477 1.670 0.833 6.786
1.200 0.764 48.800 13.588 15.495 1.651 0.776 6.127
1.100 0.864 42.800 11.915 15.521 1.630 0.718 5.511
1.000 0.964 37.000 10.293 15.557 1.608 0.660 4.924
0.900 1.064 31.300 8.729 15.607 1.585 0.602 4.353
0.800 1.164 26.000 7.232 15.672 1.559 0.543 3.791
0.700 1.264 20.900 5.813 15.759 1.530 0.483 3.230
0.600 1.364 16.100 4.484 15.875 1.498 0.423 2.659
0.500 1.464 11.700 3.265 16.032 1.460 0.362 2.086
0.400 1.564 7.800 2.180 16.256 1.416 0.301 1.512
0.300 1.664 4.500 1.261 16.594 1.363 0.237 0.944
0.200 1.764 2.000 0.556 17.101 1.293 0.173 0.448
0.144 1.820 1.000 0.276 17.523 1.244 0.136 0.233
0.100 1.864 0.400 0.121 18.011 1.197 0.106 0.098
0.000 1.964 0.000 0.000 18.011 1.197 0.106 0.000

Appendix 1 • 655

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
2.000 0.000 100.000 27.847 15.490 –1.793 1.213 0.000
1.936 0.029 97.900 27.261 15.486 –1.787 1.196 12.820
1.900 0.064 95.300 26.543 15.482 –1.781 1.176 12.352
1.800 0.164 88.200 24.562 15.471 –1.762 1.118 11.145
1.700 0.264 81.200 22.625 15.464 –1.744 1.061 10.076
1.600 0.364 74.500 20.733 15.460 –1.725 1.004 9.124
1.500 0.464 67.800 18.883 15.461 –1.707 0.947 8.269
1.400 0.564 61.300 17.075 15.466 –1.689 0.890 7.495
1.300 0.664 55.000 15.309 15.477 –1.670 0.833 6.786
1.200 0.764 48.800 13.588 15.495 –1.651 0.776 6.127
1.100 0.864 42.800 11.915 15.521 –1.630 0.718 5.511
1.000 0.964 37.000 10.293 15.557 –1.608 0.660 4.924
0.900 1.064 31.300 8.729 15.607 –1.585 0.602 4.353
0.800 1.164 26.000 7.232 15.672 –1.559 0.543 3.791
0.700 1.264 20.900 5.813 15.759 –1.530 0.483 3.230
0.600 1.364 16.100 4.484 15.875 –1.498 0.423 2.659
0.500 1.464 11.700 3.265 16.032 –1.460 0.362 2.086
0.400 1.564 7.800 2.180 16.256 –1.416 0.301 1.512
0.300 1.664 4.500 1.261 16.594 –1.363 0.237 0.944
0.200 1.764 2.000 0.556 17.101 –1.293 0.173 0.448
0.144 1.820 1.000 0.276 17.523 –1.244 0.136 0.233
0.100 1.864 0.400 0.121 18.011 –1.197 0.106 0.098
0.000 1.964 0.000 0.000 18.011 –1.197 0.106 0.000
9781408176122_App01_2_Rev_txt_prf.indd 655 11/16/2013 2:40:54 AM

No. 1 Wing Tank Port

3
(m) (m) (%) (m ) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
4.600 0.000 100.000 32.219 85.533 3.587 8.904 0.000
4.569 0.032 97.900 31.542 85.509 3.586 8.881 18.861
4.400 0.201 87.200 28.090 85.376 3.582 8.757 17.263
4.200 0.401 75.400 24.307 85.204 3.582 8.610 15.462
4.000 0.601 64.700 20.841 85.010 3.586 8.462 13.760
3.800 0.801 54.900 17.683 84.791 3.595 8.312 12.127
3.600 1.001 46.000 14.831 84.546 3.610 8.161 10.516
3.400 1.201 38.100 12.286 84.274 3.631 8.007 8.906
3.200 1.401 31.200 10.043 83.975 3.658 7.852 7.380
3.000 1.601 25.100 8.088 83.647 3.691 7.695 5.861
2.800 1.801 19.900 6.413 83.302 3.728 7.537 4.289
2.600 2.001 15.600 5.010 82.972 3.762 7.379 2.844
2.400 2.201 12.000 3.855 82.673 3.792 7.221 1.844
2.200 2.401 9.000 2.914 82.399 3.817 7.066 1.198
2.000 2.601 6.700 2.153 82.141 3.840 6.912 0.758
1.800 2.801 4.800 1.546 81.896 3.861 6.758 0.465
1.600 3.001 3.300 1.071 81.663 3.880 6.604 0.273
1.400 3.201 2.200 0.709 81.442 3.898 6.452 0.152
1.200 3.401 1.400 0.444 81.234 3.913 6.300 0.080
1.079 3.521 1.000 0.322 81.110 3.923 6.209 0.052
1.000 3.601 0.800 0.256 81.028 3.929 6.149 0.037
0.800 3.801 0.400 0.131 80.825 3.945 5.998 0.016
0.600 4.001 0.200 0.055 80.624 3.961 5.846 0.005
0.400 4.201 0.100 0.017 80.435 3.977 5.695 0.001
0.200 4.401 0.000 0.002 80.247 3.995 5.544 0.000
0.000 4.601 0.000 0.000 80.247 3.995 5.544 0.000

Appendix 1 • 657
No. 1 Wing Tank Starboard

3
(m) (m) (%) (m ) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
4.600 0.000 100.000 32.219 85.533 –3.587 8.904 0.000
4.569 0.032 97.900 31.542 85.509 –3.586 8.881 18.861
4.400 0.201 87.200 28.090 85.376 –3.582 8.757 17.263
4.200 0.401 75.400 24.307 85.204 –3.582 8.610 15.462
4.000 0.601 64.700 20.841 85.010 –3.586 8.462 13.760
3.800 0.801 54.900 17.683 84.791 –3.595 8.312 12.127
3.600 1.001 46.000 14.831 84.546 –3.610 8.161 10.516
3.400 1.201 38.100 12.286 84.274 –3.631 8.007 8.906
3.200 1.401 31.200 10.043 83.975 –3.658 7.852 7.380
3.000 1.601 25.100 8.088 83.647 –3.691 7.695 5.861
2.800 1.801 19.900 6.413 83.302 –3.728 7.537 4.289
2.600 2.001 15.600 5.010 82.972 –3.762 7.379 2.844
2.400 2.201 12.000 3.855 82.673 –3.792 7.221 1.844
2.200 2.401 9.000 2.914 82.399 –3.817 7.066 1.198
2.000 2.601 6.700 2.153 82.141 –3.840 6.912 0.758
1.800 2.801 4.800 1.546 81.896 –3.861 6.758 0.465
1.600 3.001 3.300 1.071 81.663 –3.880 6.604 0.273
1.400 3.201 2.200 0.709 81.442 –3.898 6.452 0.152
1.200 3.401 1.400 0.444 81.234 –3.913 6.300 0.080
1.079 3.521 1.000 0.322 81.110 –3.923 6.209 0.052
1.000 3.601 0.800 0.256 81.028 –3.929 6.149 0.037
0.800 3.801 0.400 0.131 80.825 –3.945 5.998 0.016
0.600 4.001 0.200 0.055 80.624 –3.961 5.846 0.005
0.400 4.201 0.100 0.017 80.435 –3.977 5.695 0.001
0.200 4.401 0.000 0.002 80.247 –3.995 5.544 0.000
0.000 4.601 0.000 0.000 80.247 –3.995 5.544 0.000


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
8.000 0.000 100.000 200.066 68.448 6.039 7.300 0.000

7.912 0.088 97.900 195.846 68.419 6.035 7.242 40.949
7.500 0.500 88.300 176.612 68.280 6.016 6.974 38.082
7.000 1.000 77.200 154.486 68.095 5.995 6.647 34.849
6.500 1.500 66.800 133.717 67.890 5.976 6.320 31.648
6.000 2.000 57.100 114.332 67.662 5.960 5.993 28.639
5.500 2.500 48.200 96.334 67.406 5.947 5.664 25.757
5.000 3.000 39.900 79.766 67.116 5.937 5.334 22.783
4.500 3.500 32.300 64.655 66.786 5.931 5.002 19.845
4.000 4.000 25.500 51.041 66.410 5.930 4.667 16.764
3.500 4.500 19.500 38.982 65.980 5.933 4.331 13.511
3.000 5.000 14.300 28.538 65.500 5.939 3.992 10.215
2.500 5.500 9.900 19.735 64.962 5.948 3.650 7.321
2.000 6.000 6.300 12.604 64.352 5.961 3.306 4.773
1.500 6.500 3.600 7.174 63.672 5.978 2.959 2.676
1.000 7.000 1.700 3.398 62.935 5.999 2.617 1.185
0.731 7.269 1.000 1.995 62.530 6.010 2.437 0.666
0.500 7.500 0.600 1.103 62.192 6.019 2.288 0.362
0.000 8.000 0.000 0.000 62.192 6.019 2.288 0.000

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
8.000 0.000 100.000 200.066 68.448 –6.039 7.300 0.000

7.912 0.088 97.900 195.846 68.419 –6.035 7.242 40.949
7.500 0.500 88.300 176.612 68.280 –6.016 6.974 38.082
7.000 1.000 77.200 154.486 68.095 –5.995 6.647 34.849
6.500 1.500 66.800 133.717 67.890 –5.976 6.320 31.648

Appendix 1 • 659

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
6.000 2.000 57.100 114.332 67.662 –5.960 5.993 28.639

5.500 2.500 48.200 96.334 67.406 –5.947 5.664 25.757
5.000 3.000 39.900 79.766 67.116 –5.937 5.334 22.783
4.500 3.500 32.300 64.655 66.786 –5.931 5.002 19.845
4.000 4.000 25.500 51.041 66.410 –5.930 4.667 16.764
3.500 4.500 19.500 38.982 65.980 –5.933 4.331 13.511
3.000 5.000 14.300 28.538 65.500 –5.939 3.992 10.215
2.500 5.500 9.900 19.735 64.962 –5.948 3.650 7.321
2.000 6.000 6.300 12.604 64.352 –5.961 3.306 4.773
1.500 6.500 3.600 7.174 63.672 –5.978 2.959 2.676
1.000 7.000 1.700 3.398 62.935 –5.999 2.617 1.185
0.731 7.269 1.000 1.995 62.530 –6.010 2.437 0.666
0.500 7.500 0.600 1.103 62.192 –6.019 2.288 0.362
0.000 8.000 0.000 0.000 62.192 –6.019 2.288 0.000

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
8.000 0.000 100.000 337.599 49.589 7.068 6.103 0.000

7.848 0.152 98.000 330.846 49.581 7.067 6.025 0.000
7.841 0.159 97.900 330.509 49.581 7.067 6.022 18.331
7.500 0.500 93.400 315.380 49.564 7.065 5.847 18.201
7.000 1.000 86.900 293.245 49.537 7.062 5.590 18.016
6.500 1.500 80.300 271.197 49.509 7.058 5.333 17.817
6.000 2.000 73.800 249.251 49.478 7.055 5.076 17.605
5.500 2.500 67.400 227.409 49.446 7.051 4.819 17.404
5.000 3.000 60.900 205.675 49.410 7.047 4.562 17.201
4.500 3.500 54.500 184.065 49.371 7.043 4.305 16.968
4.000 4.000 48.200 162.591 49.328 7.038 4.048 16.744
3.500 4.500 41.800 141.265 49.280 7.033 3.791 16.502


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
3.000 5.000 35.600 120.112 49.226 7.027 3.534 16.235

2.500 5.500 29.400 99.159 49.163 7.021 3.277 15.949
2.000 6.000 23.200 78.448 49.089 7.014 3.020 15.617
1.500 6.500 17.200 58.043 49.001 7.006 2.763 15.232
1.000 7.000 11.300 38.047 48.894 6.996 2.507 14.743
0.500 7.500 5.500 18.621 48.764 6.984 2.252 14.088
0.092 7.908 1.000 3.368 48.635 6.973 2.046 13.337
0.000 8.000 0.000 0.000 48.635 6.973 2.046 0.000

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
8.000 0.000 100.000 337.599 49.589 –7.068 6.103 0.000

7.848 0.152 98.000 330.846 49.581 –7.067 6.025 0.000
7.841 0.159 97.900 330.509 49.581 –7.067 6.022 18.331
7.500 0.500 93.400 315.380 49.564 –7.065 5.847 18.201
7.000 1.000 86.900 293.245 49.537 –7.062 5.590 18.016
6.500 1.500 80.300 271.197 49.509 –7.058 5.333 17.817
6.000 2.000 73.800 249.251 49.478 –7.055 5.076 17.605
5.500 2.500 67.400 227.409 49.446 –7.051 4.819 17.404
5.000 3.000 60.900 205.675 49.410 –7.047 4.562 17.201
4.500 3.500 54.500 184.065 49.371 –7.043 4.305 16.968
4.000 4.000 48.200 162.591 49.328 –7.038 4.048 16.744
3.500 4.500 41.800 141.265 49.280 –7.033 3.791 16.502
3.000 5.000 35.600 120.112 49.226 –7.027 3.534 16.235
2.500 5.500 29.400 99.159 49.163 –7.021 3.277 15.949
2.000 6.000 23.200 78.448 49.089 –7.014 3.020 15.617
1.500 6.500 17.200 58.043 49.001 –7.006 2.763 15.232

Appendix 1 • 661

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
1.000 7.000 11.300 38.047 48.894 –6.996 2.507 14.743

0.500 7.500 5.500 18.621 48.764 –6.984 2.252 14.088
0.092 7.908 1.000 3.368 48.635 –6.973 2.046 13.337
0.000 8.000 0.000 0.000 48.635 –6.973 2.046 0.000

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
8.000 0.000 100.000 334.633 30.455 7.079 6.189 0.000

7.843 0.157 97.900 327.606 30.464 7.079 6.109 18.538
7.500 0.500 93.300 312.312 30.486 7.077 5.935 18.536
7.000 1.000 86.700 289.992 30.521 7.074 5.680 18.530
6.500 1.500 80.000 267.685 30.563 7.070 5.424 18.471
6.000 2.000 73.300 245.405 30.610 7.066 5.167 18.406
5.500 2.500 66.700 223.153 30.667 7.062 4.910 18.326
5.000 3.000 60.100 200.952 30.733 7.056 4.651 18.180
4.500 3.500 53.400 178.822 30.813 7.050 4.391 18.007
4.000 4.000 46.900 156.789 30.910 7.043 4.130 17.757
3.500 4.500 40.300 134.894 31.031 7.034 3.867 17.431
3.000 5.000 33.800 113.203 31.185 7.024 3.602 16.989
2.500 5.500 27.400 91.818 31.384 7.012 3.334 16.405
2.000 6.000 21.200 70.923 31.646 6.999 3.064 15.656
1.500 6.500 15.200 50.832 31.988 6.986 2.792 14.774
1.000 7.000 9.600 32.011 32.412 6.976 2.521 13.588
0.500 7.500 4.500 14.987 32.867 6.966 2.256 11.929
0.118 7.882 1.000 3.346 33.212 6.958 2.059 10.552
0.000 8.000 0.000 0.000 33.212 6.958 2.059 0.000


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
8.000 0.000 100.000 334.633 30.455 –7.079 6.189 0.000

7.843 0.157 97.900 327.606 30.464 –7.079 6.109 18.538
7.500 0.500 93.300 312.312 30.486 –7.077 5.935 18.536
7.000 1.000 86.700 289.992 30.521 –7.074 5.680 18.530
6.500 1.500 80.000 267.685 30.563 –7.070 5.424 18.471
6.000 2.000 73.300 245.405 30.610 –7.066 5.167 18.406
5.500 2.500 66.700 223.153 30.667 –7.062 4.910 18.326
5.000 3.000 60.100 200.952 30.733 –7.056 4.651 18.180
4.500 3.500 53.400 178.822 30.813 –7.050 4.391 18.007
4.000 4.000 46.900 156.789 30.910 –7.043 4.130 17.757
3.500 4.500 40.300 134.894 31.031 –7.034 3.867 17.431
3.000 5.000 33.800 113.203 31.185 –7.024 3.602 16.989
2.500 5.500 27.400 91.818 31.384 –7.012 3.334 16.405
2.000 6.000 21.200 70.923 31.646 –6.999 3.064 15.656
1.500 6.500 15.200 50.832 31.988 –6.986 2.792 14.774
1.000 7.000 9.600 32.011 32.412 –6.976 2.521 13.588
0.500 7.500 4.500 14.987 32.867 –6.966 2.256 11.929
0.118 7.882 1.000 3.346 33.212 –6.958 2.059 10.552
0.000 8.000 0.000 0.000 33.212 –6.958 2.059 0.000
Port Bunker

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
7.000 0.000 100.000 122.670 13.668 6.928 7.807 0.000

6.956 0.080 97.900 121.245 13.681 6.926 7.782 12.825
6.500 0.536 86.000 106.472 13.832 6.905 7.517 12.348
6.000 1.036 73.200 90.613 14.036 6.878 7.220 11.473

Appendix 1 • 663

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
5.500 1.536 60.700 75.229 14.301 6.847 6.914 10.494

5.000 2.036 48.800 60.492 14.648 6.812 6.597 9.326
4.500 2.536 37.700 46.660 15.116 6.774 6.265 7.995
4.000 3.036 27.500 34.112 15.743 6.736 5.914 6.676
3.500 3.536 19.000 23.475 16.486 6.699 5.547 5.110
3.000 4.036 12.300 15.224 17.174 6.656 5.179 3.568
2.500 4.536 7.400 9.124 17.780 6.600 4.812 2.297
2.000 5.036 3.900 4.860 18.313 6.527 4.445 1.292
1.500 5.536 1.700 2.140 18.785 6.433 4.077 0.572
1.241 5.795 1.000 1.241 19.010 6.374 3.884 0.311
1.000 6.036 0.500 0.667 19.208 6.315 3.705 0.154
0.500 6.536 0.100 0.091 19.592 6.176 3.331 0.014
0.000 7.036 0.000 0.000 19.984 1.902 4.502 0.000
Starboard Bunker

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
7.000 0.000 100.000 122.670 13.668 –6.928 7.807 0.000

6.956 0.080 97.900 121.245 13.681 –6.926 7.782 12.825
6.500 0.536 86.000 106.472 13.832 –6.905 7.517 12.348
6.000 1.036 73.200 90.613 14.036 –6.878 7.220 11.473
5.500 1.536 60.700 75.229 14.301 –6.847 6.914 10.494
5.000 2.036 48.800 60.492 14.648 –6.812 6.597 9.326
4.500 2.536 37.700 46.660 15.116 –6.774 6.265 7.995
4.000 3.036 27.500 34.112 15.743 –6.736 5.914 6.676
3.500 3.536 19.000 23.475 16.486 –6.699 5.547 5.110
3.000 4.036 12.300 15.224 17.174 –6.656 5.179 3.568
2.500 4.536 7.400 9.124 17.780 –6.600 4.812 2.297
2.000 5.036 3.900 4.860 18.313 –6.527 4.445 1.292


