Unit 7 :- Intelligence

Intelligence
• The concept of intelligence is a controversial topic,
defined in a variety of ways.
• When asked intelligence what intelligence means, most
people emphasize problem solving abilities and
knowledge about the world.
• Intelligence is the global capacity of the individual to
think rationally, act purposefully and to deal with the
situation effectively (Wechsler, 1958).
• Intelligence is the individual’s abilities to understand
complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment,
to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of
reasoning and to overcome obstacles by careful thought
(Neisser & others, 1996).
• Intelligence is the ability to learn from one’s
experiences, acquire knowledge, and use
resources effectively in adapting to new
situations or solving problems.
• It may be regarded as a sort of mental energy
(in the form of mental or cognitive ability)
available with an individual to enable him to
handle his environment in terms of adaptation
and facing novel situations as effectively as
possible.
 Characteristics of Intelligence
• It is the overall mental capacity or mental
energy of an individual and the capacity varies
with individual.
• It is the ability to learn, reason and solve
problems.
• It is the ability or power of making appropriate
responses to certain stimuli in the environment
(adjustment).
• It is the ability to deal with abstraction.
• It is an innate ability which grows and is
influenced by environment.
• Level of intelligence can be measured.
• It is predictive of success- individual who have
very low intelligence cannot perform tasks
well, however, high intelligence does not
guarantee success.
• Intelligence involves awareness and is goal-
directed, is rational and is valuable.
 Approaches of Intelligence
1. Spearman’s Two-factor theory
2. Thurstone’s Group-factor theory
3. Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligence
4. Sternberg’s Triarchic theory
5. Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized intelligence
1. Spearmen’s Two-Factors theory of
Intelligence
• According to Charles Spearman (1904),
intelligence involves two factors:
General Intelligence (G-Factor)
Specific Intelligence (S-Factor).
• Spearman’s established the two-factor theory of
Intelligence in 1904.
• Spearman used the technique of factor analysis to
come up with his theory.
• According to Spearman, intelligence is a general
cognitive ability that can be measured and
numerically expressed.
• He feels that humans possess a single underlying
factor “a generalized form of intelligence”,
known as the g-factor, which helps them to utilize
corresponding abilities “a specialized form of
intelligence”, known as the s-factor.
• Spearmen linked this relationship to a common factor,
called the General Intelligence (g). Thus, this theory
came to be known as the Two-Factor Theory
of Intelligence.
• IQ or intelligence quotient tests, which is a technique of
measuring one’s general cognitive abilities, is the
outcome of Spearman’s theory of General Intelligence.
• In his opinion, a student doing well in one subject was
likely to do so in corresponding subjects as well,
whereas a student doing poorly in a subject would do
poorly in corresponding subjects too.
• For example, a student who was good in General
Knowledge would be so in quizzes and debate.
• A student good in maths would be good in logical
games and detecting patterns as well. This is what
Spearman’s Two Factor Theory of Intelligence
suggests.
 General Intelligence ( g-factor )
• It is the ability to reason and solve problems
and does not require higher cognitive ability. •
• According to Spearman, if all question on the
intelligence test or daily tasks require similar
intellectual ability, then-intelligence may be
viewed as general capacity of individuals.
• Thus ‘g’ is common to all mental activities &
is involved in intellectual tasks and mental
abilities.
 Specific Intelligence (S-factor)
• It is the task-specific abilities in certain areas
such as music, business, or art and involves
higher cognitive ability.
• According to Spearman, if different questions
on the test or different parts of the tasks
require different intellectual ability, then
intelligence may be viewed as a specific
intelligence.
Thurstone’s Group Factor theory
• Other researchers (Thurstone, 1938) felt that
Spearman had oversimplified the concept on
intelligence.
• Intelligence began to be viewed as composed of
numerous factors.
• He Pointed out that there are Seven Primary
Mental abilities.
• Each of them has its own primary factor and each
of these primary factors is said to be relatively
independent of others.
• Seven primary mental abilities are :-
i. Verbal comprehension
ii. Verbal fluency
iii. Perceptual speed
iv. Number
v. Spatial visualization
vi. Memory
vii.Reasoning
 i. Verbal comprehension
• This is the ability of individual to comprehend
or understand meaning of words.
