GEN BIO REVIEWER (MIDTERMS) and a close friend of Schleiden, stated

that all animal tissues are composed of

In 1665, English physicist Robert Hooke used of the cells, too.
first light microscope to look at thin slices of plant
tissues.

In 1858, Rudolf Virchow concluded that all

cells come from pre-existing cells.
One of these, a slice of cork, especially caught his
eye. Under the microscope, cork seemed to be made
of thousands of tiny
chambers.

Hooke called this chambers ― Cells

because they reminded him of a
monastery‘s tiny rooms, which were
also known as cells.
Until 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek published his
observations on tiny living organisms which he named
animalcules.
• All living organisms are made up of one or many
cells.
• The cells are the building block of life just as atoms
are the basic building blocks of all matter.
• Each cell contains materials that carry out basic life
processes.

• Cell structures can only be observed under high

magnification electron microscope and are separated
internally into numerous membranous compartments
called organelles (little organs).

believed that Leeuwenhoekwas the first to observe

under his microscope the structure of a red
blood cell of different animals as well as a sperm cell.

leading botanists in his time, Robert Brown in 1831

was able to compare diverse kinds of plant specimens
under the microscope.

CELL STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS

CELL MEMBRANE
Separates cell from external environment; controls
passage of organic molecules, ions,water, oxygen
and wastes into and out of the cell
Acts as barrier, made out of lipids

German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838)

concluded that all plant parts are made of cells.

Theodor Schwann (1839), also a botanist

 A membrane-bound cell organelles that generate
most of the chemical energy needed to power the
cell's biochemical reactions.
Biochemical energy (ATP)

CYTOPLASM
The gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell.
Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic
reactions; medium in which organelles are found
Holds the organelles together. PEROXISOMES
Are organelles that sequester diverse oxidative
reactions and play important roles in metabolism,
reactive oxygen species detoxification, and signaling.

NUCLEOLUS
An area inside the nucleus of a cell that is
made up of RNA and proteins and is where
ribosomes are made.
VESICLES
Help transport materials that an organism needs to
survive and recycle waste materials. They can also
absorb and destroy toxic substances and pathogens
to prevent cell damage and infection.
Double layer phospholipids
NUCLEUS
Cell organelle that houses DNA and
directs synthesis of ribosomes and
Proteins.
Made out of RNA, holds the DNA
VACUOLES
A membrane-bound cell organelle. In animal cells,
vacuoles are generally small and help sequester
waste products. In plant cells, vacuoles help maintain
water balance.
Turgor pressure
RIBOSOMES
A ribosome is an intercellular structure made of both
RNA and protein, and it is the site of protein synthesis
in the cell.
Protein factory

CENTROSOME (one)
A cellular structure involved in the process of cell
division. Before cell division, the centrosome
duplicates and then, as division begins, the two
centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.

MITOCHONDRIA
CENTRIOLES (two centrosomes)

CELL WALL
A rigid nonliving permeable wall that surrounds the
plasma membrane and encloses and supports the
cells of most plants, bacteria, fungi, and algae
Protective layer
LYSOSOME
A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell
organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
Lysosomes are involved with various cell
processes. They break down excess or worn-out cell
parts. They may be used to destroy invading viruses
and bacteria.
Responsible for digesting
CHLOROPLAST
An organelle within the cells of plants and certain
algae that is the site of photosynthesis.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(Rough vs Smooth)
A large, dynamic structure that serves many roles in
the cell including calcium storage, protein synthesis
and lipid metabolism.
GOLGI APPARATUS
A cell organelle that helps process and package
proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins
destined to be
exported from the cell.
CYTOSKELETON
Maintains cell‘s shape, secure organelles on
specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to
move within the cell, and
enables unicellular organisms to move
Independently.
FLAGELLA
A flagellum is primarily a motility
organelle that enables movement
and chemotaxis.
movement
CILIA
Cilia are short, hair like appendages
extending from the surface of a living cell
Helps the molecules move smoothly
PLASMODESMA
Plasmodesma is a microscopic cytoplasmic
canal that passes through plant-cell walls and allows
direct communication of
molecules between two adjacent cells.
 - Ecosystem
- Biosphere
PROKARYOTES TISSUE
PRO- before it consists of a group of structurally and functionally
KARYO- nucleus similar cells and their intercellular material.

