Primary energy consumption in India

Characteristics of good fuel are:

Types of Fuels:

Fuels can be generally classified on the basis of two factors:

On the basis of their fuels state:
Solid Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels

On the basis of their occurrence:

Natural Fuels
Artificial Fuels
Examples of Fuels:

Natural Fuels Artificial Fuels

Solid Fuels
Wood, Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw,
Coal, Charcoal,
Oil Shale Coal,
Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum,
Coal Tar,
Shale-Oil,
Alcohols, etc.

Gaseous Fuels
Natural Gas Coal gas,
Producer Gas,
Water Gas, Hydrogen,
Acetylene,
Blast Furnace Gas,
Oil Gas
Solid Fuels

Advantages:
Easier transportation and storage.
Low production cost.
Moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages:
Large portion of energy is wasted.
Cost of handling is high and controlling is also
hard.
 COAL
• A combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock
composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is the
MOST ABUNDANT fossil fuel in the US.
Classification of Coal
Coals are classified on the basis of their rank.
Rank is defined as the degree or extent of maturation and is therefore a qualitative
measure of carbon contents.
Peat, lignite and sub-bituminous coals are referred as low rank coals while bitu-
minous coals and anthracites are classed as high rank.
Liquid fuels

Most liquid fuels are derived from the fossilized

remains of dead plants and animals by exposure
to heat and pressure in the Earth’s crust. The
fumes of the liquid fuel are flammable instead
of the liquid.

Advantages:
 Higher calorific value per unit mass.
 Burn without ash, clinkers, etc.
 Controlling the combustion is easier.
 Transportation easier through pipes and stored indefinitely without loss.
 Loss of energy is comparatively lower.
 Require less furnace space for combustion.
Disadvantages:
 Cost of liquid fuel is much higher compared to solid fuel.
 Storage methods are costlier.
 Greater risk of fire hazards.
 Special burning equipment required for more efficient combustion.
How OIL is Formed
 What are Liquid fuel?

Almost all the commercial fuels are derived from natural petroleum(or crude oil). The
liquid fuels consist of hydrocarbons. The natural petroleum may be separated into petrol
or gasoline, paraffin oil or kerosene, fuel oils and lubricating oils by boiling the crude oil
at different temperatures and subsequent fraction distillation or by a process such as
cracking. The solid products like Vaseline and paraffin wax are recovered from the
residue in the still. The following are some important liquid fuels:

1. Petrol or gasoline :
It is the lightest and most volatile liquid fuel, mainly used for light petrol
engines. It is distilled at a temperature from 650 to 2200C.

2. Paraffin oil or kerosene :

It is heavier and less volatile fuel than liquid fuel, and is used as heating
and lighting fuel. It is distilled at a temperature from 2200 to 3450.

3. Heavy fuel oils :

The liquid fuels distilled after petrol and kerosene are known as heavy
fuel oils. These oils are used in diesel engines and in oil-fired boilers. This
is distilled at a temperature from 3450 to 4700C
 Why is OIL in such Demand?

 The world population has been steadily increasing, more people means greater
energy demand.

 Several countries are achieving higher levels of development today, more building
and transportation means greater demand for energy.

 Oil is an extremely versatile fuel, it can be transformed into many other products.

 Oil-derived fuels (such a gasoline) burn easily, burn HOT, and the current
transportation industry is designed to use it nearly exclusively.
Gaseous fuels

Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and
liquid fuels. Most gaseous fuels are composed of hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen or a mixture of them all.
Advantages:
• Transportation through pipes is easy.
• Sparking combustion is really easy.
• They have a higher heat content.
• Clean after use.
• Do Not require any special burner technology.
Disadvantages:
• Large storage tanks required.
• As they are highly inflammable, the chance for fire hazards are extremely
high and strict safety measures need to be followed.
 CALORIFIC VALUE

Calorific value of a fuel is "the total quantity of heat liberated, when a unit
mass (or volume) of the fuel is burnt completely."

