AGR 102 Introductory Agro-Meteorology - Climate Change (1-1)

AGR 102 Introductory Agro-meteorology & Climate Change (1 + 1)
PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

B.Sc. (Agriculture)
TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
COIMBATORE - 641 003
2018 -19
1
PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD
B.Sc. (Agriculture)
AGR 102 INTRODUCTORY AGRO-METEOROLOGY & CLIMATE CHANGE (1 +1)
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is a bonafide record of the work done by
Mr./Miss………….....................................................I.D.No.BSA……………..…
of First B.Tech. (Horticulture) during the first semester of the academic year
2018-19.
External examiner Course Teacher
2
CONTENTS
Ex.N Date of Remark

Date Particulars Sign.
o. submission s
Site selection and layout for Agromet Observatory -
1 Calculation of local time - Time of observation of
different weather elements - Reviewing agromet
registers.
Measurements of solar radiation (pyranometers),
2 sunshine hours (sunshine recorder) - working out
weekly and monthly mean for graphical
representation
Measurement of air and soil temperature and grass
3 minimum thermometers and thermographs -
drawing isolines
Humidity measurements - use of wet and dry bulb
thermometers - Psychrometers - Hygrograph -
4 Measurement of wind direction and wind speed and
conversion (KMPH, KNOT, and M/Sec.) -
Beaufort’s scale.
Measurement of atmospheric pressure - barograph -
5 Fortein-s barometer - Isobars based on past data for
different seasons.
Measurement of rainfall - Ordinary and self-
6 recording rain gauges - Measurement of Dew - dew
gauge- study of Automatic weather station.
Measurement of Evaporation - Open pan
7 evaporimeter- application of evaporation data-
Measurement of Evapotranspiration- Lysimeter.
8 Heat Unit concept- GDD, HTU, PTU for fixing time
of sowing.
9 Probability analysis of rainfall for crop planning
10 Drawing Synoptic charts for understanding weather.
11 Preparation of crop weather calendars and forecast

based agro advisories
12 Preparation pest weather calendar and pest
forewarning
13 Estimation of length of growing periods using
weekly rainfall data.
14 Water balance studies
15 Identification of efficient cropping zone- RYI, RSI
16 Mapping of agro climatic Zones of India and Tamil

Nadu and its characterization.
3
Ex.No.1 Date:
SITE SELECTION AND LAYOUT FOR AGROMET OBSERVATORY - CALCULATION OF

LOCAL TIME - TIME OF OBSERVATION OF DIFFERENT WEATHER
ELEMENTS - REVIEWING AGROMET REGISTERS
Observatory is a place where a number of instruments are assembled to record various

weather elements. Different weather elements are observed and recorded at different times depending
upon the co-ordinates of the observatory.
Observatory
Climatological observatory Synoptic observatory

(Studying effect of climate) (For forecasting purpose)
Meteorological observatory Agro-meteorological observatory

(For studying about weather) (For agricultural research & extension)
Principal Ordinary Auxiliary Special purpose
Latitude: Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn parallel

to the equator running from west to east. Latitude of a
place is the distance either north or south of the equator
which is measured as an angle whose apex is at the
center of the Earth. One degree of latitude is
approximately equal to 111 kilometres. There are 180
latitudes in total and 90 are running in the northern
hemisphere and 90 are running in the southern
hemisphere. Some of the important latitudes are 0°
(Equator), 23½° N (Tropic of Cancer), 23½° S (Tropic
of Capricorn), 66½° N (Arctic circle), 66½° S
(Antarctic circle), 90° N (North pole) and 90° S (South
pole).
4
Longitude: Longitudes are imaginary lines drawn across the equator connecting North Pole and South
Pole. The distance of a place east or west of the meridian of Greenwich or the Prime Meridian as an
angle is known as longitude of a place. A meridian is a line joining places which has their noon at the
same time. There are 360 longitudes in total and 180 are eastern longitudes and 180 are western
longitudes. Some of the important longitudes are 0° (UTC – Universal Time Co-ordinate), 180° (IDL –
International Date Line). Longitudes are important for time calculation.
Altitude: Elevation of a place above mean sea level.
Site selection for Agromet observatory

1) The site for agromet observatory should be selected once for all.
2) As for as possible observatory site should be at the middle of the farm.
3) Representative area should be selected.
4) The selected site should be free from water logging.
5) Observatory site should be away from the main irrigation channel.
6) The site should be levelled without any undulations.
7) There should not be any tall trees and structures near the observatory as it will affect the
reading of various instruments. If at all as site has to be selected near tall structures then the
site should be away by 10 times the height of the tall structure.
Finding out True north by using magnetic campus

The magnetic campus available can be used to identify the true north which is important for
layout of observatory. All the instruments which requires direction in an observatory is to be adjusted
to the true north direction. The magnetic campus has to be adjusted in such a way that the needle
and the marking are one over the other. The true north is three degrees towards eastern side of the
magnetic north.
Essential and optional instruments for different observatories
Depending upon the availability of the instruments and the number of weather elements observed the
agro-meteorological observatories fall into four groups viz., principal, ordinary, auxiliary and specific
purpose observatories. The essential and optional instruments required for these types are also given in
the table.
Types of observatories and corresponding list of instruments
Sl. No Principal Ordinary Auxiliary
A. Essential Instruments
1 Wet & dry bulb thermometer Wet & dry bulb thermometer Wet & dry bulb thermometer
2 Maximum & minimum Maximum & minimum Maximum & minimum
thermometer thermometer thermometer
3 Soil thermometer Soil thermometer Ordinary rain gauge
4 Grass minimum thermometer Grass minimum thermometer
5 Ordinary & self recording Ordinary rain gauge
rain gauges
6 Wind vane & anemometer Wind vane & anemometer
7 USWB open pan USWB open pan
evaporimeter evaporimeter
8 Bellanis Psychrometer Bellanis Psychrometer
5
9 Sunshine recorder
10 Dew gauge
11 Thermo-hygrograph
12 Soil moisture equipments
13 Radiation instruments
(Global & net radiation)
B. Optional instruments
1 Lysimeter Sunshine recorder Wind vane
2 Potentiometer Dew gauge Anemometer
3 Micro voltmeter Self recording rain gauge Dew gauge
4 Thermopile sensing element Thermo-hygrograph
for short & long wave
radiation
5 Contact recording
anemometer
6 Automatic weather station
Specific purpose observatory
This observatory is set up temporarily or permanently for the observation of one or several
elements and/or of specific purpose for which the observations are required. Eg. Observation using
pilot balloons and radisonde.
Layout of agro-meteorological observatory
1. The area should be of the dimension of 3:5 ratio, breadth and length running east to west and
north to south, respectively.
2. The minimum fenced area should be 15:25 meters on east west and north south, respectively.
3. All the tall instruments should be installed at the northern side of the observatory to avoid shade
effect.
6
N
Layout of Principal observatory
5m
Border
9m
Sunshine recorder
9m
Wind vane Pyranometer Anemometer
9m
Single Stevenson’s screen Double Stevenson’s screen
9m
Rain gauge (NR) Dew gauge Self recording rain gauge
9m
Grass minimum thermometer Open pan evaporimeter Soil thermometer
5m
Border
12m 12m 12m
Optional instruments like lysimeter, potentiometer, micro voltmeter, anemometer at different

heights and automatic weather station can also be installed according to the height of the instruments.
Different types of radiometer can also be fixed. One area can also be allocated as soil moisture plot in
which periodical soil samples can be taken to know the soil moisture dynamics.
Layout of ordinary observatory N

7
3m
Border
5m
Sunshine recorder*
5m
Wind vane Anemometer
5m
Single Stevenson’s screen Double Stevenson’s screen*
5m
Rain gauge (NR) Self recording rain gauge*
5m
Grass minimum thermometer Open pan evaporimeter Soil thermometer
3m
Border
5m 5m 5m
* Optional instruments
The ordinary observatory can also have radiation instruments and dew gauge as optional
instruments in the observatory.
Calculation of time
A series of crossing lines on a map or a globe, which enable to identify the location of any
point on the Earth, is known as the Earth Grid. Time calculation is done based on the longitudinal
position of the place with reference to Greenwich meridian (UTC).
Indian Standard Time (IST)

The surface of the Earth is divided into 24 ‘time zones’ the way in which there are 24 hours in
a day. The time established in each of the zone is called as ‘Standard time’. The Indian Standard Time
(IST) is the Local Mean Time (LMT) for the meridian of longitude 82°30’ E. This is the longitude of
Allahabad, which is taken as standard longitude for our country. Since each degree is equal to four
minutes of time, the IST is 5½ hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The GMT is also known
as Universal Time Co-ordinate (UTC).
8
Local Apparent Time (LAT)
The interval between two successive transits of the Sun across the meridian is called the true
solar day and the time based on the length of this day is called Apparent Solar Time. Local Apparent
Time is the apparent solar time for any particular place such that the Sun passes across the
geographical meridian at noon.
Local Mean Time (LMT)
This is the local time based on the transit of the mean Sun. To calculate LMT from IST, it is
essential to know the longitude of the station.
The relation between LAT, LMT and IST
LMT =IST + 4(L1-L2)

Where L1= Standard Meridian (82°30’ for our country) L2 = The meridian of the station
Positive sign is used when particular place is located at western side of Allahabad
Negative sign is used when particular place is located at eastern side of Allahabad
If station is to the west of standard meridian subtract 4 minutes for every degree from the IST.
LAT=LMT-Equation of time
Values of correction due to equation of time that vary with season can be obtained from
standard tables kept in the observatories.
Sample Calculation
Station : Coimbatore (Located at western side of Allahabad)
Date : Select a date which you plan
Longitude : 77° East (Coimbatore)
Standard meridian : 82° 30’ i.e. 82.5°
LMT = IST+4 (82.5- 77)
= IST+ 4 (5.5)
= IST+22 minutes
If IST is 10 h 30 m, then
LMT=10h30m + 22m = 10h 52m
LAT= LMT –Equation of time
= 10 h 14 m – ‘x’ minutes
‘x’ minutes is the correction due to equation of time on the date, which you select. This can be
obtained from the standard sunrise and sunset tables.
The above calculations can be used in the meteorological observatories in which the
observations are to be recorded. It is to mention that the observations shall be recorded as precise and
accurate as possible at the prescribed timings as per the instructions of the India Meteorological
Department.
9
Time of observation of different weather elements
1. Dew, Bright sunshine hours, Grass minimum temperature are to be recorded before the sunrise.
2. Solar radiation, Maximum temperature and Minimum temperature are to be read at 0700 hrs
LMT.
3. Relative humidity, Wind speed, Wind direction and Cloud cover are to be recorded at 0700 hrs
and 1400 hrs LMT.
4. Rainfall and Evapo-transpiration are to be measured at 0830 IST.
Care and precautions
1. Punctuality is very important in making meteorological observations. Great care should be
taken to ensure that the clock or watch used for guidance keeps correct IST.
2. Every observation should be recorded honestly as read. In case of a doubt, the observation(s)
should be repeated twice or thrice and in no case concocted figures be inserted.
3. The readings should never be written on scraps of paper with the intention of copying later.
4. Check each observation after noting it in recording sheet provided to make sure that no
mistake has been made.
5. Keep the eatables and drinking water away from the observation site.
6. Report all mistakes and accidents, however small they are.
Exercise
1. Draw the lay out plan of TNAU agro met observatory and offer critical comments.
2. Why Stevenson screen is facing north
3. In the given globe map, draw the UTC and IDL lines
4. Find out the countries, which are having more than one standard time and discuss the reason
for the same.
5. Calculate the time in 180o E and 180o W longitude when the time in UTC is 1200 noon
10
11
12
Ex.No.2 Date:
MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION (PYRANOMETERS), SUNSHINE HOURS

(SUNSHINE RECORDER) - WORKING OUT WEEKLY AND MONTHLY MEAN
FOR GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Solar radiation
Solar radiation affects to a large extent of the micro-climate thereby the crop growth and yield.
Spectral quality of sunlight intercepted by the crop canopy and light that penetrates through the canopy
is other important factors determining the crop growth in the system. The measurements should enable
the evaluation of the photosynthetic efficiency of the system and matching of this with alternate
designs of canopy structure. Instruments used for the measurement of radiation for the study of micro-
climatic regimes are:
1) Line quantum sensor
2) Net radiometer
3) Spectroradiometer
4) Pyranometer
5) Pyrano-albedometer etc.
Radiometers are named according to the nature and direction of radiation which they absorb
and indicate. The commonly used instruments are given below.
Sl.No. Name of the instrument Radiation measured
1. Pyaranometer or Solarimeter Direct and diffused solar radiation
2. Pyrheliometer Direct solar radiation
3. Pyrradiometer Short and long-wave radiation
4. Pyrgeometer Long-wave radiation
5. Netradiometer Net radiation flux
Units of expressing the heat energy are
1. Joule (J) : 107 ergs
2. 1 cal or gram calorie : 4.185 x 107 ergs
3. 1 Horse power hour : 2.684 x 1013 ergs = 0.6416 x 108 ergs
4. 1 Watt : 14.3363 cal min-1
5. 1 cal m-1 : 0.06978 watt
6. 1 Horse power : 746 watts
Bellani’s Pyranometer
Bellani’s Pyranometer is used to measure the total global radiation. This involves both direct
radiation received from the sun and other celestial bodies and also the scattered radiation from gas
molecules, water vapour, aerosols etc. This instrument has got two globes (i.e.) outer globe and inner
globe. Outer globe protects the inner globe. From the inner globe a long graduated tube extends
downward. Inside the inner globe alcohol is filled and the inner globe is coated with a mixture of four
metals viz., Nickel, Copper, Platinum and Chromium. The inner globe is grayish in colour. The
radiation received makes the alcohol in the inner tube to vapourise and the vapour alcohol when it
comes down to the graduated tube gets condensed and collected. Based on the amount of alcohol
collected we can calculate the total radiation by multiplying with a factor of the Pyranometer and is
expressed in cal/cm2/day. For different months different factors are used. They are:
January - 17.7 May - 14.9 September - 15.0
13
February - 16.4 June - 15.3 October - 15.4
March - 15.4 July - 15.2 November - 17.2
April - 14.9 August - 14.9 December - 18.0
Normally for Coimbatore conditions the total radiation is measured as 350 cal/cm 2/day. It
depends upon the day length and it varies with latitude.
Measurement of Bright sunshine hours
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
Principle: Sun’s rays are concentrated on a chemically sensitized card by a spherical lens. This card
produces a trace as the Sun’s rays fall during the hours of bright sunshine. As the card is graduated in
hours and tenths, the daily duration of sunshine can be easily determined.
1. It consists of a glass sphere fixed centrally to a frame. Just below the glass sphere another
structure, a hemispherical bowl is rigidly fixed to the frame. The bowl has three slots or
grooves through which the chemically treated cards are inserted. The frame is mounted on a
base provided with three leveling screws.
2. The glass sphere acts as a converging lens. The different points on chemically treated cards
represent the principle foci for the different positions of the Sun, during the apparent
movement of Earth, from east to west. The bright sun rays leave a charred or burnt line on the
chemically treated card. The cards are graduated in hours for accurate measurement of bright
sunshine.
3. The sunshine recorder is kept on a platform at a height of 10 feet from the ground surface. It is
kept on a perfectly horizontal plane. To achieve this, the levelling screws are adjusted and if
needed a spirit level can also be used to bring the instrument in a perfectly horizontal position.
4. There are three types of cards available for measuring bright sunshine. They are;
a) Long curved cards: Also called summer cards and these are used from 13th April to 31st August.
These cards are introduced through the bottom slot in the concave plate.
14
b) Short curved cards: Also called winter cards and are used from 13 th October to the end of
February. These are introduced at the top slot.
c) Straight cards: When day and night lengths are equal, these cards are used i.e., from 1 st
March to 12th April and 1st September to 12th October. These are introduced through the
middle slot.
Exercise
1. Draw a neat sketch of Bellani’s Pyranometer and label it properly.
2. Observe and draw the diagrams of different cards used in recording the bright sunshine hours.
3. Find out the bright sunshine of the previous day at your institute.
4. List out 52 meteorological standard weeks of a year and corresponding dates.
5. Draw the barchart for the monthly sunshine hours for the data given below and offer your
remarks.
Sunshine hours for Coimbatore:
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1991 7.0 8.9 8.1 7.9 7.6 3.7 2.8 4.3 6.6 3.9 4.4 4.8
1992 7.3 7.5 9.6 8.5 6.9 4.5 2.7 4.3 5.2 4.4 4.5 6.6
1993 8.3 9.1 7.6 9.1 7.7 6.6 4.3 5.9 5.3 4.8 5.0 4.1
1994 7.7 8.0 8.5 7.5 8.9 3.8 2.4 4.1 6.7 5.9 4.3 7.7
1995 6.1 8.8 9.2 8.9 7.5 6.7 4.6 6.0 7.5 7.3 5.9 8.9
1996 8.1 9.1 10.4 8.1 9.3 6.1 4.9 5.3 5.3 6.4 6.4 5.5
1997 7.3 9.1 10.0 7.0 8.6 4.9 5.6 5.7 6.8 5.3 6.4 6.2
1998 7.5 7.1 9.4 9.3 7.2 6.4 6.7 5.1 6.0 5.8 6.1 4.8
1999 7.9 8.7 9.4 7.8 7.5 6.7 4.6 5.9 7.9 5.2 6.9 6.0
2000 7.1 6.7 9.4 8.5 8.6 4.5 6.0 4.6 6.5 5.6 5.9 7.9
6. Draw the line graph on solar radiation given below and discuss the variation in solar radiation
during different weeks.
Daily average solar radiation in (cm 2 min-1 day-1) recorded during different weeks in
Coimbatore:
Solar Solar Solar Solar
Week No. Week No. Week No. Week No.
radiation radiation radiation radiation
1 441.6 14 361.2 27 310.7 40 402.0
2 412.6 15 399.9 28 292.0 41 337.4
3 445.3 16 414.5 29 309.9 42 397.5
4 495.6 17 440.0 30 294.0 43 264.8
5 420.2 18 408.7 31 371.3 44 342.2
6 433.9 19 376.6 32 291.2 45 396.5
7 461.4 20 375.1 33 367.1 46 336.6
8 473.2 21 398.1 34 378.9 47 362.3
9 463.9 22 435.7 35 345.9 48 336.4
10 458.0 23 441.7 36 399.7 49 341.0
11 423.5 24 391.0 37 433.7 50 481.5
12 427.0 25 259.0 38 442.7 51 442.0
13 413.6 26 413.2 39 398.8 52 428.4
15
16
17
Ex.No.3 Date:
MEASUREMENT OF AIR AND SOIL TEMPERATURE - GRASS MINIMUM

