4

Foundation of Individual
Behaviour and Personality

Learning Outcomes ,- - - - - - - - - - -----__,

After studying this chapter, you should be able to understand:
► Individual Behaviour: Meaning
► Foundations of Individual Behaviour
► Personality: Meaning and Definitions
► Features of Personality
► Personality Traits
► The Myer's and Briggs Type Indicators (MBTI)
► The Big Five Traits Model
► Factors Influencing Personality
► Personality Attributes Influencing Organizational Behaviour
► Type A and Type B Personality
Review Questions
Case Study

!he.behaviour of individual is shaping the personality. This is one of the most critical components of
individual differences. Through the years there has not been universal agreement on the e..xact meaning
~f personality. Much of the controversy can be attributed to the fact that people in general and those
m behavioural sciences define 'personality' from different perspectives. Personality is a set of traits
and characteristics, habits patterns and conditioned responses to certain stimuli that formulate
 84 II Orgtmisntionnl Bcltadour

the imprCMion an individual makes upon others. Personality may come out as warm and f .
~
agsrc.ssiYe, foud, ambitious and passive or at rogant. Many psychologists thought that personali~endiy,
de,·el.op mthe earl}' childhood and intelligence are biological in nature, but most traits such asp t·trai~
open mindedness, extravcrsions or intrave1 tness etc, are learnt though experien . a ien
ce. Most people t ~
equate personality with social success and to descn'be personality bYa sm · g1e domman
· t characterist
endi t~
iP~vchologists take a different perspective, psychologists Carl Rogers views personality in t Cl,
1

of self and organized, pennanent, subjectively and perceived entity which is the very heart of atll\g
El..-periences. Gordon W. Allport defines, personality as what an individual really is as an inte ou,
•something' that guides and directs all human activities. Sigmund Freud describes, personality ~I
structure of three elements, the id, ego and super ego. There is a disagreement on the persona: t
theory. ~
Study of human behaviour is very complex. It is affected by various environmental factors. It .
based on various cultural factors in which an individual is brought up and various social systems _a
which he is working. Every individual behaves in a different manner, his behaviour is individualist:
in nature, and therefore cannot be changed easily without any strong stimuli. There exists a cause
and
effect relationship in individual behaviour. For example if an organization pays good dividends to its
employees, the productivity can be improved. This means that the increased productivity is an effect of
receipt of handsome dividends by the workers. These are monetary in nature which is extrinsic value
addition. People are more prone to change in behaviour due to intrinsic value addition like recognition or
change in status. It is therefore necessary for the managers to identify "need" of individual employee and
evolve such strategies that would give an employee an intrinsic value satisfaction so that the productivity
is increased and individuals are satisfied with the job they have been assigned to. An
individual may be
satisfied with subsidized lunch the organization provides, while the other may be dissatisfied with the
menu, preparation or the method or even timings of the lunch. Human activities are innumerable. It may
be maintenance of machines, delegation of authority, or writing a report on appraisal system. In general
it could be both mental and physical process. All the activities of human beings cannot be measured,
what goes psychologically or inside the thought process of an individual cannot be observed. Individual
behaviour cannot be easily predicted due to interplay of various variables, that are very complex to
examine and implement. The job of a manager therefore is to predict the behaviour based on knowledge
of individual his experience with him in an identical situation and behaviour pattern prevailing, based
on the organizational culture. A manager at best can generalize a situation and should implement his
managerial skills so that workers satisfaction level is increased. No two individuals are alike and they
behave different in similar situations.