NCV=GCV- Latent heat of condensation of water vapour

Net C.V= Gross C.V.- 9xH/100 X587
=GCV-0.09XHX587
H= percentage of hydrogen in the fuel
• NCV=GCV-Mass of hydrigen per unit weight of the fuel burnt
x9xlatent heat of condensation of water

• H2+1/2 O2 H2O
• 2g 16g 18 g
• 1g 8g 9g
• The latent heat of steam is 587 cal/g(or Kcal/Kg) or 1060 BThU/lb
Units of heat :

(1) 'Calorie' is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of water through one degree Centigrade (15-16°C).
(2) "Kilocalorie" is equal to 1,000 calories. It may be defined as 'the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water through
one degree Centigrade. Thus: 1 kcal = 1,000 cal
(3) "British Thermal unit" (B.T.U.) is defined as "the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound (lb) of water through one
degree Fahrenheit (60-61°F). This is the English system unit.
4) C.H.U.(Centigrrade Heat Unit)- The centigrade heat unit is the amount of
heat required to raise the temprature of 1 lb of water through 10 C

1Kcal=1000cal=3.968B.Th.U.=2.2 C.H.U.

1B.Th.U=252 cal
 Bomb calorimeter

A bomb calorimeter is an
instrument used to determine
HCV or GCV of that fuel
 Combustion Calorimeters measure the heat released from a combustible
solid-liquid substance.

 This is done by weighing a precise measure of the sample substance into

a crucible, placing the crucible inside a "bomb" (a sealed metal cylinder
called a vessel), filling the vessel with oxygen and igniting the substance.

 The sample burns and the resulting temperature increase of the vessel is
measured and from it the calorific value (CV) is calculated
Water equivalent of calorimeter

In heat experiments, you take a weighed quantity of water in a (copper or some other metal) vessel
called the calorimeter. The experiment is carried out immersed in water in this setup. The weight of the
vessel or the material with which it is made was not considered.
The heat liberated in the experiment is transferred to the water. And you measure the rise in
temperature of the water and make calculations. But it is not the water alone that absorbs heat. The
vessel also absorbs heat.
The rise in temperature produced when something is heated depends on the specific heat of the
substance. If you supply the same amount of heat to the same weight of different substances, the rise in
temperature will not be the same.
The specific heat of water is 1 calorie per gram. This means that 1 calorie heat will raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C. But if the specific heat of the vessel is 0.25 calorie per gram, it
means that only 0.25 calories of heat is required to raise the temperature of the vessel by 1°C. Or this
means that 1 gram of the vessel material behaves like 0.25 grams of water. That means if the vessel
weighs 50 grams, then its heat absorbing capacity is equivalent to 50 x 0.25 = 12.5 grams of water. This
is the water equivalent of the calorimeter.
But we did not weigh the calorimeter vessel and we do not know its specific heat or what material it is
made of. So we determine the water equivalent of the calorimeter using some other experiment. Then
add that value to the mass of water taken in the calorimeter.
For example, if I use the above calorimeter vessel and take 100 grams of water, the raise in temperature
will be as if I had used 100 + 12.5 = 112.5 grams of water alone (no vessel) and make calculations.
So “water equivalent of the calorimeter” means “if the calorimeter (vessel) had also been made of
water …”
It is an apparatus used to determine
the calorific values of gaseous fuels
Principle:

 The calorific value of gaseous fuels is determined by burning a known

volume of gas sample in a combustion chamber.

 The released heat is quantitatively absorbed by cooling water,

circulated through the copper coils surrounded the combustion
chamber.

 The mass of the cooling water and its rise in temperature are noted.

 The mass of water produced by condensation of steam is also

recorded.

 The calorific value of the gas sample is then calculated from these
data.
 Working:
The gas is tuned on and ignited.

The water is turned on and rate of flow is so adjusted that the rise in
temperature of water in passing through the calorimeter is about 20°C.