TEMPERATURE - THERMOGRAPHS AND DRAWING ISOLINES
Air temperature
Temperature is defined as hotness or coolness of a body. Temperature controls the rate of crop
development. Different instruments are to measure the standard air temperature.
Units of measurement
In agricultural meteorology the three basic scales of temperature used are:
1. Centigrade
2. Fahrenheit
3. Kelvin
Relationship between °C, °F and °K is
° F = 32 + 9/5 °C
° C = 5/9 (°F-32)
° K = °C + 273
Housing for thermometers: Stevenson’s screen
1. It is a wooden box designed by a British scientist Stevenson.
2. It is made up of small pieces of wood (panes) which are fitted obliquely to prevent direct entry
of air inside.
3. It is provided with double roofing with air in between the two roofs.
4. As air is a poor conductor of heat, it serves as an insulator.
5. The upper roof has a mild slope to drain off the rain water.
6. It has one or two doors or windows which opens only either towards ‘North’ or ‘South’ to
avoid the rays of Sun falling directly on the thermometers.
7. This box is kept on a wooden stand at a height of about 4 feet above the ground surface.
8. The box and the stand are painted white throughout.
9. The Stevenson screen is meant for keeping the instruments like minimum and maximum
thermometers, self recording instruments namely, thermograph, barograph and hygrograph etc.
10. This is available in two different size and the inside dimensions are as follows:
Instrument Length (cm) Width (cm) Panes Height (cm)
S.S.S 45.5 27 38
Single stevenson screen
D.S.S 91.0 27 38
Double stevenson screen
11. Minimum and Maximum thermometers are kept horizontally whereas wet and dry bulb
thermometers are kept vertically on either side of minimum and maximum thermometers.
12. In all types of observatories these are fixed for recording weather data.
18
1. Roof
2. Wooden box
3. Wooden panes
4. Door
5. Dry bulb thermometer
6. Wet bulb thermometer
7. Minimum thermometer
8. Maximum thermometer
Maximum thermometer
Maximum thermometer records the highest temperature recorded in a particular day. The dry
bulb thermometer provides instantaneous values of temperature. But maximum thermometer is used to
measure the maximum temperature. Maximum temperature can also be known from thermograph
which is an instrument that continuously record temperature.
Principle: Expansion of mercury occurs due to change in air temperature which is measured by
observing the height of mercury column in the bore (capillary) of the thermometer.
Operation and measurement

1. The simplest maximum thermometer is mercury in glass thermometer.
2. The bore in the stem of this thermometer is made extremely fine near the neck of the bulb
which is called as ‘constriction’.
3. The presence of this constriction, where the capillary joins the bulb, differentiates this
thermometer from other ordinary mercurial thermometers.
4. The constriction is of such a size that, it only allows the expanding mercury to pass into the
capillary tube as the temperature rises. But when the temperature drops, the constriction does
not allow the backflow of mercury into the bulb. Thus the maximum temperature levels are
maintained in the capillary tube.
5. After each observation the maximum thermometer has to be set and kept ready for the next
observation.
Minimum thermometer
Minimum temperature is the lowest air temperature recorded during a day. However, minimum
thermometer provides a record of the lowest temperature occurring at a place of exposure from the
time of setting until it is read.
19
Principle: Expansion and contraction of alcohol in the bore (capillary) of the thermometer which occur
due to changes in air temperature as recorded by an index.
1. This has a large bore and its fluid is colourless ethyl alcohol or alcohol.
2. Within the liquid in the bore of the tube, a tiny dark dumb bell shaped index, made up of a
metal is present.
3. When the temperature decreases the liquid contracts with the decreasing temperature. The
miniscus of the liquid pulls the index down due to surface tension. When the temperature
raises again the alcohol flows around the index. The miniscus moves up in the bore. However,
it leaves the index behind, at the lowest point to which the liquid surface descends to register
the lowest temperature, reached during a day.
4. The position of the end of the dumb bell shaped index, farthest from the bulb (the upper
surface of the index) marks the lowest temperature.
5. At the same time the alcohol surface always indicate the current air temperature.
6. The minimum thermometer should always be kept in horizontal position. Otherwise, the
metallic index will fall through the liquid to the bottom of the tube.
7. After the readings are taken a magnet is used to reset the thermometer and is restored to the
horizontal position. Resetting can also be accomplished by inverting the stem until the index
slides down the stem.
8. This thermometer is graduated from –45 to +55 degrees centigrade.
9. This should also be read to the nearest tenth of a degree, like maximum thermometer.
10. After setting the thermometer for next reading, the miniscus of the alcohol should read the
same temperature as dry bulb thermometer.Grass minimum thermometer
20
Grass minimum thermometer is also a minimum thermometer but the stem of the grass
minimum thermometer is completely sheathed. It is also called as terrestrial thermometer. It is kept 5
cm above the ground level in the grassy vegetation and used for measuring the grass minimum
temperature. It gives an indication of occurrence of dew, fog etc. Care should be taken that the
thermometer is placed after the sunset and removed before the sunrises. If the grass minimum
thermometer is left in the ground after sunrise the alcohol will expand very fast and will break the
thermometer.
Thermograph
This is a self recording device. This is used to obtain continuous and accurate record of air
temperature.
Principle: Differential expansion of metals for the change in temperature.

1. Different metals have different co-efficient of expansion or contraction for increase or decrease
in temperature. Two metals having different co-efficient of expansion like Invar and Bronze
are welded together to form a sensitive element and is made into a spiral.
2. As the temperature increases the metals will expand differently and as they are welded together
and made as a spiral, it will cause change in the curvature in the spiral.
3. One end of the spiral is fixed with the frame of the instrument and whatever the changes occur
will affect only the other end which is attached with the lever arrangement.
4. These changes are magnified by a lever arrangement and the lever ends in a pen point which
rests on a rotating clock drum fixed with a graph sheet.
5. The drum completes one rotation in a day of 24 hours if it is of daily type or in one week if it is
of weekly type.
6. When the temperature changes the curvature of the bimetallic arc increases or decreases due to
difference in the expansion of two metals.
7. These changes are recorded on the calibrated chart.
8. The X-axis of the chart represents time and Y-axis temperature.
9. This device works with a precision of 0.25oC.
10. The chart has to be replaced every day in the daily type or once in a week in the weekly type.
11. For accurate recordings, the clock should be checked regularly, the recording sheet should be
fixed firmly and the pen must be kept clean.
12. The thermograph is located in a double Stevenson screen.
13. At the time of changing the graph sheet, care should be taken to adjust the pen arm to the dry
bulb temperature.
21
SOIL TEMPERATURE
Soil temperature is also an important micro-meteorological parameter like air temperature.
This parameter influences the crop growth starting from seed germination to harvesting. Soil
temperature also plays an important role in deciding the microbial activity in the soil. Soil temperature
influences the uptake and mineralization of nutrients. The presence of organic matter and the soil
texture are influenced by soil temperature.
Measurement of soil temperature Soil temperatures are measured at various depths as
recommended by India Meteorological Department. The usual depths include 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60,
100 and 150 centimetres. The thermometers used to measure temperature beyond 30 cm depth are
called as Earth thermometers.
Principle: Same as any other mercury-in-glass thermometers. A vessel is an extra part and this is
arranged in the corresponding depth whereas its scale is situated above the Earth’s surface in order to
facilitate the reading. A metal support is used to give strength in mounting.
1. These thermometers consist of glass vessel (stem) filled with mercury and the glass capillary
fused to it for taking measurement.
2. It has a bend of 120° in the stem just above the bulb and the rest of the bulb is straight
3. When the bulb rests horizontally on the soil at correct depth, the stem is inclined at 120° to
facilitate reading of the scale
4. An iron stand with an angle of 60° is used to provide support for the thermometers
5. The immersion depth is calculated from lower end of the thermometer bulb upto the middle of
the bulge situated in upper part of the stem.
6. The graduation begins at a distance of 6.5, 17.5 and 35 cm from the bulb in the 5, 15 and 30
cm depth of the soil thermometers.
7. The thermometer has a range of -5 °C to 65 °C and can be read with an accuracy of 0.1°C
22
8. It is desirable to keep each thermometer 45 centimetres apart and the scale portion of each
thermometer shall be inclined towards the North.
9. The measuring field should be free from weeds.
10. These are also read at the two usual prescribed timings.
Calculation on Temperature
The air temperature is recorded only as maximum and minimum. The following are
calculations based on these two parameters.
Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature

Mean Temperature= ----------------------------------------------------------
2
Sum of daily mean of the month for all days
Mean monthly Temperature= --------------------------------------------------------------
Days of the month
Sum of 12 monthly mean
Mean annual Temperature= ---------------------------------
12
Diurnal variation = Maximum temperature - Minimum temperature
Growing Degree Days (GDD)
The GDD or heat unit or thermal unit concept was developed assuming that there is a direct
and linear relationship between crop growth and temperature i.e. the dependency on the total amount of
heat to a crop that is subjected during its life time.
GDD= [(Tmax + Tmin)/2] - Tbase (Minimum threshold temperature)
Exercise
1. Convert
23
a..205°K into °F b. 50°F into °C c. 25°C into °F and °K?
2. Draw the Isolines for the following data
Maximum and Minimum temperatures ( oC) recorded on 22.12.2006 at different locations in
Tamilnadu
Place Max. Min. Mean
Chennai 30 25
Coimbatore 29 19
Cuddalore 31 22
Dharmapuri 27 18
Kanyakumari 28 24
Kodaikanal 18 07
Madurai 29 22
Nagapattinam 31 23
Palayamkottai 27 23
Pamban 27 25
Parangipettai 28 21
Pondicherry 30 22
Salem 30 20
Thanjavur 30 19
Tiruchirapalli 29 22
Tirupattur 26 18
Tondi 27 22
Tuticorin 30 23
Uthagamandalam 18 10
Vellore 29 19
3. Collect the soil temperature data recorded on 15 th of each month from January to December, 2015
for different depths from Agromet observatory. Draw a graph against month for different depths (0,
10, 20, 30 and 60 cm) and offer your comments?
4. Work out the mean diurnal and mean monthly temperature for the given data below.
Min. Max.
Date Max. (oC) Mean Diurnal Date Min.(oC) Mean Diurnal
(oC) (oC)
Jan. 1 30.5 22.0 16 29.6 16.8
2 28.0 19.0 17 30.0 18.0
3 29.6 21.0 18 30.7 19.7
4 30.0 21.6 19 31.5 21.8
5 30.5 16.8 20 31.3 22.3
6 30.0 16.0 21 31.0 19.8
7 30.0 15.0 22 29.8 21.2
8 30.4 19.5 23 31.3 21.2
9 28.0 17.0 24 30.7 19.8
10 30.0 14.5 25 32.0 22.4
11 31.5 15.6 26 31.8 20.4
12 32.0 14.8 27 32.0 20.8
24
13 30.4 16.2 28 32.0 21.3
14 31.0 15.0 29 30.2 19.0
15 29.5 18.0 30 31.0 21.6
31 30.5 21.2
25
26
27
Ex.No.4 Date:
. HUMIDITY MEASUREMENTS - USE OF WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETERS -

PSYCHROMETERS - HYGROGRAPH - MEASUREMENT OF WIND
DIRECTION, SPEED AND CONVERSION (KMPH, KNOT AND MSEC-1) -
BEAUFORT’S SCALE
Humidity.
Humidity is an important agro-climatic factor in crop production as it is a major determinant of
potential evapo-transpiration. This is not an independent variable but is closely related to the rainfall and
temperature.
Different ways of expressing atmospheric humidity
a) Mixing Ratio (R): It is the ratio of mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air which the water
vapour is associated.
b) Vapour pressure (e): The partial pressure exerted by water vapour is known as vapour
pressure.
c) Absolute humidity: It is weight of water vapour in a given volume of air and expressed in g/m3.
d) Specific Humidity (q): Weight of water vapour in unit weight of air and expressed in g/kg.
e) Dew point temperature: The dew point of a given mass of air is the temperature at which
saturation occurs when the air is cooled at a constant pressure without addition or removal of
water vapour. It is determined by the amount of water vapour present in the air and is
comparable with the temperature of free air to determine humidity conditions.
f) Relative Humidity (RH): It is the ratio between the amounts of water vapour present in the air
to the amount water vapour the air can hold. It is always expressed in percentage.
Measurement of Relative Humidity
1.Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer
Principle: Difference between wet and dry bulb readings, because of change of rate of evaporation
from the underlying wet surface.
Operation and measurement: There are two identical thermometers fixed in Stevenson screen and
the bulb of one thermometer is wrapped with muslin cloth and wetted with water. This thermometer is
called as wet bulb thermometer. The other thermometer is called as dry bulb thermometer. The bulb of
wet bulb thermometer is constantly kept wet by means of a muslin cloth and thread wick, one end of
which is immersed in distilled water. As the water gets evaporated from the muslin cloth, coolness is
created around the bulb region and thereby, the temperature of the wet bulb drops down. This is known
as wet bulb depression. The wet bulb depression is directly proportional to the dryness of the air. The
temperatures of dry and wet bulb thermometers are compared in hygrometric table to find out the
relative humidity, vapour pressure and dew point temperature.
28
2.Whirling Psychrometer
Principle: The difference between wet and dry bulb readings when unsaturated air passes over the
bulbs of thermometers on forced ventilation.
1. In this instrument two sensitive, glass
thermometers are fitted in a wooden frame with
a rotating handle.
2. Of the two thermometers, one is dry bulb and the
other one is covered with thin muslin cap which
is moistened with distilled water every time the
instrument is used.
3. To ensure adequate opportunity of evaporation
from the wick of the wet bulb the psychrometer
is rotated for a definite number of times, so the
air passes through the bulbs of the thermometers.
4. The depression of wet bulb temperature below
the dry bulb temperature in an unsaturated air is
due to the evaporation of water from the muslin
around the wet bulb and the consequent cooling
due to evaporation phenomenon.
5. Readings of wet and dry bulb thermometers are
compared in a standard hygrometric table to get
the RH.
3.Assmann Psychrometer
Principle: The difference between wet and dry bulb
readings when unsaturated air passes over the bulbs of
thermometers on forced ventilation.
This is the best available psychrometer for
humidity measurement in micro-meteorological
research of crop plants. This is portable and also called
as ‘Aspiration psychrometer’.
1. In this instrument two sensitive, calibrated
mercury in glass thermometers are enclosed in
a double walled radiation screen.
2. Usually, nickel plated coaxial tubes which are
thermally insulated from rest of the apparatus
are used to minimise the radiation effects.
3. Of the two thermometers, one is dry bulb and
the other one is covered with thin muslin cap
which is moistened with distilled water every
time the instrument is used.
4. To ensure adequate opportunity of evaporation
from the wick of the wet bulb the
psychrometer is aspired by a clockwork motor
29
housed in the casing. In the recent commercial versions, a small direct current motor is also
being used.
5. The wet bulb must be on the downstream side of the dry bulb i.e. nearer the fan. This should be
done to prevent the cold air from the wet bulb impinging on the dry bulb.
6. The depression of wet bulb temperature below the dry bulb temperature in an unsaturated air is
due to the evaporation of water from the muslin around the wet bulb and the consequent
cooling due to evaporation phenomenon.
7. Readings of wet and dry bulb thermometers are compared in a standard hygrometric table to
get the RH.
4.Hair Hygrometer
Principle: When the air is dry, the cells in the hair
are close together. But, when the air is humid, the
space between the cells absorbs water vapour and the
hair thickens and lengthens. This contraction or
expansion of hair with change in moisture content is
used to measure the moisture.
Operation and measurement: This instrument
measures relative humidity directly and is easy to carry to distant places.
1. A bunch of human hair or horse hair is used

in a socket.
2. On absorption of moisture, any slight
increase in the volume of hair is magnified
by a delicate set of lever mechanism.
3. To this lever mechanism a pointer is fixed
which can move over a scale graduated from
0 to 100 per cent.
4. When the humidity changes, corresponding
change occurs in the length of hair. So, the
pointer moves because of the movement in the lever mechanism.
5. The pointer which moves across a scale indicates the relative humidity directly.
5. Hair Hygrograph
Principle: Same as hair hygrometer. However, to record the continuous changes in relative humidity
on graph paper during the hours of the day, a recording mechanism is used. When a hygrometer is
transformed into a self recording device it is called as a hygrograph. This is used to record the relative
humidity of the air continuously.
1. A band of human hair is fixed on the levers and any slight increase in the volume is transmitted
to the pen arm.
2. The pen arm is self-inked and works on levers.
3. A change in the length of hair is proportional to the log change of relative humidity.
4. A calibrated chart is wrapped around a rotating drum. This completes one rotation in 24 hours,
and works on clock mechanism.
5. The X-axis represents time and Y-axis, the relative humidity.
30
6. The chart has to be replaced every day if it is a daily type or once in week, if it is of weekly type.
7. The dust on the hair should be cleaned and washed regularly. The hair should not be touched with
hand.
8. This instrument should be kept in double Stevenson screen. The screen should be located in a
place where the air is not polluted with smoke, dust, oil and ammonia releasing industries in
the immediate surroundings.
WIND: Horizontally moving air is called wind. Wind can only be felt but not be seen. Air has weight
and exerts pressure. It is compressible and expansible.
Wind direction: The direction from which the wind is blowing is called as wind direction. This is
denoted by two methods. They are a) Points of compass and b) Degrees of azimuth, as measured from
the true North. The zero point is true North. The other points East, South and West are 90, 180 and 270
degrees respectively. In common practice, the wind directions are referred to compass points such as
N, NNW, NW etc.
a) Points of compass: In this system the four main
directions are sub-divided into 8 or 16 and it is
called 8 or 16 point system.
b) Degrees of azimuth: The zero of the circular
scale indicates geographical North, count the
degrees while moving in clock-wise direction
and it indicates the wind direction.
Instruments to record wind direction
a) Anemoscope: This records the direction of
wind continuously.
b) Aerovane: This measures the velocity and
direction of the wind instantaneously.
c) Wind Vane: This is used in observatories to
find the wind direction.
Wind Vane
Principle: From the pointer or arrow
head of the balancing arm, the indications
of the direction are transmitted directly to
a cam inside a ring of electrical contacts.
By means of contacts corresponding to
the cardinal and intercardinal points of
compass 16 directions can be indicated.
Another important means to transmit
wind direction (indications) is, by means
of self-synchronous transmitting motor
connected directly to the wind vane.
31
1. This consists of balancing arm which is made up of a very light weight metal or alloy which
turns freely about a vertical axis.
2. Bearings are provided to minimise frictional losses. The bearings should be good enough to
give free turn with light winds.
3. In most common type of wind vanes, one end of the balancing arm exposes a broad surface to
the wind. This is bifurcated and is known as ‘fang’. While the other end is narrow and points to
the direction from which the wind blows. This is known as pointer or arrow head.
4. Under this movable system four to sixteen rods are fixed as rigid cross.
5. The arms of this cross are said to be four cardinal directions i.e., North, East, South and West.
Some other commercial types are provided with eight to sixteen cardinal direction indicators.
6. The wind vane is installed over a wooden plank which is fixed over the wooden post, at about
ten feet from the ground surface. The north indicator should be set to true North and not to the
magnetic North.
7. The observer should stand nearer to the pole and record the mean position of the arrow which
oscillates over the cardinal direction.
8. The wind direction should always be recorded as the point from which the wind comes.
9. The wind vane should be watched for few minutes before recording the direction to get the
mean observation. The direction of wind is given by the direction of arrow.
10. The observer should make sure that the wind vane moves freely on the axis.
11. All parts should be washed with kerosene and lubricated once in every 3 months.
Wind velocity or speed
To measure the wind velocity or the wind speed four principal types of anemometers are used
in general meteorological work. They are:
a. Rotating cups b. Pressure plates c. Bridled or torque type d. Pressure tube anemometer
The anemometers used in most of the observatories are described below

1. Robinson’s cup anemometer
This is a rotating cup anemometer, developed
in 1846 A.D. This instrument measures wind speed.
Each rotation of the cup wheel corresponds to a
definite distance traveled by the wind. Therefore, the
number of turns the cup wheel makes in a given time
interval corresponds to the distance the wind travelled
in that interval. The wind speed can be determined by
dividing the distance travelled with time taken.
Principle: Three or four cups are extended over a
vertical axis so that the plane of the cup is in a vertical
position. The wind pressure on the concave side of the
cup is greater than the convex side. This causes the
cups to spin around the vertical axis. By means of
proper gear reductions, the rotation of the cups is
calibrated in terms of wind speed.

32
1. This consists of 3 to 4 balancing arms which are made up of a very light metal or alloy.
2. Hemispherical or conical cups are attached to the ends of the arms to provide necessary
pressure gradient which is caused by the convex and concave surfaces of the cup.
3. As the force of the wind on the concave side of the cups is greater than that on the convex side,
the cups rotate due to kinetic energy.
4. The balancing arm rotates freely over the vertical axis and at the point of articulation, high
grade ball bearing is provided to minimise frictional losses.
5. The cups are extended on the vertical axis so that the plane of the cup is in a vertical position.
The force of the wind causes rotation.
6. The rotating movement of balancing arms is transmitted to the spindle provided in the vertical
axis.
7. The spindle is provided with the grooves which operates gauge and this is transmitted to a fine
digital meter.
8. Friction is minimised by lubrication and ball bearings. The gauge is calibrated to real units,
tenths, hundreds or thousands.
9. The rate of rotation of the cups increases with the wind speed.
10. The box contains a mechanism which establishes a contact when the cups have rotated a
certain number of times.
11. The anemometer is kept on a platform at a height of 10 feet from the ground surface and the
range of the meter is 0 to 9999.9.
12. An ideal cup anemometer should have no mechanical inertia and starting speed low.
13. In a good cup anemometer there is a linear relationship between wind speed and cup rotation
per unit time.
14. The wind speed is obtained by measuring the run of the wind in kilometres for a period of 3
minutes at the hour of observation and multiplying it by 20 to obtain the wind speed in
kilometres per hour. The mean wind speed in knots is obtained by multiplying the wind in
kilometres per hour by 0.54.
15. The wind speed increases with height in accordance with logarithmic law in neutral conditions.
Hence, whenever wind speeds recorded at different places are to be compared, the height of the
anemometer should be taken into account.
16. The height of the anemometer means the height of the cups above the ground. There is no
standard height of exposure for anemometers. However, the anemometers at agromet
observatories are exposed to 3 metres above the ground.
17. The bearing and gear should be cleaned and lubricated at regular intervals.
Measurement of Wind speed at the hour of observation
To determine the wind speed at a particular time, two successive readings are taken at an
interval of 3 minutes. The difference of the readings is multiplied by 20. For example:
First anemometer readings = 2090.0
Second anemometer reading = 2093.01
Wind speed at that particular hour is :
2093.01 – 2090.0 = 2.11 x 20 = 42.20 kmph.
To determine the average wind speed during the past 24 hours, the readings of yesterday and
today are required and the yesterday’s reading is subtracted from today’s reading. The difference is
divided by 24, which gives the average wind velocity for the past 24 hours. For example:
33
Today’s anemometer reading at 08 00 hours = 9563.5
Yesterday’s anemometer reading at 08 00 hours = 9371.6
The difference = 191.9
Average wind speed = 191.9 / 24 = 8 kmph
Beaufort scale of wind speed

Beaufort General Observations for estimate (i) Over land and (ii) Wind Speed
No. description Over sea Knots kmph
0 Calm Smoke rises vertically Calm. Sea like mirror Less than Less than
1 (0) 1 (0)
1 Light air Smoke bends from the vertical and drifts slowly 1-3 (2) 6-11 (9)
with the winds, but wind vane not affected. Small
ripples seen
2 Light breeze Wind felt on face, leaves rustle, windvanes move. 4-6 (5) 6-11 (9)
Small, short wavelets. Crests do not break.
3 Gentle Leaves and small twigs in constant motion; wind 7-10 (9) 12-19
breeze extends light flag. Large wavelets (crests begin to (16)
break), scattered white horses.
4 Moderate Raises dust and loose paper, small branches move. 11-16 20-28
breeze Small waves becoming longer fairly frequent white (13) (24)
horses
5 Fresh Small trees begin to sway. Moderate waves taking a 17-21 29-31
breeze more pronounced long form, white horses with (18) (34)
some spray seen.
6 Strong Large branches in motion, whistling heard in 22-27 39-49
breeze telegraphic wires. Large waves begin to form, (24) (44)
white horses with some spray, extensively seen.
7 Neat Gale Whole trees in motion. Rise in sea level seen, white 28-33 50-61
foam from breaking waves carried along with the (30) (55)
wind.
8 Gale Twigs break off trees, difficulty experienced in 34-40 62-74
walking against the wind. Moderately high waves (37) (68)
of great length, edges of waves break, with spray
seen along sea surface everywhere.
9 Strong Gale Slight structural damage occurs. High waves. 41-47 75-88
Crests of waves with streaks of foam roll over. (44) (82)
Spray reduces visibility.
10 Storm Trees uprooted considerable structural damage. Sea 48-55 89-102
white with foam, high waves, heavy tumbling of (53) (96)
sea, smoke like spray reducing visibility.
11 Violent Widespread damage, very rarely experienced. 56-63 103-117
storm Unusually high waves, small and medium size (60) (110)
ships lost behind waves. Sea completely covered
with white foam and froth. Poor visibility.
12 Hurricane Widespread damage, shed roofs may be blown off, 64 and 118 and
electric and telegraph poles may fall. Sea-level over over
34
visibility rises, sea completely white with driving
spray. Very poor visibility.
* Values in parenthesis indicates average
Exercise
1. Solve the problems given below using the saturated mixing ratio of water vapour at 1000 mb
Temperature 50°C 45°C 40°C 35°C 30°C 25°C 20°C 15°C 10°C 5°C 0°C
Saturated 88.12 66.33 49.81 37.25 27.69 20.4 14.95 10.83 7.76 5.5 3.84
water vapour
(g/kg of air)
a) Relative humidity of a place at 20°C is 66 per cent. What will be the relative humidity if the
temperature is raised to 35°C without adding any moisture?
b) Relative humidity at 30°C is 71 per cent. What will be the relative humidity if the temperature is
reduced by 5°C.?
2. Find out the predominant wind directions during different seasons at your institute.
3. Collect the normal wind speed for different months as instructed in the class for your institute and
interpret the results by drawing suitable graphs (Two months for each batch)
4. Find out the weekly mean RH for the observed data using wet and dry bulb thermometer and
hygrometric table.
35
36
37
Ex.No.5 Date:
MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - FORTIN’S BAROMETER -