(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
1.500 5.536 1.700 2.140 18.785 –6.433 4.077 0.572

1.241 5.795 1.000 1.241 19.010 –6.374 3.884 0.311
1.000 6.036 0.500 0.667 19.208 –6.315 3.705 0.154
0.500 6.536 0.100 0.091 19.592 –6.176 3.331 0.014
0.000 7.036 0.000 0.000 19.984 –1.902 4.502 0.000
Fore Peak

(m) (m) (%) (m3) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
7.000 0.000 100.000 69.778 98.044 0.000 2.957 0.000

6.788 0.212 97.900 68.313 98.064 0.000 2.873 1.259
6.500 0.500 95.200 66.442 98.091 0.000 2.767 1.043
6.000 1.000 90.900 63.418 98.138 0.000 2.600 0.815
5.500 1.500 86.800 60.534 98.186 0.000 2.450 0.738
5.000 2.000 82.600 57.619 98.236 0.000 2.309 0.779
4.500 2.500 78.100 54.481 98.290 0.000 2.168 0.951
4.000 3.000 72.800 50.788 98.343 0.000 2.018 1.382
3.500 3.500 66.100 46.142 98.391 0.000 1.844 2.337
3.000 4.000 57.600 40.202 98.418 0.000 1.638 3.830
2.500 4.500 47.600 33.192 98.426 0.000 1.404 5.255
2.000 5.000 36.600 25.547 98.420 0.000 1.151 6.199
1.500 5.500 25.300 17.654 98.395 0.000 0.884 6.237
1.000 6.000 14.400 10.017 98.333 0.000 0.602 4.986
0.500 6.500 5.000 3.512 98.166 0.000 0.306 2.263
0.180 6.820 1.000 0.697 97.905 0.000 0.111 0.493
0.000 7.000 0.000 0.000 97.905 0.000 0.111 0.000

Appendix 1 • 665
After Peak
Sounding Ullage Fill (%) Capacity LCG TCG KG FSM

3
(m) (m) (m ) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
6.954 0.000 100.000 106.994 2.398 0.000 5.511 0.000
6.925 0.030 97.900 104.747 2.411 0.000 5.479 778.357
6.500 0.454 70.400 75.370 2.638 0.000 4.978 456.216
6.000 0.954 45.600 48.819 2.987 0.000 4.253 185.227
5.500 1.454 29.900 31.971 3.297 0.000 3.427 53.167
5.000 1.954 22.200 23.780 3.340 0.000 2.772 10.366
4.500 2.454 18.700 20.001 3.287 0.000 2.385 1.710
4.000 2.954 16.600 17.717 3.251 0.000 2.137 0.531
3.500 3.454 14.700 15.752 3.239 0.000 1.929 0.381
3.000 3.954 12.800 13.671 3.247 0.000 1.722 0.453
2.500 4.454 10.600 11.312 3.277 0.000 1.500 0.629
2.000 4.954 8.100 8.652 3.340 0.000 1.256 0.851
1.500 5.454 5.400 5.786 3.460 0.000 0.990 1.013
1.000 5.954 2.800 2.994 3.680 0.000 0.700 0.940
0.577 6.377 1.000 1.066 4.015 0.000 0.436 0.559
0.500 6.454 0.700 0.799 4.096 0.000 0.386 0.456
0.000 6.954 0.000 0.000 4.824 0.000 0.046 0.000

Grain Hold Data
Sounding (m) Grain volume Grain KG Volumetric heeling Grain TCG Grain LCG
(m3) (m) moment (m4) (m) (m FOAP)
8.00 1,200 6.00 102.00 0 50

7.50 1,125 5.75 327.60 0 50
7.00 1,050 5.50 590.40 0 50
6.50 975 5.25 789.60 0 50
6.00 900 5.00 925.20 0 50
5.50 825 4.75 1,006.80 0 50
5.00 750 4.50 1,006.80 0 50
4.50 675 4.25 1,006.80 0 50
4.00 600 4.00 1,006.80 0 50
3.50 525 3.75 1,006.80 0 50
3.00 450 3.50 1,006.80 0 50
2.50 375 3.25 804.00 0 50
2.00 300 3.00 705.00 0 50
1.50 225 2.75 608.00 0 50
1.00 150 2.50 506.00 0 50
0.50 75 2.25 360.00 0 50
0.00 0 2.00 0.00 0 50
Maximum Permissible Mass Grain Heeling Moments (tonne metres)
Displacement Effective KG values (m)

(tonnes)
5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00
8,750 4,824.1 4,460.2 4,096.4 3,732.5 3,368.7 3,004.8

8,604 4,685.6 4,327.8 3,970.0 3,612.3 3,254.5 2,896.7
8,460 4,550.2 4,198.4 3,846.6 3,494.8 3,143.0 2,791.2
8,315 4,416.2 4,070.4 3,724.7 3,378.9 3,033.1 2,687.4
8,172 4,286.9 3,947.1 3,607.3 3,267.5 2,927.6 2,587.8

Appendix 1 • 667

(tonnes)
5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00
8,029 4,159.5 3,825.6 3,491.7 3,157.9 2,824.0 2,490.1

7,887 4,032.8 3,704.8 3,376.8 3,048.9 2,720.9 2,393.0
7,746 3,911.8 3,589.7 3,267.6 2,945.5 2,623.4 2,301.3
7,606 3,791.5 3,475.2 3,158.9 2,842.6 2,526.3 2,210.1
7,467 3,675.0 3,364.5 3,054.0 2,743.5 2,433.0 2,122.5
7,329 3,560.8 3,256.1 2,951.3 2,646.6 2,341.8 2,037.0
7,192 3,450.4 3,151.3 2,852.3 2,553.2 2,254.1 1,955.1
7,056 3,342.1 3,048.7 2,755.3 2,461.9 2,168.5 1,875.1
6,921 3,238.9 2,951.1 2,663.3 2,375.5 2,087.7 1,799.9
6,787 3,137.6 2,855.4 2,573.2 2,290.9 2,008.7 1,726.5
6,654 3,041.1 2,764.5 2,487.8 2,211.1 1,934.4 1,657.7
6,522 2,946.6 2,675.4 2,404.2 2,133.0 1,861.8 1,590.6
6,392 2,857.0 2,591.2 2,325.4 2,059.6 1,793.8 1,528.0
6,263 2,771.7 2,511.3 2,250.8 1,990.4 1,730.0 1,469.5
6,135 2,689.3 2,434.2 2,179.1 1,924.0 1,668.9 1,413.8
6,008 2,611.0 2,361.2 2,111.3 1,861.5 1,611.7 1,361.9
5,882 2,535.3 2,290.7 2,046.1 1,801.6 1,557.0 1,312.4
5,757 2,464.6 2,225.2 1,985.8 1,746.5 1,507.1 1,267.7
5,634 2,396.7 2,162.4 1,928.1 1,693.9 1,459.6 1,225.3
5,511 2,332.9 2,103.8 1,874.6 1,645.5 1,416.3 1,187.1
5,390 2,272.8 2,048.7 1,824.6 1,600.4 1,376.3 1,152.2
5,269 2,214.2 1,995.1 1,776.0 1,556.9 1,337.8 1,118.7
5,150 2,161.2 1,947.1 1,732.9 1,518.8 1,304.6 1,090.5
5,031 2,110.4 1,901.2 1,692.0 1,482.8 1,273.6 1,064.4
4,913 2,062.2 1,857.9 1,653.6 1,449.3 1,245.1 1,040.8
4,796 2,017.4 1,818.0 1,618.6 1,419.2 1,219.7 1,020.3
4,680 1,975.8 1,781.2 1,586.6 1,392.0 1,197.4 1,002.8


(tonnes)
6.00 6.20 6.40 6.60 6.80 7.00
8,750 3,004.8 2,641.0 2,277.1 1,913.3 1,549.4 1,185.6
8,604 2,896.7 2,538.9 2,181.2 1,823.4 1,465.6 1,107.8
8,460 2,791.2 2,439.4 2,087.6 1,735.9 1,384.1 1,032.3
8,315 2,687.4 2,341.6 1,995.9 1,650.1 1,304.4 958.6
8,172 2,587.8 2,248.0 1,908.2 1,568.4 1,228.6 888.8
8,029 2,490.1 2,156.3 1,822.4 1,488.6 1,154.7 820.8
7,887 2,393.0 2,065.0 1,737.0 1,409.1 1,081.1 753.2
7,746 2,301.3 1,979.2 1,657.1 1,335.0 1,012.9 690.8
7,606 2,210.1 1,893.8 1,577.5 1,261.2 945.0 628.7
7,467 2,122.5 1,812.0 1,501.6 1,191.1 880.6 570.1
7,329 2,037.0 1,732.3 1,427.5 1,122.8 818.0 513.3
7,192 1,955.1 1,656.0 1,357.0 1,057.9 758.8 459.8
7,056 1,875.1 1,581.7 1,288.3 994.8 701.4 408.0
6,921 1,799.9 1,512.1 1,224.3 936.5 648.7 360.9
6,787 1,726.5 1,444.3 1,162.1 879.8 597.6 315.4
6,654 1,657.7 1,381.0 1,104.3 827.6 550.9 274.3
6,522 1,590.6 1,319.4 1,048.2 777.0 505.8 234.6
6,392 1,528.0 1,262.2 996.4 730.6 464.8 199.0
6,263 1,469.5 1,209.1 948.7 688.2 427.8 167.4
6,135 1,413.8 1,158.7 903.6 648.5 393.4 138.2
6,008 1,361.9 1,112.0 862.2 612.4 362.5 112.7
5,882 1,312.4 1,067.8 823.2 578.6 334.0 89.4
5,757 1,267.7 1,028.3 788.9 549.5 310.1 70.7
5,634 1,225.3 991.0 756.8 522.5 288.2 53.9
5,511 1,187.1 958.0 728.8 499.7 270.5 41.3

Appendix 1 • 669

(tonnes)
6.00 6.20 6.40 6.60 6.80 7.00
5,390 1,152.2 928.1 703.9 479.8 255.7 31.5
5,269 1,118.7 899.6 680.5 461.4 242.3 23.3
5,150 1,090.5 876.3 662.2 448.0 233.9 19.7
5,031 1,064.4 855.2 646.0 436.8 227.6 18.4
4,913 1,040.8 836.5 632.2 427.9 223.6 19.3
4,796 1,020.3 820.9 621.4 422.0 222.6 23.2
4,680 1,002.8 808.2 613.6 419.0 224.4 29.8

(tonnes)
5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00
4,680 1,975.8 1,781.2 1,586.6 1,392.0 1,197.4 1,002.8
4,565 1,936.2 1,746.4 1,556.6 1,366.7 1,176.9 987.1
4,451 1,900.4 1,715.3 1,530.2 1,345.1 1,160.1 975.0
4,337 1,866.7 1,686.3 1,506.0 1,325.6 1,145.3 965.0
4,224 1,835.3 1,659.6 1,484.0 1,308.4 1,132.7 957.1
4,112 1,806.9 1,635.9 1,464.9 1,294.0 1,123.0 952.0
4,001 1,780.4 1,614.1 1,447.7 1,281.3 1,114.9 948.6
3,890 1,756.0 1,594.3 1,432.5 1,270.8 1,109.0 947.2
3,781 1,735.1 1,577.9 1,420.7 1,263.4 1,106.2 949.0
3,671 1,714.5 1,561.8 1,409.2 1,256.5 1,103.9 951.2
3,563 1,697.5 1,549.3 1,401.2 1,253.0 1,104.9 956.7
3,455 1,681.5 1,537.8 1,394.1 1,250.5 1,106.8 963.1
3,348 1,667.2 1,528.0 1,388.8 1,249.6 1,110.4 971.2
3,241 1,655.4 1,520.7 1,385.9 1,251.1 1,116.4 981.6
3,136 1,645.3 1,514.9 1,384.5 1,254.1 1,123.7 993.3


(tonnes)
5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00
3,030 1,636.2 1,510.2 1,384.2 1,258.2 1,132.2 1,006.2
2,926 1,629.9 1,508.2 1,386.6 1,264.9 1,143.2 1,021.5
2,822 1,624.3 1,506.9 1,389.6 1,272.2 1,154.9 1,037.6
2,718 1,620.0 1,507.0 1,394.0 1,280.9 1,167.9 1,054.9
2,615 1,617.1 1,508.4 1,399.6 1,290.9 1,182.1 1,073.4
2,513 1,616.1 1,511.6 1,407.1 1,302.6 1,198.1 1,093.6
2,412 1,616.9 1,516.6 1,416.3 1,316.0 1,215.7 1,115.4
2,311 1,618.1 1,522.0 1,425.9 1,329.8 1,233.7 1,137.6
2,211 1,620.5 1,528.6 1,436.7 1,344.7 1,252.8 1,160.8
2,111 1,623.2 1,535.4 1,447.6 1,359.8 1,272.1 1,184.3
2,012 1,627.1 1,543.5 1,459.8 1,376.1 1,292.5 1,208.8
1,914 1,632.2 1,552.6 1,473.0 1,393.4 1,313.8 1,234.2
1,816 1,636.7 1,561.2 1,485.7 1,410.2 1,334.7 1,259.2
1,720 1,642.8 1,571.3 1,499.7 1,428.2 1,356.7 1,285.2
1,624 1,648.5 1,581.0 1,513.5 1,445.9 1,378.4 1,310.9

(tonnes)
6.00 6.20 6.40 6.60 6.80 7.00
4,680 1,002.8 808.2 613.6 419.0 224.4 29.8
4,565 987.1 797.3 607.5 417.6 227.8 38.0
4,451 975.0 789.9 604.8 419.7 234.6 49.6
4,337 965.0 784.6 604.3 423.9 243.6 63.2
4,224 957.1 781.4 605.8 430.1 254.5 78.9
4,112 952.0 781.0 610.0 439.0 268.0 97.1
4,001 948.6 782.2 615.8 449.5 283.1 116.7

Appendix 1 • 671

(tonnes)
6.00 6.20 6.40 6.60 6.80 7.00
3,890 947.2 785.5 623.7 462.0 300.2 138.5
3,781 949.0 791.8 634.5 477.3 320.1 162.9
3,671 951.2 798.6 645.9 493.3 340.6 188.0
3,563 956.7 808.5 660.4 512.2 364.1 215.9
3,455 963.1 819.5 675.8 532.1 388.5 244.8
3,348 971.2 831.9 692.7 553.5 414.3 275.1
3,241 981.6 846.8 712.1 577.3 442.5 307.8
3,136 993.3 862.9 732.5 602.1 471.7 341.3
3,030 1,006.2 880.2 754.2 628.2 502.2 376.2
2,926 1,021.5 899.9 778.2 656.5 534.9 413.2
2,822 1,037.6 920.2 802.9 685.5 568.2 450.8
2,718 1,054.9 941.9 828.9 715.8 602.8 489.8
2,615 1,073.4 964.7 855.9 747.2 638.5 529.7
2,513 1,093.6 989.1 884.6 780.1 675.6 571.1
2,412 1,115.4 1,015.1 914.8 814.5 714.2 613.9
2,311 1,137.6 1,041.5 945.4 849.3 753.2 657.1
2,211 1,160.8 1,068.9 977.0 885.0 793.1 701.1
2,111 1,184.3 1,096.5 1,008.7 920.9 833.2 745.4
2,012 1,208.8 1,125.1 1,041.5 957.8 874.2 790.5
1,914 1,234.2 1,154.7 1,075.1 995.5 915.9 836.3
1,816 1,259.2 1,183.6 1,108.1 1,032.6 957.1 881.6
1,720 1,285.2 1,213.7 1,142.1 1,070.6 999.1 927.6
1,624 1,310.9 1,243.4 1,175.8 1,108.3 1,040.8 973.2