• This ability can be measured by tasks like
vocabulary test, synonym and antonyms and
reading comprehension.
 ii. Verbal /Word Fluency
• It is the ability of individual to fluently utilize
words while speaking.
• People with efficient verbal fluency can
generate and manipulate words quickly.
• This can be easily measured by anagram test in
which jumbled letters are given to individual
and he has to make meaningful words quickly.
 iii. Perceptual speed
• It is the degree to which individuals are quick
in perceiving visual details, similarities and
differences.
• Problems that require finding the missing
object, exploring similarities and differences
between objects can measure this type of
intelligence.
 iv. Numerical factor
• It is an ability to deal with number.
• People high in this area can compute
mathematical operation easily and quickly.
• Simple arithmetic test can be sufficient in
measuring this intelligence in individual.
 v. Spatial Visualization
• It is an ability of individual to mentally
manipulate objects in space.
• Those high in this intelligence are good in
activities like parking car and passing car in
narrow street.
• Block design is one way to measure this
intelligence in individual.
 vi. Memory
• It is the ability of individual to remember
words, letters or other relevant information.
• It can be measured through recall test.
 vii. Reasoning
• It is the ability of individual to reason.
• Reasoning may be inductive or deductive one.
• Analogies and series type problems are good
tests to measure reasoning
 3. Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligence
• Although many people use the terms-reason,
logic and knowledge- as if they are the same
ability, Howard Gardner believes that they are
different aspects of intelligence, along with
several other abilities.
• He originally listed seven different kinds of
intelligence but later added on eight type and
then proposed a tentative ninth.
 i. Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence
• It is the ability of individual to use language
well.
• This ability is not only limited to use of
language, rather these people are good in
understanding and learning languages.
• Good writers, lawyers, philosophers and
journalists are high in this intelligence.
 ii. Musical intelligence
• It involves skill in the performance,
composition, and understanding of musical
patterns.
• Those who are high in this intelligence are
good in careers like instruments, singers, and
disc-jockeys.
iii. Logical-mathematical intelligence
• It is the capacity of individual to analyze
problems logically, carry out mathematical
operations, and investigate issues scientifically.
• Scientists, mathematicians and engineers are
high in this type of intelligence.
 iv. Visual/Spatial intelligence
• It is the ability to recognize and manipulate
objects in space.
• Artists, photographers, pilots etc. should have
high spatial intelligence.
 v. Movement/Bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence
• It is the ability to use body parts or whole body
nicely.
• Professional dancers, athletes and surgeons are
usually good in this type of intelligence.
 vi. Interpersonal intelligence
• It is the ability to understand and maintain
good interpersonal relationship.
• These people can quickly understand others
emotion and can adjust oneself so as to fit with
other people.
• Psychologists, social workers and teachers are
good in this types of intelligence.
 vii. Intrapersonal intelligence
• People who are high in this intelligence are
good in understanding themselves.
• Philosophers, Meditaters, Writers possess high
level of interpersonal intelligence.
 viii. Naturalist intelligence
• It is the ability to understand and work
effectively in, and can better understand
natural world.
• Successful wildlife photographer, gardeners
and farmers are good in this types of
intelligence.
 ix. Existential intelligence
• It is the ability to see the “big picture’ of the
human world by asking questions about life,
death, and the ultimate reality of human
existence.
• Philosophers, Existentialists and to some
extent poets are good with this type of
intelligence.
 4. Sternberg’s Triarchic theory
• Robert Sternberg (1997) has theorized that
there are three kinds of intelligence:
i. Analytical intelligence
ii. Creative intelligence
iii. Practical intelligence
 i. Analytical intelligence
• It refers to the ability to break problems down
into component parts, or analysis, for problem
solving.
• People high in this intelligence are good in
analyzing, comparing and evaluating.
• This type of intelligence is measured by
intelligence tests and academic achievement
tests, or “book smarts” as some people like to
call it.
 ii. Creative intelligence
• It is the ability to deal with new and different
concepts and to come up with new ways of
solving problems (divergent thinking).