BAROGRAPH - ISOBARS BASED ON THE PAST DATA FOR DIFFERENT SEASONS
Atmospheric pressure: The weight exerted by a column of air on unit surface of the Earth is known as
atmospheric pressure. This can be measured by an instrument called barometer. There are two types of
barometers, viz.,
1. Mercury barometers 2. Aneroid barometers
Mercurial Barometers: There are two types of
mercurial barometers.
A) Fortin’s barometer B) Kew pattern barometer
Fortin’s Barometer
Principle: Balancing of column of air against a
column of mercury in a sealed glass tube. The height
of the mercury column is proportional to the
pressure.
1) It consists of a glass tube of uniform cross
section and length, which is closed at one end.
2) It is about one metre in length, filled with
mercury and then inverted with its lower end
open into a movable cistern of mercury.
3) The cistern vessel contains mercury with a
flexible leather bag and screw at its bottom.
4) There are two scales on two sides of the tube,
one in centimetres and the other in inches.
5) For accurate readings Vernier calipers is also
attached.
6) The mercury column in the tube is supported by
the pressure of the air on the surface of the
mercury in the cistern.
7) To take the pressure reading, the height of
mercury column is measured on main scale and
then Vernier scale is read.
a) Read the attached thermometer to the
nearest degree before the time specified for
barometer observation.
b) Gently tap the cistern and tube of the
instrument 2 to 3 times with the fingers.
c) Raise the surface of the mercury in the cistern by screwing up the plunger at the base until the
tip of the ivory point just touches its image in the clear mercury surface.
d) Set the lower edge of the Vernier tangent to the top of miniscus.
e) Read the scale and the Vernier.
38
f) Check the reading by making a fresh setting.
Corrections to be made for the mercury barometer reading
1. Temperature correction: Mercury in the tube also acts for the changes in temperature. When
we say 760mm of mercury we mean that the atmosphere has the pressure equal that of mercury
which is at 0°C. Temperature correction is necessary because the density of mercury changes
as the temperature changes. For making temperature corrections, a thermometer is fixed in the
middle portion of the barometer.
2. Gravitational correction: The gravitational pull of the earth is not the same everywhere,
because the shape of the earth is not spherical. The equatorial diameter is 43kms more than the
poles. Hence we need to consider the pressure gradient between the pole and the equator. By
an agreement all the pressure readings are reduced to 45° latitude as a standard.
3. Instrumental correction: Most barometers are found to have some diversion due to scale
inaccuracy and capillarity. They are grouped under instrumental correction.
4. Altitude correction: At high altitudes the pressure of atmosphere is very low. The
atmospheric pressure decreased by 1mb by every 10m increase in height. So all the pressure
readings are converted to sea level pressure.
Aneroid Barometers
Principle: Aneroid means without liquid. Use of sylphon cell which is a partially evacuated metal
diaphragm, expands or collapses depending upon the outside pressure.
1. This is constructed with one or more (up to
14) bellows that have been partially
evacuated.
2. Each bellow may contain an internal spring
or may be constructed from tempered steel
which acts as a spring.
3. The spring forces the bellows apart against
force exerted by the atmospheric pressure.
4. If the atmospheric pressure decreases the
springs expand and vice-versa if the
pressure increases.
5. The variation of the bellows with pressure
changes is mechanically linked to an
indicator on a calibrated dial.
6. Aneroid barometers are suitable for outdoor
measurements and are also used in ships.
Aneroid barograph
Principle: The sensitive element in this device is
an aneroid capsule which consists of a closed
circular vacuum box or boxes placed one above the
other. The box is made of an alloy of silver plated
beryllium copper. As the atmospheric pressure rises
39
or falls the walls of the box collapse or distend proportional to the impressed pressure changes. The
motion is communicated to a lever system connected to a rotating drum on which recording is made.
Operation and measurement: This is an instrument used to record the atmospheric pressure
continuously.
1. The characteristics of the sensitive element of a barograph are a) Thin walled b) Corrugated c)
Silver plated, and d) Aneroid.
2. The movement of aneroid box corresponding to pressure changes depends upon
a. The dimensions of the aneroid box and the thickness of the corrugated diaphragm, and
b. The kind of material used in making the diaphragm.
3. The cumulative effect of pressure fluctuations will be recorded by a spindle running centrally
through the boxes.
4. One end of the spindle is fixed and the other end touches a lever mechanism.
5. This mechanism operates a pen arm, the tip of which is self-inked and touches a chart wrapped
around a rotating drum.
6. This works with a clock mechanism and completes one rotation in 24 hours.
7. The graph chart is calibrated vertically in pressure units and horizontally in time units.
8. The pressure is recorded to the precision of one millibar.
9. The chart of barograph has to be replaced every day in daily type.
10. Any defect due to temperature can be corrected by leaving certain quantity of dry air.
11. To reduce the friction error, a clean pen with proper point should be used.
Altimeter
Altimeter works on the principle of Aneroid barometer. Here the principle that the pressure
decreases with altitude is used. In Altimeter the dial is calibrated in terms of Altitude. It is used to
know the elevation of a particular place.
Units of measurements
1. Height of mercury column is measured in inches, centimetres or millimetres.
2. Bar is equal to 106 dynes per sq. cm.
3. The S.I. unit for pressure is Pascal and this is equal to a force of one newton per sq.m.
One atmospheric pressure = 29.92 inches or 76 cm or 760 mm of Hg

= 1013.25 millibar
= 1013.25 hectoPascal (hPa)
= 14.7 lbs / inch2
= 1.014 X 106 dynes / cm2
Exercise
1. Distinguesh between normal pressure, station pressure and sea level pressure?
2. If station pressure is 950 hPa what is the sea level pressure?
3. What will the barometric pressure (in hPa) if the sea level pressure is 1013.2 hPa in the
following places?
Dhodapetta (8640 ft), Ooty (7728 ft),Coonnor (5954 ft),Salem (946 ft),Pondicherry
(37 ft)
4. Collect and paste isobaric chart of your choice with remarks?
40
41
42
Ex.No.6 Date:
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL - ORDINARY AND SELF RECORDING RAIN GAUGES -

MEASUREMENT OF DEW - DEW GAUGE - STUDY OF AUTOMATIC
WEATHER STATION
Rainfall
Indian agriculture gambles on monsoon rainfall. Success or failure of rainfall during monsoon
period decides the Indian economy. Rainfall is received through hydrological cycle.
Measurement of rainfall
In most of the observatories two different instruments are used to measure the rainfall. They
are: a) Symon’s rain gauge and b) Natural syphon recording rain gauge. Of late, tipping bucket rain
gauges are used in high technology automatic weather stations.
1. Symon’s Rain Gauge: It is made up of galvonised iron sheet of
12 gauge thickness or fibre glass and plastic. This consists of four
parts a) Funnel b) Receiver c) Body d) Base.
Principle: Rain water entering the gauge from the top of the rim of
the funnel is lead via a funnel to the receiver. The rain water thus
collected is measured with the help of a measuring cylinder.
1. Depending on the location funnel with either 112.9 mm
diameter (equivalent to 100 cm 2) or 159.6 mm (equivalent to
200 cm2) are used. The outer peripheral ring is made up of
copper or brass and it is called ‘rim’. It is designed in such a
way that the rain water doesn’t splash out.
2. The rain water received by the funnel and is emptied into a
collecting jar which is kept in an outer jacket or receiver.
3. The outer jacket is a cylindrical vessel closed at one end.
4. Besides housing the collecting jar, the outer jacket also
receives the overflow of rain water from it.
5. The funnel, the collecting jar and the outer jacket are fitted
into a base which has a locking arrangement.
6. The amount of rain water is measured with the help of a calibrated glass measuring jar, corrected
up to 0.1 mm.
7. The rain gauge should be kept on a hard compact levelled platform partially buried in the ground
in such a way that the rim buried is at a height of 1 foot (30 cm) above the ground surface.
8. The rim should be positioned on a perfectly horizontal plane. This can be done by using a sprit
level.
9. Rain gauge should be checked for leaks and dust particles. Leaves should be removed from the
collector.
10. The measuring cylinder should be kept clean and a spare measuring cylinder should be available
in the observatory.
5. Natural siphoning self recording rain gauge

43
This is designed to give a continuous recording of the rainfall. This instrument not only records
the total amount of rainfall that has fallen since the record was started but also the rate of rainfall.
Principle: Rain water entering the gauge from the top of the cover is lead via a funnel to the receiver
consisting of a float chamber and a syphon chamber. A pen is mounted on the stem of the float and as
the level of water rises in the receiver, the float rises and the pen records the level of the water in the
chamber. Syphoning occurs automatically when, the pen reaches the top of the chart.

1. This is also made up of galvonised iron sheet
of 12 gauge thickness. Now-a-days fibre glass
reinforced polyester material is extensively
used.
2. This also has a funnel with a glass ‘rim’ of
203 mm (records 10 mm per siphon). This act
as a lid and is provided with a slit or window.
At stations which has heavy rates of rainfall a
funnel diameter of 128.5mm (records 25 mm
per siphon) is used.
3. The rim of the funnel should be horizontal to
the ground and exactly at a height of 75 cm
above the ground.
4. The rain water received by funnel is poured
into a chamber through a connecting tube.
5. The chamber has a float and it is connected to
a pen arm, through a lever mechanism.
6. The tip of the pen arm is self-inked and
touches a calibrated chart which is wrapped
around a rotating drum.
7. The drum works with a clock mechanism and
completes one rotation in 24 hours.
8. The X-axis of the chart represents rainfall with a precision of 0.1 mm and Y-axis represents
time.
9. The chart has to be replaced only at the end of a rainy day.
10. This instrument has a syphoning mechanism and when the water reaches the maximum level it
gets emptied automatically. The pen arm comes down to zero and rises again if there is further
rainfall.
11. The chart has to be changed every day at 0830 and there should be sufficient ink in the pen.
12. The instrument should always be kept clean and no leaves should enter the funnel.
13. A spirit level may be used to keep the instrument exactly as detailed above.
14. The slope of the trace of the pen at any point gives approximately the intensity of rain. The rate
of rainfall is obtained by dividing total amount of rainfall with total hours of the rainfall during
a day.
15. The rate of rainfall is obtained by dividing the total amount of rainfall with the total hours of
the rainfall during a day
44
6. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
1. These rain gauges are generally attached to the
automatic weather stations.
2. This is an automated device and accumulates a
certain volume of water in a reservoir or bucket.
3. Normally the reservoir or bucket is so small that
it houses only 5 mm of rain water.
4. When the exact volume has been collected, the
bucket automatically tips and the water is
emptied.
5. This tipping mechanism also provides a method
of recording on a moving chart or a counter,
attached to the tape recorder in the weather
station.
6. Sensitivities up to 0.10 or 0.25 mm of rain are
available.
7. The rim of rain gauge collector should be sharp and durable.
8. The main source of error is the exposure of the gauge.
9. Depending upon the maximum intensity of rainfall for a given location, the tipping bucket rain
gauge with suitable sensitivity has to be selected.
Units of measurements: millimetres or centimetres.

Measurement of Dew
Dew is an important surface phenomenon. Due to the
cooling of earth surface, the air just above the ground gets
cooled and reaches saturation level and the water gets
condensed on any surface as dew. Dew measurements are
made through an instrument called dew gauge. It is very
simple one having a stand to hold wooden blocks
(32.0x5.0x2.5cm) coated with red oxide at different heights
from ground level. The red oxide coating is given to prevent
the wood absorbing water. The dew deposited is compared
through the standard photographs and the amount of dew
deposited is normally expressed in mm. Dew measurements
are made before sunrise.
Automatic weather station
It is an instrument used to record various weather
elements automatically at a given interval of time through
different electronic sensors. It normally has a data logger to
store the data recorded from various sensors. The data
recorded in data logger can be down loaded on to the computer
through specific software.
Purpose: Automatic weather stations are used for increasing the number and reliability of surface
observations. They do this by:
45
1. Increasing the density of an existing network by providing data from new sites and from sites,
which are difficult to access and are inhospitable.
2. Supplying for manned stations, data outside the normal working hours.
3. Increasing the reliability of the measurements by using sophisticated technology and modern,
digital measurement techniques
4. Ensuring homogeneity of networks by standardizing the measuring techniques.
Exercise
1. Bring out the advantages and disadvantages of all the rain gauges you have studied.
2. Draw the figure of the automatic weather station and write down various sensors used for
recording various weather elements.
3. List out the advantages and disadvantages of automatic weather station.
4. What do you understand by the term one acre inch and one hectare centimeter of rainfall?
5. Observe the rainfall amount, duration, onset and withdrawal from the self recording rainfall
graph charts provided below?
46
47
48
Ex.No.7 Date:
MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION - OPEN PAN EVAPORIMETER - APPLICATION