KN Data (Free to Trim, Based on Zero Trim)
Displacement 0 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 35 40
(tonnes) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)
1,600 0.00 0.85 1.68 2.01 2.47 3.15 3.72 4.22 4.66 5.07
1,800 0.00 0.80 1.59 1.91 2.35 3.03 3.62 4.13 4.59 5.01
9781408176122_App01_3_Rev_txt_prf.indd 672
2,000 0.00 0.76 1.52 1.82 2.25 2.93 3.53 4.05 4.53 4.97
2,200 0.00 0.73 1.46 1.75 2.17 2.85 3.45 3.99 4.48 4.94
2,400 0.00 0.71 1.41 1.70 2.11 2.77 3.39 3.94 4.44 4.91
2,600 0.00 0.69 1.37 1.65 2.05 2.71 3.33 3.89 4.40 4.89
2,800 0.00 0.67 1.34 1.61 2.00 2.66 3.28 3.85 4.38 4.87
3,000 0.00 0.65 1.31 1.58 1.96 2.61 3.24 3.82 4.36 4.87
3,200 0.00 0.64 1.29 1.55 1.93 2.57 3.20 3.79 4.34 4.86
3,400 0.00 0.63 1.27 1.53 1.91 2.54 3.17 3.77 4.33 4.86
3,600 0.00 0.63 1.25 1.51 1.88 2.52 3.14 3.75 4.32 4.87
3,800 0.00 0.62 1.24 1.50 1.87 2.50 3.12 3.74 4.32 4.87
4,000 0.00 0.61 1.23 1.48 1.85 2.48 3.11 3.72 4.32 4.88
4,200 0.00 0.61 1.22 1.48 1.84 2.47 3.09 3.72 4.32 4.89
4,400 0.00 0.61 1.22 1.47 1.83 2.46 3.09 3.71 4.32 4.90
4,600 0.00 0.61 1.22 1.47 1.83 2.45 3.08 3.71 4.32 4.92
4,800 0.00 0.61 1.21 1.46 1.83 2.45 3.08 3.71 4.33 4.93
5,000 0.00 0.61 1.21 1.46 1.83 2.45 3.08 3.71 4.34 4.93
11/16/2013 2:37:03 AM
Displacement 0 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 35 40
(tonnes) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)
5,200 0.00 0.61 1.21 1.46 1.83 2.45 3.08 3.71 4.35 4.94
5,400 0.00 0.61 1.22 1.46 1.83 2.45 3.08 3.72 4.36 4.94
5,600 0.00 0.61 1.22 1.47 1.83 2.45 3.09 3.73 4.37 4.94
5,800 0.00 0.61 1.22 1.47 1.84 2.46 3.09 3.74 4.38 4.94
6,000 0.00 0.61 1.23 1.47 1.84 2.47 3.10 3.75 4.39 4.93
6,200 0.00 0.61 1.23 1.48 1.85 2.48 3.11 3.76 4.39 4.93
6,400 0.00 0.62 1.24 1.49 1.86 2.49 3.13 3.78 4.39 4.92
6,600 0.00 0.62 1.24 1.50 1.87 2.50 3.14 3.79 4.39 4.91
6,800 0.00 0.62 1.25 1.51 1.88 2.51 3.15 3.80 4.39 4.89
7,000 0.00 0.63 1.26 1.52 1.89 2.52 3.17 3.81 4.39 4.88
7,200 0.00 0.63 1.26 1.52 1.90 2.54 3.18 3.82 4.38 4.86
7,400 0.00 0.64 1.27 1.54 1.91 2.55 3.20 3.82 4.37 4.84
7,600 0.00 0.64 1.28 1.55 1.92 2.56 3.21 3.82 4.36 4.82
7,800 0.00 0.64 1.29 1.56 1.93 2.58 3.23 3.82 4.34 4.80
8,000 0.00 0.65 1.29 1.57 1.94 2.59 3.24 3.82 4.33 4.77
8,200 0.00 0.65 1.30 1.58 1.95 2.61 3.25 3.81 4.31 4.75
8,400 0.00 0.66 1.31 1.58 1.96 2.62 3.25 3.80 4.29 4.72
8,600 0.00 0.66 1.32 1.59 1.98 2.64 3.25 3.79 4.27 4.69
8,800 0.00 0.66 1.33 1.60 1.99 2.65 3.25 3.78 4.25 4.67
9,000 0.00 0.67 1.33 1.61 2.00 2.66 3.25 3.76 4.23 4.64
Appendix 1 • 673
11/16/2013 2:37:04 AM
Displacement 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 90
(tonnes) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)
1,600 5.43 5.75 6.07 6.39 6.63 6.76 6.81 6.76 6.47
1,800 5.40 5.76 6.12 6.44 6.67 6.80 6.83 6.77 6.44
2,000 5.38 5.78 6.16 6.48 6.69 6.81 6.83 6.77 6.42
2,200 5.37 5.79 6.19 6.50 6.71 6.81 6.83 6.76 6.41
2,400 5.36 5.81 6.21 6.51 6.71 6.81 6.82 6.75 6.39
2,600 5.36 5.82 6.23 6.52 6.70 6.79 6.80 6.73 6.37
2,800 5.36 5.84 6.24 6.52 6.70 6.78 6.78 6.71 6.35
3,000 5.36 5.85 6.24 6.52 6.68 6.76 6.76 6.68 6.34
3,200 5.37 5.86 6.24 6.51 6.67 6.74 6.73 6.66 6.32
3,400 5.38 5.86 6.23 6.49 6.65 6.72 6.71 6.64 6.30
3,600 5.40 5.86 6.22 6.48 6.63 6.70 6.69 6.61 6.28
3,800 5.41 5.86 6.21 6.46 6.61 6.67 6.66 6.59 6.26
4,000 5.41 5.86 6.20 6.44 6.58 6.65 6.64 6.57 6.24
4,200 5.42 5.85 6.18 6.41 6.56 6.62 6.62 6.54 6.23
4,400 5.43 5.84 6.16 6.39 6.53 6.60 6.59 6.52 6.21
4,600 5.43 5.83 6.14 6.36 6.51 6.57 6.57 6.50 6.20
4,800 5.43 5.82 6.12 6.34 6.48 6.54 6.54 6.48 6.18
5,000 5.42 5.81 6.10 6.31 6.45 6.52 6.52 6.46 6.17
5,200 5.42 5.79 6.08 6.29 6.42 6.49 6.49 6.43 6.15
5,400 5.41 5.78 6.06 6.26 6.39 6.46 6.47 6.41 6.14
11/16/2013 2:37:04 AM
Displacement 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 90
(tonnes) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)
5,600 5.40 5.76 6.04 6.24 6.37 6.43 6.44 6.39 6.12
5,800 5.39 5.74 6.01 6.21 6.34 6.41 6.42 6.37 6.11
6,000 5.38 5.72 5.99 6.18 6.31 6.38 6.39 6.34 6.10
6,200 5.36 5.70 5.97 6.16 6.29 6.36 6.37 6.32 6.08
6,400 5.35 5.68 5.94 6.13 6.26 6.33 6.34 6.30 6.07
6,600 5.33 5.66 5.92 6.11 6.24 6.31 6.32 6.28 6.06
6,800 5.31 5.64 5.90 6.09 6.21 6.28 6.30 6.26 6.04
7,000 5.29 5.61 5.87 6.06 6.19 6.26 6.28 6.24 6.03
7,200 5.26 5.59 5.85 6.04 6.17 6.24 6.26 6.22 6.02
7,400 5.24 5.56 5.82 6.01 6.14 6.22 6.24 6.21 6.01
7,600 5.21 5.54 5.79 5.98 6.12 6.19 6.22 6.19 6.00
7,800 5.18 5.51 5.76 5.96 6.09 6.17 6.20 6.18 5.99
8,000 5.16 5.48 5.74 5.93 6.07 6.15 6.18 6.16 5.98
8,200 5.13 5.45 5.71 5.91 6.05 6.13 6.17 6.15 5.98
8,400 5.10 5.42 5.68 5.88 6.02 6.11 6.15 6.14 5.98
8,600 5.07 5.38 5.64 5.85 6.00 6.09 6.14 6.13 5.97
8,800 5.03 5.35 5.61 5.82 5.97 6.07 6.12 6.12 5.97
9,000 5.00 5.32 5.58 5.79 5.95 6.05 6.10 6.11 5.97
These KN values have been calculated with the vessel on an even keel.
Appendix 1 • 675
11/16/2013 2:37:05 AM
Down-Flooding Angle Data
Draught (m) Displacement Down-flooding angle

(tonnes) (degrees)
8.00 8,750 27.50

7.90 8,604 28.30
7.80 8,460 29.10
7.70 8,315 29.90
7.60 8,172 30.70
7.50 8,029 31.50
7.40 7,887 32.24
7.30 7,746 32.98
7.20 7,606 33.72
7.10 7,467 34.46
7.00 7,329 35.20
6.90 7,192 35.88
6.80 7,056 36.56
6.70 6,921 37.24
6.60 6,787 37.92
6.50 6,654 38.60
6.40 6,522 39.24
6.30 6,392 39.88
6.20 6,263 40.52
6.10 6,135 41.16
6.00 6,008 41.80
5.90 5,882 41.88
5.80 5,757 41.96
5.70 5,634 42.04
5.60 5,511 42.12
5.50 5,390 42.20
5.40 5,269 43.30
5.30 5,150 44.40
5.20 5,031 45.50
5.10 4,913 46.60
5.00 4,796 47.70

Appendix 1 • 677
Draught (m) Displacement Down-flooding angle

(tonnes) (degrees)
4.90 4,680 48.26

4.80 4,565 48.82
4.70 4,451 49.38
4.60 4,337 49.94
4.50 4,224 50.50
4.40 4,112 51.02
4.30 4,001 51.54
4.20 3,890 52.06
4.10 3,781 52.58
4.00 3,671 53.10
3.90 3,563 53.60
3.80 3,455 54.10
3.70 3,348 54.60
3.60 3,241 55.10
3.50 3,136 55.60
3.40 3,030 56.08
3.30 2,926 56.56
3.20 2,822 57.04
3.10 2,718 57.52
3.00 2,615 58.00
2.90 2,513 58.50
2.80 2,412 59.00
2.70 2,311 59.50
2.60 2,211 60.00
2.50 2,111 60.50
2.40 2,012 61.12
2.30 1,914 61.74
2.20 1,816 62.36
2.10 1,720 62.98
2.00 1,624 63.60
These down-flooding angle values have been calculated with the vessel on an even
keel and assuming that the sea surface is flat. The angles may be reduced in the event
of a swell or a trimmed vessel.

Limiting KG Data
Displacement Limiting KG (m) SOLAS criteria Section
2,600 7.375 A.749(18) Ch3 – Design criteria 3.1.2.1: Area 30 to 40

applicable to all ships

Appendix 1 • 679
Displacement Limiting KG (m) SOLAS criteria Section


APPENDIX 2
DERIVATION OF
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
FOR BOX SHAPED VESSELS
When an object is immersed or partially immersed in a fluid it will experience ‘hydrostatic
pressure’. This is a pressure which is the result of the weight of the static fluid pushing
from above and from the sides of the object. For any depth of submergence in a fluid,
the hydrostatic pressure, P, can be found from:
P ρ g×h
In this equation, P is in units of Newtons per metre squared, g is the acceleration due
to gravity, which can be taken to be 9.81 m/s2, ρ is the fluid density in kilograms per
metres cubed (taken to be 1025 kg/m3 for seawater, and 1000 kg/m3 for fresh water)
and h is the depth of submersion in the fluid in metres. As g and ρ are constant for a
given fluid, it can be seen that the hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth.
Increasing water depth
▲ Figure A2.1 Hydrostatic pressure on a box shaped vessel
9781408176122_App02_Rev_txt_prf.indd 680 11/16/2013 2:43:33 AM

Appendix 2 • 681
Consider a simple box shaped vessel partially submerged in a fluid, as shown in Figure
A2.1. The hydrostatic pressure (indicated by the arrows) will push at right angles
against any surface of the vessel in contact with the fluid, and as the depth increases,
the hydrostatic pressure increases.
The hydrostatic pressure acting on the sides of the vessel acts to ‘crush’ the vessel
inwards. In the case of a box shaped vessel, this produces no vertical force, but the
hydrostatic pressure acting upwards on the keel plates of the vessel creates an upwards
force – this is the buoyancy force. The force created as a result of pressure can be found
from:
Force Pressure × Area
The buoyancy force is created by the hydrostatic pressure pushing upwards on the keel
of the vessel, therefore in the context of buoyancy:
Buoyancy force
o ce Hyd ostat c pressure
Hydrostatic r × Keel area
Combining these equations gives an expression for the buoyancy force:
Buoyancy force ρ × g × h K
Keel
eel area
For the box shaped vessel shown in Figure A2.1, the keel area can be found from the
length (in units of metres) and the beam (also in units of metres) of the vessel:
Keel area = Length × Beam = L B
Combining these equations gives an expression for the buoyancy force acting on the
vessel:
Buoyancy force ρ × g × h L × B
The pressure is acting on the keel, so the depth at the point where the pressure is acting
to create buoyancy is the same as the draught of the vessel, given the symbol D, and
measured in metres. Therefore:
Buoyancy force ρ×g×D L×B
If we examine this equation, we can see that the last three terms are the draught, length
and beam of the vessel. For a box shaped vessel, the underwater volume can be found
by multiplying the length, beam and draught, therefore:
Buoyancy force ρ × g × Underwater volume

The underwater volume of the object is given the symbol ∇, and is measured in units
of m3. Using this notation:
Buoyancy force ρ×g×∇
The mass (in kilograms) of an object is found by multiplying the volume of an object
(in metres cubed) by the density of the object (in kilograms per metres cubed). If we
consider the amount of water displaced, or pushed aside by a vessel, it will therefore be
equal to the underwater volume of the ship, multiplied by the density of water:
Mass of fluid displaced = ∇ × ρ
The weight (in Newtons) of an object is equal to the mass of an object multiplied by the
acceleration due to gravity, therefore:
Weight of fluid displaced = ρ × g × ∇
As can be seen:
Buoyancy force
o ce W
Weigh
e g t of ffluid
u d displaced
This confirms Archimedes’ Principle, which states that:
When an object is immersed or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an

upwards thrust equal to the weight of water that it pushes aside, or displaces.

APPENDIX 3
DERIVATION OF
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
FOR SEMICIRCULAR
SECTION VESSELS
Consider a vessel with a length L, and a constant semi-circular cross-section, as shown
in Figure A3.1.
θ =π θ =0
dθ
r θ
dA
▲ Figure A3.1 Definitions for a semi-circular hull form
An element of surface area L dA will have an area given by Lr dθ. Therefore:
= Lr dθ
The vertical depth underwater of the element dA can be found by resolving the radius
of the hull and the angle θ:
Dept
e h r sinθ

The hydrostatic pressure acting on the element can be found from:

P ρ g×h
Therefore:
P ρ g × r sinθ
The normal force acting on the element can be found by multiplying the element area
by the hydrostatic pressure, giving:
Force ρ × g × r × sinθ dA
The force can be resolved into a vertical component, which is buoyancy:

Buoyancy =ρ × g × r × sin
n2 θ dA
d
The element dA can be expressed in terms of the geometry:
dA = Lr dθ
This gives:
Buoyancy =ρ × g × r 2 × L sin2 θ dθ
The buoyancy can be integrated to determine the overall buoyancy force:

π
o cy ρ × g × r 2
Total buoyanc L∫ssin
n2 θ d θ
0
π
⎡θ 1 ⎤
o cy ρ × g × r 2
Total buoyanc L× − sin θ ⎥
⎣2 4 ⎦0
⎡⎛ π 1 ⎞ ⎛0 1 ⎞⎤
o cy ρ × g × r 2
Total buoyanc L×⎢ − sin2 π sin0 ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠ ⎝2 4 ⎠⎦
⎡⎛ π ⎞ ⎤
o cy ρ × g × r 2
Total buoyanc L×⎢ − ( 0 )⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
π
o cy ρ × g × r 2
Total buoyanc L×
2
The underwater volume can be determined from the cross-sectional area and the
length:
∇ = Underwater cross section area × Length

Appendix 3 • 685
1 π
∇= × π × r2 × L = × r2 × L
2 2
The weight of displaced fluid can be found:
Displaced ffluid = ∇ × ρ × g
π 2
Displaced ffluid = ×r L×ρ×g
2
Archimedes tells us that the buoyancy force is equal to the displaced mass, which can
be seen from these equations.

APPENDIX 4
LINEAR INTERPOLATION
USING THE EQUATION OF
A STRAIGHT LINE
As an alternative method, the formula for a linear equation can be used to calculate the
value. A straight line on a graph always follows the following equation:
y = mx + c
In this, y is the value up the y axis of a graph, m is the gradient or slope of the line, x is
the value along the x axis and c is the point where the line will cross the y axis.
Using the graph in Figure 1.5, and the data in Table 1.1, we can use this equation to
create a formula linking the draught (on the x axis) and displacement (on the y axis).
Using these values, this becomes:
Displacement = m Draught + c
The gradient, m, is found using:
Change in y vvalues
m=
Change in x vvalues
In this example, this gives:
3, 890 − 3, 781
m= = 1, 090
4.20 − 4.10
Using this, we can substitute in the value for m, and the draught and displacement from
one row of the data, to find the value c:
Displacement = m Draught + c

Appendix 4 • 687
3, 890 = 1, 090 × 4.20 + c
3, 890 = 4 , 578 + c
c = −688
Therefore, this becomes:
Displacement = 1, 090 × Draught − 688
This formula allows us to determine the displacement at any draught between 4.10 and
4.20 m. For example, at a draught of 4.12 m, the displacement will be:
Displacement = 1, 090 × Draught − 688
Displacement = 1, 090 × 4.12 − 688
Displacement = 3, 802.8 tonnes
Combining the equations, along with the above processes, gives us a formula for linear
interpolation between two rows of data, labelled as shown in Table A4.1.
Table A4.1 Naming convention for

interpolation by formula
Y1 (4.20) X1 (3,890)
Y2 (4.10) X2 (3,781)
Consider the equation:
y = mx + c
Substituting in the gradient gives:
Change
g in y vvalues
y= x+c
Change in x vvalues
⎛ Y Y ⎞
y =⎜ 1 2 ⎟ x+c
⎝ X1 X 2 ⎠

Substituting in values Y1 and X1 with the gradient gives us c:
⎛ Y Y ⎞
Y1 = ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ X1 c
⎝ X1 X 2 ⎠
⎛ Y Y ⎞
Y1 − ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ X1 c
⎝ X1 X 2 ⎠
Putting this back gives:
⎛ Y Y ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ Y Y ⎞ ⎞
y = ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ x Y1 − ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ X1 ⎟
⎝ X1 X 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ X1 X 2 ⎠ ⎠
Therefore, using our example values to find the displacement at a draught of 4.12 m
gives:
⎛ 3, 890 − 3, 781⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 3, 890 − 3, 781⎞ ⎞

Displacement = Draught + 3, 890 − 4.20⎟
⎝ 4.20 − 4.10 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 4.20 − 4.10 ⎠ ⎠
Displacement = (1, 090 ) Draught

gh + ( −688 )
Displacement = (1, 090 ) 4.12 + ( −688 ) = 3, 802.8 tonnes

APPENDIX 5
THE DERIVATION OF
THE TPC FORMULA
As mass is added to the vessel, she will sink lower into the water, and therefore increase
her underwater volume. Previously, in Formula 1.1, we have seen the relationship
between underwater volume and the mass of the ship:
∇×ρ = Δ
If we assume that we load x tonnes to the vessel, so that the vessel sinks by 1 cm, causing
the mass of the ship and the underwater volume to increase, then:
(∇ + Change in ∇) × ρ = Δ + Change in Δ
In shorthand notation, the change in a value is given the symbol δ. Using this notation
gives:
(∇ +δ ∇) × ρ = Δ +δ Δ
If we are loading x tonnes to the vessel, then the change in mass of the vessel must be
x, therefore:
(∇ +δ ∇) × ρ = Δ + x
Multiplying out the left hand side gives:
(∇ + ) + ( ∇+ )= Δ+ x
Substituting Formula 1.1 back gives:
Δ + (δ ∇ × ρ ) = Δ + x

Transposing this for δ∇ gives:
Δ+ x−Δ
δ∇=
ρ
x
∴δ ∇ =
ρ
Over a change in draught of 1 cm, the sides of the vessel can be assumed to be vertical.
Therefore, the increase in underwater volume, in metres cubed, as a result of sinking
1 cm can be assumed to be given by the waterplane area multiplied by 1 cm (in units
of metres):
δ ∇ = Waterplane area × 0.01
From previously, we know that waterplane area, length and beam are related by the
waterplane area coefficient:
Waterplane area
CW =
L B
This can be transposed to give the waterplane area:

Waterplane area = CW L×B
Substituting this gives:

δ ∇ = CW × L × B × 0 01
Substituting this for δ∇ gives:

x
= CW L × B × 0 01
ρ
This can be transposed for x:

x CW × L B × 0 01× ρ
Using Formula 1.6, we can determine the relationship between sinkage and added
mass:
Mass
Sinkage =
TPC

Appendix 5 • 691
If adding x tonnes causes 1 cm of sinkage, then these values can be substituted in

Formula 1.1:
x
1=
TPC
∴ x = TPC
This can be substituted to give an expression for the TPC:
TPC CW × L B × 0 01× ρ

APPENDIX 6
THE DERIVATION OF
THE FRESH WATER
ALLOWANCE FORMULA
The fresh water allowance formula, given in Formula 1.10, can be proved from first
principles. If the mass of the vessel is assumed to remain constant, then as the vessel
moves from sea water to fresh water, she will sink down (as a result of lost buoyancy)
by a distance δD, and therefore increase her underwater volume, by an amount δ ∇.
To differentiate between sea water and fresh water, the subscripts SW and FW will be
used.
Previously, in Formula 1.1, we have seen the relationship between underwater volume
and the mass of the ship:
∇×ρ = Δ
If we consider the vessel in sea water, then using the SW subscripts gives:
∇ SW × ρ SW = Δ
If we consider the vessel in fresh water, then using the FW subscripts gives:
∇FW × ρFFW = Δ
The underwater volume of the vessel increases as she moves into fresh water, by an
amount δ∇, therefore:
∇ SW + δ ∇ = ∇FW
Substituting this value gives:
(∇ + ∇) × ρFFW = Δ

Appendix 6 • 693
As the mass of the vessel is assumed to be constant, we can equate these equations,
which both give the mass of the vessel. Therefore:
(∇ + ∇) × ρFFW = Δ SW × ρSSW
The left hand side can be multiplied out:
(∇ × ) + (δ ∇ × ρFW ) = Δ SW × ρSSW
This can be transposed to make δ ∇ the subject of the formula:
(δ ρFW ) = (∇ ×ρ ) (Δ ×ρ )
δ∇=
(∇ ×ρ ) (Δ ×ρ )
ρFW
The numerator can be factorised for the ∇SW:
∇ SW ( ρ − ρ )
δ∇=
ρFW
Formula 1.1 substituted with SW subscripts gives us the relationship between

underwater volume, density and mass in sea water. Transposing this for underwater
volume gives:
Δ
∇ SW =
ρSW
This can be substituted back to give:
Δ (ρ ρ ) = Δ (ρ ρ )
δ ∇=
ρSW ρFW ρSW × ρFW

Δ (ρ ρ )
δ ρSW =
ρFW
The left hand side gives the mass of water displacement by the additional volume as
the vessel moves from fresh to sea water. Given that the change in draught is small, the
vessel can be considered to be wall-sided.