• It also refers to the ability to automatically
process certain aspects of information, which
frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty.
• These people are good in dealing with new
situation with the help of existing knowledge and
skills.
• These people are good in inventing and designing
innovations.
 iii. Practical intelligence
• It is best described as ‘street smarts”, or the ability to
use information to get along in life.
• People with a high degree of practical intelligence
know how to be tactful, how to manipulate situations
to their advantage, and how to use inside information
to reduce their odds of success.
• Person high in practical intelligence go about solving
problems through the use of Tacit knowledge.
• Tacit knowledge is very different from formal
academic knowledge, which often involves
memorizing definitions, formulas, and other
information.
• Tacit knowledge has three major
characteristics:
It is action-oriented.
It allows individuals to achieve goals they
personally value
It is usually acquired without direct help from
others.
 5. Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
• This theory proposes that intelligence is of two types:
Fluid and Crystallized.
• People who have high fluid intelligence are good in
reasoning abstractly and solving problems.
• It is inherited abilities to think and reason
• This type of intelligence is not influenced by learning and
maturation and declines after age 30 or 40.
• Solving novel puzzles might test individual’s fluid
intelligence.
• It includes reasoning capacity, forming concepts,
identification of similarities and solving analogy
• It is more intuitive, creative than simply using of existing
knowledge.
• Crystallized intelligence in other hand involves
knowledge derived from past experiences.
• Thus crystallized will grow with respect to our
age.
• It includes use of information learned previously
to make decision and problem solving.
• Our vocabulary and ability to solve life hassles
may test crystallized intelligence.
• Fluid intelligence comes to a peak at the early
adulthood and declines in old age, on other hand
skills related to crystallized intelligence remain
steady and in some case improves.
 Development of concept of
Intelligence
• Intelligence assessed through the various
intelligence tests is always expressed in terms
of IQ (Intelligent Quotient) and a “Quotient” is
precisely what the scores represents.
• To obtain an IQ score, an examiners used to
divide a student’s mental age (MA) by his or
her chronological age (CA), then multiplied
this number by 100 (to avoid the decimals).
 Mental age
• Mental age is the level of mental maturity a person has
attained.
• It can also be defined as the degree of mental
development of an individual as compared with the
average person of a particular chronological age.
• Mental age is the measure of the intellectual level at
which an individual functions; for example, someone
described as having a mental age of 6 years would be
functioning at the level of an average 6-year old child.
• Many people have higher or lower mental age
compared to their actual age.
• Higher mental age indicates higher intelligence and
lower mental age indicates lower intelligence.
Calculating mental age
• Mental age was based on the number of items
passed correctly on the test.
Chronological age
• It can be defined as the absolute age of the
individual.
• It is counted from birth onwards.
 Measuring Intelligence
• Psychologists have devised many different
tests for measuring intelligence.
• If we divide the intelligence tests from the
viewpoint of administering those tests, we can
divide tests into Individual & Group Tests.
• Depending upon whether test requires verbal
ability or not, intelligence tests can be divided
into Verbal & Performance Tests.
 Types of intelligence test
1. Stanford - Binet Intelligence Test
2. Wechsler Intelligence Scales
 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales –
Fifth Edition
• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales – Fifth
Edition (SB-5; Roid, 2003) is an individually-
administered, norm-referenced instrument that
measures intellectual and cognitive ability,
yielding not only a Full Scale IQ but also a Brief
IQ, Verbal IQ, Nonverbal IQ, as well as five
factors: Fluid Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning,
Visual-Spatial Reasoning, Working Memory, and
Knowledge.
• The SB-5 can be used to assess individuals from 2
through 85 years of age and older.
• The SB-5 is widely used and, because of numerous
high-end and low-end items can be useful for
measuring individuals with scores in both the
giftedness and intellectual disability ranges.
• Half of the SB-5 has nonverbal content requiring little
to no verbal responses from the examinee, making this
test useful for assessing persons with Limited English
Proficiency, deaf and hard of hearing conditions,
nonverbal learning disabilities, ADHD, traumatic brain
injury and autism spectrum disorder.
• This test can be hand-scored or scored with the optional
SB-5 Optional Scoring and Report system.