4.1 Individual Behaviour: Meaning And Importance

The concept of an "organization'' is an artificial notion. The physical properties of organizations are the
aggregates of individuals. So to understand organizational behaviour, you need to focus on individuals.
Some observation leads to conclusion that people in the same job do not behave exactly the same ~ay.
Even in highly programmed jobs, such as assembly-line work in an automobile factory or processmg
claims in an insurance company, employee behaviour varies. "Why" because of individual differenc~
People go about doing their jobs in different ways. They differ in their interactions with their bosses an
 r~a~t1d~Pt:!:rs~o~11n~l~ityUIIL8~5
_,;,. ::.·:.:un..::d::a::,:tio::,:n.:,:o:z_if~Tn'::d:.:.:,v:..:ld::u:::a:.:.,:IB::th::.:av::i~ou:_
___________

-----workers ·
-

l11e y var
co_ quality work,t1coo. pcra
y in term
• b
s. of wohrk habits - promptness In com
t10n wft co-worke
A d th I
of the Imp
pleting tas1iu
rs, and the lik.t. 1hey nry by deawree of euo
ortance they plac e on
1 t·
• ...,nsc en 1omness fn
·"' ,.,..
rr rt th
ey are
factors auch a'.;
JoJJ lg 11 ey vary n ten ns
\;Jling to exert on 11~11' JO.• - lains the variations? Individual difference cu .i es are
V""l bl
·nr. rcco snit ion , or soa al sup por t. Wh at exp
' . . d
s
cCUfl·,• udes, perception
attit s, motive.s an personalities.
in
,,aJues,
able to exp lam em plo yee beh aTi our , you have to recogni1..e the overwhelm
If you want to be at wor~
ff you wan t to uhderstand the behaviour of people
iJ}lluence that ind
~~d
to focu s
ivid
on
ual
soc
~er cnc cs play .2
ial structure - not Individual differen ....,
ces? "Win.,. because human b~ • ~

cial anunals. values,

em pha sis in OB is pla ced on stud ying individual differences. It's not that
so far too much organizational
son alities, and sim ilar per son al cha rac teristics are irrelevant to understanding
·tudes, per nisms that.
her, org ~ti on s com e wi~ 1 a hos t of, formal_ and informal control mecha
::aviour. Rat re tends to over ride
ct, larg dy sha pe, dire ct, and con stra m members behav10ur. That is, structu
in effe
wdMdual ditferences. n that limit
aniz atio ns hav e pol icie s, pro ced ure s, rules, and other formal documentatio
Almost all org umentation
ur and allo w oth ers to pre dic t beh aviour in those roles. This formal doc
and shape behavio good deal of an
s of acc epta ble and una cce pta ble behaviour and allows us to predict a
sets standard
employee's on-the-job behaviour. .
ons diff ere ntia te role s hor izon tall y, creating unique jobs and documentation
Almost all organizati also
s allo ws oth ers to pre dic t beh avi our in those roles. Similarly, organizations
1he structure of these job ent. In doing so, they create boss emp
loyee
lly by cre atin g leve ls of ma nag em
differentiate roles vertica
aviour.
relationships that constrain employee beh ble behaviour.
join an org ani zati on, you are exp ected to adapt to its' norms of accepta
When you . An organization for
s are unw ritt en rule s but , nev erth eless, they're powerful and controlling
These norm ropriately "- which
may not hav e a form al dre ss cod e, but employees are expected to "dress app
instance, organization's rules,
ada ptin g to the imp lied dre ss nor ms . To the degree that employees accept
means
ints on behavioural choices.
roles, and norms, the after became constra leher
Cra nda ll per for ms ess ent iall y the same job in the industry as CEO. Kel
Kelleher and Robert ndall
ing to jus t wal k aro und and talk to people, but he is a astute manager. Cra
hates meetings, perform his best in
d, is a rati ona l, calm and ver y con servative executive. He seems to be at
and the other han and doing the
he use s to disc uss ma jor airl ine ind ustry of USA . But their way of getting
meetings, which his employees.
eren t. Thi s refl ects how the ind ivid ual behave and how he gets his task from
task was diff values, attitudes and
vidu als beh ave diff ere ntly dep end ing upon their motivation, learning,
Thus, indi of behaviour on their
on they hav e. Dif fere nce s in ind ivid uals may be reflected in different types
percepti
ans som e con cre te acti on by a per son . Each person is much like everyone
part. Individual behaviour me s we interpret our-environment are unique
.
s. The way s we thin k, the way
e~e in many important way , reporting, this is called individual differen
ces.
own way of thin kin g inte rpre ting
Sunply, everyone has its l differences and psychological differen
ce.
ple are gen era lly are due to phy sica
The uniqueness of peo selves.
n ind epe nde ntly of the ir env iron me nt or the situation in which they find them
P~ople do not functio is our par~y
ces can affe ct how peo ple resp ond in a variety of ways. Our individual_ity.
Situational differen s1milar group m
env iron me nt Gro ups of peo ple in one situation behave differently than
shaped by our
 86 II Oreanl1t11io11al Miaviour
~
other 5ituation.s. I A ~ an Individual whose situation changes also will respond difftrent)Yto
1.ltuation he or dlc did to the old one. ~c.
This unJqucncss ofpeople frame the behaviour and this Is termed as IndMdual Behaviour
1
1Bchav1our 1s phenomena of uniqucneu found In a particular individual Ild.