Therefore, the mass of the additional water displaced as the vessel moves from fresh to
sea water can be expressed in terms of the TPC:
δ ρSW =δδ D × TPC SW
Substituting gives:
Δ ( ρSW ρFW )
δ D TPC
T SW =
ρFW
This can be transposed to give the change in draught:

Δ ( ρSW ρFW )
δD=
ρFW × TPC SW
The change in draught, δD, is the difference in draught between fresh water and sea
water, and is therefore the ‘Fresh Water Allowance’. Substituting this, along with the
constants for density, gives:
Δ ( .0 5 − .000 ) Δ (0.025) Δ
W =
FWA = =
1.000 × TPC SW TTPC SW 40 × TPC SW
An analysis of the units that make up this formula show that the FWA here is in units of
centimetres:
⎡ ⎛ t ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
t×
Δ (1.025 − 1.000 ) ⎢ ⎝ m3 ⎠ ⎥ ⎢ t ⎥ ⎡ cm t ⎤
W =
FWA =⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥= =[ ]
1.000 × TPC SW ⎢ ⎛ t ⎞ × t ⎥ ⎢ t ⎥ ⎢⎣ t ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ ⎝ m3 ⎠ cm ⎥⎦ ⎣ cm ⎦
Given the required standards of accuracy, the FWA is often calculated in units of
millimetres. To convert centimetres to millimetres, the FWA formula is multiplied by ten:
Δ 0×Δ Δ
W in mm =
FWA × 10 = =
40 × TPC SW TTPC SW 40 × TPC SW

APPENDIX 7
THE DERIVATION OF THE
CHANGE IN KG FORMULA
The short-cut for determining the change in the position of the centre of gravity due
to moving cargo can be proved algebraically. Assuming that a ship has a displacement
Δ, with a vertical centre of gravity KG1, and a mass w removed from a position d1 and
replaced at a position d2, causing the centre of gravity of the ship to shift to KG2, then
the loading table would show:
Table A7.1 Loading table for a change in KG
Item Mass (tonnes) KG (m) Vertical moment

(tonne metres)
Ship Δ KG1 ΔKG1

Mass off −w d1 −wd2
Mass on W D2 −wd2
Total Δ ΔKG1−wd1+wd2
The final centre of gravity, KG2, of the ship can be found from Formula 2.1:
Total vertical
e t ca moment
Overall K
KGG after loading =
Total mass
ΔKG1 − wd
d1 + wd2
KG2 =
Δ
This can be factorised for the load w:
ΔKG1 + w d2 − d1 )
KG2 =
Δ

Both sides can be multiplied by Δ to give:
ΔKG2 ΔKG1 + w (d2 − d1 )

ΔKG
Both sides can have ΔKG1 subtracted to give:
ΔKG2 ΔKG1 = w (d2 − d1 )

ΔKG
This can be factorised for the displacement Δ:
Δ( 2 1 ) = w (d2 − d1 )
Dividing both sides by the displacement Δ gives:
w (d2 − d1 )
(KG2 − KG1 ) =
Δ
In the left hand side, KG2 − KG1 is the shift in the centre of gravity of the ship, and in the
right hand side, d2 − d1 is the shift in the mass. Substituting in the change in G and the
distance moved gives Formula 2.4. Note that this also works with the TCG and LCG, with
appropriate values substituted.

APPENDIX 8
THE DERIVATION OF
THE FORMULAE GIVING
THE TRANSVERSE INERTIA
OF A RECTANGULAR
WATERPLANE AND A SHIP
SHAPE WATERPLANE
MEASURED THROUGH
THE CENTRELINE
The inertia (sometimes also referred to as the second moment of area) is defined as the
area multiplied by the distance from a datum point squared. Consider a waterplane
area of length L metres and beam B metres. An infinitely thin strip of area dy thick and
L long will have an area dA, which can be found from L dy, with a centre y from the
centreline of the vessel.
Therefore, the area of the strip can be found from:
dA = L d
dy
The inertia of the strip, relative to the centreline, can be found from:
dA y 2 = L y 2 dy
Inertia d

L
B/2
B
dy
y
–B/2
▲ Figure A8.1 Inertia geometry
The overall inertia of the waterplane can be found by integrating the waterplane
between the limits of B/2 and −B/2:
B/2
B/2
⎡ y3 ⎤ ⎛ ⎡ B 3 ⎤ ⎡ B 3 ⎤⎞ ⎛ B 3 B 3 ⎞ LB 3
∫ = L⎜ ⎢ 3 −⎢ 3 =L + =
2
Inertia L y d
dy L⎢ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎟
−B / 2 ⎣ 3 ⎦ −B / 2 ⎝ ⎣ 2 × 3 ⎦ ⎣ 2 3 ⎦⎠ ⎝ 24 24 ⎟⎠ 12
For a box shaped vessel, the length and beam of the waterplane are the same as the
length and beam of a vessel.
For a real ship form, the beam varies along the length of the vessel making the transverse
inertia of the waterplane about the centreline harder to determine.
dx
y
dy
dA
y
x
0 L
▲ Figure A8.2 Waterplane area geometry
Consider the waterplane as shown in Figure A8.2. The beam at any point along the
vessel is y metres. If the waterplane is broken down into elements with a length of dx
and a width of dy then:
a of element dA = dy dx

Appendix 8 • 699
The definition of inertia is area multiplied by distance from the reference axis squared,
therefore:
Inertia o
of element d
dA from ce
centreline
te e d = y 2d
y 2 dA dy dx
Integrating this along the length of the waterplane gives:
Ly L
1 3
∫∫ y ddyy dx 3 ∫0
2
Total inertia
e t a of half
a waterplane from
o centreline y dx
00
This value must be doubled to take account of both sides of the waterplane:
Ly L
2 3
nertia of waterplane from centreline 2∫∫ y 2 dy dx =
3 ∫0
Total inertia y dx
00

APPENDIX 9
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TRANSVERSE INERTIA,
BM AND UNDERWATER
VOLUME FOR A BOX
SHAPED VESSEL
Consider a box shaped vessel, length L, beam B, as shown in Figure A9.1, inclined
through a very small angle θ (exaggerated for clarity). As the vessel inclines, a wedge
of underwater volume will emerge on the high side of the vessel, while a wedge of
an identical amount of underwater volume will be immersed on the low side of the
vessel. The result of this is that the centre of buoyancy will move, both transversely, in a
direction normal to the centreline, and vertically, in a direction normal to the keel.
The volume of each of these emerged and immersed wedges can be determined from
the length and beam of the vessel, as shown in Figure A9.2.
2
⎛B ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ LB
Volume o
of each wedge L× × tanθ × × = tanθ
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 8
An expression for the shift in the centre of buoyancy can be derived from a table of
transverse moments of buoyancy, in a similar way to a loading table for TCG. Assuming
that a ship has a volume ∇, with a initial centre of buoyancy TCB1, and a volume v
removed from a position tcb1 and replaced at a position tcb2, causing the centre of
buoyancy of the ship to shift to TCB2, can be represented as in Table A9.1.

Appendix 9 • 701
Vessel
centreline
Emerged
wedge θ
Old WL
Immersed
wedge
WL
Original
centre of Old WL
buoyancy
Shift in New centre

centre of of buoyancy
buoyancy
▲ Figure A9.1 The shift in B as a vessel rolls
Vessel
centreline
Centre of θ
emerged Centre of
wedge immersed
Old WL
wedge
(1/3) × (B/2) x tan θ

WL
(B/2) (B/2) x tan θ
Old WL
(B/2) x (2/3)
▲ Figure A9.2 Measuring the shift in B
The final centre of buoyancy, TCB2, of the ship can be found from:
Total vertical
ertica moment
Overall ce tre after loading =
centre
Total volume

Table A9.1 Transverse movement in B
Item Volume (m3) TCB (m) Vertical moment (m4)
Ship ∇ TCB1 ∇TCB1

Emerged wedge −v tcb1 −vtcb1
Immersed wedge v tcb2 vtcb2
Total ∇ ∇TCB1 − vtcb1 + vtcb2
∇TCB1 − vtcb1 vtcb2

TCB2 =
∇
This can be factorised for the wedge volume v:
∇TCB1 + v (tcb
b2 tcb
b1 )
TCB2 =
∇
Both sides can be multiplied by ∇ to give:

∇ 2 =∇ 1 + v (tcb
b2 − tcb
b1 )
Both sides can have ∇TCB1 subtracted to give:

∇ 2 −∇ 1 = v (tcb
b2 − tcb
b1 )
This can be factorised for the volume ∇:

∇( 2 − 1 ) = v(( b2 − b1 )
Dividing both sides by the volume ∇ gives:

v(( b2 b1 )
( )=
∇
2 1
In the left hand side, TCB2− TCB1 is the shift in the centre of buoyancy of the ship, and in
the right hand side, tcb2− tcb1 is the shift in the wedge centre. Therefore, the movement
of the centre of buoyancy of the ship, when a edge of volume is transferred, can be
found using:
v Distance moved
Change in B =
∇

Appendix 9 • 703
The transverse movement of the centre of buoyancy can therefore be determined

from:
Volume moved
o ed TTransvers
a s e se distance mo
m ved
Transverse movement of B =
Total volume
LB 2 ⎛B ⎞ LB
2
⎛ B ⎞ LB 3
tanθ × × × 2 tanθ × × 2 tanθ
8 ⎝2 3 ⎠ 8 ⎝3 ⎠
∴ Movement of
o B= = = 12
∇ ∇ ∇
The vertical movement of the centre of buoyancy can be determined from:
Volume moved VVertical distance move

v d
o e e t of B =
Vertical movement
Total volume
LB 2 ⎛1 B ⎞ LB 3
tanθ × × tanθ × 2 tan2 θ
8 ⎝3 2 ⎠ 24
∴ Movement of B = =
∇ ∇
As tan2 θ can be assumed to be zero as θ is a small angle, the vertical movement of B

can be assumed to be zero. Consider the right angle triangle defined by the original
centre of buoyancy, the new centre of buoyancy and the metacentre, as shown in
Figure A9.3.
Vessel
centreline
Old WL
Metacentre
BM
WL
Old WL
▲ Figure A9.3 The metacentre and the shift in B

Transverse movement in B
tanθ =
BM
This can be transposed to give BM:
Transverse movement
o e e t in B
BM =
tanθ
Combining the equations gives:
LB 3
tanθ
12 LB 3
BM = ∇ = 12 =
Inertia
tanθ ∇ ∇

APPENDIX 10
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
TRANSVERSE INERTIA,
BM AND UNDERWATER
VOLUME FOR A SHIP
Consider a real ship form with local half beam y, as shown in Figures A10.1 and A10.2,
inclined through a very small angle θ (exaggerated for clarity). As the vessel inclines,
a wedge of underwater volume dx metres long will emerge on the high side of the
vessel, while a wedge of underwater volume will be immersed on the low side of the
vessel. The result of this is that the centre of buoyancy will move, both transversely, in
a direction normal to the centreline, and vertically, in a direction normal to the keel.
the length and beam of the vessel, as shown in Figure 9.5:
L L
y2
) × ( y ) × ⎛⎝
1⎞
Volume o
of each wedge ∫ ( y × tan
0
2⎠
d = ∫ tanθ dx
dx
0
2
The transverse movement of the centre of buoyancy can be determined from:
Volume moved
o ed TTransvers
a s e se distance mo
m ved
o e e t of B =
Transverse movement
Total volume
y2L ⎛ 2 ⎞
∫
0 2
tanθ d
dx × y × × 2
⎝ 3 ⎠
∴ Movement o
of B =
∇

Vessel
centreline
Emerged
wedge θ
Old WL
Immersed
wedge
WL
Original
centre of Old WL
buoyancy
Shift in New centre

centre of of buoyancy
buoyancy
▲ Figure A10.1 The shift in B as a vessel rolls
Vessel
centreline
Centre of θ
emerged Centre of
wedge immersed
Old WL
wedge
(1/3) × (y) × tan θ

WL
(y) (y) × tan θ
Old WL
(y) × (2/3)
▲ Figure A10.2 Measuring the shift in B as a vessel rolls
y2L ⎛ 4y⎞
∫ 0 2 tanθ dx
d ×
⎝ 3⎠
of B =
Movement o
∇
4 y3 2 L 3
L
0 6 ∫
tan d
dx ∫ 0y tanθ dx
tan d
o B=
Movement of =3
∇ ∇

Appendix 10 • 707

v d
o e e t of B =
Vertical movement
Total volume
1 L 2 ⎛1 ⎞ 1 L 3 2
2∫0
y tanθ d
dx × × y tanθ ×2
⎝3 ⎠ 3 ∫ 0y tan θ dx
∇ ∇
As tan2θ can be assumed to be zero as θ is a small angle, the vertical movement of B can
be assumed to be zero. Consider the right angle triangle defined by the original centre of
buoyancy, the new centre of buoyancy, and the metacentre, as shown in Figure A10.3.
Vessel
centreline
Old WL
Metacentre
BM
WL
Old WL
▲ Figure A10.3 The shift in B and the metacentre
tanθ =
BM
This can be transposed to give BM:

BM =
tanθ
2 L 3
3∫0
y tanθ dx
2 L 3
∇ ∫ 0y ddx Inertia
BM = =3 =
tanθ ∇ ∇

APPENDIX 11
MAXIMUM ANGLES OF
LIST ON PASSENGER
VESSELS DUE TO
PASSENGER CROWDING
As well as considering the metacentric height, officers on passenger vessels are required
to determine the list angle that would be caused by all of the passengers crowding on
one side of the vessel. This is detailed in chapter 3, section 3.1 of the 2008 IS Code
(International Maritime Organisation, 2008). They are also required to determine the
heel angle when turning – see Appendix 14: Passenger Vessel Heel in a Turn.
Each passenger is assumed to have a minimum mass of 75 kg, with a centre of gravity
1 m above the deck when stood up-right, or 0.30 m above the deck if seated. Passengers
are assumed to crowd around the vessel in whichever way is least favourable to the
metacentric height and angle of list of the vessel, with an assumed crowding of four
passengers per square metre. The resulting angle of list should not exceed 10 degrees.

APPENDIX 12
FORMULA GIVING THE
ANGLE OF LIST FOR
A NEUTRALLY STABLE
VESSEL
Figure A12.1 shows the movement of G as a result of the movement of mass, and the
vertical and horizontal movement of B as a result of the vessel inclining. As the vessel
inclines, the transverse position of G, which is also M in the case of a neutrally stable
vessel, moves in the opposite direction relative to B as a result of the two points being
opposite sides of the point of rotation.
Original G
TCG
BM sin θ
Final G
Original B
Final B
Vertical
Transverse
shift of B
shift of B
▲ Figure A12.1 Vertical and transverse movement of B and G

The volume of each of these emerged and immersed wedges can be determined as
previously shown:
2
⎛B ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ LB
Volume o
of each wedge L× × tanθ × × = tanθ
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 8
As previously shown, the transverse movement of the centre of buoyancy can be

determined from:
Volume moved TTransverse distance mo
m ved
o e e t of B =
Transverse movement
Total volume
Substituting in the values for the volume and shift in volume (see equation and Figure
A9.2) gives:
LB 2 ⎛B ⎞ LB
2
⎛ B ⎞ LB 3
tanθ × × × 2 tanθ × × 2 tanθ
8 ⎝2 3 ⎠ 8 ⎝3 ⎠
∴ Movement of
o B= = = 12
∇ ∇ ∇
The same process can be used to give the vertical movement of the centre of buoyancy,
which can be determined from:
Volume moved
o ed Vertica
Ve t cal distance move
v d
o e e t of B =
Vertical movement
Total volume
LB 2 ⎛1 B ⎞ LB 3
tanθ × × tanθ × 2 tan2 θ
8 ⎝3 2 ⎠ 24
∴ Movement of
o B= =
∇ ∇
The transverse and vertical shift in B can be resolved to their horizontal components:
LB 3
tanθ
Horizontally resolved transverse movement of B = 12 oθ
cos
∇
LB 3
tan2 θ
Horizontally resolved vertical movement of B = 24 sinθ
∇
Note that for real ship forms, this becomes:

2 L 3
∫ 0y ddx tan
a θ
Horizontally resolved transverse movement of B = 3 cosθ
∇
1 L 3
∫ 0y ddx tan θ
2
Horizontally resolved vertical movement of B = 3 sinθ

∇

Appendix 12 • 711
Therefore, the total horizontal movement of B can be found from:

LB 3 LB 3
tanθ tan2 θ
Resolved horizontal of B =
o o ta movement o 12 cosθ + 24 sinθ
∇ ∇
Note that for real ships forms, this becomes:

2 L 3 1 L 3
∫ dx tanθ ∫ 0y ddx tan θ
2
y d
Resolved horizontal movement of B = 3 0
cosθ + 3 sinθ
∇ ∇
The inertia divided by the volume gives BM:

1
Resolved horizontal movement of B tanθ cosθ
BM tanθ BM tan2 θ sinθ
2
The resolved horizontal movement of G can be found:

Resolved horizontal of G TTCG cosθ
o o ta movement o
Note that relative to the original B, G has moved a transverse distance sideways given
by:
BM sinθ
As described previously, the resolved horizontal shift in G must equate to the resolved
horizontal shift in B:
1
TCG cosθ BM sinθ BMtanθ cosθ BMtan2 θ sinθ
2
Dividing through by cos θ gives:

1
BMtan = BMtanθ
TCG BMtanθ BMtan3 θ
2
Collecting like terms for θ gives:

1
TCG BMta + BMtan3 θ BMtanθ
BMtanθ
2
This simplifies to:

1
TCG BMtan3 θ
2

This can be transposed to give an expression for θ:
2 × TCG = BMtan3 θ
2 × TCG
= tan3 θ
BM
2 × TCG
3 = tanθ
BM
As seen in Formula 2.4, the movement of G as a result of a transverse shift in a mass can
be expressed in terms of the mass moved and the distance moved by:
w d
Movement of G =
Δ
Therefore, the list angle of a vessel with neutral stability can be found from:
w ×d
2×
3 Δ = tanθ
BM

APPENDIX 13
THE DERIVATION
OF THE FORMULAE
DESCRIBING THE EFFECT
OF FREE SURFACES ON
METACENTRIC HEIGHT
Consider a cross-section of a rectangular planform tank with a length l metres and beam
b metres, containing a fluid with a density ρ. As the vessel heels through an angle θ, the
free surface will move through an angle θ relative to the original free surface, as shown
in Figure A13.1. This will cause a wedge of fluid to move across the tank, resulting in a
transverse movement of the centre of gravity of the fluid, from g1 to g2.
Original free
surface
b
g2 tan θ
θ 2
g1
2 b
x
3 2
New free surface
▲ Figure A13.1 The geometry of moving fluids
The volume of the transferred wedge of fluid can be found from the geometry of the
wedge:
2
⎛ b⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ 1 lb
Wedge volume l× × tanθ × = tanθ
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 8

The mass of the transferred wedge of fluid can be found from the volume of the
wedge:
lb2
Wedge mass Wedge
W volume × ρ = ρ tanθ
8
As proven in Formula 2.4, the shift in the centre of gravity of a vessel can be found
from:
W Distance moved
Shift in G =
f in
Δ
Therefore, the overall transverse shift in the centre of gravity of the vessel can be found
by:
lb2 2 b lb3
ρ tanθ × × × 2 ρ tanθ
f in G =
Shift 8 3 2 = 12
Δ Δ
lb3
The term is the transverse inertia of the free surface, written as IFS:
12
lb2 2 b
ρ tanθ × × × 2
8 3 2 ρI tanθ
f in G =
Shift = FS = TCG
Δ Δ
Now consider the vessel heeling through an angle θ. The centre of gravity will move
transversely, as shown in Figure A13.1. This will move the line of action of gravity closer
to the line of action of buoyancy, so that it crosses the centreline at a position known
as the virtual centre of gravity, GV, and therefore gives a reduction in the torque trying
to right the vessel. Effectively, the initial metacentric height has been reduced by the
movement of the fluid. This reduction is termed the ‘virtual’ reduction, as it only occurs
as the vessel inclines, and will not exist when the vessel is perfectly upright and still (a
condition that the vessel will never reach in reality).
The line of action of gravity, the transverse shift in G, and the centreline from the original
centre of gravity to GV form a right angle triangle. This can be used to determine the
distance from G to GV, which is the ‘virtual’ loss in metacentric height.
opp
Tanθ =
adj
d
TCG
tanθ =
G to GV

Appendix 13 • 715
Gv
G
TCG
B
▲ Figure A13.2 The effective, fluid or virtual centre of gravity
TCG
G to GV = Loss in GM =
tanθ
Combining gives:
ρ IFS tanθ ρ I tanθ ρ IFS

G to GV = Loss in GM = ÷ tanθ = FS = = FSC
Δ Δ tanθ Δ
Therefore, the loss in GM, also known as the free surface correction, or FSC, can be
directly determined from the inertia of the free surface, the density of the fluid and the
displacement of the ship. The final effective, or fluid GM, can be found from:
GM = KM − KG − FSC
Although this method may seem different to the loading table method initially shown,
as the FSC includes the displacement as a denominator, it can be combined in the
loading table.
Table A13.1 Sample loading table for KG with FSM
Item Mass (tonnes) KG (m) Vertical moment

(tonne metres)
Ship Δ1 KG1 Δ1KG1

Fluid cargo ΔL KGL ΔLKGL
FSE 0 0 FSM
Total Δ Δ1KG1+ ΔLKGL + FSM

Consider a vessel with a displacement Δ1 and KG of KG1, loading a liquid cargo with a
mass of ΔL, at a KG of KGL, with a free surface moment of FSM tonne metres. The loading
table and subsequent effective KG would be given by:
Total vertical
ertica moment (including FSM )
v KG after loading =
Effective
Total mass
Δ1KG
G1 + Δ L KG
GL + FSM
Effective KG after loading =
v KG
Δ
The overall effective GM would be given by:
Δ1KG1 + Δ L KGL + FSM

GM = KM − KG = KM −
Δ
The KG term can be expanded to:
Δ1KG
G1 + Δ L KGL FSM
GM = KM − KG = KM − −
Δ Δ
This is the same form as GM = KM − KG − FSC, therefore either method should give the
same final answer.

APPENDIX 14
PASSENGER VESSEL
HEEL IN A TURN
Officers on passenger vessels are required to determine the heel angle when turning, as
described in the 2008 IS Code (International Maritime Organisation, 2008). As with the
passenger list angle, the resulting angle of heel should not exceed 10 degrees. Rather
than using the approach described previously for heel angles in a turn, a different
formula is used:
v 02 ⎛ d⎞
MR = 0.200 × × Δ × KG −
LWL ⎝ 2⎠
In this equation, MR is the heeling moment, in units of kilo-Newton metres, v0 is the

service speed in units of metres per second, LWL is the waterline length of the vessel
in units of metres, Δ is the displacement of the vessel in units of tonnes, d is the mean
draught in units of metres and KG is the height of the centre of gravity above the keel
in units of metres.
Once this has been determined, the angle of heel can be found using:
MR
sinθ =
Δ × GM

APPENDIX 15
DERIVATION OF THE
INCREASE IN DRAUGHT
WHEN HEELING FORMULA
Figure 2.28 shows the increase in the draught of a vessel as a result of heeling. If the
vessel is assumed to be rectangular in cross-section (which is a reasonable assumption
for a modern ship) then the increase in draught can be calculated from the cross-section
geometry of the vessel.
Consider the inclined and upright vessel as shown in Figure A15.
On the submerged side, consider the geometry of the original and new waterlines, as
shown in detail in Figure A15.2.
It can be seen that the vertical submergence of the intersection of the original waterline
B
and the hull side is given by sinθ .
2
WL
WL
▲ Figure A15.1 A box shaped vessel heeled

Appendix 15 • 719
WL
0.5B sin θ
WL
θ
0.5B
▲ Figure A15.2 Submerging the original waterline
The original draught (D) can also be resolved vertically, as shown in Figure A15.3.
WL
0.5B sin θ
WL
θ
0.5B
D cos θ
▲ Figure A15.3 Resolved vertical draught
Combining the two components, as shown in Figure A15.3, gives the equation for the
heeled draught:
B
Heeled drau
r ght cos + sinθ
D cosθ
2

APPENDIX 16
THE MATHEMATICAL
PROOF OF THE
DETERMINATION OF GM
FROM THE GZ CURVE
This process of determining GM from the GZ curve is based on small angle
approximations. We have already seen that at small angles, Formula 3.2 gives:
GZ ≈ GM × sinθ
If θ is in radians, then at small angles, sin θ ≈ θ, therefore:
GZ ≈ GM θ
In Figure 3.14, the straight line drawn through the initial slope has the equation
y = mx + c, where y is the GZ, m is the gradient and x is the angle θ. As the line goes
through the origin of the graph, c, the intercept is zero. Therefore, equating this with
the equation of a straight line, the equation of the line in Figure 3.14 is:
y mx equates to : GZ = GM θ
Equation GZ ≈ GM θ can be differentiated to find the slope:
d (GM
G )
= GM
dθ
Therefore, the gradient of the equation GZ = GM θ is the initial GM of the vessel.
If dθ is 1, then the resulting dGZ value must be equal to GM. Therefore, reading the
value of the line at one radian (where θ = 1) gives us the value of GM.

APPENDIX 17
THE DERIVATION OF
THE ANGLE OF HEEL IN
A TURN FORMULA
It is this branch of stability theory that lets us calculate the angle of heel in a turn, as
used previously. Centripetal force is given by:
mv 2
FC =
r
Substituting in the mass of the vessel in tonnes, and dividing by g to keep the units
correct, gives the centripetal force in units of tonnes force:
Δv 2
FC =
gr
In this formula, the centripetal force FC is in units of Newtons, with the speed v in metres
per second and the turn radius r in metres. The mass, m, is in units of kilograms. The
centripetal force acts through the centre of buoyancy, with the lever of the force being
the resolved vertical distance from the centre of gravity to the centre of buoyancy, as
shown in Figure A17.1.
BG cos θ
Fc
B
▲ Figure A17.1 Forces when turning

This force and lever create a heeling moment acting on the vessel:
Δv 2
Heeling moment Force × Lever = (KG − KB ) cosθ
gr
The righting moment created by the movement of the centre of buoyancy is equal to
the buoyancy force multiplied by the righting lever:
Righting moment = Buoyancy × GZ
At small angles, GZ can be approximated:

GZ = GM sinθ
Therefore:
Righting moment = Buoyancy × GM sinθ
For the vessel to be in equilibrium, the buoyancy force (in units of tonnes force) must
be equal to the displacement, therefore:
Righting moment = Δ × GM sinθ
When the vessel reaches a steady angle of heel, the forces and moment are in equilibrium,
therefore the righting moment must equal the heeling moment, therefore:
Righting moment = Heeling moment
Δv 2
Δ × GM sinθ = (KG − KB ) cosθ
gr
This can be transposed for θ to give:

Δv 2
(KG − KB )
sinθ gr
=
cosθ Δ × GM
From trigonometric identities, we know that:

sinθ
= tanθ
cosθ
Therefore:
Δv 2
(KG − KB )
gr
tanθ =
Δ × GM
This simplifies to:
KG KB )
v 2 (K
tanθ =
g × r × GM

APPENDIX 18
THE MATHEMATICAL
PROOF OF SIMPSON’S RULE
Simpson’s Rule is a method of integrating, and work as follows. If a parabolic curve
intersects a box at the curve apex, as shown in Figure A18.1, then the area of the box
2
is always split into a section which is of the area (the shaded section in Figure A18.1),
3
1
and a section which is of the total box area:
3
▲ Figure A18.1 Parabola and containing box
This can be proved with calculus:
Consider a curve, as shown in Figure A18.2, with the equation y = ax2. The shaded area
under the curve between the origin and x can be directly determined by integration:
x
Area u
under curvee = ∫a
de the cu ax 2 dx
0
x
⎡ ax 3 ⎤ ⎡ ax 3 ⎤ ⎡ a03 ⎤ 1 3
Area u de the curve = ⎢
under ⎥ =⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥ = ax
a
⎣ 3 ⎦0 ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ 3
The area of the box itself can be determined by the width and depth of the box:
Area Width
W × Dept
e h x × ax 2 = ax 3

y = ax 2
ax 2
▲ Figure A18.2 Area under a parabola
1
Therefore, it can be seen that the shaded area under the curve is of the total box area,
3
2
therefore the area above the curve must be of the total box area. This also works if
3
the box is ‘skewed’, as shown below in Figure A18.3. The ‘box’ area of the trapezoid can
still be found by length x depth:
2 box area
3
▲ Figure A18.3 Skewed parabola
Now consider the curve shown in Figure A18.4. The curve is a smooth, parabolic curve
that runs through three points, with coordinates x1,y1 and x2,y2 and x3,y3. The spacing
between the x values, S, is constant:
In Figure A18.4, the area of the solid shaded section can be found from trapezoidal
integration:
⎛ y + y3 ⎞
Solid shaded section area = ⎜ 1 × 2S
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

Appendix 18 • 725
d2
d2
d2
y3
d1 y2
y1
x1 S x2 S x3
▲ Figure A18.4 Area under a parabola and trapezoid
The depth of the ‘box’ surrounding the curve is ‘d2’. The distance between the x axis and
the dashed line linking the base of the parabola curve, at the mid-point of the line, is ‘d1’.
Distance ‘d1’ can be found from the mean of values y1 and y3:
y1 + y 3
d1 =
2
It can be seen from Figure 9.20 that the distance d2 can be found using:
d1 y 2 − d1
Substituting in the equation for d1 gives:

d2 y 2 − d1
⎛ y + y3 ⎞
d2 y2 − ⎜ 1
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
2
As previously seen, the area of the hatched section of Figure A18.4 is of the area of the
3
‘box’ surrounding the parabola. The area of the box surrounding the parabola can be
found by multiplying the depth of the parabola box (d2) by the length of the parabola
box (2S):
2
Area under the parabola Box length × Box
o depth
3
2
Area u
under
de the parabola S × ( d2 )
3

2 ⎛ ⎛ y + y3 ⎞ ⎞
Area under the parabola S × y2 − ⎜ 1
3 ⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
2 ⎛ y y ⎞
Area under the parabola S × y2 − 1 − 3 ⎟
3 ⎝ 2 2⎠
These values can be used to determine the total area under the curve:
Total a
area
ea Solid
So d shaded a ea + Hatched
area atc ed shaded area
⎛ ⎛ y + y3 ⎞ ⎞ ⎛2 ⎛ y y ⎞⎞
Total area = ⎜ ⎜ 1 ⎟ × 2S S × y2 − 1 − 3 ⎟ ⎟
⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝3 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎠
⎛ ⎛ y + y3 ⎞ ⎞ ⎛2 ⎛ y y ⎞⎞
Total area = ⎜ ⎜ 1 ⎟ × 2S S × y2 − 1 − 3 ⎟ ⎟
⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝3 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎠
⎛4 ⎛ y y ⎞⎞
Total area (( y +y ) S) +
⎝3
×S y − 1− 3
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
S S
Total area = ( y + y )+ ( y − y − y )
3 3
Total area =
S
3
(( y + y ) + ( y − y − y ))
S
Total area = ( y+ y + y − y− y )
3
S
Total area = ( y y + y + y − y )
3
S
Total area = ( − y + y + − y )
3
S
Total area = (y+ y + y )
3
It can be seen that this gives the same final equation as Simpson’s Rule for three equally
spaced coordinates. If there are an odd number of equally spaced ordinates (Figure
A18.5), then the process simply repeats itself:
S S S
Total area = ( y + y + y )+ ( y + y + y )+ ( y + y + y )
3 3 3

Appendix 18 • 727
y3 y4
y2 y5
y1 y6
y7
S S S S S S
▲ Figure A18.5 Simpson’s Rule notation
S
Total area = (1y1 + 4 y 2 + 1y 3 + 1y 3 + 4 y 4 + 1y 5 + 1y 5 + 4 y 6 + 1y7 )
3
S
Total area = (1y1 + 4 y 2 + 2 y 3 + 4 y 4 + 2 y 5 + 4 y 6 + 1y7 )
3
It can be seen that this gives the same final equation as Simpson’s Rule for an odd
number of equally spaced coordinates.

APPENDIX 19
ALTERNATIVE CRITERIA FOR
LARGE ANGLE STABILITY
TIMBER DECK CARGO
Under the 2008 IS Code, for vessels carrying a timber deck cargo in accordance with
the loading described in the section on metacentric height requirements, alternative
large angle stability criteria may be followed.
Requirement Details
Peak GZ value Must be greater than 0.25 m
Area under the graph between Must be greater than 0.08 m

0 and 40* degrees radians
Initial GM 0.10 m
*
If the angle of down-flooding (the angle of heel at which the vessel will
progressively flood through weather-tight fittings) is less than 40 degrees,
then that angle should be used instead.

APPENDIX 20
THE DIRECT CALCULATION
OF THE AREA UNDER A
GENERIC GZ CURVE
As the GZ curve in the example used can be modelled by a mathematical function,
integration can be used to determine the actual area under the curve between 0 and
40 degrees (with the angles converted to radians):
θ
Area 1∫ssinθ cossθ dθ

0
If x ssinθ then
dx
= cosθ
dθ
∴ dx = cosθ dθ
θ θ
⎡ x2 ⎤
∴ Area = 1∫ xdx = ⎢ ⎥
0 ⎣ 2 ⎦0
However , x = sinθ
0.6981
⎡ ( sin )2 ⎤ ( sin .6981)2 ( sin 0 )2
∴ Area = ⎢ ⎥ = − = 0.2066 m radians
⎣ 2 ⎦0 2 2
It can be seen that Simpson’s Rule slightly underestimates the area under a typical GZ
curve shape, and therefore approximates to the safe side of the actual value.