- Archaea PLANT TISSUE

- Bacteria • Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with tissue
systems made of various cell types that carry out
SHAPES: specific functions.
Cocci (round
Bacilli (rod shaped) • Plant tissues are composed of cells that are similar
Spirillia (helical) and perform a specific function.

• Together, tissue types combine to form organs.

EUKARYOTES: Each organ itself is also specific for a particular
EU- true function.
KARYO- nucleus
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE (non-permanent)
- Fungi - Can undergo mitosis
- Animals - Can found in meristems
- Protists
- Plants NON-MERISTEMATIC TISSUE (permanent)
- Cannot undergo mitosis
Contains DNA enclosed by a nuclear envelope.
Unicellular eukaryotes known as protozoa.
All other eukaryotes are multicellular GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM

organisms such as plants, animals, and fungi is located at the center of stems and middle of leaves
and makes up the bulk of plant that serves as food
Life on Earth exhibits organization. storage and site of photosynthesis.
- atom
- molecule PARENCHYMA
- Macromolecule - Site of photosynthesis
- Organelle
- Cell COLLENCHYMA
- Tissue - Structure
- Organ - “bone”
- Organ system
- Organism SCLERENCHYMA
- Population - Structure, holds plant
- Community - “bone”
 GAP JUNCTION
VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM - Known as communicating junctions
- They distribute water and nutrients on all
parts of the plant.
- “PIPELINE”

XYLEM
- transports water and minerals from the roots
to different parts of the plant.

PHLOEM
- transports organic compounds such as
sugars from the site of photosynthesis to rest
of the plant.

DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM

- Covering and protects the exposed surface
of the plant
MAIN FUNCTION: TIGHT JUNCTION
- Transpiration - It acts as barriers that regulate the
- Gas exchange movement of water and solutes between
- Defense epithelial layers.
- Prevents the leakage of ECF (Extracellular
STOMATA Fluid, body fluid that is not
- Release of oxygen and carbon dioxide contained in cells)

CELL TYPES AND MODIFICATION

1. APICAL MODIFICATION
- Apical surface of the cell.
- Occurs at the part part of the cell
-

2. LATERAL MODIFICATION
- Found on the basal surface of the cell.
- Happens at the sides of the cell.

ADHERING JUNCTION
- anchors junction on the lateral surface of the
cell.
- It is similar to the anchoring junction of the
basal surface of the cell.
 • Cuboidal—for secretion

• Simple columnar—brick-shaped cells; for secretion

and active absorption

• Simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of

material through diffusion

• Stratified squamous—multilayered and

regenerates quickly; for protection

• Pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells;

may just look stacked because of varying height; for
lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a
3. BASAL MODIFICATION type of cell modification that sweeps the mucus).
- found on the basal surface of the cell.
- occurs at the bottom part of the cell.
- basal folding and hemidesmosomes are the
best examples of this type of modification.

Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes
- Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Extracellular matrix(ECM)
- diverse group of tissues that serve various
- Primarily composed of keratin, integrins and
binding and supportive functions.
cadherins.
- composed of relatively few cells, a great
many extracellular fibers, and a ground
substance (also called matrix), in which the
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
fibers are embedded.
- commonly seen outside the body as
- Consists of cells scattered within an
coverings or as linings of organs and
extracellular matrix of their own secretions.
cavities.
BLOOD — made up of plasma
(i.e., liquid extracellular matrix);
contains water, salts, and
dissolved proteins;
erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RED BLOOD CELL),
leukocytes for defense
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can
(WHITE BLOOD CELL), and PLATELETS for blood
have distinct arrangements:
Clotting, coagulation.