4.2 Foundationsof Individual Bchaviour/foclorsfofluendng lndi 1iduol Behaviour 1

Individual IBchaviour is not a ~ff-induced ~hc_nomcnon, but is ~f~ected by a lar~ ,Yit.tra e.g." .
and environment. group, family and orgamzah?nal ,yste~. ~d~1d~J~ beha7e differ~ to diff~
l'timuli because of a multitude of factors. lhese include an mdzv1duals age, sex, educat10n, ~
[Pctsonality, physical diaracteruti cs, experience, values, and family and cultural background.
variables affectiilg individual behaviour include organizational and social variables, e.g., type ~
~S~;..:
desi&n ofwork. and physical work environment, nature ofsupervisor, type of organization, job va.~
nature of work etc. fudividual behaviour is influenced by various factors. We will study those~
faaors, which ~ iruluence on productivity, job satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover. Thezc
discussed below: tc
, '\

Factors In.fluencing Individual Behaviour

'- ....

If

/
i ,
i
Biological
' /'
Emotional
'\ /
"
Learned
Characteristics Intelligence Characteristics
\.. .... '- ,ii ....
'-

Figure: Factors Influencing Individual Behaviour

{I) Biographical Characteristics

(A) Biological and Individual Factors
There are certain factors which are inherited by an individual. A person inherits physical appearance,
way of talking, analyzing, and taking initiative in a group. Physical attributes of a person are important
in work environment. If a manager is able to identify these factors he will be able to deal with each of
individual employees effectively. These factors are as under:
(a) Age: Age is one of the important factors to generate productivity. Toe relationship between job
and performance is an issue of increasing concern. Younger employees are expected to b~ mor;
energetic, adventurous, ambitions and risk takers. On the other hand old people are considere
to be more conservative, having slow speed of work and are less adaptable. Job perfonnance
 II
.,---- d lvso,uil,ty 87

and turnover declines with tncreasmg e and thtrtfore lm Job opportunitle1 hence thete Bte
kss of resignations. O]dcr poop1e gentralfy gtt h ghtr w es. longer paid n ntlon nnd they
stick on to the job because of pcnstoru.ry bemfits Ho, ver produ «Mty i! rt:bted to altitude
end behnviour of employees hTcspectlvt of e,ge factot Speed, agility, strength and coordtnatmn
reduces by nge. Experience, the older rmployees enjoy h of o gt t stgnlfkance, d dvant1ges
caused due to declining age is offset by exptricnce.
(b) Gen den n-oditionnlly so~e jobs. w~re reserved for female., hke nuning Jobs Over a p~ l?g! of
time, there is no gender d1tfercntu1hon bctwc-t>n male and female. We observe successful female
entrepreneurs working around the world. In the Indian defense services, the women fighter
pUots had done a wonderful job during Kargil operations. They can undergo phy ica1 and
mental stress nnd display exen~1)1a.ry capabilities. There is no gender difference for skills Um are
required for problem solving, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociabihty and
!earning ability. It has been established that women are more willing to conform to authority.
Men are more aggre~iYe and have a greater expectations from the organization. There is no
difference in productivity and job satisfaction. Women absents more as compared to the men,
this is because of the social responsibility and domestic problems. Women have to stay longer
at !home for child care, illness of dependants and the like. As far as turnover is concerned, there
is no difference beh\"een men and women.
(c) RdigiOD: Religion and culture play an important role in determining various aspects of
indi\idual behaviour. There is a great impact on individual who have been brought up in
ideal religious culture concerning moral, ethics and a code of conduct Religion and culture
determine individual attitude towards work and compensation. Employees having high
religious value are generally found to be hard working, honest, dependable, sociable, who can
fit in the organization well. They are productive, innovative and think well of the organization.
(d) Marital Status: Marriage imposes increased responsibilities on an individual, therefore an
individual desires to have a steady job. Married employees have fewer absences, lesser turnover
and higher job satisfaction. Number of dependants is also a factor to be considered. There is no
clear cut information about the impact of marital status on productivity absenteeism, turnover
and job satisfaction. Since marriage increases the family commitment, an individual do not
change organizations.