 2.Wechsler Intelligence Scales
• The test was designed by psychologist David Wechsler,
who believed that intelligence was made up of a
number of different mental abilities rather than a
single general intelligence factor.
• Over time the test evolved into three separate versions
used for different age groups. The Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is used for adults, while the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is
used for children between the ages of 6 and 16. The
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
(WPPSI) is used for children between the ages of 4 and
6.5. In some cases of intellectual disabilities, the WISC
may be used to help clinicians understand the
individual’s lowest level of knowledge.
• The most common purpose of the test is to
identify intelligence and cognitive
performance, which is often helpful in
identifying intellectual disabilities and overall
cognitive function in children and adults.
• In the Wechsler approach Full-Scale IQ is
derived from the combined scores of Verbal
and Performance IQ
Individual Differences in Intelligence
• Individual test of intelligence are costly, however,
these tests continue in widespread use because
these tests have several practical uses and provide
benefits that help to offset their obvious costs.
• The most important of these uses involves
identification of children at the extremes with
respect to intelligence – those who suffer from
some degree of mental retardation, and those who
are intellectually gifted.
• Sometimes its very difficult to make an accurate
assessment of intellectual level.
• Standardized intelligence test are also likely to
underestimate the ability of children who have
been culturally deprived or not native- born.
• Extreme of intelligence can be broadly divided
into two major groups:
Mental retardation and
Intellectually gifted
 Mental retardation
• People are diagnosed as mentally retarded if they exhibit
significant deficits in everyday adoptive behavior, such
as self-care, social skills or communication.
• This people have problem in reading, writing, speaking,
reasoning, calculating and sensory disabilities.
• Mentally retarded people has limitations in two areas.
These areas are:
 Intellectual functioning. Also known as IQ, this refers
to a person’s ability to learn, reason, make decisions, and
solve problems.
 Adaptive behaviors. These are skills necessary for day-
to-day life, such as being able to communicate
effectively, interact with others, and take care of oneself.
• It is generally defined as an IQ below 70.
 Causes of Mental Retardation
• Genetic conditions: These include things like Down
syndrome (extra chromosome) and fragile X syndrome
(developmental problem).
• Problems during pregnancy: Things that can interfere
with fetal brain development include alcohol or drug use,
malnutrition, certain infections etc.
• Problems during childbirth: Intellectual disability may
result if a baby is deprived of oxygen during childbirth or
born extremely premature.
• Illness or injury: Infections like whooping cough, or the
measles can lead to intellectual disability. Severe head
injury, near-drowning, extreme malnutrition, infections in
the brain, exposure to toxic substances such as lead, and
severe neglect or abuse can also cause it.
• In two-thirds of all children who have intellectual disability,
the cause is unknown.
 Intellectually Gifted
• “Intellectually Gifted” means a child whose intellectual
abilities, creativity, and potential for achievement are so
outstanding that the child’s needs exceed differentiated
general education programming, adversely affects
educational performance, and requires specifically
designed instruction or support services.
• Children from all populations (e.g., all cultural, racial,
and ethnic groups, English Learners, all economic
strata etc.) can be found to possess these abilities.
• In most countries the prevailing definition of
intellectually gifted peoples intelligence quotient (IQ) is
130 or above.
• The major characteristics of they posses are:
(a) the diversity of areas in which performance
may be exhibited (e.g., intellectual, creativity,
artistical, leadership, academically),
(b) the comparison with other groups (e.g.,
those in general education classrooms or of the
same age, experience, or environment), and
(c) the use of terms that imply a need for
development (e.g., capability and potential).
 Role of Heredity and Environment
in Intelligence
• There is variation of intelligence from one to
another individual.
• Why such differences occur?
• To what degree is intelligence learned and
inherited?
• Which influences more heredity or
environment or combination of two?
 Heredity
• According to the study by Henderson (1982), the closer
the genetic link between two related people, the greater
the correspondence of IQ scores.
• The relatively low correlation (r = .25, which is
insubstantial) for the unrelated children raised together
showed the influence of genetic factors in intelligence.
• Similarly, the correlation for spouses, who are
genetically unrelated and have been reared apart is
relatively low ( r = .29), whereas the correlation for
identical twins reared together is substantial ( r = .86).