BONE — mineralized connective tissue made by
bone-forming cells called
LIGAMENTS- bone to bone
TENDONS- muscle to bone
MUSCLE TISSUE
- composed of long cells called muscle fibers
that allow the body to move voluntary or
involuntary.
• SKELETAL—striated; voluntary movements
• CARDIAC—striated with intercalated disk for
synchronized heart contraction; involuntary
• SMOOTH—not striated; involuntary
NERVOUS TISSUE
- composed of nerve cells called neurons and
glial cells that function as support cells.
- Two basic types of cells in nervous tissue
are neurons (nerve), the basic functional unit
of the nervous system, and neuroglia, a
variety of non-nervous cells that insulate
neuron membranes and serve various
supportive functions.
FORMATION OF CHROMOSOMES:
- Tangled DNA
- Histones
- Nucleosome (48 histones)
- Spiral
- Solenoid
- Chromatids
- Chromosome
ALWAYS HAVE A CHECKPOINT
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle
where stop‘ and go-ahead‘ signals can regulate the
cell cycle.
Interphase—is the growth period in the cell cycle.
G1 (restriction, preparatory stage)
(G0- if there's no nutrients)
SYNTHESIS- duplication of DNA
G2- ensures that DNA replication is completed
MITOSIS
- is nuclear division; the process by which the
nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei.
Early Prophase- centrioles move at the side of the
cell.
Prometaphase- nucleus breaks apart
Late Prophase- appearance of spindle fibers
Metaphase- alignment at the middle
Anaphase- separation of chromatids
Telophase- spindle fibers detached
Cytokinesis- cleavage furrow
CANCER
- Uncontrolled cell division (mitosis)
- Is caused by changes (mutations) to the
DNA within cells.
APOPTOSIS- programmed cell death
CANCER GENES
PROTO-ONCOGENE
- On switch
ONCOGENE
- Mutated gene that has the potential to cause
cancer
P53 GENE
- Main tumor processor gene
- Off switch
CARCINOMAS
- Begins in the skin or the tissue that
covers the surface of internal organ and
glands
- Usually form solid tumors
- Prostate cancer
- Breast cancer
- Lung cancer

SARCOMAS
- Begins in the tissues that support and
connect the body.
- Can develop in fat, muscles, nerves,
tendons, joints, blood vessels. Lymph
vessels, cartilage, or bone
- Liposarcoma
- Angiosarcoma
- Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans
GAMETOGENESIS- The production of sperm and
eggs, takes place through the process of meiosis.
- The production of sperm is called
spermatogenesis and the production of eggs
is called oogenesis.
EGG- ovary
SPERM- seminiferous tubules
Nondisjunction - is the failure of the chromosomes
to separate, which produces daughter cells with
abnormal numbers of chromosomes.

Aneuploidy - a condition of
LEUKEMIAS having missing or extra
- Cancer of the blood chromosomes.

LYMPHOMAS TURNER SYNDROME

- Begins in the lymphatic system - X
- Sex chromosome
ang problem
MEIOSIS
PROPHASE KLINEFELTER SYNDROME
- Identical to Prophase in mitosis. - XXY
FIVE SUBSTAGES - Appearance of a
woman

METAFEMALE
- Triple x

JACOB’S SYNDROME
- Criminal’s syndrome
- XYY

AUTOSOMAL ABERRATION
DOWN SYNDROME
- Trisomy 21
- Extra chromosome on 21
- Very aggressive
- Low intellectual capacity

TRISOMY 18
- Edward’s syndrome
- Nagging 3 sa 18
-Metaphase- alignment at the middle - Speech defect
Anaphase- separation of chromatids - Paralyzed
Telophase- spindle fibers detached
Cytokinesis- cleavage furrow TRISOMY 13
- Patau syndrome
PMAT II (same as PMAT I, without 5 substages of - Intellectual disability
prophase) - Physical abnormalities
CELL MEMBRANE
LIPIDS
- Amphipathic (hydrophobic head and
hydrophilic tails)

MICELLE- monolayer
VESICLE (liposomes)- bilayer

Sonication – involves the bombarding of solution with

sound waves.

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

- It is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids,
with their hydrophobic, fatty acid tails in
contact with each other.
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
The Fluidity of the membrane is due to;
1. Temperature, the configuration of the unsaturated
fatty acid tails (some kinked or form a sharp twist by
double bonds).
2. The presence of cholesterol embedded in the
membrane; and, prevent tight packing
3. The mosaic nature of the proteins and protein-
carbohydrate combinations, which are not firmly fixed
in place.
GLYCOPROTEIN- made out of carbohydrates,
protein
GLYCOLIPIDS- made out of carbohydrates, lipids
- Plasma membranes lack symmetry: the
membrane's exterior is not identical to its
interior.
- Intrinsic proteins penetrate and bind tightly to
the lipid bilayer, which is made up largely of
phospholipids and cholesterol and which
typically is between 4 and 10 nanometers in
thickness.
- Extrinsic proteins are loosely bound to the
hydrophilic (polar) surfaces, which face the
watery medium both inside and outside the
cell. Some intrinsic proteins present sugar
side chains on the cell's outer surface.