(BJ Tenure/Experience
Tenure is referred to as experience. The impact of experience on performance is an issue which is subject
to a lot of misconception and speculation. Work experience is considered to be a good indicator of
employee productivity. There is a positive relationship between seniority and job performance and
negative relationship between seniority and absenteeism. Employee turnover is negatively rebted
to seniority. Research indicates that experience and satisfaction are positively related. Seniority and
experience is a better indicator of job satisfaction than the age of a person.
(C) Ability
Ability refers to the constructive skills and capabilities that a person possesses and are required for
lhe effective performance of activities. Possessing the necessarily abilities to engage in the bahaviour
88 \\ 01~.1 11isnrio11nl iBchni lmu

" 1hls ,s nlc oinp\\shcd eilhe1

rC\}\\htd for cffcctlrc 1'~1foi
n~ cu,
by co reful sclcc lion or by a colllb
u . ha~t~S ah\lit y ond exct
l inf luence on others or posse
·
of &tk, li(lll an~ 1r\\111lng.,ln<hvh\n 1 1,ing
1
~at1r\
\mt is inlHvidlMl s' c.\lh\d ty
arc 1·cq\l\rc{\ in the orgamsnt~o:~ to perform various tasks in a jJbo
· A\ ) clk ctu,,l sk\\ls or abilit s1t111~
is m\\dc Ill!' of two sets of
sk1\L. (A 1 y an<l (B ) Ph ysica l skills or abUit · ~hi\~
e
no\ ,:rca\c d l:qu tu~. n l \,ti;,.~no•t me an we \\1 inhc1cntly inferior s to others. Everyone has streny. w,~t
w-cakl11.:sst'li ln 1billl)'· Wha . t ls lo
l ,s unpm tan · identify level of ability or ski1ls an put it to gth., ~
•
ulllitnt10n to impro,·c pert(irn 0Pt11l\~
\l\\le ,
(a) lnltlkctu.a\ ability:lt is
uired t? do mental activittes. lii ~
nn .ibihty of a pc1son lha\ is req . ..
i l n" ~~,,an•to nciform the &her
11Sl lQ job successfully. For any hig
\:l\ -- ·1
ls ad\'quatc. t
lntdkctual .,bilily can d d d. h Job a ge ne ral lev el of intelli k1
th fd l . kill
iptitud\': A pason having numb be furlher lvi e into e o owmg _s s: (a) Nu~ ll\~
er aptitude dis
plays speed, accuracy and
in the work. Such mdividuals anth metic inclination
can be b~st employed in ac
Vcrhal Comrrchcnsion: It ref co un~s and sales tax de~artm
ers to abihty to understand ents. ~,
of words to each other. Peop wh ~t 1s heard or read. It is relati
le having verbal compr~he o~
managers. They would be ide ns1on can be best employ~
al to draft corporate p~lic~s d as Plata
to identify visual similarities : (c) Perceptual ~peed: It 1s
and differences. Such mdiv1 an abUu,
investigative jobs. (d) Induc duals can be gainfully emplo
tive Reasoning: The ability yed f~
logical sequence in a proble is relate? t~ i~dividual's ski
m and later solve the same. ll to idenui,
job in research and develop Such mdivtduals can be ass
ment departments / organ igned tht
ability refers to use of logic izations. (e) Deductive Re
and assess the implications asoning: Tue
ideally foot the bill as supervi of arguments. People with
sors. (f) Spatial Visualizatio this skill can
object would look if its posit n: It is an ability to imagine
ion in the space were chan how an
(g) Memory: It is an ability ged. Interior decorators hav
to recall past experience. Sa e this skill
performance of their job. les persons depend upon thi
s ability in
(b) Physical Ability: Physi
cal ability refers to strength
(muscles force), trunk stren factors which includes dy
gth (abdominal muscles), sta namic strength
external object) and explosiv tic strength (exertion of for
e strength. Other factors ce against
and stamina. It is the respons relate to body coordinatio
ibility of the manager to ide n, balance
and assign them suitable job ntify physical skills in the ind
s commensurate with their ividual
skills are given in police, rai ability. High importances of
lways, defence, revenue an physical
are important. In industrial d agriculture fields where var
setting, it must be ensured ious skills
requirements so that an optim that ability is co-related to
um output is achieved. the job
(II) Emotion and Emotional Intelligence
For many years wisdom of
a person and his ability to pe
(IQ). IQ was a measure for ad rform was measured by Int
mission to schools, measurem elligence Quot~ent
and performance evaluation ent of performance in studie
while on the job. However stu s, for seeking)obs
is now considered as greate dies indicate that Emotional
r predictor of success than IQ Intelligence (El)
work on ~~n-c~gniti':'e as~ect . Wechsler and Robert Thorn
s adike carried out
the term Emotional mtelhge o; intelligenc~ like social intelligence. In 1990, Salovey
intelligence as "a form of soc yer ~o~:~
nc e. They described emotional an d M~
that ·mvo lves th e ab'l1_"ty
i . to mon~'tor ones' _own and ial intelhge
them, and to use this mform others' fee lings and emotion
allon to gu1de one's thinking s, to discri mi ~niong
nate ..,,.
and action". Cognitive abilit
ies are related 10
 P<lundation of lnd,v,dual Rthaviour and Perso,inl,ty II 89