APPENDIX 21
WALLSIDED FORMULA
FOR APPROXIMATING THE
RIGHTING LEVER
The wall-sided formula can be derived from the geometry of the vessel before either
keel emersion or deck edge immersion. As the vessel heels, a wedge of underwater
volume is transferred from the emerged to the immersed side of the vessel. This causes
the centre of buoyancy to move transversely and vertically in relation to the centreline
of the vessel, as shown in Figure A21.1.
The volume of each of these emerged and immersed wedges can be determined as
previously shown, from the length and beam of the vessel, as shown in Figure 9.2:
2
⎛B ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ LB
Volume of each wedge L× × tanθ × × = tanθ
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 8
Original B
Final B
Vertical
Transverse
shift of B
shift of B
▲ Figure A21.1 Vertical and transverse movement of B

Appendix 21 • 731

m ved
o e e t of B =
Transverse movement
Total volume
LB 2 ⎛B ⎞ LB
2
⎛ B ⎞ LB 3
tanθ × × ×2 tanθ × ×2 tanθ
8 ⎝2 3 ⎠ 8 ⎝3 ⎠
∴ Movement of B = = = 12
∇ ∇ ∇
As the wall-sided formula is concerned with large angles, tan2 θ cannot be assumed to
be zero, and so must be accounted for. The vertical movement of the centre of buoyancy
can be determined from:
Volume moved
o ed VVertica
e t cal distance move
v d
Vertical movement of B =
Total volume
LB 2 ⎛1 B ⎞ LB 3
tanθ × × tanθ ×2 tan2 θ
8 ⎝ 3 2 ⎠ 24
∇ ∇
These values for the shift in the centre of buoyancy can be resolved along the original
waterline of the vessel, as can the original KB value. The sum of these resolved distances
is equal to KN. Therefore:
KN = KBsinθ
KBsi T
Transvers e B shift
hf θ Vertica
V f sinθ
l B shift
As shown previously, the waterplane inertia can be substituted into these equations. In
addition, the inertia divided by the volume gives BM:
⎛ LB 3 ⎞
⎜⎝ 12 tanθ ⎟⎠ I
Transverse B shift = = tanθ BM tanθ
∇ ∇
⎛ LB 3 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ 24 tan θ ⎟⎠ I BM
Vertical B shift = = tan2θ = tan2θ
∇ 2∇ 2
Substituting these values gives:
BM
KN = KB sinθ BMtanθ × cosθ + tan2 θ × sinθ
2

From trigonometric identities, it is known that:

sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
Therefore:
sinθ BM
KN = KBsinθ BM × cosθ + tan2 θ × sinθ
cosθ 2
This can be simplified to:
BM
KN = KB sinθ BM sinθ + tan2 θ sinθ
2
We know from Formula 3.1:
BM
GZ = KB sinθ BM sinθ + ta 2 θ sin
tan si θ − KG sinθ
2
This can be factorised for sin θ:

⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sin
si θ KKB BM + ta 2 θ K
tan KG
⎝ 2 ⎠
Rearranging this to collect the terms not associated with θ gives:
⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sin
si θ K K +
KB BM KG tan2 θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
However, from Formula 2.6 we know that:
GM = KB + BM − KG
⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
For a real ship hull form, the beam will again be in terms of the local beam, y, with the
volume based on a length of ship dx metres long. The volume of each of these emerged

Appendix 21 • 733
and immersed wedges can be determined as previously shown, from the length and
beam of the vessel, as shown in Figure A9.2:
L L
⎛ 1⎞ y2
Volume o
of each wedge ∫ ( y × tan ) × ( y ) × ⎝
0
2⎠
d = ∫ tanθ dx
dx
0
2

m ved
o e e t of B =
Transverse movement
Total volume
y2
L ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 L 3
∫ 0 2 tanθ dx
d × y × ×2
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3∫0
y tanθ dx
∇ ∇
As the wall-sided formula is concerned with large angles, tan2 θ cannot be assumed to
be zero, and so must be accounted for. The vertical movement of the centre of buoyancy
can be determined from:

v d
o e e t of B =
Vertical movement
Total volume
1 L 2 ⎛1 ⎞ 1 L 3 2
2 ∫ 0
y tanθ d
dx × × y tanθ ×2
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 ∫ 0y tan θ dx
∴ Movement of
o B= =
∇ ∇
1 L 1 2 L 3 2
∫0 × ∫ y tan θ dx
of B = 3 =2 3
0
∴ Movement o
∇ ∇
These values for the shift in the centre of buoyancy can be resolved along the original
waterline of the vessel, as can the original KB value. The sum of these resolved distances
is equal to KN. Therefore:
KN = KB sin
si θ Transvers
T e B shift cosθ + Vertical B shift × sinθ
h f cos
As shown previously, the waterplane inertia can also be substituted. In addition, the
inertia divided by the volume gives BM:
2 L 3
∫ 0y tanθ dx I
Transverse B shift = 3 = tanθ BM tanθ
∇ ∇
1 2 L 3 2
× ∫ y tan θ dx
2 3 0 I BM
Vertical B shift = = tan2 θ = tan2 θ
∇ 2∇ 2

Substituting these values gives:

BM
KN = KB sinθ BMtanθ × cosθ + tan2 θ × sinθ
2

sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
Therefore:
sinθ BM
KN = KB sinθ BM × cosθ + tan2 θ × sinθ
cosθ 2
BM
KN = KB sinθ BM sinθ + tan2 θ sinθ
2
We know from Formula 3.1:


BM
GZ = KB sinθ BM sinθ + tan2 θ sin
si θ − KG sinθ
2
This can be factorised for sin θ:

⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sin
si θ KKB BM + ta 2 θ K
tan KG
⎝ 2 ⎠
Rearranging this to collect the terms not associated with θ gives:
⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sin
si θ K K +
KB BM KG tan2 θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
However, from Formula 2.6 we know that:

GM = KB + BM − KG

⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sinθ GM + tan2 θ
⎝ 2 ⎠

APPENDIX 22
FORMULA GIVING THE
EFFECTIVE METACENTRIC
HEIGHT AT AN ANGLE
OF LOLL
The metacentric height can be found from the slope of the GZ curve. Therefore, the
metacentric height of the vessel at the angle of loll can be found by determining the
slope of the GZ curve at the angle of loll. Assuming that the GZ can be modelled by
the wall-sided formula, the slope of the GZ curve can be found by differentiating the
wall-sided formula with respect to the angle.
⎛ BM ⎞
GZ = sinθ GMI + tan2 θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
Note that for clarity, in this formula GM has been written as GM1 to indicate that it is
the initial metacentric height of the vessel. As the wall-sided formula is composed of
two multiplied sections which each contain the variable used for differentiation, the
product rule of differentiation must be used. This states that for a function of the form:
y uv
The differentiated function can be found from:
dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx
Using this method, it can be expressed as:
GZ = u × v

Where:
BM
u sinθ
sin v GM + tan2 θ
2
Differentiating these two components with respect to the angle gives:
du
= cosθ
dx
dv BM
= 2tanθ sec 2 θ = BMtanθ sec 2 θ
dx 2
The differentiation of tan2 θ will be shown at the end of this proof. Therefore, using the
product rule, the gradient of the GZ curve can be found from:
dy ⎛ BM ⎞
= sinθ BM tanθ sec 2 θ GMG + tan2 θ cosθ
dx ⎝ I 2 ⎠
At the angle of loll, it has previously been shown that:

BM
GM + ta 2 θ = 0
tan
2

dy
= sinθ BM tanθ sec 2 θ + ( )cosθ = sinθ BM tanθ sec 2 θ
dx
1
sec θ =
cosθ
Substituting gives:
dy 1
= sinθ BM tanθ ×
dx cos2 θ
dy BM tanθ sinθ
=
dx cos2 θ

sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ

Appendix 22 • 737
Substituting gives:
dy BM sinθ sinθ
=
dx cosθ cos 2 θ

dy BM sin2 θ
=
dx cosθ cos2 θ

dy BM tan2 θ
=
dx cosθ
We know that the angle of loll can be expressed in terms of the initial metacentric
height and BM:
⎛ −2GMI ⎞
tan2 θ = ⎜
⎝ BM ⎟⎠

⎛ −2GMI ⎞
BM
dy ⎝ BM ⎠
=
dx cosθ
dy −2GMI
= = GM at the a
angle
g e of loll
dx cosθ
Proof of the differentiation of tan2 θ:
If:
tan2 θ tanθ tanθ
Then it can be expressed in terms of the product rule:

y uv
Using the product rule:

dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx
Therefore:
dy
= tanθ sec 2 θ + tanθ sec 2 θ = 2tanθ sec 2 θ
dx

APPENDIX 23
FORMULA GIVING THE
LONGITUDINAL INERTIA
OF A RECTANGLE
The longitudinal inertia (sometimes also referred to as the longitudinal second moment
of area) is defined as the area multiplied by the distance from a datum point squared.
Consider a waterplane area of length L metres and beam B metres. An infinitely thin
strip of area dx thick and L long will have an area dA, which can be found from B dx, with
a centre x from the longitudinal centre of area:
dx
B
x
–L/2 L/2
▲ Figure A23.1 Longitudinal inertia geometry
dA = B d
dx

Appendix 23 • 739
The longitudinal inertia of the strip, relative to the longitudinal centre of area, can be
found from:
InertiaL dA x 2 = B x 2 dx
d
The overall longitudinal inertia of the waterplane can be found by integrating the
waterplane between the limits of L/2 and −L/2:
L/2
L/2
⎡ x3 ⎤ ⎛ ⎡ L3 ⎤ ⎡ L3 ⎤⎞ ⎛ L3 L3 ⎞ BL3
InertiaL B ∫
−L / 2
x2 d
dx B⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦ −L / 2
= B⎜ ⎢ 3 −
⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥⎟
⎝ ⎣ 2 × 3 ⎦ ⎣ 2 3 ⎦⎠
= B + =
⎝ 24 24 ⎟⎠ 12

APPENDIX 24
FORMULA GIVING THE
LONGITUDINAL BM FOR
A BOX SHAPED VESSEL
Consider a box shaped vessel, length L, beam B, as shown in Figure A24.1, pitched
through a very small angle θ (exaggerated for clarity). As the vessel pitches, a wedge
of underwater volume will emerge on the high end of the vessel, while a wedge of
an identical amount of underwater volume will be immersed on the low end of the
vessel. The result of this is that the centre of buoyancy will move, both longitudinally,
in a direction normal to a vertical line through amidships, and vertically, in a direction
normal to the keel.
the length and beam of the vessel, as shown in Figure A24.2.
Emerged
wedge
θ Amidships
Old WL
Immersed
wedge
WL
Original
centre of
buoyancy Old WL
Shift in
centre of New centre
buoyancy of buoyancy
▲ Figure A24.1 The shift in B as a vessel pitches

Appendix 24 • 741
(1/3) × (L/2) × tan θ
θ Amidships Centre of
Centre of immersed
Old WL emerged wedge
wedge
WL
(L/2) × tan θ
(L/2) (L/2) × (2/3)
Old WL
▲ Figure A24.2 Measuring the shift in B
2
⎛L ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ BLL
Volume o
of each wedge B× × tanθ × × = tanθ
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 8
An expression for the shift in the longitudinal centre of buoyancy can be derived from
a table of longitudinal moments of buoyancy, in a similar way to a loading table for
LCG. Assuming that a ship has a volume ∇, with a initial centre of buoyancy LCB1, and
a volume v removed from a position lcb1 and replaced at a position lcb2, causing the
centre of buoyancy of the ship to shift to LCB2, then the table would show:
Table A24.1 Transverse movement in B
Item Volume (m3) LCB (m) Vertical moment (m4)
Ship ∇ LCB1 ∇LCB1

Emerged wedge −v lcb1 −vlcb1
Immersed wedge v lcb2 vlcb2
Total ∇ ∇LCB1 − vlcb1 + vlcb2
The final centre of buoyancy, LCB2, of the ship can be found from:
Total vertical
e t ca moment
r after loading =
Overall centre
Total volume
∇LCB1 − vlc
v b1 vvlcb2
LCB2 =
∇

This can be factorised for the wedge volume v:

∇LCB1 + v (lcb
l b2 l b1 )
lcb
LCB2 =
∇
Both sides can be multiplied by ∇ to give:

∇ 2 =∇ 1 + v (lcb
l b2 − lcb
l b1 )
Both sides can have ∇TCB1 subtracted to give:

∇ 2 −∇ 1 = v (lcb
l b2 − lcb
l b1 )
This can be factorised for the volume ∇:

∇( 2 − 1 ) = v (l b2 − l b1 )
Dividing both sides by the volume ∇ gives:

v (l b2 l b1 )
( )=
∇
2 1
In the left hand side, LCB2 − LCB1 is the shift in the centre of buoyancy of the ship, and in
the right hand side, lcb2 − lcb1 is the shift in the wedge centre. Therefore, the movement
of the centre of buoyancy of the ship, when a edge of volume is transferred, can be
found using:
v Distance moved
Change in B =
∇
The longitudinal movement of the centre of buoyancy can therefore be determined

from:
Volume moved Longitudinal distanc

n e moved
Longitudinal movement of B =
Total volume
BLL2 ⎛L ⎞ BL
2
⎛ L ⎞ BLL3
tanθ × × × 2 tanθ × × 2
8 ⎝2 3 ⎠ 8 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 12 tanθ
∴ Movement of B = = =
∇ ∇ ∇
Volume moved Vertica

V l distance move
v d
o e e t of B =
Vertical movement
Total volume
BLL2 ⎛1 L ⎞ BLL3
tanθ × × tanθ × 2
⎠ 24 tan θ
2
8 ⎝3 2
∇ ∇

Appendix 24 • 743
As tan2 θ can be assumed to be zero as θ is a small angle, the vertical movement of B

can be assumed to be zero. Consider the right angle triangle defined by the original
centre of buoyancy, the new centre of buoyancy, and the metacentre, as shown in
Figure A24.3.
θ Amidships
Old WL
Longitudinal
BML metacentre
WL
Old WL
▲ Figure A24.3 The longitudinal metacentre and the shift in B
Longitudinal movement in B
tanθ =
BML
This can be transposed to give BML:

Longitudinal movement
o e e t in B
BML =
tanθ

BLL3
tanθ
12 BLL3
BML = ∇ = 12 =
InertiaL
tanθ ∇ ∇

APPENDIX 25
MOMENT TO CHANGE
TRIM BY 1 CM FORMULA
Assume that a trimming moment is applied to the vessel, so that the trim changes.
As the vessel trims, B moves, and a righting lever, GZL, is created in the longitudinal
direction, as shown in Figure A25.1.
ML
GML
ZL G
New B
▲ Figure A25.1 Trim geometry
As the centre of buoyancy moves aft, a restoring moment will be generated, which will
oppose the trimming moment. The restoring moment will be given by the displacement
multiplied by the restoring lever, in a similar manner to a righting moment in the
transverse case:
Restoring moment Δ G
GZ L
For small angles of trim (which is realistic for trim angles) the restoring lever, GZL, can be
found in terms of the longitudinal metacentric height, GML:
GZ L = GML × sinθ

Appendix 25 • 745
Combining these gives:

Restoring moment Δ GML sinθ
For the vessel to be in equilibrium, the restoring moment must be equal to the trimming
moment:
o e t = Restoring
Trimming moment esto g moment
Combining these gives:

Trimming moment = Δ × GML × sinθ
The definition of trim is the difference in draught of the ship measured at the forward
perpendicular (abbreviated to DF) and the draught measured at the aft perpendicular
(abbreviated to DA). If the length between perpendiculars (the LBP) is known, the trim
angle can be determined in terms of the trim and the LBP, as shown in Figure A25.2 and
the equation:
Volume moved
o ed VVertica
e t cal distance move
v d
Vertical movement of B =
Total volume
FP
θ
AP
LBP
DA
DF
▲ Figure A25.2 Trim angle, LBP and draughts
DA DF
Sinθ =
LBP
If the vessel trim as a result of the trimming moment is 1 m, then this becomes:
1
Sinθ =
LBP

If the vessel trim as a result of the trimming moment is 1 m, then this becomes:
Moment to change trim 1 m = Δ × GML × sinθ
Combining these equations gives:

1 Δ × GML
Moment to change ttrim 1 m = Δ × GML × =
LBP LBP
To determine the moment to change the trim by 1 cm, this can be divided by 100:
ΔGML
MCTC =
100 LBP

APPENDIX 26
TRIM EQUATION
As seen in Appendix 25: The Derivation of the Moment to Change Trim by 1 cm Formula,
the MCTC can be derived from the geometry of the vessel. If the loading of the vessel
changes so that the centre of gravity moves forward or aft, then it will be misaligned
with the longitudinal centre of buoyancy. This creates a longitudinal GZ, as shown in
Figure A25.1.
The misalignment of the longitudinal centre of gravity and the longitudinal centre of
buoyancy create a trimming moment:
Trimming moment = GZ L × Δ
The GZL can be expressed in terms of the LCG and the LCB:
Trimming moment = (LCB LCG ) × Δ
The definition of the MCTC is the trimming moment required to change the trim by
1 cm. Dividing the trimming moment by the moment to change trim by 1 cm will give
the units of the trim in centimetres:
tm
Trimming moment
Trim = = ⎛ t ⎞ = cm
MCTC ⎝ cm ⎠
Therefore, the trim can be found from:

(LCB LCG ) Δ
Trim =
MCTC

APPENDIX 27
THE DERIVATION OF
THE FORMULA LINKING
CARGO DENSITY,
STOWAGE FACTOR
AND COMPARTMENT
PERMEABILITY
The stowage factor (abbreviated to SF) tells us the volume required to stow 1 tonne of
cargo. This is a practical measure which includes air gaps between the items of cargo, and
is used to determine the mass of cargo could be stowed in a hold of a given volume:
Hold volume
Mass of cargo =
SF
The density of the cargo (the units are t/m3) tells us the mass of cargo that occupies one
metre cubed of volume of matter, therefore it does not include any air gaps in the cargo
as a result of inefficient stowage:
Mass of cargo
Actual volume occupied by cargo =
Density
t of carg
r o
The SF and cargo density (ρcargo) can be used to determine the permeability (μ) of a
compartment which is bilged, assuming all of the cargo remains in the compartment:
If a hold is completely filled with cargo, subtracting the actual volume occupied by the
cargo from the volume of the hold tells us the amount of the hold which is taken by air,
and is effectively floodable:

Appendix 27 • 749
Floodable volume = Hold volume − Actual volume occupied by carrgo

g
Substituting gives:
Mass of cargo
Floodable volume = Hold volume −
Density
t of cargo
r
We have previously defined the percentage or decimal measure of the amount of a

hold that could flood in the event of bilging as the permeability:
Floodable volume
t =μ=
Permeability
Hold volume
Substituting gives:
Mass oof cargo
Hold volume −
Density
t of
of cargo
r
μ=
Hold volume
The volume of a hold with the mass of cargo and the stowage factor are linked in the
Hold volume
equation Mass of cargo = . This can be transposed to give the volume of
SF
the hold in terms of the stowage factor and mass of the cargo:
o u e = Mass
Hold volume ass of cargo SF

Mass of cargo
(Mass of cargo × SF ) −
Density
t of cargo
r
μ=
Mass of carg
c o SF
The numerator can be factorised for the mass of cargo:

⎛ 1 ⎞
of cargo ⎜ SF −
Mass o
⎝ Density
t of r ⎟⎠
of cargo
μ=
Mass o of cargo × SF
Finally, the mass of cargo can be cancelled from the numerator and denominator to
give the permeability of the compartment in terms of the cargo SF and density:
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ SF − Density
t of r ⎟⎠
of cargo
μ=
SF

APPENDIX 28
DERIVATION OF THE
FORMULA GIVING THE
TRANSVERSE INERTIA
OF A RECTANGULAR
WATERPLANE MEASURED
FROM THE LONG EDGE
The inertia (sometimes also referred to as the second moment of area) is defined as the
area multiplied by the distance from a datum point squared. Consider a waterplane
area of length L metres and beam B metres. An infinitely thin strip of area dy thick and L
long will have an area dA, which can be found from L dy, with a centre y from the edge
of the vessel.
dy
0
L
▲ Figure A28.1 Inertia geometry when measured from the edge

Appendix 28 • 751

dA = L d
dy
The inertia of the strip, relative to the edge, can be found from:
dA y 2 = Ly 2 dy
Inertia d
The overall inertia of the waterplane can be found by integrating the waterplane
between the limits of B and zero:
B
B
⎡ y3 ⎤ ⎛ ⎡ B 3 ⎤ ⎡ 03 ⎤⎞ ⎛ B3 ⎞ LBLB 3
Inertia L ∫ y 2 dy
d L ⎢ ⎥ = L ⎜ ⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ = L ⎜ + 0⎟ =
0 ⎣ 3 ⎦0 ⎝ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3

APPENDIX 29
DERIVATION OF THE
PARALLEL AXES THEOREM
HUYGENSSTEINER
THEOREM
Consider a waterplane area of length L metres and beam B metres, as shown in Figure
A29.1. An infinitely thin strip of area dy thick and L long will have an area dA, which can
be found from Ldy, with a centre y from the centreline of the vessel.
dy
y
B
InertiaGG
X X
InertiaXX
▲ Figure A29.1 Parallel axes geometry
The inertia of the strip about the axis XX can be found:
InertiaXX (h + y )2 ddA (h + y )2 L dy
The inertia of the shape about XX can be found by the summation of the strips:
B B
∫ (h + y ) ∫ (h + y )
2
InertiaXX d
dA L dy
0 0