OF EVAPORATION DATA - MEASUREMNT OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION -
LYSIMETER
EVAPORATION
A change in the physical state of water from liquid to vapour is known as evaporation.
Evaporation from surface is influenced not only by environmental factors but also by the depth, size
state of evaporating surface and surrounding etc. There are the four main types evaporations or pans
used for measuring evaporation.
I. U.S.W.B. Class ‘A’ open pan evaporimeter (Mesh covered fixed point gauge)
Principle: The amount of water lost by evaporation from the free water surface in the pan at any given
interval of time is measured by adding known quantities of water to the pan and bringing it to the
original level.
Operation and measurement: This is an instrument
used to measure the amount of water lost by
evaporation per unit area at a given interval of time.
The various of evaporation give a measure of
evaporative power of the air layers near the ground.
1. This is made up of galvanized iron/or copper
sheet of 20 gauge thickness. 10 mm thick
copper is the latest recommended standard.
2. The pan of the evaporimeter is 122 cm in
diameter and 25.5 cm in deep. It is painted
white and is covered with a lid of hexagonal
mesh to protect the water from birds and
squirrels.
3. This is used to measure the rate of
evaporation mm/day with a precision of 0.1mm.
4. Water level in this application should be maintained upto 20 centimeters.
5. In order to provide undisturbed water surface, a still-well is used. It is kept in the pan at the
based and is provided with 3 small openings (120 degrees apart) at its bottom so that the water
level of the pan corresponds to that of still-well.
6. The reference point is provided by the brass rod, fixed at the centre of the still-well and is
tampered to end at a point exactly 190 mm above the base of the pan.
7. Measured quantities of water is added or removed to bring the back the level of water to its
original position.
8. The rate of evaporation is determined by using the equation
a. Volume =Area x Depth.
9. A hook gauge is used for measuring rate of evaporation. It works on the principle of screw
gauge and the least count is 0.1 mm.
10. The pan rests on a wooden platform which is painted white and placed about 3 to 4 inches
above the ground surface. This allows free circulation of air and also to detect leakages, if any.
11. A thermometer to measure the temperature of the water is fixed with a clamp to the side of the
pan so that the bulb dips 5 cm below the water surface.
49
12. If rain is there, the water level in the pan increases. So, water has to be removed to bring back
its level to original position.
13. After knowing the depth of water it is easy to find evaporation (if any) as the depth of the
rainfall is already known the rain gauge.
14. The measuring cylinder is a brass container with scale ranging from 0-20 cm. The diameter is
exactly one tenth that of the pan i.e 122 mm, which means the cross sectional area of the
cylinder is exactly one hundredth that of the pan. So, 200 mm of water from the cylinder added
to the pan will raise that level of water in the pan by 2 mm.
15. The amount of water lost by evaporation from the pan divided by the time interval gives the
rate of evaporation.
16. Since the capacity of cylinder is only 20 cm, cylinder has to be filled more than once if over 2
mm of water is lost by evaporation.
17. Observations with evaporimeter should be taken twice a day at 0830 and 1430 hours IST and
the readings are cumulated and expressed as evaporation mm/day.
18. The observations are to taken as detailed below.
a) Read the thermometer just immersed in the water.
b) When water level is below the reference point, add water to the evaporimeter using the
measuring cylinder.
c) Add water until the tip of the fixed point equals the surface of the water in the still-well.
d) For example, one full cylinder and 10 cm .i.e., 30 cm or 300 mm of the water is added to
the pan. This divided by 100 i.e. 3.0 mm is the amount of water lost by evaporation from
the pan, if no rainfall occurred since the last observation.
e) On a rainy day, if the amount of water taken out to bring the level equal to point is 38 cm,
the difference as per the above calibration in the description is 3.8 mm. If the rainfall is 5.7
mm during the day, then the evaporation is 5.7 – 3.8 =1.9 mm.
f) When there is light rain, and the water level may not rise, then procedure to be followed is
like this. If 20 cm of water is added to the pan (i.e. 2.0 mm after calibration) and rainfall is
1.2 mm, then the actual evaporation is 2.0 + 1.2 = 3.2mm.
19. Precautions to be taken include:
a) Repairs for nay leaks must be attended as and when noticed.
b) Clean the pan and stilling well regularly.
c) Paint the evaporimeter with white enamel paint every year.
d) Use lemon juice to remove white deposits on the bulb of the thermometer.
II. Sunken screen evaporimeter
Principle: A still-well is attached to the evaporimeter
through a connecting tube. The whole instrument is
buried into the ground. Measured quantities of water is
either added or removed to indicate the evaporation.
Operation and measurement: This instrument comes
under the category of sunken pans.
1. This is developed by Dr. Sharma and Dastane in
the year 1966 at Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Pusa, New Delhi.
50
2. This is very useful in agro-meteorology observatories and is more dependable than other
instrument
3. The pan of this evaporimeter is made up of galvanized iron sheet of 20 gauge thickness.
4. It has a diameter of 60 centimeters and depth of 45 centimeters.
5. A still-well with 15 centimeters diameter and 45 centimeters depth is attached to the pan
through a connecting tube.
6. This evaporimeter is painted white throughout.
7. Both the pan and still-well are covered with a lid of hexagonal mesh.
8. Water level in this evaporimeter is maintained upto 35 centimeters from the bottom of the pan.
9. A pointer, attached to the wall of still-well and bent upwards at right angles to the well, is used
to maintain the water level.
10. The tip of the pointer is at a height of 35 centimeters from the bottom. The whole instrument is
buried into the ground upto a depth of 35 centimeters.
11. Measured quantities of water is either added or removed to bring back the level of water to its
original position.
12. The rate of evaporation is determined by using the same equation
Volume = Area x depth.
13. Calibrated charts are also available for ready reference.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
The combined loss of water from evaporation and through transpiration is known as
Evapotranspiration. For proper water management of crops, it is necessary to know, on daily basis the
return flow of water to the atmosphere from cropped surfaces. Once we know the quantity of
evapotranspiration loss the amount of water that is to be applied through irrigation can be determined.
The amount of water that is lost through evapotranspiration for a given crop depends upon its light
duration, growth and evaporative power of air. For measuring this evapotranspiration normally
lysimeter is used.
Lysimeter: Lysimeter is a device for measuring ET. There are two types of lysimeters, they are
namely volumetric, which is used for paddy, and the other is gravimetric which is used in dry land crop
like, maize, cotton, groundnut, sugarcane etc.
1. Volumetric Lysimeter
The volumetric lysimeter consist of mainly three tanks which are interconnected by pipe line.
1. Supply tank (ST) 2. Float chamber tank (FCT) 3. Field tank (FT)
Erection of Instrument: At the middle of the experimental field the field tank is buried over a cement
platform at about 75 cm depth, while 15cm of the tank is left over the field surface. 75 cm of the tank is
filled with the field soil without changing soil profile of the field. At the end of the inlet there is
provided a shower (PVC) to prevent the inflow of dust and mud into the pipe line. The other end of
inlet is connected to the T pipes of FCT by underground pipe line at a depth of 2 feet. The FCT is
buried at one end of the field such that the inlet pipe of FT and T pipe of FCT are in same level. The
supply tank is erected at an elevated position.
51
Functioning of Lysimeter: When the instrument is set the water level in FT and FCT are is in same
line. Therefore when the water level goes down in FT as a result of Evapotanspiration, the water level
in FC also goes down Along with the float goes down and hence the valve is opened and water flows
form supply tank to field Tank though FC. When the fixed level reached in the FT the water level rises
in FC also, along with the float raises and closes the valve and water supply stopped. This is a
continuous process. When water level rises in the FT by way of Rain fall some water is taken for
Evapotranspiration and excess water flows back to FC and collected in FCT.
Measurement of ET: Since all the tanks and pipelines are leak proof the water lost by way of
Evapotraspiration in the field tank is supplied only from the supply tank. Measured quantity of water is
added to the supply tank up to the index level at an interval of 24 hours. i.e. 07 30 IST daily. This gives
the ET loss in cc. This is known as inflow (IF). When there is rainfall, excess rainwater is collected in
the FCT. This is taken out and measured and is known as outflow (OF) From this inflow and outflow
and rainfall data we can calculate ET loss in mm.
Conversion Factor (F)
We get the inflow and outflow in cc. But we have to adjust it for rainfall and compared with
Evaporation which is in mm. Hence we define a conversion factor as follows:
Area of filed Tank = 120 cm x 120 cm = 14400cc.
1 mm of water in ET = 14400 x 1/10 = 1440 cc.
1440 cc. = 1 mm
1 cc. = 1/1440 mm = 0.000694 mm
i.e. CF = 0.000694.
Calculation of ET: Now ET is calculated using the formula.
ET = [(IF – OF) x CF] + RF
52
Model Calculation
Date IF OF IF-OF Rainfall ET EP ET/EP Remarks
1.3.98 06000 00000 06000 00000 4.2 3.2 1.131
2.3.98 7240 00000 07240 00000 5.0 4.1 1.22
3.3.98 02620 00000 02620 003.2 5.0 4.0 1.25
4.3.98 02500 43500 41000 033.5 5.1 4.2 1.21
5.3.98 01600 09000 074000 010.5 5.4 4.5 1.20
6.3.98 Out flow Going on 091.0 - 3.6 -
7.3.98 01200 120700 119500 00000 8.1 0.0 1.23 ET for 48 hrs.
2. Gravimetric Lysimeters
This instrument consists of the following:
1. Weighing balance
2. Soil tank
3. Dummy tank
4. Outer tank
Selection of site of Lysimeters
A field of about 60 x 60 cm planted with a
bulk crop and located in the midst of cropped area
is required. Ideally, this field should be near the
meteorological observatory and surrounded by other
fields having similar crop varieties which receive
similar cultural treatments.
Time of observation
Lysimeter observations have to be recorded
at 07 00 hours LMT when wind is calm. The
amount of water lost by last 24 hours is measured in
grams. ET is calculated after adjusting for rainfall.
The cumulative total of ET from sowing to harvest
give us the idea about the amount of water required
for the particular crop for the particular season.
Conversion factor: ET data in gravimetric
lysimeters are recorded in kg. For calculation of ET
we have to adjust it for rainfall recorded in the
nearby observatory, which is in mm. Therefore ET
recorded in kgs are converted in to mm by using a
conversion factor as below;
Area of soil tank = 130 x 130 cm2
Suppose there is 1cm depth of water, the volume of
Water is = 130 x 130 x 1 cm2
ie 1 cm = 16900 gms; ie 10 mm = 16900 gms
1mm = 1690 gms = 1.690 kg.
1kg = 1/1.670 = 0.59mm ie Conversion factor is 1 kg = 0.59mm
53
Calculation of ET: After tabulating the lysimeter data and rainfall data, ET is calculated using the
following formula
ET = (AW x CF) + RF
Where Δw - difference in weight; CF - Conversion factor and RF is rainfall of the day.
Tabulation of observation
The change in weight (in kg) of tanks during the period between observations should be
multiplied by conversion factor of 0.6 and corrected for rainfall during the same period as per sample
given below.
Example to calculate Evapotranspiration
S. No Date Soil tank Change in Rainfall ET = (101.4 x 0.6
weight(kg) weight(kg) (mm) x 101.5mm)
1. Day with no rain
15.6.76 1853.5 - - -
16.6.76 1851.3 2.2 0.0 1.3
2. Day when weight decreased in spite of rain
20.6.76 1851.3 - - -
21.6.76 1850.1 1.2 1.5 2.2
3. Dry when weight increased due to rain
15.5.76 1851.3 - - -
16.5.76 1865.3 (-)14.0 12.0 3.6
** Loss in weight is taken as +ve
A gain in weight is taken ad -ve
Crop co-efficient (Kc values):
ET requirement of a crop
Kc = -------------------------------------------
Potential evapotranspiration (PET)
ET requirement of a crop can be obtained from lysimeter under field conditions.
Crop coefficients for major crops at different stages
SI. Crop Duration Initial stage Developm Mid season Late season
No (days) duration ental stage stage duration stage
duration
Days Kc ini Days Kcmid Days Kcend
1. Potato 90 20 0.58 25 25 1.15 20 0.75
2. Onion 110 25 0.61 25 35 1.05 25 0.80
3. Tomato 90 20 0.73 20 30 1.20 20 0.65
4. Cauliflower 70 15 0.77 20 20 1.01 15 0.90
5. Cabbage 90 20 0.75 30 20 1.05 20 0.90
54
6. cucumber 60 10 090 15 20 0.95 15 0.75
7. Brinjal 80 15 0.73 25 20 1.05 20 0.85
*Lower values are for high humidity and low wind velocity
Typical Kc for different types of full grown crops
Exercise
1. Discuss the use of Evaporation data in irrigation scheduling.
2. Calculate the evaporation in mm for the data given to you in the practical class (three
conditions)
55
56
57
Ex.No.8 Date:
HEAT UNIT CONCEPT - GDD, HTU, PTU FOR FIXING TIME OF SOWING
Growing Degree Day (GDD)

The heat unit system or Growing Degree Day (GDD) concept assumes that there is a direct and
linear relationship between growth of plants and temperature. It starts with the assumption that the
growth is dependent on the total amount of heat to which it is subjected during its life time. GDD is
also called as heat units, effective heat units and growth units.
A degree day or a heat unit is the departure from the mean daily temperature, above the
threshold temperature of the crop.
The GDD are calculated by the quotation.
n
GDD = ∑ {(TMax. +TMin)/2} - Tb
i=1
n
=∑ (Mean temperature - Threshold temperature)
Where; i=1
TMax = the daily maximum air temperature
TMin = the daily minimum air temperature
Tb = the GDD base temperature for the organism being monitored
It means, sum of different between mean temperature and base temperature or threshold
temperature. The threshold temperature is the temperature below which no growth takes place. This
varies with different crops, generally higher values for tropical crops and lower values for temperature
crops.
Application of GDD concept
 To decide optimum sowing time of crops
 It guides various agricultural operations and planning land use
 For forecast of crop-harvest dates and yield of crops
 Applied to the problems of growth and development of insects and plant pathogens
 Applied to the selection of varieties to be grown in a new area
 To modify the microclimate to produce optimum conditions at the development cycle of an
organism
 As an index for making crop zonation
 It is easy to compute and simple to use for various aspects of agriculture
Limitations of GDD
 A lot of weightage is given to high temperature although higher temperatures above 27°C may
have detrimental effects.
 The daily temperature range is not taken into consideration which is more significant than the
mean daily temperature.
 A single threshold temperature is used throughout the crop season.
58
 Plant, leaf or canopy temperature is more important for plant growth and development rather
than the screen temperature measured in the observatory.
 The influences of wind, hail, insects and diseases are not taken into account.
 Soil fertility may also affect the crop maturity which cannot be explained in this system.
Modifications in GDD
Along with temperature, other weather parameters also contribute to the growth and
development of a crop. Hence, GDD concept was improved and modified in order of give weightage to
other weather parameters.
Photo Thermal Unit (PTU)
Nuttonson (1948) attempted to improve the GDD concept applying day length factor and using
concept as photo-thermal unit in climate analogue studies. This is calculated by multiplying GDD with
maximum possible bright sunshine hours (N).
PTU = Σ (GDD x Maximum possible bright sunshine hours)
Helio Thermal Unit (HTU)
This is calculated by multiplying GDD with actual bright sunshine hours (n) which is
measured in the observatory daily with the help of sunshine recorder.
HTU = Σ (GDD x Actual bright sunshine hours)
Heat Use Efficiency (HUE)
It has been defined as yield per day °C on growing day concept or per unit of day °C hours on
helio-thermal units indicating the efficiency with the available heat utilized for grain yields (unit: kg/ha
day °C).
HUE = Yield / GDD
The photo-thermal response of following in wheat over range of environments normally
experienced by the crop can be expressed as:
Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE)
This can be calculated for the whole growing period or for defined phenol phases of crops by
using the following formula:
RUE = Yield (kg/m2) / IPAR (MJm2)
Where, IPAR is cumulative intercepted photo synthetically active radiation.
Exercise
1. Document the threshold temperature for the horticultural crops as instructed in the class.
2. Workout the different heat unit requirements up to tasseling stage of baby corn sown on two
times (January and June) and give your critical comments.
Maximum and minimum temperature, day length and bright sunshine hours of baby corn crop
sown in first seasons.
Mean
Crop stage Date Max T. Min T. Day hrs. SS GDD PTU HTU
Temp.
Seedling Jan 04 28.5 17.8 11.22 7.2
05 30.0 20.8 11.23 8.1
06 30.5 22.0 11.23 6.7
07 30.0 20.0 11.23 8.8
08 30.0 22.0 11.24 4.6
59
09 30.0 22.0 11.24 3.2
10 30.0 22.0 11.25 9.2
11 29.0 19.0 11.24 9.2
12 29.5 19.4 11.25 9.0
13 30.2 16.0 11.25 7.1
14 29.5 13.5 11.26 9.7
15 29.0 13.5 11.25 9.5
16 29.5 13.5 11.26 7.7
17 29.5 15.0 11.27 7.3
18 29.5 16.5 11.27 9.3
19 31.0 19.0 11.28 6.3
20 30.5 19.8 11.28 8.7
21 31.5 21.6 11.29 6.4
22 31.5 23.4 11.29 8.8
23 30.5 23.0 11.3 5.8
Total
Peak
vegetative 24 32.5 18.8 11.3 2.9
25 33.0 20.0 11.31 3.6
26 33.0 20.0 11.31 2.9
27 31.5 21.0 11.32 4.9
28 30.0 20.8 11.32 5.9
29 29.0 19.5 11.32 2.9
30 32.5 19.5 11.33 4.0
31 31.0 18.2 11.33 0.3
Feb 01 29.8 19.5 11.34 3.4
02 32.5 21.2 11.35 0.7
03 27.2 21.7 11.36 4.1
04 25.8 21.0 11.36 5.7
05 27.0 22.4 11.36 6.5
06 30.5 22.4 11.37 8.4
07 30.5 22.5 11.38 10.0
08 30.0 22.0 11.38 8.4
09 30.5 21.5 11.39 10.0
10 30.0 18.4 11.39 9.7
11 30.0 18.0 11.4 10.0
12 32.0 22.3 11.41 10.0
13 31.0 20.0 11.41 9.8
Total
II. Maximum and minimum temperature, day length and bright sunshine hours of baby corn crop sown
in second seasons.
Mean
Crop stage Date Max T. Min T. Day hrs. SS GDD PTU HTU
Temp.
Seedling June 19 34..0 22.0 12.53 8.0
20 29.5 24.5 12.53 10.0
60
21 30.0 24.5 12.53 7.9
22 32.7 25.3 12.54 5.6
23 30.7 25.0 12.53 2.8
24 32.0 25.5 12.53 6.6
25 30.0 24.5 12.53 10.0
26 32.0 24.5 12.53 6.1
27 32.0 24.0 12.54 8.0
28 34.5 22.0 12.53 0.9
29 34.0 24.5 12.53 4.5
30 34.5 22.5 12.53 2.0
July 01 34.0 22.5 12.52 4.0
02 33.5 23.4 12.52 8.0
03 32.0 23.5 12.52 6.4
04 34.0 23.5 12.52 11.0
05 34.5 23.0 12.51 0
06 32.5 22.5 12.52 3.7
07 34.5 22.5 12.52 2.8
08 33.5 22.4 12.52 2.0
Total
Peak
vegetative July 09 33.0 20.5 12.51 2.7
10 33.5 24.0 12.51 4.0
11 33.0 23.5 12.51 0
12 31.5 23.0 12.5 6.5
13 30.0 22.8 12.5 7.5
14 33.5 22.0 12.5 6.2
15 33.0 22.0 12.49 3.1
16 33.5 25.0 12.48 3.5
17 33.0 22.6 12.48 4.8
18 32.0 23.2 12.48 7.1
19 33.5 22.7 12.47 7.8
20 33.2 22.4 12.47 5.5
21 33.0 23.3 12.47 9.0
22 32.5 22.5 12.47 11.0
23 32.5 21.5 12.45 11.0
24 32.7 22.0 12.45 9.4
25 34.0 22.5 12.45 6.2
26 31.6 21.4 12.45 4.2
27 34.0 20.8 12.43 0
28 33.0 22.5 12.43 7.9
29 30.5 22.4 12.43 8.1
30 31.0 22.0 12.43 5.5
Total
61
62
63
64
Ex.No.9 Date:
PROBABILITY ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL FOR CROP PLANNING
Rainfall Analysis Classifications