,----- d that emotional and social skllls

£ individual and non-cognitive with emotions. Jt has been foun
JO O allh lp to improve cognitive functioning also.
tuallY e --1e11rned optlmi m~ It refers to the causal
ac ,Martin Seligman developed a c~nstruct that he calls
setbacks Optimists tend to make apecWCt
wributions people make whc~1bco_n1ronthed with failure or
1 s global, permanenft Internal attributioru.
a~... rar}', external causal ~ttn uhons ": I c ptssimlst make
teinPo ch at Met Life, Seligman and Jus colleague s found that new salesman who wa1 optimist5 aold
wresearnt more insurance m · thctr ~ two years than dd
· hrst I pessimist. Wh en the company hired a special
the normal screening, they outsold the
37 percef individuals who scored high on optimism but failed
second. They even outsold the average
gro~P ~st by 21 percent in their first year and 57 percent in the
nts' actual grades during the freshman year
pe~ 27 percent. Optimism was a better predictor of stude
handle stress is another aspect of emotional
agenthi;h school grades. The ability to manage feelings and
ss.
!::Ugence that has been found to be important for succe
the ability to handle stress predicted net
A study of store managers in a retail chain found that
r of inventory investment. A study carried
fits, sales per square foot, sales per employee and per dolla
emotional intelligence has as much to do
pr~ at Yale University by Sigdal and Barsade indicated that
:th knowing when and how to express emotions . Good feelin
and overall group performance. It has been establishe
gs led to improved co-operatic~ fairness,
d that most effective leaders in the US Navy
atic and sociable. Empathy is a particularly
were warmer, more outgoing, emotionally expressive, dram
s have known for years that it contributes to
important aspect of emotional intelligence, and researcher
others' emotions are more successful in their
occupational success. People who are best at identifying
Cary, Emotional Intelligence: What it is and
work as well as in their social life. (Reference: Cherniss
al Psychology Rutgers University Piscataway,
Why it Matters, Graduate School of Applied and Profession
NJ 08854).
and in life. Goleman and Mayer, Salovey
Emotional intelligence is important for success in work
& Caruso have argued that by itself emotional intell
igence probably is not a strong predictor of job
cies that are. Goleman has tried to represent
performance. Rather it provides the bedrock for competen
this idea by making a distinction between emotional intell
igence and emotional competence. "Emotional
to superior performance in the world of
competence refers to the personal and social skills that lead
d on emotional intelligence. A certain level
work. The emotional competencies are linked to and base
l competencies~ for instance, the ability to
of emotional intelligence is necessary to learn the emotiona
one to develop a specific competency such
recognize accurately what another person is feeling, enables
their emotions will find it easier to develop
as 'influence: Similarly, people who are better able to regulate
Ultimately it is these social and emotional
a competency such as initiative or achievement drives.
want to be able to predict performance.
competencies that we need to identify and measure, if we
sis that supported four domains: Self-
The model by Richard Boyatzis reflects recent statistical analy
tionship Management. They administered
Awareness, Self-Management, Social-Awareness, and Rela etencies
th e emotional competence inventory, a questionnaire designed to assess the twenty EI comp
and engin eerin g, man agement, and social
to nearly six hundred corporate managers and professionals
ate the degree to which statements abou t
work graduate students. Respondents were then asked to indic
in calm under pressure- were chara cteri Slic
EI-related behaviours- for instance, the ability to rema
gs of those who worked with them . Three