After 45 minutes, the following readings are noted

The volume of gas burnt at a given temperature

and pressure during a certain time interval, t= V

The amount of water passed through

the coil during the same time interval, t=w

Temperature of incoming water =t1

Temperature of outgoing water = t °C

The amount of water condensed during the experiment = m

Calculations:
Total heat liberated = V.θ
Total heat absorbed = w (t2 – t1)
Now, heat liberated = heat absorbed
V.θ = w (t2 – t1)

Therefore,
G.C.V., θ = w (t2 – t1)/V
The amount of water condensed by 1m3 of gas = m/V

The latent heat of steam per m3 of gas at 15 °C = 587

Therefore,
N.C.V., = θ – m x 587/ V
 Caking Coal and Coking Coal

Caking Coal - Coal that softens and agglomerates on heating and after volatile matter
has been driven off at high temperatures; produces a hard gray cellular mass of coke.
All caking coals are not good coking coals.

Caking coal is called as Coking coal if the solid residue formed is coke (hard but porous
solid form of carbon)

Coking Coal - These coals, when heated in the absence of air, form coherent beads, free
from volatiles, with strong and porous mass, called coke.
caking coal (uncountable) A bituminous coal which softens and
becomes pasty or semiviscid when heated. On increasing the heat,
the volatile products are driven off, and a coherent, grayish-black,
cellular mass of coke is left.

When many bituminous coals are heated, they soften and form
a plastic mass that swells and resolidifies into a porous solid.
Coals that exhibit such behaviour are called caking coals.

Strongly caking coals, which yield a solid product (coke) with

properties suitable for use in a blast furnace, are called coking
coals.
Carbonization of coal
The term "carbonization" refers to the heating of coal without the presence of air. The
removal of volatile matter (VM) takes place in these conditions. Since the volatile
coal contains more hydrogen than the base coal does, the volatile coal becomes more
carbonized.
In a kiln or retort (pyrolysis), the biomass feedstock is typically heated to temperatures
around 400°C (often between 300 and 900°C) without the presence of air [10,11]. The
resultant biochar is a porous, carbon-rich, grayish-black material also known as charcoal.
The difference between the high temperature and low temperature carbonization of coal are
as follows-
Low-Temperature Carbonization is the term used to describe the process of heating
coal to temperatures between 400 and 700°C. when the coal is heated to a temperature
between, let's say, 900° and 1300°C. This process is known as high-temperature
carbonization, and it is used in India.
By heating solid fuels to 500–650 °C without the use of air, low-temperature
carbonization produces low-temperature coke and volatile compounds, which are then
captured and processed.
At temperatures above 900 degrees Celsius, high-temperature carbonization takes
place. The yield of gaseous products from this carbonization is higher than the yield of liquid
products.
Hard coke is produced by this carbonization, which is typically used to
create metallurgical coke from coking coals.
Otto Hoffman by product recovery process
Recovery of by-products:-

The gas coming out from the oven is called coke oven gas and is composed of NH3, H2S,
naphthalene, tar, benzene, etc,. This can be separated from each other.

Coal tar:- The coke oven gas is passed through a tower where liquor ammonia is sprayed from
the top. Dust and tar gets collected in a tank which is heated by steam coils to recover ammonia
back.

Ammonia:- The gas is then passed through a tower where water is sprayed. Ammonia goes in to
solution forming NH4OH.
NH3 + H2O --------> NH4OH.

Naphthalene:- The gas is then passed to a cooling tower where water is sprayed at a very low
temp. Condensation of some gases takes place and naphthalene is recovered.

Benzene:- The gas is than sprayed with petroleum. Hence benzene and its homologues are
recovered.

Removal of hydrogen sulphide:- The gas is passed through a purifier filled with ferric oxide.
Fe2O3 + 3 H2S --------> Fe2S3 + 3H2O.
After all the Fe2O3 is exhausted the purifier is exposed to atmospheric air when Fe2O3 is
regenerated and leaving So2 gas.
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Or Crude Oil:-

The word petroleum is derived from the Latin ‘Petra’ (rock) and
‘Oleum’ (oil). It is also known as crude oil or mineral oil. Petroleum
is the main source of liquid fuels. Petroleum is a dark greenish-
brown viscous liquid found in the earth‘s crust.