I. Classification of rainfall based on the amount of rainfall
a) Places receiving more than 2000 mm rainfall.
b) Places receiving 1200 to 2000 mm rainfall.
c) Places receiving 750 to 1200 mm rainfall.
d) Places receiving less than 750 mm rainfall.
II. Variability analysis
To find out coefficient of variation first find out standard deviation using the following formula.
∑x2 - (∑x) 2/n
Standard Deviation = ---------------
n-1
Standard Deviation
Coefficient variation = -------------------------- x 100
Mean
The dependability of rainfall is normally obtained using the Coefficient of variation. The
following percentage of coefficient of variation is dependable for various periods of rainfall.
Sl. No Period Dependable CV (%) Non-Dependable CV (%)
1. Daily Rainfall <250 >250
2. Weekly Rainfall <150 >150
3. Monthly Rainfall <100 >100
4. Seasonal Rainfall <50 >50
5 Annual Rainfall <25 >25
III. Based on mean rainfall (Classification by IMD)
1. Normal : -19 to +19 % of the mean rainfall
2. Deficit : -20 to -59 % of the mean rainfall
3. Scanty : < -60% of the mean rainfall
4. Excess : +20 to +59 % of the mean rainfall
5. Wet : >+60 % of the mean rainfall
IV. Initial Probability Analysis
a) Initial probability analysis
nxp
Initial probability = ---------------
100
n = number observations accounted for
p = probability level fixed
b) Conditional probability analysis
(Mean-X)
Conditional probability =
SD
65
Where
X=required quantity of rainfall (mm), Mean = Mean rainfall of the particular week
SD=Standard Deviation for the week
Resultant value does not fall under normal distribution, it has to be referred to Z table and
multiplied by 100 to find out the actual probability percentage. If the value is more than 60%, it can be
accounted for planting.
Two points are to be considered
1. If the resultant value of the formulae given above is positive, the corresponding value may
referred in the ‘Z’ table and multiplied by 100 for getting conditional probability in percentage.
2. If the resultant value is negative, the corresponding ‘Z’ table value is subtracted from unity and
multiplied by 100.
Application in crop planning operations
1. If the interest is in land preparation then use, then probability estimates X=10 mm/week
2. If the interest is crop planning, then we use the probability estimates under X=20 mm/week
3. If the interest is in application of fertilizer and /weeding then we use the probability estimates
under X=40 mm/week
4. If the interest is when not to apply fertilizer and /or pesticides/insecticides then use the
probability under X=80 mm/week
Exercise
1. Tamil Nadu lies in the rain shadow region of the south west monsoon – Give reason.
2. Differentiate between rain day and rainy day.
3. Workout the weekly means standard deviation and coefficient of variation, 80 % initial
probability weekly rainfall amounts and conditional probability for 40 mm for the data given
below and write your comments.
Year 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Annual
1991 0.0 3.0 16.5 0 10.1 42.5 7.5 1.5 12.5 26.5 8.3 5.5 3.3 0 0 0 1 0 969
1992 0.0 1.8 0 97.6 55.6 44.9 5.7 7.5 29 14.5 66.8 162 63.6 0 8.1 0 0 0 1031
1993 36.6 3.0 7 0 1.6 30.8 30 58.3 19.3 29.1 112 125 0 1.5 17.1 0 0 0 1548
1994 5.0 12.0 0 0 33.9 37.8 6.1 32.3 161.3 119.9 48.7 20 1.6 0 0 0 1.6 0 727
1995 14.5 1.0 8.2 9.5 8 17.5 2 14.5 66 36.4 45.4 26.5 0 0 0 0 1.6 0 705
1996 0.0 0.0 8.8 0 44 3 119 75.6 0 0 0 21.4 40 0 24.5 88.2 4.5 0 1639
1997 1.0 0.0 13.7 2.8 0 41.5 52.5 18 81 136 50.2 45.2 101 32.2 21.3 5.8 10 0 1487
1998 54.0 41 2 0 73.9 2 5 0 8 103.3 213 2 0 39.6 0 122 0 0 1263
1999 0.0 0.0 0 0 28 72.3 31.9 155.4 44.5 2 64.2 0 35 6.4 0 3 10 8.8 918
2000 4.1 0.0 3.6 89.6 117 10.3 11.3 10 5.2 0 0 1.2 52.1 30.2 0 0 0 14.4 1387
Mean
SD
CV
IP80%
CP 40
66
67
68
Ex.No.10 Date:
. DRAWING SYNOPTIC CHARTS FOR UNDERSTANDING WEATHER
An enormous volume of meteorological data is being collected from all over the world,
continuously round the clock through various telecommunication channels. To assess, assimilate and
analyse the vast data, they have to be suitably presented. For this purpose, the observations are plotted
on maps in standard weather codes. These maps are called “synoptic maps or charts”. The surface and
upper air charts are the two types of synoptic charts currently in use.
Synoptic charts display the weather conditions at a specified time over a large geographical
area. The surface synoptic charts plotted for different synoptic hours (00, 03, 06, 09, 12, 15, 18, 21
UTC) depict the distribution of pressure, temperature, dew point, clouds, winds, present and past
weather. In place of GMT, UTC (Universal Time Co-ordinate) is used. The upper air charts are also
prepared at the standard pressure levels of the atmosphere (different heights) wherein the pressure,
wind and temperature are plotted. The surface charts together with the upper air charts provide a
composite three-dimensional weather picture pertaining to a given time.
The surface synoptic charts are the most used charts. It contains the maximum number of
observations with the largest number of parameters plotted and often forms the base on which the
pressure level charts are built up. The pattern of the pressure distribution is brought out by drawing
isobars, troughs, ridges, lows, highs, depressions, cyclones, cols, fronts and discontinuities. These
systems are clearly marked and labeled using appropriate symbols and colours. In synoptic charts
different weather phenomena and atmospheric characters are marked with different symbols as
mentioned below.
Sl. No. Symbols Weather element/character/phenomenon
1 Narrow black lines lsobars
2 Numbers at ends of isobars Pressure values in hPa
3 Shading Precipitation
4 Arrows Wind direction
5 Feathers in the arrows Wind velocity
6 Small circles with shading Amount of clouds
Plotting of station model
Meteorological observations are plotted according to
standard station models prescribed by the World meteorological
Organization (WMO). A plotting model is shown below.
Weather elements such as pressure, temperature, dew
point etc. are entered in figures whereas clouds, weather
phenomenon etc. are plotted as symbols at fixed positions with
respect to the observing station represented by a circle on the
map. Wind direction is shown as the shaft of an arrow drawn towards the station circle from the
direction from which the wind blows. Wind speed is represented by bars and pennants, half barb
indicating 5 knots, full barb for 10 knots and a pennant for 50 knots.
TT - Dry bulb temperature TdTd - Dew point temperature ww - Present weather
W - Visibility PPP - Barometric pressure reduced to MSL
N - Amount of cloud ddd - Wind direction ff - Wind speed
Nh - Amount of high cloud W - Past weather RRR - Rainfall/ snowfall
69
CH - Type of high cloud CM - Type of medium cloud CL - Type of low cloud
h - Height of base of low cloud Nh - Amount of cloud reported under h-
Note
Dry bulb temperature: Eg. If it is 28.4oC it has to be denoted as 284.
Dew point temperature: Eg. If the value is 24.5oC it has to be denoted as 245
Present weather is indicated in red colour
Visibility
0-50 metres - 91 51-100 metres - 92 101-200 metres - 93 201-500 metres - 94
501-1000 metres - 95 1-5 km - 96 5-10 km - 97 10-25 km - 98
25-50 km - 99
Barometric pressure
If the pressure is < 1000, it has to be depicted as it is. Eg. 977
If the pressure is > 1000, it has to be depicted as last three decimals. Eg. 1012 as 012.
Past weather
0 - Clear sky 1 - Partly cloudy 2 - Mainly cloudy 3 - Fog
4 - Maze 5 - Drizzle 6 - Rain 7 - Snow
8 - Thunderstorm 9 - Thunderstorm with rain
Rainfall: The amount has to be given as rounded number not the decimals. Eg: 20.6 mm as 21
Height of base cloud: The height is to be given in km.
70
Exercise
1. Draw a synoptic chart for the condition given to you.
2. Collect one weather map from the news paper and interpret the same.
71
72
73
Ex.No.11 Date:
PREPARATION OF CROP WEATHER CALENDERS AND FORECASTBASED AGRO

ADVISORIES
In order to provide the farmer with an efficient weather service, it is essential that the weather
forecaster should be familiar with the crops that are grown in a particular agro-climatic zone. The type
of forewarnings to be given depending upon the state and stages of the crop also should be known. In
case of farmers, they should become familiar with weather bulletins and learn how to interpret them.
To meet the above requirement, the detailed information collected from the Agricultural Departments
has been condensed by the IMD and presented in a pictorial form known as crop weather calendar.
The crop weather calendar consists of three parts viz., crop husbandry, climate requirements
and weather warnings. The important crop phases like sowing, germination, transplantation (in the case
of rice), tillering, elongation, flowering, grain formation and harvest are indicated under the crop
husbandry against the standard agro-meteorological weeks in lower part of the calendar. The normal
monthly rainfall and number of rainy days are depicted in middle of the calendar with weather
requirements and upper most portion of the calendar indicates the nature of the weather warnings to be
issued in different crop periods. These crop weather calendars help the weather forecaster to see at a
glance the type of weather warnings are to be issued for a particular district in a given weather situation
during a particular phase of crop.
Preparation of agro advisory bulletin
National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) in collaboration with
State Agricultural Universities of different states is issuing medium range weather forecast in every
Tuesday and Friday for the different agro climatic zones of the country. The prognosticated weather
parameters are cloud cover (octa), rainfall (mm), Maximum and minimum temperature ( oC) Wind
direction (degrees) and speed (KMPH with a time lead of four days however, for rainfall, they are
giving daily rainfall expected for next four days as well as cumulative rainfall expected for next seven
days. As on now, NCMRWF issuing weather forecast for 105 agro climatic zones of the country and
their aim is to develop weather forecast for entire 127 agro climatic zones of the country. In Tamil
Nadu, NCMRWF is issuing weather forecast for seven places viz., four places in TNAU (Coimbatore,
Kovilpatti, Aduthurai, Pechiparai), two places under Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Science
(Nammakkal, Chenna)i and one place under M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (Kannivadi).
Every Tuesday and Friday morning respective units of State Agricultural Universities called Agro
meteorological field units (AMFU’s) sent their daily weather data to NCMRWF as input to the model
and in turn they will sent weather forecast for seven days. AMFU’s will develop suitable agroadvisory
based on weather forecast received and communicated to the farmers through different mass media.
Format of the agro-advisory bulletin
Weather information
1. Weather summary of the proceeding week or since last bulletin including salient weather
features like heavy rain, cyclones, depressions, freezing temperature etc.
2. Climatic normals for the week
3. Weather forecast and
4. Crop moisture index, drought severity index, etc for the past weeks etc.
Crop information: This may include:
74
1. Type, state and phonological stage of the crop
2. Information on pests and diseases: and
3. Information on crop stresses.
Advisory: Advisory content shall vary with location, season, weather, crop condition and local
management practices. This may include:
Crop-wise farm management information tailored to weather sensitive agricultural practices
like sowing, irrigation scheduling, pest and disease control operations, fertilizer application etc. It
should also contain special warnings for taking appropriate measures for saving crop from malevolent
weather, if any. Information on crop planning, variety selection, selection of proper sowing/harvesting
date’s time etc may also be provided. Also provide location specific package and practices for
cultivation of different crops suitable for the agro climatic zone, etc:
1. Sprayings conditions for insect, weed, or disease problems
2. Problems related to animal health and their products.
3. Wild life rating forecast in wild life prone areas and
4. Livestock management information for housing, health and nutrition, etc.
Wherever possible outputs from crop and peat disease models may be used to increase the
timeliness of spraying operations, irrigation applications, fertilizer applications etc., The advisories
should also serve an early warning function, alerting producers to the implications of various weather
events such as extreme temperature, heavy rains, floods and strong winds.
The agro advisory bulletin will help the farmers in taking long term (strategic) as well as short term
decisions (tactical) thereby it guides farmers for better planning.
75
Exercise
1. Draw a crop weather calendar for tomato crop grown during kharif and rabi.
2. Prepare an agro-advisory for the given forecast in the class.
76
77
78
Ex.No.12 Date:
Preparation of Pest Weather Calendar and Pest Forewarning
Pest and disease are the major constraints in agriculture that reduce the crop yield to
considerable extents. Crops are liable to attacks of various pests and diseases and their incidence and
intensity are depending upon various factors. Major among such factors are certain predisposing
weather conditions. But the causative relationship between weather parameters and pest build up is a
complex one. Several weather conditions allow the multiplication of pest and diseases at a faster rate
which result in reduction of crop production. The relationship between weather factors and pest
incidence is to be studied and the information has to be collected to quantify the relationship. Therefore
it becomes pertinent to quantify the influence of weather on pest incidence or build up.
Prerequisites for quantification of weather parameters
1. Estimation of pest population dynamics as influenced by abiotic and biotic factors of
environment.
2. Identification of conducive weather conditions for pest and natural enemies of pest.
3. Specification of congenial weather conditions for application of pesticides to increase their
application efficiency.
4. Study on interaction between phenology of crops and pests by using degree day concepts to avoid
the periods of synchronization of peak pest attack in crop growth.
Weather parameters and pest occurrence
One of the more significant approaches is the management and mitigation of crop disasters
from pests and diseases. Every year the country is devastated by pest and disease problems and face a
huge loss to a tune of billions of rupees annually, in spite of different control measure. Thus the
problem calls for a more scientific, methodological and socio-economic approach for eradicating pests
and diseases.
Some characteristic instances of pest and disease occurrence in agriculture and their incidence
vary from year to year and weather factors play an important role in their population dynamics. There
need to quantify major weather factors that are responsible for the outbreak of these pests and diseases.
It has been well established that climate plays a dominant role in regulating the incidence and
spread of pests and diseases. National Meteorological Services like the India Meteorological
Department (IMD) have a great role in reducing the losses of crops by issuing advance information on
pest and disease occurrences, based on weather. Considering such early warning models/guidelines,
users can take crop protection measures in time and save them from pest and disease attacks.
Moreover, if weather information for the outbreak of a pest in a particular crop is issued sufficiently in
advance, farmers can even switch to cultivation of another crop.
As the pest and disease problems are serious in India, particularly in the monsoon season, there
is a need to control the same operationally. Thus, by close monitoring of temperature, rainfall and
humidity in months when the probability of attacks of pests and diseases are highest, it is possible to
issue warnings. IMD, Pune, is engaged in developing weather based early warning models, pest
weather calendars, as well as guidelines for combating different plant pests and diseases. They
disseminate the same to the users for initiating efficient crop protection measures. The examples of
79
pest weather calendars are good potential for making such warnings and advisories more appropriate
and user friendly.
WEATHER DATA AT ANAIMALAI, COIMBATORE DISTRICT
Temperature (oC) Relative

Standard Rainfall Solar radiation
Humidity
week Maximum Minimum (mm) (Cal/cm2)
(%)
2014
40 33.60 23.89 51.85 0.00 388.30
41 33.11 23.97 63.56 0.00 439.01
42 31.67 23.86 57.83 0.00 248.34
43 32.17 22.77 45.85 21.79 263.66
44 35.99 21.91 84.09 4.36 313.91
45 28.50 19.46 78.30 2.86 372.86
46 30.50 19.50 84.30 0.00 459.80
80
47 29.74 21.82 73.14 0.00 286.40
48 28.04 20.76 72.77 0.00 199.29
49 30.44 17.91 74.40 0.00 397.59
50 29.79 21.72 84.23 3.64 212.54
51 28.36 20.62 78.41 1.21 241.43
52 29.19 20.58 77.35 0.06 287.64
Temperature (oC) Relative
Standard Rainfall Solar radiation
Humidity
week Maximum Minimum (mm) (Cal/cm2)
(%)
2015
1 30.79 18.44 78.56 0.00 365.40
2 30.13 16.10 70.37 0.00 387.98
3 30.54 17.79 69.41 0.00 424.57
4 30.81 17.86 65.84 0.07 310.44
5 30.30 18.96 65.64 0.00 375.27
6 31.32 18.32 61.23 0.00 403.20
7 33.81 19.20 62.97 0.00 490.41
8 33.91 17.30 50.03 0.00 547.59
9 33.13 22.12 72.20 1.50 414.10
10 33.51 17.50 55.65 0.00 288.85
11 33.21 18.96 68.95 1.50 315.52
12 32.81 17.75 72.89 0.00 365.12
13 34.50 16.95 85.65 0.00 424.12
14 32.50 20.15 92.90 0.05 215.52
15 33.50 20.62 78.50 0.00 387.96
16 32.30 21.72 82.50 0.00 212.52
17 28.20 19.10 72.50 0.00 397.85
81
7. Influence of weather parameters on seasonal abundance of aphids, mealybugs and tea
mosquito bugs during 2014-2015
Correlation coefficient
Variables
Aphids Mealybugs Tea mosquito bugs
Maximum temperature 0.480** 0.420** -0.037