Appendix 29 • 753
B B
∫ (h + y )((h + y ) L dy = ∫(h + hy
hy + h
hyy + y 2 )L d
2
InertiaXX dy
0 0
B B
InertiaXX ∫
0
h + hy d = ∫LLh2 + 2Lhyy LLy 2 dy
hy + y L dy
0
B B B
InertiaXX ∫Lh ddy ∫

0 0
Lhydy + ∫LLy 2 dy
0
B B B
InertiaXX Lh2 ∫dy

d Lh∫ yydy + L∫ y 2 dy
0 0 0
However, as can be seen below, the final term, L∫ y 2 dy is also the same as the inertia
0
measured at the centre:
B B
0
B 2 0
⎡ y3 ⎤ 2 ⎡ − y3 ⎤
L∫ y dy
2
L∫ y dy + L ∫
2
y dy = L ⎢ ⎥ + L ⎢
2
⎥
0 0
−
B ⎣ 3 ⎦0 ⎣ 3 ⎦−B
2 2
Solving for the right hand section gives:

⎛ ⎡⎛ B⎞3 ⎤ ⎞ ⎛ ⎡ ⎛ B ⎞ 3 ⎤⎞
⎢ ⎥ ⎜ ⎡ (0 ) ⎤ ⎢ − ⎝ ⎠ ⎥ ⎟
B
⎡ y3 ⎤ ⎡ − y3 ⎤
0 ⎜ ⎝ ⎠ ⎟ 3
2 ⎥ ⎡ 03 ⎤⎟
B 2
⎢ 2 ⎥⎟
L∫ y 2 dy = L ⎢ ⎥ + L ⎢ ⎥ =L ⎜ − + L⎜ ⎢ ⎥−⎢
⎣ 3 ⎦0 ⎣ 3 ⎦− B ⎜ ⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦⎟ ⎜ ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 3 ⎥⎟
⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎟
0
2 ⎟ ⎜
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎠ ⎝ ⎣ ⎦⎠
Simplifying gives:
B
⎛ ⎡ B 3 ⎤ ⎡ 03 ⎤⎞ ⎛ ⎡ (0 )3 ⎤ ⎡ −B 3 ⎤⎞
L∫ y 2 dy = L ⎜ ⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥⎟ + L ⎜ ⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥⎟
0 ⎝ ⎣ 24 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦⎠ ⎝ ⎢⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣ 24 ⎦⎠
B
⎛ ⎡ B 3 ⎤⎞ ⎛ ⎡ −B 3 ⎤⎞
L∫ y 2 dy = L ⎜ ⎢ ⎥⎟ + L 0 − ⎢ ⎥⎟
0 ⎝ ⎣ 24 ⎦⎠ ⎝ ⎣ 24 ⎦⎠
LB 3 ⎛ ⎡ −B 3 ⎤⎞
B
L∫ y 2 dy = + ⎜ (0 × L) L ⎢ ⎥⎟
0
24 ⎝ ⎣ 24 ⎦⎠
LB 3 ⎡ −LB 3 ⎤ LB 3 ⎡ LB 3 ⎤ LB 3
B
L∫ y 2 dy = − = + =
0
24 ⎢⎣ 24 ⎥⎦ 24 ⎢⎣ 24 ⎥⎦ 12
This is the inertia of the shape about the geometric centre, therefore the equation
becomes:
B B
InertiaXX Lh2 ∫dy

d Lh∫ yydy + IGG
0 0

The term Lh2 ∫d

dy can be evaluated:
0
( )
B
Lh2 ∫d Lh2 [ y ] − [ y ] Lh2 (B − 0 ) = BLh2

B 0
dy = Lh2 [ y ]B0
0
However, the term LB is the area of the shape, therefore:

B
Lh2 ∫d
dy = Area h2
0

B
InertiaXX = Area h2 + 2Lh∫ yydy

d IGG
0
The middle term can be evaluated:

B B
0
B 2 0
⎡ y2 ⎤ 2 ⎡ − y2 ⎤
2Lh∫ ydy
d 2Lh∫ yydy + 2Lh ∫ ydy
d 2Lh ⎢ ⎥ + 2Lh ⎢ ⎥
0 0
−
B ⎣ 2 ⎦0 ⎣ 2 ⎦−B
2 2
⎡⎛ ⎛ B ⎞ 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ ⎛ B⎞2 ⎞ ⎤
B ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟ ⎛ 02 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎛ − (0 ) ⎞ ⎜ − ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟ ⎥
2
2Lh∫ yydy ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎢
+ 2Lh ⎜ −⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
d 2Lh
⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
0
⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ ⎛ B ⎞ 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ ⎛ B⎞2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜− ⎥
B
⎝ 2⎠ ⎥ ⎝ ⎠ ⎟
2Lh∫ yydy
d 2Lh ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 2Lh ⎢0 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
0
⎢⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
B
LhB 2 Lh( B )2
2Lh∫ yydy
d = − =0
0
4 4
InertiaXX = Area h2 + IGG
InertiaXX − Area h2 = IGG

APPENDIX 30
DIRECT CALCULATION
OF SHEAR FORCE AND
BENDING MOMENT
The process of calculating shear force and bending moments can be speeded up by
expressing the shear force as a function of the position from the AP. The resulting load
function can then be integrated to determine the shear force and bending moment.
The load can be expressed as a function of a position along the length of the vessel, and
the function integrated twice to determine the bending moment at any point along
the length of the vessel. For example, consider Question 7.1. The load in each hold can
be found using:
Δ LOADED Δ Mass o
of hold cargo
Load = O
− LIGHTSHIP −
L L Hold length
322.26 + 600 322.26 300

3
Load (Hold 1, 0 m FOAP to 20 m FOAP ) = − − = −5 t/m
60 60 20
322.26 + 600 322.26 0
Load (Hold 2, 20 m FOAP to 40 m FOAP ) = − − = 10 t/m
60 60 20
322.26 + 600 322.26 300
o d 3, 40 m FOAP to 60 m FOAP ) =
Load (Hold − − = −5 t/m
60 60 20
If the position along the vessel from the AP is x metres, the load values can be expressed
as a function of x:
Load (0 x 20 ) 5 t/m
Load (20 ≤ x < 40 ) = 10 t/m

Load ( 40 ≤ x < 60 ) = −5 t/m
The shear force can therefore be expressed (using a Maccaulay step function) as:
SF ( x ) 5 x + 5[ x − 20] + 10[ x 20] 10[ x − 40] − 5[ x − 40]

This can be integrated to give the bending moment function:

x
BM = ∫SSF ( x ) d
dx
0
BM = ∫ − 5 x + 5[ x − 20] + 10[ x 20] 10[ x − 40] − 5[ x 4 ]d

dx
0
5x2 5 10 10 5
BM = − + [x − ]2 + [ x − ]2 − [ x ]2 [x − ]2
2 2 2 2 2
Note that as the bending moment must be zero at x = 0, the constant of integration
must also be zero. The resulting shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown
in Figure A30.1. It can be seen that these agree with the original solution.
Shear force (tonnes), Bending moment (tonne metres)
200
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
–200
–400
–600
–800
–1,000
–1,200
Shear force
–1,400 Bending moment
–1,600
Position (m FOAP)
▲ Figure A30.1 Shear force and bending moment diagram

APPENDIX 31
PROPERTIES OF WATER
Fresh water Sea water (salinity 3.5%)
Temperature, t Density, ρ Kinematic Density, ρ Kinematic

(°C) (kg m–3) viscosity, ν (kg m–3) viscosity, ν
(×10–6 m2 s–1) (×10–6 m2 s–1)
0 999.8 1.78667 1,028.0 1.82844

1 999.8 1.72701 1,027.9 1.76915
2 999.9 1.67040 1,027.8 1.71306
3 999.9 1.61665 1,027.8 1.65988
4 999.9 1.56557 1,027.7 1.60940
5 999.9 1.51698 1,027.6 1.56142
6 999.9 1.47070 1,027.4 1.51584
7 999.8 1.42667 1,027.3 1.47242
8 999.8 1.38471 1,027.1 1.43102
9 999.7 1.34463 1,027.1 1.39152
10 999.6 1.30641 1,026.9 1.35383
11 999.5 1.26988 1,026.7 1.31773
12 999.4 1.23495 1,026.6 1.28324
13 999.3 1.20159 1,026.3 1.25028
14 999.1 1.16964 1,026.1 1.21862
15 999.0 1.13902 1,025.9 1.18831
16 998.9 1.10966 1,025.7 1.15916
17 998.7 1.08155 1,025.4 1.13125
18 998.5 1.05456 1,025.2 1.10438
19 998.3 1.02865 1,025.0 1.07854
20 998.1 1.00374 1,024.7 1.05372
21 997.9 0.97984 1,024.4 1.02981
22 997.7 0.95682 1,024.1 1.00678

Fresh water Sea water (salinity 3.5%)
Temperature, t Density, ρ Kinematic Density, ρ Kinematic

(°C) (kg m–3) viscosity, ν (kg m–3) viscosity, ν
(×10–6 m2 s–1) (×10–6 m2 s–1)
23 997.4 0.93471 1,023.8 0.98457

24 997.2 0.91340 1,023.5 0.96315
25 996.9 0.89292 1,023.2 0.94252
26 996.7 0.87313 1,022.9 0.92255
27 996.5 0.85409 1,022.6 0.90331
28 996.2 0.83572 1,022.2 0.88470
29 995.9 0.81798 1,022.0 0.86671
30 995.6 0.80091 1,021.7 0.84931

WORKS CITED
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ww2ships.com/acrobat/us-os-001-f-r00.pdf
Felkins, K., Leighly, H., & Jankovic, A. (1998). The Royal Mail Ship Titanic: Did a Metallurgical
Failure Cause a Night to Remember? JOM, The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 12–18.
International Maritime Organisation (1991). International Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain in
Bulk. London: IMO.
— (2002). Code on Intact Stability 2002. London: IMO.
— (2008). Code in Intact Stability 2008. London: IMO.
International Towing Tank Conference (2006). International Towing Tank Conference. Retrieved
31 January 2010, from International Towing Tank Conference – Recommended Procedures
and Guidelines: http://ittc.sname.org/2006_recomm_proc/7.5–02–07–04.3.pdf
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Construction: Ships of Classes I, II and II(A)) Regulations 1998). Southampton: Maritime and
Coastguard Agency.
— (2000). MSN 1752(M) The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998, as Amended by the
Merchant Shipping (Load Line), (Amendment) Regulations 2000. Southampton: Maritime and
Coastguard Agency.
— (2007). Maritime and Coastguard Agency Guidelines for Surveyors. Retrieved 31 January 2010,
from Maritime and Coastguard Agency: www.mcga.gov.uk/c4mca/loli_pt6.pdf
— (n.d.). Guidance for Surveyors, Loadline, Part 8. Retrieved 23 January 2010, from Maritime and
Coastguard Agency: www.mcga.gov.uk/c4mca/mcga07-home/shipsandcargoes/mcga-
shipsregsandguidance/mcga-dqs-ss_guidance_to_surveyors/dqs-ssb_load_line/mcga-
gr_gos_loadline-chapter8.htm
Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998 (n.d.). Statutory Instruments 1998 No. 2241.
Wright, D. (2005). Fracture – Some Maritime Examples. Retrieved 31 January 2010, from
University of Western Australia School of Mechanical Engineering: http://school.mech.uwa.
edu.au/~dwright/DANotes/fracture/maritime/maritime.html
9781408176122_Ref_Rev_txt_prf.indd 759 11/16/2013 8:24:00 AM

INDEX
abandonment 265 CFD 340, 369
absorption 54, 323 characteristic 344–5
acceleration 3–4, 81, 383 charts 186, 350, 372–4
admiralty coefficient 359–60 collision 237, 257
advance 366–70, 372, 374–5 correlation 319, 352, 354, 358
aeration 384 counter-ballasted 118
aerofoil 391 counter-clockwise 156–7
aligned 104–5, 140, 207, 270, 383 crane 52, 112, 201
allowance 3, 25–7, 354, 400, 402 criteria 53, 129–30, 148, 163
apparent slip 366, 369 criterion 261
apparent wind 148 cross-section 67, 146, 271, 293
appendage 325, 332, 350–2, 354, 380 CSA (cross section area) 386
Archimedes 3–5, 257, 272, 396
astern 357, 363–4, 383, 391–3 damage 33–4, 54, 222–69, 271, 375, 379
asymmetric 59, 91, 118, 148–9, 172 datum 261
davit 263
balance 174, 319 de-ballasted 75
ballast 65–6, 68–71, 73–4, 78, 83, 118–9, 168, 194, 196, deadweight 2, 6, 14–15
267, 307 deceleration 383
ballasting 73–4 deck cargo 29, 53–4, 62, 73, 129, 143–5
baseline 267, 380 deck edge 78, 90, 119, 155, 266
beaching 380 deck edge immersion 90, 119
blade area 363–4, 372, 375–6, 378–9, 381–2, 384 deck structure 31, 34
blades 364, 366, 371, 372–5, 380, 382–3 decks 31, 147, 264–5
block 2, 7–8, 18, 33, 35, 325, 364, 367 deduction factor 370–1, 387, 389–90
blockage 331 delta 373
BM 38, 55–8, 64–5, 76, 78, 84–5, 87, 138, 140, 146, 150, 175, density 2–5, 21, 23–5, 27–8, 35–6, 66, 72–6, 84, 97, 119,
177, 187, 198, 204, 223, 239, 243–5, 250–4, 260, 269, 168, 184–93, 196, 200, 210, 212–13, 216–17, 219–20,
297–9, 301, 303, 307–12, 315–16, 412–14 228, 293, 335, 338, 340, 386
BML 175–7, 251, 269, 315 derrick 44–5, 52, 112
boundary layer 321, 332, 336–42, 348, 372, 389 deterministic 262–3, 266–7
breadth 31 diameter 81, 83, 364–5, 371–4, 378–80, 386, 388, 390, 395
bulb 324 discharge 28, 385
bulbous 323–25 displacement 2, 4–6, 10–18, 22, 25–8, 35, 40–1, 43–6, 52–3,
bulbous bows 323–25 61, 63–4, 66, 73–6, 79, 85, 89–90, 95–7, 101–4, 111,
bulkhead 30–1, 74, 244, 252–6, 258–9, 262–5, 267, 276, 115–16, 119–21, 124, 130, 139, 144–5, 147–8, 150,
305–6 155–7, 162, 166, 168–70, 178, 180–204, 210, 212–21,
bunkers 66, 74, 97, 119, 168–9, 184, 196 225, 253, 257, 271, 276, 279, 293–4, 297, 301, 303,
buoyancy 2–35, 37–40, 46–7, 55, 59, 64, 77, 80, 85, 86, 89, 306, 311–12, 316–18, 328, 333–5, 359–61, 397–8, 401,
91–2, 94–5, 104–6, 112, 115, 120, 140, 142–4, 146, 408, 410–11, 413
152, 170, 175, 178, 223–4, 239–40, 248, 253–4, 256–7, divergent 323, 343
260, 270–2, 312, 402 doors 30–1, 264
BWL 7–9 draft 189, 200–1, 206, 275, 378–80
drag 311, 319–20, 322, 325, 328, 336, 338–42, 347–52, 354,
caissons 207 379–80, 391–93, 395
canal 331 draught 2–23, 26–30, 35–6, 39–40, 52, 55, 57–8, 61, 76,
cancellation 345, 347 79, 81–5, 88, 112, 139, 145, 155, 161, 174, 178–228,
capsize 78, 94, 176, 209 236, 238–9, 241–4, 248, 250–9, 267, 269, 271, 279,
capsizing 38, 53, 77, 86, 89, 157–8, 170, 264 292–303, 309–13, 315–6, 318, 397–8, 401–2, 406–9,
catamaran 309 413
cavitates 371, 375, 377, 379, 382–3 dredgers 21
centreline 39, 42–3, 46–9, 55–6, 59, 62–5, 71, 74, 79, 104, driveline 381, 383
106, 112, 117–19, 122–3, 128, 139, 149, 159, 201–2, drives 378, 380–1, 384
242, 244–5, 248–9, 257, 260, 292, 297, 306–11, 392, dry cargo 32, 266–8
402–4 dry-dock 181, 186, 206–13, 221
centrifugal 80 DSummer (summer draught) 399, 401
centripetal 80 duct 386–9
centroid 245–7, 249–50, 280, 282, 286–7, 307–8, 313, 315 DWA (dock water allowance) 3, 27, 36, 400–2
9781408176122_Index_Rev_txt_prf.indd 760 12/3/2013 5:22:43 PM

Index • 761
DWT (deadweight) 6 fuel required 360

dynamic resistance 307 fuel saved 361
dynamic stability 90, 128, 159, 171–2, 281, 288
dynamic viscosity 338 gangways 207
dynamometer 331 gases 350
gasketed 32
economic 18, 213, 329 gaskets 31
eddies 320, 325, 350 gates 207
effective power 355–6, 387 gearbox 356, 374, 378, 383, 385
efficiency 355–7, 375, 386–7 geometrically similar 330, 333–5, 353, 361
emerged 82, 105, 138, 155 GM (metacentric height) 38–9, 48–64, 67, 71–91, 97–102,
energy 125–6, 160, 163, 323, 386–90 107, 112–18, 129, 131, 137–50, 160, 165, 168, 170,
engine 101, 265, 353–6, 360, 378, 381, 384–5, 387, 390 172, 175–79, 191, 197–8, 200, 202–3, 207, 209–12,
entrained 366–7, 379 223, 239, 243, 250, 253–4, 256–7, 260, 264, 266, 269,
equilibrium 3–4, 64, 77, 104, 122, 161–2, 224, 263, 266, 279, 299, 301, 307–11, 318, 407–16
276, 319, 337, 389 GML (longitudinal metacentric height) 175–6, 223, 269
equivalent drag 348 gradient 118–20, 143–4, 146, 148–9, 151, 202, 276
equivalent propeller 386 grain 53, 91, 101, 129, 164–9, 172–3, 332
equivalent thrust 390 gravitational acceleration 3–4, 37–8, 40–1, 44, 46–7, 49,
equivalent torque 394–5 59, 64–5, 67, 71–2, 76–7, 80–1, 86–8, 91–2, 94, 101,
equivalent volume 165 104–6, 111–2, 118–20, 140–2, 147, 149, 175, 197, 200,
exemptions 21 224, 254, 256, 260, 270–1
exhaust 101, 325, 350, 384 ground 207–8
exposed 18, 31–2, 147, 161–2, 380 ground reaction force 207–8
grounding 186, 206–7, 221
failure 271 GZ approximation 98, 137, 159
ferries 155, 329 GZ change 91, 94, 101, 103, 172
fixed systems 381 GZ convention 157
fixed trim 153–4 GZ curve 89–91, 94–5, 97–9, 101–2, 106–7, 112, 115–21,
floodable 262 124–6, 129–32, 137, 139, 143–6, 148, 150–7, 159–60,
flotation 2–35, 313 163–4, 166–73, 223, 260, 263, 266, 269
flow 321, 336–7, 339, 341, 367, 391–2
fluid 47, 65–71, 152, 320 half beams 313
force 3–5, 39–40, 46–7, 49, 54, 77, 79–80, 91–2, 94, 112, half station 278, 288–9, 317
115, 123, 126, 161–3, 175, 178, 207–8, 224, 257, 265, handed propeller 364
270–7, 319, 321–2, 339, 357, 380, 386, 391–5 hatch 32, 198
forecastle 29 heel angle 33, 49, 67, 80–2, 91, 94, 97, 101, 119–20, 123,
forepeak 66, 228 162–3, 168, 172, 200, 206, 263–4
form drag 320, 322, 325 heeling angles 264
form factor 340–3, 348–9, 351 heeling arm 90, 166–7, 171
freeboard 18, 20–1, 26, 29–35, 91, 139, 143–4, 147–9, 153, heeling moment 62, 80, 90–1, 122–3, 142, 161–9, 171, 173,
155, 172, 260–1, 265 198, 202–3, 263
freeboard deck 18, 20, 31, 33–4, 139, 155, 261 heeling moments 168
freeze 147 heeling force 123
fresh water allowance 3, 25–7, 36, 400–2 heeling lever 162
fresh water berth 189 high-speed 347, 379–83, 385, 387, 389–90
fresh water mark 25 hog 194–5, 213, 219–20, 271
friction 319–27, 330, 333–4, 336, 338–9, 340–2, 348–9, 350, hollow 329–30, 347
352, 378, 380, 387–8 hollows 329, 346–7
friction calculation 340 hull
friction coefficient 327 centreline 308–9
friction drag 338, 341, 350 curvature 343
friction line 339, 342, 348, 350 designs 384
Froude numbers 325, 328–30, 336, 344, 346–7, 349, 351, efficiency 356–7
359–60 form 7, 9, 48, 51, 137, 150, 279, 291, 344, 351, 359, 367
Froude, Robert Edmund 325 length 344
FSC 39, 72–4, 88 penetration 267
FSE 38–9, 67, 72–5, 88, 91, 101, 118, 151, 172, 198 plating 306
FSM 38, 65, 72–6, 88, 151–2 resistance 350, 389
fuel coefficient 360 sheer 18
fuel consumption 196, 311, 353, 360–1 speed 328–9
fuel oil 196 hydrodynamic drag 311, 391, 393