The average composition of petroleum shows;

C= 79.5 – 87.1/.
H= 11.5-14.8/.
S= 0.1-3.5/.
O+N= 0.1-0.5/.
Fractional distillation or refining

Crude oil as a mixture is not a very useful substance but the different hydrocarbons that make
up the mixture, called fractions, are enormously valuable, with each fraction having many
different applications
Each fraction consists of groups of hydrocarbons of similar chain lengths
The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process called fractional
distillation
The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points, which depend on the
number of carbon atoms in the chain
The size and length of each hydrocarbon molecule determines in which fraction it will be
separated into
The size of each molecule is directly related to how many carbon and hydrogen atoms the
molecule contains
Most fractions contain mainly alkanes, which are compounds of carbon and hydrogen with
only single bonds between them
Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column which is very hot at
the bottom and cool at the top

Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise

Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately condense into
liquid at the higher temperatures lower down and are tapped off at the bottom of the
column

Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense at
the top to be tapped off

The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling points and
are tapped off as liquids

The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the fractionating
column as gases

The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the
fractionating column
Cracking

It is the name given to breaking up large hydrocarbon

molecules into smaller and more useful bits.

This is achieved by using high pressures and

temperatures without a catalyst, or

lower temperatures and pressures in the presence of a

catalyst.

The process by which heavy hydrocarbon

molecules are broken up into lighter molecules by
means of heat and usually pressure and
sometimes catalysts.
Thermal cracking

In thermal cracking, high temperatures (typically in the range of 450°C to 750°C)

and pressures (up to about 70 atmospheres) are used to break the large
hydrocarbons into smaller ones.

Thermal cracking gives mixtures of products containing high proportions of

hydrocarbons with double bonds - alkenes.

Thermal cracking does not go via ionic intermediates like catalytic cracking.

Instead, carbon-carbon bonds are broken so that each carbon atom ends up with a
single electron. In other words, free radicals are formed.
 Catalytic cracking is an important process in the oil industry
where petroleum vapor passes through a low-density bed of
catalyst, which causes the heavier fractions to 'crack'
producing lighter more valuable products

Fixed bed cracking Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)

Octane number

Octane number is the ability of resistance of a fuel to knocking in comparison to Iso-

octane, which has octane number 100 and has high anti-knock quality.

Better anti-knock quality allows us to compress the air-fuel mixture to a larger extent
before it gets ignited by itself.

Every fuel is rated between 0 to 100. (0 is for n-heptane)

Cetane number
Its for diesel engine due to composition of diesel has mostly 16 carbon atoms. Its just
opposite of octane number.

It determines how fast the fuel will enter combustion stage. It signifies the time gap
between time of injection and time of ignition of a diesel. Higher cetane number
means this gap is less.
Sr. no Octane number
1 Octane number of a petrol sample is
defined as the % of iso-octane in the
mixture of iso-octane & n-heptane,
which has similar, knocking to the
petrol sample.,.
2 Octane rating is used for petrol
3 The fuel with high octane rating has
low cetane number
4 Octane number of good petro should
be atleast,85 for motorcycle and cars
100 for aeroplanes and helicopters
5 Octane number of petrol can be
increased by adding benzene or
toluene
Cetane number
Cetane number of diesel sample is
defined as % of n-hexadecane, in the
mixture of n-hexadecane & 2-methyl
naphthalene which,has same ignition
character like the ignition character of
the diesel under,test.
Cetane rating is used for diesel
The fuel with high cetane rating has low
octane number
Cetane number for good diesel should
be 25 for low speed egine,35 for
medium speed engine and 45 for high
speed engine
Cetane number diesel can be increased
by adding by adding ethyl nitrate or
acetone peroxide
Engine Knocking

knocking is an internal-combustion engine, sharp sounds

caused by premature combustion of part of the
compressed air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.

The uneven burning of fuel causes various different pockets of combustion.

This in turn creates multiple flame fronts inside the engine.

Each time a pocket burns, a little shock is produced, which ignites the following pocket and
keeps the cycle going.

In other words, knocking in spark-ignition internal combustion engines happens when one
or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the typical source of ignition and
some of the air/fuel mixtures in the cylinder burns without being ignited by the flame
front propagated by the spark plug.