of th emselves. Their ratings were then compared to ratin
grouped emerged: Self Awareness, Self-
key clusters into which the twenty EI competencies were
 ~9~0JILI~O~~~n~ri!;:isa~t~io~11a~l~R~cl~in~,,~i()~ur~ - -
-- ----------
----~
.
managcm~nt and Socinl awar~,,nc. 1kh subsumes Empathy), ulong with relationship rna
""hicl, in the !;tatislical analysis. ss (w t l I S cia
_, ~. .subsuntCl t lC O l awareness duster. While the analysis n~gel'll~llt
the comp~tcnacs rest wit• 1un • ch Fl lomain it .llso sug . . .
awareness cluster and ca • l gests that the <11sttnchon betweenVcrth1fi~ t~. ,
'
the Relationship mam,gcmcnt du b t1
Sler may e more 1eore t'ica I th c So
an cmpirieaicill1
{111) Learned Characferisfia
I. Penonality: Personality is sum
total o~ ~ays
othe~. It is• a dvnanuc organization withi in w~ich an individual reacts ~d interacts Wit
• n an individual of those psycho
determine h1s un ique adjustments with his env I . th h logical systems ..}
smiling face, growth and the dev ironm ent. t is e c arm, positive attitu ~
elopment of a person that ad~
means how a person effects oth s to ~ersonality. Personau~
ers and how he under~tan~ an~
of inner and outer measurable, vie ws ~s el f as well as Pattern
traits and the person s1tu~t10n
other depends upon his physical mt~rachon. How a person affccti
appearance (such as heights, we
whole person concepts. Personal 1~t, fact, color). It represents
ity is greatly influence by the
been brought up and the factor env iro.qment that a person has
s of heredity.
(a) Environment: It refers to
culture in which a person is rai
values and attitude that are pas sed. Culture establishes norms,
sed on to generations. Early
family, friend and social group conditions, norms in the
s and other influences that are
(b) Heredity: Heredity is tra formative of personality.
nsmitted through genes that
leads to physique formation wh determine hormone balance and
ich shapes personality. Hered
like physical stature, facial attrac ity refers to those factors
tiveness, sex, temperament, mu
and energy level Heredity is ma scle composition, reflects
de up of biological factors. Tra
distress are passed on to gen its like shyness, fear and
erations. Traits are characteris
exhibited in large number of situ tics of an individual when
ations. More consistence and
in diverse situations, the mo more frequent occurrences
re predominant the trait in an
found in a person are shyness, ind ivi dual are. Common traits
aggressive, submissive, laziness,
Perception is the process by wh ambitious, loyal and timid.
ich information is interpreted
to the world around us. Diffe in order to give meaning
rent people perceive the sam
be noted that we should evalua e thing differently. It should
te each situation / individual
opinion. Perceptual errors sho carefully before forming an
uld be avoided perception will
in the subsequent chapters. be studied in greater details
(c) Attitude: Attitude is a ten
dency to act/think in certai
unfavorably concerning objec n ways either favourably or
ts, people or situation. For exa
with my job, what actually I mple, If I say I am satisfied
am doing is expressing my att
attitude is the way a person fee itude towards the job. An
ls about a person, a place, a thi
Attitude could be positive or neg ng, a situation or an idea.
ative. Attitude can be measured
action of the individual or sim either by observing the
ply asking him the questions ab
a particular situation. out how he would behave in
(d) Values: Values are beliefs
that guide actions and judgmen
Values represent basic convictio ts across a variety of situations.
ns that a specific mode of cond
preferable to an opposite mo uct is personally or socially
de of conduct. Values are of
that are ultimate values like two types, terminal value
freedom, salvation, truth and
non-violence. Instrumental
 - - - - - - ------------...:Po..:.:.:.":.:"d::a:::U::on:.:2of'...:1.:.::nd::•.:.:vr::du::n::l~B~th_:a:v•~·o:ur~a~n~d~Pt~r~so~n~a~lit~yJILI~9!_1