• This findings also emphasizes the strong influence of
genetic inheritance in intelligence.
• Heritability is a mathematical estimate that indicates
how much of a trait’s variation in a population can be
attributed to genes.
• In addition to inherited characteristics, other biological
factors such as maternal age, prenatal exposure to
harmful substances, and prenatal malnutrition may also
influence intelligence.
• Three important limitations that influence the
heritability of Intelligence are:
 Heritability estimates do not estimate the extent of
genes' influence on a single person’s traits.
 Heritability depends on people’s similar environments.
 A trait can still get influenced by the environment, even
if it has high heritability.
Evidence for the role of environment
• Intelligence isn’t only influenced by genetic factor but also
environmental factor.
• Environment enrichment and environment deprivation both
equally share their part in intelligence.
• A child performance on IQ is influenced by home
environment, positive mother-child interaction and
exploration, maternal knowledge about child rearing and
child development.
• Schooling plays crucial roles in shaping intellectual skills,
such as the ability to think abstractly.
• Studies have also pointed out that children of less educated
parents have a poorly enriched environments and this
decreased opportunity in expressing their innate potential.
• However, the difference between the correlations of siblings
(who shared 50% genetic link) raised together and apart
showed the impact of environment in the level of
intelligence.
• IQ scores have risen substantially around the
world at all ages levels in recent decades, this
phenomenon is called Flynn effect.
• James Flynn was the first psychologist to report
this pattern
• Flynn pattern shows a gain of approximately three
points for every 10 years.
• Environmental factors are responsible for this
pattern.
• Better nutrition, increased urbanization, the
advent of television, better education, more
cognitively demanding job, exposure to computer
games, information, shared culture all are
responsible for this pattern.
• Psychologist accept that nature and nurture
interact in complex ways, but there is still
debated on which influences intelligence more.
• Because characteristics that are hereditary can
not be readily changed and environmental
factors too have a strong background effect.
 Emotional Intelligence
• A form of intelligence relating to the emotional
side of life such as the ability to recognize and
manage one’s own and others’ emotions, to
motivate oneself and restrain impulses, and to
handle interpersonal relationships effectively.
• Evidence suggests that such skills are important
for personal success and for having a happy,
productive life.
• In other words, it is not enough to be bright in an
academic sense; other aspects of intelligence are
crucial too.
• The concept of emotional intelligence was first
introduced by Peter Salovey and John Mayer
(1990) and later popularized by Dan Goleman
(1995).
• Emotional intelligence is not the same as having
high self-esteem or being optimistic.
• One who is emotionally intelligent possesses self-
control of emotions such as anger, impulsiveness,
and anxiety.
• Empathy, the ability to understand what others
feel, is also a component, as are awareness of
one’s own emotions, sensitivity, persistence even
in the face of frustrations, and the ability to
motivate oneself.
Goleman’s Dimensions of emotional
intelligence
• Goleman (1995) suggests that emotional
intelligence consists of 5-major parts:
a. Self-awareness: Knowing one’s own emotions
b. Self-management: Managing one’s own
emotions
c. Self-motivation: Motivating self
d. Empathy: recognizing emotions of others
e. Social skills: handling relationships
a. Self-awareness(knowing one’s own
emotions)
• Emotions are often powerful reactions, so it would
seem at first glance that everyone ought to be able to
recognize their own feelings, moods, emotions and
needs.
• Some persons are highly aware of their own emotions
and their thoughts about them, while others seem to be
almost totally oblivious to their feelings.
• People with high understanding and knowledge of their
strength and limitation perceive and regulate their
behavior according to the situation see how his/her
behavior affects them.
• People can monitor their behavior effectively which
influences for intelligent choices.
b. Self-management (managing one’s
own emotions)
• The person who is already aware of the emotions often
try to manage those emotions to regulate both their
nature and their intensity.
• Perhaps one of the most important tasks, we undertake
with respect to managing our emotions is that of
countering negative moods: overcoming feelings of
depression.
• The person with high emotional managing skills
remains calm in difficult situation, shows confidence
and can foresee the consequences that may erupt when
acting impulse.