1. LACK SYMMETRY
2. CARBOHYDRATE
3. AMPHIPHATIC

CELL SIGNALING
Among the most sophisticated functions of the plasma
membrane is its ability to transmit signals via complex
proteins.
Receptors are proteins either inside a cell or on its
surface, which receive a signal.
It comes in many types, but they can be divided into
two categories: intracellular receptors, which are
found inside of the cell and cell surface receptors,
which are found in the plasma membrane.
ACTIVE- requires energy
PASSIVE- does not require energy
DIFFUSION
- Natural flow
- High to low
• Concentration gradient - is the difference in
concentration between the two regions
.OSMOSIS
- Movement of water
Isotonic: Water inside the cell equals the water
outside the cell and equal amounts of water move in
and out of the cell.
: Hypotonic: Water outside the cell is greater than
that inside the cell, water moves into the cell, may
cause cell to burst (lysis)
Hypertonic: Water inside the cell is greater than
outside. Water moves out of the cell, may cause the
cell to shrink (plasmolysis)
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• The process of moving substances against
their concentration Gradients.
• Requires Energy.
3 TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS:
Pinocytosis: The intake of a small droplet of
extracellular fluid. This occurs in nearly all cell types.
• Phagocytosis: The intake of a large droplet of
extracellular fluid. This occurs in specialized cells.
• Receptor-assisted endocytosis: The intake of
specific molecules that attach to special proteins in
the cell membrane. These proteins are uniquely
shaped to fit the shape of a specific molecule.
Catalyst - a substance that speeds up a chemical
reaction without being changed.
Enzyme – a biological catalyst (usually a protein)
Substrate - the reactant molecule that an enzyme
works on.
Active Site - the part of the enzyme where the
substrate binds
.Enzyme-substrate complex - formed when the
substrate molecule collides with the active site of its
enzyme.
ENZYMES
- • Enzymes are protein macromolecules.
- They have a defined amino acid sequence,
and are typically 100- 500 amino acids long
- They have defined a 3d structure.
- Enzymes are "specific." Each type of
enzyme typically only reacts with one, or a
couple, of substrates.
- Enzymes are reusable. Enzymes are not
reactants and are not used up during the
reaction.
• Oxidoreductase - catalyze redox reactions;
dehydrogenases, oxidases, peroxidases,
reductases.
• Transferases - catalyze group transfer reactions;
often require coenzymes
.• Hydrolases - catalyze hydrolysis reactions.
• Lyases - lysis of substrate; produce contains double
bond.
• Isomerases - catalyze structural changes;
isomerization.
 • Ligases - ligation or joining of two substrates with
input of energy, usually from ATP hydrolysis;
often called synthetases or synthases.
enzyme‘s active site and compete with
substrate
Noncompetitive inhibitors : attach to the
enzyme at an allosteric site, which is a site
other than the active site distort the tertiary
protein structure and alter the shape of the
active site.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME

Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety
of factors, such as temperature, pH,
concentrations and inhibitors.

TEMPERATURE
• Raising temperature generally speeds up a
reaction, and lowering temperature slows
down a reaction.
• However, extreme high temperatures can
cause an enzyme to lose its shape
(denature) and stop working.

POWER OF HYDROGEN
• Even small pH changes can alter the
electrical charges on various chemical
groups in enzyme molecules, thereby
altering the enzyme‘s ability to bind its
substrate and catalyze a reaction.

SUBSTRATE OF CONCENTRATION
• Increasing substrate concentration also
increases the rate of reaction to a certain
point.
• Once all of the enzymes have bound, any
substrate increase will have no effect on the
rate of reaction, as the available enzymes
will be saturated and working at their
maximum rate.

Competitive inhibitor : A molecule similar in

structure to a substrate can bind to an