762 • Index
hydrodynamic resistance 307 lightship displacement 200

hydrostatic curves 16, 95 lightship KG 221
hydrostatic data 11, 15–16, 29, 37, 38, 51, 72, 86–7, 95, 101, linear interpolation 11–12, 14, 29, 52, 200, 216, 268
174, 180, 184–6, 188, 220, 279, 305, 411 linear thrust 363
hydrostatic parameters 18 list angle 38, 59, 62–4, 71, 80, 87, 90–1, 111, 121, 123–4,
hydrostatic pressure 379 159, 168–9, 171, 173, 197, 200
hydrostatic tables 10, 16, 22, 24, 180, 182, 187–91 listing arm 124–5
hydrostatic value 11, 22, 178, 185–8, 191, 204, 220–1, 279 listing moment 59, 61, 67, 122–4, 178, 202
lists 1, 41, 67, 122, 127, 165, 280, 283–5
ice accretion 91, 147–9, 172 load diagram 273, 275–6
immersed area 294, 300–2 load displacement 6, 150
immersed section 293–4, 313, 315–16 load draught 313, 315–16
inclining mass 201–4 load line 18, 25, 27, 36, 53
inclining test 186–204, 221 load waterline 163
inclinometer 200 loading table 40–3, 45, 51–2, 61–2, 72–3, 75–6, 85, 95, 147,
inertia 38, 51, 56–7, 72, 75–6, 84, 87, 150, 177, 222–3, 165, 180, 197–8, 209, 212, 239, 408–10, 412–15
244–50, 252–3, 260, 269, 278–9, 284–8, 290–1, 297, longitudinal bulkhead 74, 259, 265, 305–6
305, 307–11, 315, 317–18, 412 longitudinal inertia 177, 250, 252, 279, 315, 318
inflection 120 longitudinal metacentre 175–6
instability 77 longitudinal metacentric height 174, 178–9, 184
interaction 344–5, 389 longitudinal stability 175, 177–9, 181–3, 253
interpolate 11–12, 14, 17, 29, 52, 76, 83, 178, 183, 186, 191, longitudinal waterplane 177, 223, 250, 252, 269
200, 212, 216–17, 268, 402, 408 lumber 3, 29–30, 36, 53
intersection 17–18, 71, 94–5, 99–100, 112, 118, 121–2, 124, lumber load lines 3, 29–30, 36
162–3, 168, 175, 373 LWL 7–8
iterative 371, 374
ITTC 319, 332, 339–40, 342, 348, 350, 352 manoeuvre 25, 196, 264, 379–80
margin line 261–3
jet 377, 384–90 Maritime and Coastguard Agency 1, 53–4, 94, 129, 147,
163, 198, 261
keel clearance 82–3, 189, 196 MCTC 15–17, 174, 178–81, 184, 187, 192, 205–6, 208, 210,
keel emergence 82, 105, 138 214, 217–18, 250, 254–6
keel laying 266 mean draughts 10–11, 79, 112, 174, 180, 182–6, 189–94,
Kelvin wave pattern 323 197, 201, 204–5, 210, 212–13, 216–17, 220–1, 228,
kinematic viscosity 338, 342–3 243
kinetic energy 387, 389–90 mean GM 198
KM 15–17, 51–2, 55, 57–8, 65, 76, 78, 175, 187–8, 198, 204, mechanical efficiency 355–6
209–13, 306, 407–11, 415–16 mechanical energy 386
knot 81, 83, 161–2, 319, 321, 326, 328, 342, 359–61, 382, mechanical power 388
385, 388, 390, 393–5 metacentre 38, 47–50, 59, 86, 91, 97–8, 107, 141–2, 175–6,
KQ 374 284
KWh 360 metacentric diagram 58
metacentric height 33, 38–9, 49, 52–4, 58, 61–3, 67, 72, 74,
laminar flow 339 83, 86–8, 90, 129, 139, 142–3, 147, 164, 170, 174–5,
laminar sublayer 337 178–9, 184, 186, 210, 213, 221, 257–9, 263, 279,
lateral area 147, 161–2 317–18, 413
layer correction 185, 190–2, 194, 197, 213, 220–1 metacentric stability 37–87, 91
LBP 178, 183, 190–1, 214, 218, 254, 304, 313, 315–16, 332, model resistance 333, 354
345–7 model scale 332
LCB 15–17, 37, 39–40, 85, 175, 178–80, 187, 192, 200, 206, model ship 351
222, 241–2, 254, 268, 279, 308, 312–13, 316, 318, 403 model speed 333
LCF 10–11, 15–17, 174, 181–4, 186–7, 190–1, 206, 208, 210, model test 319, 333, 348, 352
214, 216–18, 244, 252–3, 279, 313–16, 318 mono-hull 307–8
LCG 37, 40–3, 65–6, 72, 86, 175, 178–9, 180, 184–5, 192, Morrish’s method 317
197–8, 200, 213, 221, 254, 317, 403–4 multihull 279, 307–8, 318
leading edge 338, 340, 363, 381–2
leeway 391 naked power 353–4
length factor 262 negative GM 77, 100, 112–14, 160
lifeboat 265, 267, 293–6, 298, 304 negative GZ 89, 94, 149, 157–60, 260
lightship condition 6, 76, 79 negative metacentric height 87, 143

Index • 763
negative righting moment 157 rectangular compartments 39, 88

neutral axis 245 rectangular sponsons 310
neutral stability 64, 115 rectangular tank 72, 76, 279, 305, 318
non-dimensional ratio 364 rectangular waterplane 56, 247–9, 308
non-dimensionalised 339, 373 residual area 166–9
nonlinear 344 residual resistance 322–3, 333–4, 343
nozzle 385–9 residual stability 33, 91, 173
Reynolds number 338–40, 351
observed trim 214, 218 Ro-Ro 67, 264, 309
opening 18, 31, 33, 165, 325, 385 roughness 337
outboard 71, 77, 105, 143, 146, 378 rudder 39, 325, 332, 336, 342–3, 378, 380–1, 385, 391–5
outdrives 378
overhang 149, 152, 204, 383–4 sagging 194–5, 213, 271, 273
screw propeller/s 362–76, 377
parallel axes 245–6, 249, 252–3, 278, 286, 305, 307–8, shafts 325, 378, 380–1, 385
310–11, 315, 317 shear force 270–1, 273–7
parallel sinkage 223–38, 260–1, 406 sheer 18, 34
parametric roll 91, 172 Simpson’s Rule 126–7, 130–3, 168, 279, 288, 293, 295, 305,
parasitic drag 379–80 311, 317
passenger vessels 21, 54, 64, 81, 200, 223, 261, 263–9, 325 single-screw 372, 376, 380
passive 384 sinkage 2–3, 22, 27–9, 33, 36, 83–4, 222–38, 260–1, 268,
peak GZ 129, 166, 263, 267 399–402, 406
peak tanks 66 sister ship 200
pendulum 197–8, 200–4 skeg 380
permeability 32, 222–3, 227–8, 232, 234–5, 237–44, 249– skew 363
50, 252–3, 255–60, 262, 264, 266–9 slack 75, 200
permissible length 262 slamming 264
pivot point 10, 123, 181, 252 slip 366, 368–9, 376, 379, 384
planform 306, 311–12 slipstream 383, 386
planing 384 sloshing 67
plank 325–6 slow-turning propellers 378
plating 31, 34, 74, 306, 336, 338–42, 348, 383, 385 SOLAS 148, 200, 266
plimsoll mark 31 sponson 279, 309–12, 318
pressed 66–7, 75, 97, 118–19, 168–9, 196, 200 squat 83, 328, 331
pressure 5, 161–2, 263, 267, 322, 340–1, 344, 357, 364, 366, stability arm 94
375–6, 379, 381, 383, 393 stability computer 200
probabilistic methods 264 stability criteria 53, 130
Prohaska method 349 stability data 10–11, 41, 52, 65, 130, 168, 186, 403
propeller statical stability 89–90, 94, 120, 170–1
blade 363–4, 366, 371, 378–80 stimulators 332
damage 379 Stockholm agreement 264–5
data 373 streamline 311, 322, 325
design 369, 372, 378–9 strength 31–2
diameter 364–5, 371, 378–80 stress 271, 391, 394–5
disc 365 subdivision 30–2, 39, 74, 88, 200, 262–3, 265, 267
efficiency 356–7 sublayer 337
induced side force 380 submergence 105, 378, 380, 382, 384
pitch 364 suction 379
section 357 summer displacement 26–8, 139, 148, 189, 194, 301, 303
slip 379 summer draught 20, 21, 23, 26–8, 30, 35, 145, 189, 193,
submergence 378, 384 294, 296, 300–3, 402
thrust 369 summer Load Line 21, 23, 28, 31–2, 35, 402
tips 371 summer mark 20–1, 25–6, 28, 30, 189, 399, 401
torque 369 summer waterline 6, 39, 294, 299, 301
types 381 summer zone 23, 26, 28–9, 189
supercavitating 379
quasi-propulsive coefficient 358 superposition 90, 122–3, 125, 163, 171, 323, 344–7
superstructure 31, 33–4, 54, 147–8, 350
railing 30, 32, 363 superventilating 379
rake 363, 382 survey 186, 200, 213–14, 217–21, 329

764 • Index
survival 261, 263–7 underwater volume 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 35, 39, 46, 51, 55–7, 76–7,
swimming pool 72, 79 84, 175, 186–7, 224–6, 239, 254, 256, 293–6, 298–9,
symmetrical ice 91, 147–9, 172 301, 303, 308–10, 313, 316, 396, 402
synchronous 91, 172 up-thrust 207–12
tank 30, 65–7, 71–2, 74–6, 83, 118, 139, 151–2, 165, 168, vacuum 379
200, 260–1, 279, 305–7, 318, 325–6, 331–4, 348, 351 vanishing stability 90, 94, 101–2, 106, 119, 125, 144, 146,
Taylor wake fraction 366–7, 369–71, 374 148–9, 153, 170
TCB 37, 39–40, 85, 222, 242–3, 268, 403 vapour 375
TCG 37, 40, 42–3, 59–66, 71–2, 74, 86, 90, 104, 106–11, ventilation 350, 379
122–5, 159, 170–1, 197–8, 403–4, 414–16 vertical damage 267
temperature 375 vertical forces 273
tender 54 vertical side 138
theoretical speed 365–6, 368–9 vibration 325, 371, 379, 383
thickness 321, 336, 338, 340–3 virtual centre of gravity 39, 71, 88
thrust blocks 356 viscosity 321–2, 338, 340–3, 348–50
thrust coefficient 373–4 volumetric heeling moment 165–6
thrust deduction factor 370–1, 387–90 voyage fuel consumption 196, 353, 361
thrust power 355–7, 369–70, 374, 387
thrust pressures 379 wake 322, 349, 366–7, 369–72, 374, 384
timber deck cargo 29, 53–4, 129, 143–5 wake fraction 366–7, 369–71, 374
timber load lines 29, 53 wake speed 367, 369
tips 371, 380 wake turbulence 384
tolerance 332, 380, 383 wall-sided 78, 91, 138–41, 159, 172, 204
tonnage 2, 6, 35 water-tight 237
tonnes per centimetre immersion (Also see TPC) 22 waterjet 319, 377, 380, 383–6, 388–90
torque 47, 49, 54, 59, 92, 120, 126, 363, 369, 373–4, 384, waterline 6–9, 18, 21–4, 27–8, 33, 39, 83, 123, 163, 189, 219,
393–5 222, 236, 241–2, 265, 268, 270, 279, 292–4, 297–9,
TPC 2–3, 15–17, 22–9, 36, 83, 187–9, 204–6, 214, 216, 218, 301–4, 309–10, 312–18, 344, 377, 384, 402
279, 303, 318, 399–402 waterplane 2, 8, 9, 23–4, 28, 35, 38, 51, 56, 83–5, 87,
transition 338–9, 384 149–50, 177, 181, 204, 222–3, 226–36, 238, 242–5,
transmission efficiency 356, 387 247–53, 260, 269, 279, 292, 295–7, 299–305, 307–11,
transom 377, 383–5, 389 313–16, 318, 397
transverse axis 315 area 35, 177, 181, 204, 295–6, 300–2, 308, 310
transverse bulkhead 258–9, 265, 276, 305–6 centre 245, 248
transverse GM 176 curve 295
transverse inertia 38, 51, 56–7, 72, 75, 87, 223, 245, 247–9, half beam 299, 301–2, 304–5, 315–16
269, 279, 297, 307–11, 318 inertia 56, 84, 150, 177, 222–3, 247, 250, 252, 260, 269,
transverse stability 186, 206–7, 221, 253, 257 311
transverse waterplane 150, 222, 247, 260, 269 watertight 18, 30–1, 33, 78, 101, 222, 225, 228, 236, 241–2,
transverse wave 323, 343–4 244, 251–9, 262, 264–5, 267–8, 309
trim 10–11, 82–3, 91, 149–54, 172, 174, 178, 179, 180–86, bulkheads 262, 267
190–3, 196, 200, 204–19, 221, 223, 228, 241, 250–6, compartment 31, 252–3, 265
264, 267, 269–70, 317, 378, 380–1 decks 31
tropical and winter lines 21 division 264
tropical fresh water allowance 20, 25, 30 flats 241
tropical to summer 399, 401 volume 33, 309
tropical zone 21, 23, 25 wave interference 344–5
trough 328, 344 wave making resistance 322–3, 328, 343–4, 346–50, 354
turbulence 332, 337–9, 371–2, 384 wave pattern 323, 330, 343–7
twin-screw 376 wave speed 344, 346
wave system 323, 328–9, 344–5
ullage 65, 74, 139, 165 wavelength 328, 330, 345
under-keel clearance 82–3, 189, 196 weather-tight 30–1, 129
underwater noise 379 windage 163, 264
underwater section 294, 299, 301
underwater surface 39, 340 yachts 325, 329

Reeds Vol. 13 Ship Stability, Resistance and Powering 2

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Reeds Vol. 13 Ship Stability, Resistance and Powering 2

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For my darling wife Linny

Published by Adlard Coles Nautical

First published by Adlard Coles Nautical in 2014

Print ISBN 978-1-4081-7612-2

9781408176122_FM_Final_txt_print.indd iv 12/6/2013 7:19:24 PM

9781408176122_FM_Final_txt_print.indd xiv 12/6/2013 7:19:25 PM

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Symbol Units Name

9781408176122_FM_Final_txt_print.indd xvi 12/6/2013 7:19:25 PM

Symbol Units Name

ICentroid m4 Second moment of area measured through the centre of a shape

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Symbol Units Name

9781408176122_FM_Final_txt_print.indd xviii 12/6/2013 7:19:26 PM

Symbol Units Name

SF m2/t Stowage factor

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Background mathematical proofs and assumptions are covered in the appendices

9781408176122_Intro_Rev_txt_prf.indd 1 11/16/2013 2:41:22 AM

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

Explain why a ship ﬂoats

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 2 11/18/2013 3:13:24 PM

When an object is immersed or partially immersed in a ﬂuid, it experiences an upwards

Therefore, if an object, such as a ship, is placed in water it will experience an upwards

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 3 11/18/2013 3:13:24 PM

acting downwards. The force of gravity on an object, in units of Newtons, is equal to

Force due to grav

Therefore, the gravitational force acting downward can be given by:

Force due to grav

Force due to grav

Force due to grav

Substituting the expressions for the forces gives:

The gravitational acceleration, g, is constant on both sides, and so to simplify the

▲ Formula 1.1 Archimedes' principle

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 4 11/18/2013 3:13:26 PM

Q1.1 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.2 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 5 11/18/2013 3:13:29 PM

Q1.3 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.4 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Deadweight (DWT) is the diﬀerence between lightship and the displacement –

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 6 11/18/2013 3:13:30 PM

▲ Figure 1.1 Block coeﬃcient

▲ Formula 1.2 Block coeﬃcient

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 7 11/18/2013 3:13:30 PM

Waterplane area coefficient

▲ Figure 1.2 Waterplane area coeﬃcient

The waterplane area can be found from:

▲ Formula 1.3 Waterplane area coeﬃcient

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 8 11/18/2013 3:13:31 PM

Q1.5 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Amidships area coefficient

▲ Figure 1.3 Amidships area coeﬃcient

The amidships area coeﬃcient measures can be found from:

▲ Formula 1.4 Amidships area coeﬃcient

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 9 11/18/2013 3:13:32 PM

Q1.6 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

▲ Figure 1.4 Variation in draught with trim

9781408176122_Ch01_Rev_txt_prf.indd 10 11/18/2013 3:13:33 PM

Q1.7 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.8 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Hydrostatics and Linear Interpolation

If we wanted to determine the displacement of the vessel at a draught between these