(Tmax) (oC)
Minimum temperature -0.485** -0.455** 0.219

(Tmin) (oC)
Relative humidity (%) -0.234 -0.282 0.539**
Rainfall (mm) -0.198 -0.239 0.288
Solar radiation (Cal / 0.277 0.201 -0.331

cm2)
**Correlation coefficient is significant at 5% level
82
Seasonal abundance of aphids infesting cocoa during 2014-205
83
Seasonal abundance of mealybugs infesting cocoa during 2014-2015
84
Seasonal abundance of tea mosquito bugs infesting cocoa during 2014-2015
Exercise
3. What you have understood from pest weather calendar?
4. Narrate the advantage and the uses of the pest weather calendar
85
86
87
Ex.No.13 Date:
ESTIMATION OF LENGTH OF GROWING PERIODS USING WEEKLY

RAINFALL DATA
Length of Growing Period (LGP) is the duration of growing period where in crops gets sufficient
moisture for its growth continuously without any interruption.
In semiarid tropics, moisture is the major limiting factor for agriculture. The climate triggered
risks are heavy for crop production. A method computing LGP, takes into account the rainfall and PET,
that method is highly useful to harvest the best from the available climate. This computed LGP aids to
select the suitable cropping pattern for a particular area in addition to selection of best agro techniques
for identified LGP.
Methods available
1. Weekly Moisture Adequancy Index (Krishnan and Rao, 1979)
2. Weekly Moisture Availability Period based on FAO model (Higgins and Kassam, 1981)
3. Weekly R/PE ratio (Jeevananda Reddy, 1983)Weekly Moisture Availability Index (Sarkar and
Biswas, 1988)
4. Weekly rainfall Stable period (Sastri, 1996)
Weekly Moisture Adequancy Index (Krishnan and Rao, 1979)
For computing weekly moisture adequacy index, consecutive weeks with above 0.5 ratio
AET/PET was taken in to account for fixing growing period, considering that the crops do not feel
moisture stress under the ratio above 0.5.
Weekly Moisture Availability Period based on FAO model (Higgins and Kassam, 1981)
In this model, the growing period starts when precipitation exceeds 0.5 PET and ends with the
utilization of assumed quantum of stored soil moisture (100 mm) after precipitation falls below PET.
Weekly Moisture Availability Index (Sarkar and Biswas, 1988)
Sarkar and Biswas gave Moisture Availability Index (MAI) on weekly basis
Assured weekly rainfall (mm)
MAI = ----------------------------------------------
Potential Evapo-transpiration (weekly)
Zone MAI Area/Remarks

D <10 weeks <1 week Crop production without irrigation is almost in
speculation
E ≥ 10 weeks ≥1 week Crop production is not very high. However a short/
medium duration crop may be raised.
F ≥ 11 weeks ≥ 4 weeks Medium duration crop may be raised.
G ≥ 14 weeks ≥ 7 weeks A crop of 13-18 weeks duration may be raised once in
two years
H ≥ 18 weeks ≥ 9 weeks A medium duration crop can be raised
I ≥ 20 weeks ≥ 10 weeks A crop can thrive for 4-6 weeks on stored soil moisture
after the termination of second rainfall
J ≥ 24 weeks ≥ 12 weeks Stored moisture is available at the end of rainy season
88
Exercise
3. Work out the LGP for Paiyur by FAO method and give your inference based on the graph
Std. PET R/PE Std. Mean RF PET R/PE
Mean RF
Week (mm) Ratio Week (mm) (mm) Ratio
1 0.3 23.3 27 9.9 29.1
2 1.4 23.9 28 15.5 26.4
3 0.9 24.6 29 17.2 26.8
4 0.0 25.0 30 23.5 25.7
5 0.0 25.3 31 17.9 23.5
6 0.5 27.2 32 13.6 22.4
7 2.2 28.8 33 29.5 23.7
8 4.8 30.3 34 47.2 21.0
9 2.3 18.3 35 39.9 23.6
10 4.1 33.2 36 43.0 21.2
11 5.4 34.4 37 51.0 22.2
12 2.1 36.2 38 50.6 22.5
13 2.9 35.0 39 51.1 18.8
14 6.3 34.1 40 55.4 18.3
15 7.1 34.9 41 41.7 19.2
16 9.8 35.4 42 28.3 18.3
17 8.8 36.8 43 39.0 19.9
18 14.8 33.2 44 32.3 17.9
19 15.2 31.0 45 32.7 17.5
20 17.6 32.5 46 29.8 21.7
21 24.1 29.8 47 17.4 20.3
22 21.1 30.8 48 9.2 21.6
23 20.8 28.3 49 16.2 22.0
24 11.6 30.1 50 8.1 20.9
25 3.4 29.7 51 3.8 22.9
26 5.8 30.3 52 6.0 29.0
89
90
91
Ex.No.14 Date:
WATER BALANCE STUDIES
The water balance is an accounting of the inputs and outputs of water. The water balance of the
horticultural crops can be determined by calculating the input and output of water. The major input of
water is from precipitation and output is evapotranspiration. To understand water balance concept, the
following terms are need to be explained.
Precipitation (P)
Precipitation in the form of rain, snow, sleet, hail, etc. makes the primary supply of water to the
surface. In some very dry locations, supplies of water can be added by dew and fog.
Actual evapotranspiration (AE)
Evaporation is the phase change from a liquid to a gas releasing water away from a wet surface
into the air above. Similarly, transpiration represents a phase change when water is released into the air
by plants. Evapotranspiration is the combination of water released to the atmosphere by evaporation
and transpiration. Actual evapotranspiration is the amount of water delivered to the air from these two
processes.
Potential evapotranspiration (PE)
Potential evapotranspiration is the amount of water that would be evaporated under an optimal
set of conditions, among which is an unlimited supply of water.
Soil moisture storage (ST)
Soil moisture storage refers to the amount of water held in the soil at any particular time. The
amount of water in the soil depends on soil properties like texture and organic matter content. The
maximum amount of water the soil can hold is called the field capacity.
Change in soil moisture storage ( T)
The change in soil moisture storage is the amount of water that is being added to or removed
from what is stored. The change in soil moisture storage falls between 0 and the field capacity.
Deficit (D)
A soil moisture deficit occurs when the demand exceeds that which is actually available. In
other words, deficit occur when potential evapotranspiration exceeds actual Evapotranspiration (PE >
AE).
Surplus (S)
Surplus water occurs when precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration and the soil is at
its field capacity (saturated). That is, we have more water than we actually need to use given the
environmental conditions at a place.
FAO water balance
Frere and Popov (1979) developed the cumulative water balance based on decade / weekly
values of precipitation and potential evapotranpiration (PET). They introduced a water requirement
satisfaction Index (WRSI) which is well correlated with yield.
Water requirement satisfaction Index (WRSI) indicates extend to which the water requirements
of an annual crop have been satisfied cumulatively at any stage of the crop in percentage.
92
Basic formulae can be expressed as follows
Si = Si-1 + Pi - WRi
Where
Si = Water retained in the soil at the end of the given period.
Si-1 = Water retained at the beginning of the given period.
Pi = Precipitation during the given period
WRi = Water requirement of crop during cropping period.
WRi = PETi *KCRi
In which
PETi = Potential evapotranipiration during the given period
KCRi = Crop coefficient during the given period
Inputs of this model are precipitation, potential evapotranpiration, crop coefficient and
available water holding capacity. Outputs of this model are soil moisture storage, water surplus, water
deficit, water requirement satisfaction index.
Methodology
The choice of the method of estimating ET depends mainly on the availability of input data.
Here, the pan evaporation data is used as potential evapotranspiration (PET) in this model. The actual
evapotranspiration (AET) has been calculated based on the following formula
ET crop = PET x Kc
Where,
Kc is a crop coefficient (eg. sorghum)
Kc values for different phonological stages of sorghum crop were taken from Doorenbos et al.
(1979). The water balance is calculated on a weekly basis, using the formula
ASMw = ASMw-1+ERw+ET crop
Where,
ASM=Available soil moisture (mm)
ER=Efficient rainfall and
W=is the running index of the week
If ASM in a given week is negative, the plant suffers a water deficit. Finally, the Water
Requirement Satisfaction Index (WRSI) (Yr) is determined as the running sum of the weekly water
deficits that are expressed as a percentage of the total crop water requirement of the entire crop season
(TWR).
WRSI i,w = [WRSI i, w-1 + (ASM w/TWR) ]x100
The WRSI is initially 100% and remains at this value until there is a water deficit, then it is
decreased by the percentage deficit as a fraction of the seasonal water requirement.
The Vertisols of the Coimbatore has a soil depth ranging from 25 to 119 cm with a water
holding capacity of 100mm/depth. The total duration of the crop is 14 weeks.
93
Example :Results of weekly water balance for sorghum at Coimbatore district.
COIMABORE Tomato 1990 AWHC- 100.0MM
Week PPT PET KCR WR WU PPT-WR SMR SPL DEF WRSI
38 14.80 36.60 0.30 10.98 10.98 3.82 3.82 0.00 0.00 100
39 17.00 35.70 0.40 14.28 14.28 2.72 6.54 0.00 0.00 100
40 24.70 34.30 0.50 17.15 17.15 7.55 14.09 0.00 0.00 100
41 29.90 34.00 0.60 20.40 20.40 9.50 23.59 0.00 0.00 100
42 39.80 33.70 0.75 25.28 25.28 14.52 38.11 0.00 0.00 100
43 42.50 34.40 0.90 30.96 30.96 11.54 49.65 0.00 0.00 100
44 42.20 29.60 1.00 29.60 29.60 12.60 62.25 0.00 0.00 100
45 37.80 27.90 1.10 30.69 30.69 7.11 69.36 0.00 0.00 100
46 30.40 25.90 1.10 28.49 28.49 1.91 71.27 0.00 0.00 100
47 21.90 28.20 1.10 31.02 31.02 -9.12 62.15 0.00 0.00 100
48 17.00 27.60 1.00 27.60 27.60 -10.60 51.55 0.00 0.00 100
49 15.70 29.60 0.75 22.20 22.20 -9.50 45.05 0.00 0.00 100
50 10.80 26.60 0.50 13.30 13.30 -6.50 42.55 0.00 0.00 100
344.5 301.9 301.9 -2.50 0.00 0.00 100
Where,
PPT = Precipitation (mm)
PET = Potential evapotranspiration (mm)
KCR = Crop coefficient values
WR = Water requirement in mm
WU = Water use (mm)
SMR = Soil moisture recharge (mm)
SPL = Surplus (mm)
DEF = Deficit (mm)
WRSI = Water Requirement Satisfaction Index
94
Exercise
1. Work out the water requirement satisfaction index for the Tomato and brinjal crop in the below
tables.
Water balance tomato at Oddanchattaram region sown on 35 standard week

35 6.40 30.00 0.73
36 4.70 28.20 0.73
37 10.50 25.90 0.73
38 14.80 26.70 0.73
39 17.0 26.60 0.73
40 24.70 25.60 0.73
41 29.90 26.30 1.20
42 39.80 26.30 1.20
43 42.50 22.20 1.20
44 42.20 20.90 1.20
45 37.80 19.40 0.65
46 30.40 24.30 0.65
47 21.90 24.00 0.65
Water balance of brinjal at Oddachattaram region sown on 37 standard week

37 10.50 25.90 0.73
38 14.80 26.70 0.73
39 17.00 26.60 0.73
40 24.70 25.60 0.73
41 29.90 26.30 0.73
42 39.80 26.30 0.73
43 42.50 22.20 1.05
44 42.20 20.90 1.05
45 37.80 19.40 1.05
46 30.40 24.30 0.85
47 21.90 24.00 0.85
48 17.00 22.20 0.85
95
96
97
Ex.No.15 Date:
IDENTIFICATION OF EFFICIENT CROPPING ZONE - RYI, RSI
The concept of delineating efficient cropping zone for particular crop could be achieved through
modern scientific tools. The district and state data related to area, production and productivity of maize
and total cultivable area were collected. The collected data were used to compute Relative Yield Index
(RYI) and Relative Spread Index (RSI) as given by Kanwar (1972). For each year the RSI and RYI
were calculated separately and finally mean of four years was arrived to fix up the efficient cropping
zone.
The following guidelines were taken for computation and interpretation of results obtained.
1. Relative Spread Index (RSI)
Area of the particular crop expressed as percentage of total cultivable area
in the district
RSI= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Area of that crop expressed as percentage of total cultivable area in the state
2. Relative Yield Index (RYI)

Mean yield of a particular crop in a district
RYI= --------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Mean yield of the crop in the state
By computing both the indices, four classes of cropping zones have been identified as follows.
Table 1. Criteria for efficient cropping zone
Sl. No. RSI RYI Cropping zone
Most Efficient Cropping Zone (MECZ) with maximum
1. > 100 (High) > 100 (High)
yield of crop
Efficient Cropping Zone (ECZ), the constraint has to be
2. > 100 (High) < 100 (Low)
identified
3. < 100 (Low) > 100 (High) Not Efficient Cropping Zone (NECZ)
4. < 100 (Low) < 100 (Low) Not Efficient Cropping Zone (NECZ)
Table2. Total cultivable area, tomato cultivated area and average yield of Tomato in various
districts of Tamil Nadu.
Total cultivable area Tomato area
District Name Yield (kg/ha)
(ha.) (ha.)
Chennai 0 0
Kancheepuram 161441 1 13091
98
Thiruvallur 135342 5 13091
Cuddalore 273939 7 13091
Villupuram 355958 10 13091
Vellore 222211 888 8938
Thiruvannamalai 259597 111 13091
Salem 216515 2989 6855
Namakkal 207011 359 13091
Dharmapuri 160070 3199 21035
Krishnagiri 195071 4744 14055
Coimbatore 331932 3033 14043
Erode 247161 295 25182
Tiruchirapalli 158213 235 13091
Karur 89433 119 13091
Perambalur 220493 64 13091
Pudukottai 137472 5 13091
Thanjavur 194004 0 0
Thiruvarur 162187 0 0
Nagapattinam 197874 0 0
Madurai 108434 277 7425
Theni 114814 2432 11456
Dindugal 242272 2467 12280
Ramanathapuram 190268 2 13091
Virudhunagar 142412 156 13091
Sivagangai 111566 13 13091
Tirunelveli 148127 509 12602
Thoothukudi 165998 135 13091
The Nilgiris 78408 0 0
Kanyakumari 87804 7 13091
State 5316027 23792 13091
Example : Solution for Salem district

Relative Spread Index (RSI)
Area of the crop expressed as percentage total cultivable area of district
RSI = Crop (Tomato) cultivated area of a x 100

district
99
Total cultivable area of a district
2989
For Salem = ------------X100 =1.38%
216515
Area of the crop expressed as percentage total cultivable area of state
Crop (Tomato) cultivated area of state