• Persons who are high in emotional intelligence have
many effective tactics for accomplishing this goal and
can have more colleagues.
 c. Self-motivation
• It’s a person internal urge to maintain and manage
emotional behavior in stable manner even in
hurdles.
• Success requires perspiration as well as emotional
intelligence such as being able to motivate oneself
to work long and hard on a task.
• It helps in remaining enthusiastic and optimistic
about the goal attainment.
• These people can be active, motivated to work
extensively and hard on task in order to achieve
the long-term outcome.
 d. Empathy (recognizing other’s
emotions)
• The ability to understand and sense another
person’s feelings, sentiments, emotions and
thoughts is empathy.
• Its being sensitive and taking another person’s
emotion as his/her own, but not adopting them.
• Empathy allows the person to read another mood
and act accordingly.
• Its consists both affective and cognitive
components.
• For example: I understand what you are going
through.
 e. Social skills (handling
relationships)
• It is the ability to manage and handle the
emotions of other person.
• People who are strongly motivated to control their
behavior owns the skills to guide others people
emotion.
• They have the ability to mix and form favorable
relationship networks.
• These people usually help other people who are in
emotional crisis and are at good at giving feed in
favorable manner.
Emotional Intelligence in workplace
• Emotional intelligence is a valuable asset in the
workplace.
• In certain environments, employees with high levels of
emotional intelligence may be better able to cooperate
with others, manage work-related stress, solve conflicts
within workplace relationships and learn from previous
interpersonal mistakes.
• Workers with high emotional intelligence are better
able to work in teams, adjust to change and be flexible.
• No matter how many degrees or other on-paper
qualifications a person has, if he doesn’t have certain
emotional qualities, he is unlikely to succeed.
 i. Emotional intelligence and
Selection
• Researches indicates that employers should
consider emotional intelligence in selecting
employees, especially for jobs that demand a
high degree of social interaction.
• More employers have started to use emotional
intelligence measures in their hiring processes
and are finding high-scoring emotional
intelligence employees.
ii. Emotional intelligence and Career
development
• Emotional intelligence is one important characteristics
that determines the career development of a person.
• Those with higher emotional intelligence have a better
chance of getting a job offer.
• The qualities of emotional intelligence help a person
select the career that suits him and to excel in it.
• Persons with high emotional intelligence have the
ability to identify the needs of people who deal with
them and therefore be able to maintain healthier
relationships with them.
• Emotional intelligence is often factored into the
decision regarding pay rises and promotions.
 iii. Emotional intelligence and
Leadership
• High emotional intelligence leaders are able to use their
social skills to foster rapport and trust with their employees.
• They tend to view their team members as individuals with
unique abilities, backgrounds and personalities.
• An emotionally intelligent leader will be able to clearly
understand the various situations that take place in the
organization and to anticipate the likely outcome of each
situation.
• Leaders with high emotional intelligence manage
relationships with others more effectively and this, in turn,
will help to enhance the productivity of the organization.
• When conflict arises, leaders with high emotional
intelligence may be better able to control their own
impulses, view the situation from all perspectives, and seek
mutually beneficial solutions.
 iv. Emotional intelligence and team
building
• In many organizations, work is accomplished
on the basis of teams and the emotional
intelligence exhibited by team members is
crucial to the team’s performance.
• Emotional intelligence helps team members to
unite and be efficient in operations.
• A team which does not show signs of
emotional intelligence cannot succeed in its
operations.
 Applications of emotional
intelligence
i. The best negotiators are probably the ones who
remain emotionally detached and hence improving
emotional intelligence can improve negotiation .
ii. Worker’s emotional intelligence influence customer
service, which enhances levels of business and
customer satisfaction.
iii. Emotional intelligence is also the better predictor of
career success than high academic intelligence.
iv. Emotional intelligence motivates for healthy practice
of behavior as a result we can see positive emotional
responses and subjective well-being.
i. Emotional intelligence measures have been
widely used by employers to recruit the
employees.
ii. It helps to develop long lasting intimate
relationship, friendship and relationship
iii. It helps to manage our emotion with
correspondence with different situation.
iv. It teaches art of living with peace and
harmony.