=------------------------------------------------ X100
Total cultivable area of state
23792
= ----------------X100 = 0.44%
5316027
1.38
RSI (Salem) = ------------X100 = 313.6%
0.44
Relative Yield Index (RYI)

6855
RYI (Salem) = -------------- X100 = 52.36%
-
13091
Exercise
1. Find out the efficient cropping zone for Toamto in Tamil Nadu state with details given in
Table 2.
2. Identify the efficient cropping zone for onion in Tamil Nadu using the collected data
100
101
102
103
Ex.No.16 Date:
MAPPING OF AGROCLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA AND TAMIL NADU AND ITS

CHARACTERIZATION
The Planning Commission, as a result of mid-term appraisal of the planning targets of VII plan
(1985-1990), divided the country into 15 broad agro climatic zones based on physiography and climate.
India: Based on Agro climatic variation, India is divided into the following 15 regions.
1. Western Himalayan Region
2. Eastern Himalayan Region
3. Lower Gangetic Plains Region
4. Middle Gangetic Plains Region
5. Upper Gangetic Plains Region
6. Trans-Gangetic Plains Region
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Region
8. Central Plateau and Hills Region
9. Western Plateau and Hills Region
10. Southern Plateau and Hills Region
11. East Coast Plains and Hills Region
12. West Coast Plains and Ghats Region
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills Region
14. Western Dry Region
15. The Islands Region
1) Western Himalayan region
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Utranchal and up hills. It is divided into
three subzones. Rainfall 1650 - 2000 mm. Cold arid to humid climate. Soils are generally silty loam.
Wheat, maize, rice, potatoes are the major crops. Low cropping intensity, Productivity level is lower
than all India level.
2) Eastern Himalayan region
Assam, Sikkim, Darjeeling hills, North-eastern states and Jalpaiguri and Coochibhihar districts
of West Bengal, Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and some parts of Bihar
and comprises of five subzones. Rainfall 1840 - 3528 mm. Per humid to humid climate. Soils are
alluvial, red sandy, brown hill soils. Rice, maize, jute, rapeseed are the important crops. High potential
area for agriculture, forestry and horticulture.
3) Lower Gangetic plains
West Bengal except the two districts in the previous region divided into four subzones.
Rainfall 1302 - 1607 mm. Moist sub humid to dry sub humid. Soils are red and yellow deltaic
alluvium and red loamy. Rice, jute, wheat, rape -seed is the major crops. Twelve per cent of the
country's rice production is from this region. Ground water utilization is more than 35 per cent.
Frequent flood destroys the crop.
4) Middle Gangetic plains
Twelve districts of Utter Pradesh and twenty-seven districts of Bihar. Rainfall 1211 - 1470
mm. Moist sub humid to dry sub humid. Soil is alluvial soil. Rice, wheat and maize, sugarcane are
104
the major crops. Cropping intensity 142% (India’s National C.I. at 127%). Rainfed area constitutes 61
per cent.
5) Upper Gangetic plains
Thirty-two districts of Utter Pradesh divided into three sub zones. Rainfall 721 - 979 mm. Dry
sub humid to semiarid. Alluvial soil dominates. Wheat, rice, sugarcane and maize are major crops.
Canal and tube well irrigation is common. Good ground water potential. Cropping intensity 144%.
Scope for horticulture.
6) Trans-Gangetic plains
Punjab, Haryana, Shewalik region, Delhi, Chandigarh, Srinagar and parts of Rajasthan (Thar
region). Rainfall 360 - 890 mm. Extreme arid to dry sub humid climate. Alluvial, calcareous and
desert soils. Wheat, maize, rice and sugarcane are the important crops. This region is having highest
net grown area. Highest ground water utilization and highest cropping intensity.
7) Eastern plateau and hills
Eastern hilly areas of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Wainganga, Chottanagpur plateau, Plateaus and
hilly regions of West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and comprises of five subzones. Rainfall 1271 - 1436 mm.
Moist sub humid to dry sub humid. Red sandy shallow to medium soil. Rice, wheat, ragi, and maize
are the major crops. Land is having 1 - 10% slopes. Irrigation through tank and tube wells.
8) Central plateau and hills
Parts of Madhya Pradesh (46 districts), Utter Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan. It is
divided into fourteen subzones. Rainfall 490 - 1570 mm. Semi-arid to dry sub humid. Mixed red and
black, red and yellow and medium black soils and alluvial soils. Wheat, gram, jowar, bajra and rice are
the major crops. Nearly one third of total area is not available for cultivation. Irrigation and cropping
intensity very low.
9) Western plateau and hills
Major parts of Maharashtra, major parts of Madhya Pradesh and one district of Rajasthan,
further divided into four subzones. Rainfall 602 to 1040 mm. Semi-arid climate. Medium deep black
soils. Net sown area is 65%. Forest occupies 11%. Sorghum, bajra, cotton and wheat are the major
crops. Fifty per cent of country's sorghum production is from this region. Known for best quality of
orange, grapes and bananas.
10) Southern plateau and hills
Thirty-five districts of Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Rainfall 677 to 1001 mm.
Semi-arid climate. Medium black, deep black, red sandy, red loamy soils. Sorghum, bajra, ragi,
groundnut, rice and pulses are the major crops. Eighty one per cent of the area is under rainfed
farming. Low cropping intensity (111.00%).
11) East coast plain and hills
Orissa coast, North coast of Andra Pradesh, East coast of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry.
Rainfall 780 to 1287 mm. Semi-arid to sub humid climate. Soil type is deltaic alluvium, coastal
alluvium and red loam. Rice, groundnut, ragi, bajra, sorghum are the important crops. Twenty three
per cent of the Indian rice production is from this region. India's 17% groundnut production is from
this region. Rainfed area accounts for 17%. Irrigation through canals and tank. Roughly 40% marine
potential of AP and 46% marine potential of Tamil Nadu are seen in this area.
12) West coast plains and Ghats

105
West Coast of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Rainfall 2226 to 3640
mm. Dry sub humid to per humid climate. Soil type is lateritic, red loam and coastal alluvium. Rice,
ragi, groundnut, tapioca are the important crops. This region has variety of soils, rainfall and cropping
pattern. There is scope for rainwater management, minor irrigation development, and crop
diversification and fisheries development.
13) Gujarat plains and hills
Nineteen districts of Gujarat further divided into seven subzones. Rainfall 340 to 1793 mm.
Arid to dry sub humid climate. Deep to medium black soils and coastal alluvium soils. Rice
groundnut, cotton, maize, bajra, tobacco and wheat are the major crops. Rainfed area constitutes 78%.
Important oil seed zone.
14) Western dry region
Nine districts of Rajasthan, Rainfall is about 395 mm. Arid to extremely arid climate. Soils
are mainly desert soil and grey brown soils. Bajra, gram, wheat, and rapeseed are the important crops.
Erratic rainfall, high evapotranspiration and scanty vegetation. Ground water is in deep and brackish.
Famine and drought are common. Cropping intensity is low (105%). Increasing the tree crop is
necessary to check desertification and provide fodder to livestock.
15) Islands regions
Island territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. Rainfall 3000mm.
humid climate. Medium to very deep red loamy soils including marine alluvium soils. High
calcareous and sandy soils in Lakshadweep. Coconut is the major crop. Largely forest zones
with undulated lands. Rainfall is received in 8-9 months.
Fig.1. Agro-climatic zones of India (Planning Fig.2. Agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu
Commission)
Agro climatic zones of Tamil Nadu
106
The state is divided into seven Agroclimatic zones.
Zone No. Zone District Taluk
1 North 1. Chennai Fort - Tondiarpet, Purasawaham - Perambur, Egmore -
Eastern Zone Nungambakkam, Mambolam - Guindy, Mylapore -
Trplicane
2. Kancheepuram Sriperumpudhur, Kanchipuram, Tambaram,
Chengleput, Uthiramerur, Thirukkalukundam,
Maduranthagam, Cheyyur
3. Tiruvallur Gummidipoondi, Ponneri, Thiruthani, Uthukkottai,
Ambathur, Poonamallee, Tiruvallur, Pallipattu
4. Vellore Gudiyatham, Katpadi, Walazpet, Arakkonam, Arcot,
Vellore, Vaniyambadi, Tirupathur
5. Villipuram Gingee, Thidivannam, Vannur, Villupuram,
Thirukolur, Sankarapuram, Kallakurichy, Ulundurpet,
6. Cheyyar, Arani, Polur, Thiruvannamalai, Chengam,
Thiruvannamalai Vandavasi
7. Cuddalore Cuddalore, Panruti, Vridhachalam, Thittagudi
8. Perambalur Ariyalur
II North 1. Dharmapuri Palacode, Pennagaram, Dharmapuri, Harur,
Western (Excluding hilly Pappirettipatti
Zone area)
2. Krishnagiri Hossur, Krishnagiri, Denkanikottah, Pochampalli,
Uathangarai
3. Salem Mettur, Omalur, Edappadi, Sangagiri, Salem,
Vazhaipadi, Attur, Gangavalli,
4. Namakkal Rasipuram, Nmaakkal, Paramathivelur
5. Perambalur Perambalur
III Western 1. Erode Sathyamangalam, Bhavani, Gobichettipalayam,
Zone Perundurai, Erode, Kangayam, Dharapuram
2. Coimbatore Mettupalayam, Avinashi, Coimbatore North,
Coimbatore South, Palladam, Pollachi, Udumalpet,
Thiruppur
3. Namakkal Thiruchengode
4. Karur Karur
5. Dindigul Vedasanthur
6. Theni Boodinayakkanur, Uthamapalayam
IV Cauvery 1. Thnajavur Thiruvadaimaruthur, Kumbakonam, Papanasam,
Delta Zone Thuraiyuru, Thnajavur, Orathnadu, Pattukottai,
Peraurani
2. Nagapattinam Sirkali, Mayiladuthurai, Tharangambadi,
Nagapattinam, Kelvalur, Thirukkuvalai, Vedaraniyam,
3. Thiruvarur Nannilam, Kodavasal, Valangaiman, Needamangalam,
Thiruvarur, Mannargudi, Thiruthuraipoondi
4. Peramabalur Vappanthattai, Kunnam, Sendurai, Udayanpalayam
5. Trichy Thiruvaiyaru, Musiri, Thottyam, Manachanallur,
Lalgudi, Trichyrapalli, Srirangam,
6. Karur Aravakurichi, Krishnanarayanpuram, Kulithalai
7. Pudukottai Aranthangi, Manalmelkurichi,
8. Cuddalore Chidambaram, Kattumannarkoil
V Southern 1. Trichy Manapparai
Zone 2. Pudukottai Gandarvakottai, Kulathur, Illuppur, Pudukottai,
107
Thirumayam, Avudaiyarkoil
3. Madurai Melur, Madurai North, Madurai South, Vadipatti,
Usilampattai, Thirumangalam, Peraiyur
4. Dindigul Ottanchadram, Dindigul, Natham, Nilakkottai
5. Theni Andipatti, Theni
6.Virudunagar Kariyappatti, Thiruchuli, Aruppukottai, Virudunagar,
Sathur, Sivakasi, Srivilliputhur, Rajapalayam
7. Sivaganga Thirupathur, Karaikudi, Devakottai, Sivagangai,
Illayankudi, Manamadurai
8. Thiruvadanai, Paramakudi, Ramanathapuram,
Ramanathapuram Rameshwaram, Kadaladi, Muthukulathur, Kamuthi
9. Thoothukudi Vilathikulam, Ettayapuram, Kovilpatti, Ottapidaram,
Thoothukudi, Srivaikuntam, Tiruchendur, Sattankulam
10. Tirunelveli Sivagiri, Sankarankovil, Tenkasi, Shencottah,
Veerakeralampudur, Alangulam, Tirunelveli,
Ambasamudram, Palayamkottai, Nanguneri,
Radhapuram
VI High 1. Kanyakumari Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram
Rainfall
Zone
VII Hilly Zone 1. Nilgiris Panthalur, Gudalur, Udagamandalam, Kundah,
Coonoor, Kothagiri
2. Nammakkal Kollimalai
3. Salem Elagiri, Yerkkadu
4. Coimbatore Valparai - Anamalai
5. Dindigul Palani, Kodaikanal
6. Madurai Periyakulam
Exercise
1. Draw a map of Tamil Nadu agro climatic zones and list out the zones with their rainfall and
length of growing periods.
2. Draw a map of Indian agro climatic zones
108
109
110

AGR 102 Introductory Agro-Meteorology - Climate Change (1-1)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AGR 102 Introductory Agro-Meteorology - Climate Change (1-1)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AGR 102 Introductory Agro-meteorology & Climate Change (1 + 1)

PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

COIMBATORE - 641 003

AGR 102 INTRODUCTORY AGRO-METEOROLOGY & CLIMATE CHANGE (1 +1)

External examiner Course Teacher

Ex.N Date of Remark

10 Drawing Synoptic charts for understanding weather.

11 Preparation of crop weather calendars and forecast

15 Identification of efficient cropping zone- RYI, RSI

16 Mapping of agro climatic Zones of India and Tamil

SITE SELECTION AND LAYOUT FOR AGROMET OBSERVATORY - CALCULATION OF

Observatory is a place where a number of instruments are assembled to record various

Climatological observatory Synoptic observatory

Meteorological observatory Agro-meteorological observatory

Principal Ordinary Auxiliary Special purpose

Latitude: Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn parallel

Site selection for Agromet observatory

Finding out True north by using magnetic campus

12m 12m 12m

Optional instruments like lysimeter, potentiometer, micro voltmeter, anemometer at different

Layout of ordinary observatory N

Indian Standard Time (IST)

LMT =IST + 4(L1-L2)

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION (PYRANOMETERS), SUNSHINE HOURS

MEASUREMENT OF AIR AND SOIL TEMPERATURE - GRASS MINIMUM

5. Dry bulb thermometer

6. Wet bulb thermometer

Operation and measurement

Principle: Differential expansion of metals for the change in temperature.

Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature

GDD= [(Tmax + Tmin)/2] - Tbase (Minimum threshold temperature)

. HUMIDITY MEASUREMENTS - USE OF WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETERS -

1. A bunch of human hair or horse hair is used

Operation and measurement

The anemometers used in most of the observatories are described below

Operation and measurement

Beaufort scale of wind speed

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - FORTIN’S BAROMETER -

One atmospheric pressure = 29.92 inches or 76 cm or 760 mm of Hg

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL - ORDINARY AND SELF RECORDING RAIN GAUGES -

5. Natural siphoning self recording rain gauge

Operation and measurement

Units of measurements: millimetres or centimetres.

MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION - OPEN PAN EVAPORIMETER - APPLICATION

1. Potato 90 20 0.58 25 25 1.15 20 0.75

2. Onion 110 25 0.61 25 35 1.05 25 0.80

3. Tomato 90 20 0.73 20 30 1.20 20 0.65

4. Cauliflower 70 15 0.77 20 20 1.01 15 0.90

5. Cabbage 90 20 0.75 30 20 1.05 20 0.90

7. Brinjal 80 15 0.73 25 20 1.05 20 0.85

Typical Kc for different types of full grown crops

Growing Degree Day (GDD)

PROBABILITY ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL FOR CROP PLANNING

Rainfall Analysis Classifications

. DRAWING SYNOPTIC CHARTS FOR UNDERSTANDING WEATHER

PREPARATION OF CROP WEATHER CALENDERS AND FORECASTBASED AGRO

Preparation of Pest Weather Calendar and Pest Forewarning

WEATHER DATA AT ANAIMALAI, COIMBATORE DISTRICT

Temperature (oC) Relative

Maximum temperature 0.480** 0.420** -0.037

Minimum temperature -0.485** -0.455** 0.219

Relative humidity (%) -0.234 -0.282 0.539**

Maximum temperature 0.480 0.420 -0.037

Minimum temperature -0.485 -0.455 0.219