-----· values relate lo means for achieving ends. It is e tool for acquiring terrnln.il val
e..x~nple obedient, capable etc. lndMdual values are formed In the initial stag~~;. .:;
p

are mtlucnccd by the parents, teachers, frlends and other soda! groups. Values Vllt}' from
person to person. Values help in understanding the attitudes, and motivntlonal lcvd of
the individuals. It helps to change the individual behavior. Values are of a great help to
determine as to what is good and what ls desirable. Values are so strong an instrument that
it at tunes ultcr rational decisions. An organization having right value system has greater
chances of growth.
2. perception: Perception is the view~mint ~y which one interprets a situation. College students
certain!)' understand and act on this reality when they choose classes. If three instructors are
all teaching accounting at the same time of a day, most students will seek out information to
find out the differences between the instructors. That is, they seek information on individual
differences. They have different viewpoint on different type of teaching. Some perceive a
particular teacher to be good; while other prefers not to be good. Every Individuals have its
own criteria to understand, to perceive the things and after that to interpret the situations.
Perception certainly denotes are of the factors of individual differences. In an organizational
setting. messages that the organisati on sends to its members regarding the kind of behaviour
and activities expected of them are significant. The messages are communicated in a variety of
ways Qob descriptions, policies, procedures and discussion with supervisors, etc.). A key factor
is that an individual's behaviour is influenced not only by the organization's actual expectation
of him, but also by how these are perceived by the person.
3. Motivation: Motivation is the process of steering a person's inner drives and action towards
certain goals and committing his energies to achieve goals. It involves a chain reaction starting
with felt needs, setting in motives which give rise to tension, further causes action towards
goals. Manager performs work in order to induce subordinates to act in the desired manner by
satisfying their needs and desires. Motivation is concerned with how behaviour gets started,
energized, sustained and directed.

4.3 Personality: Meaning and Definitions

Personality is a very complex and multidimensional construct of a human being. No common definition
of personality has so far been arrived at. Every individual defines personality in different way which
includes trait factors and physical appearance:• Personality is a dynamic organization within an
individual of those psychological systems that determines his unique adjustment with the environment.
It is a sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others:' As far as physical aspect
is concerned it relates to individual charm, attitude while dealing with others and smiling face can also
0
be included into personality. Uma Sekaran states that one can examine person~ity in terms ~ a set of
relatively stable characteristics and tendencies that determine our thoughts, feelmgs and behaVIour ~d
~hich have some continuity or consistency over time. Maddi (1980) defines pe~s_onality t~us: Perso~ali ~
th
18 ast able set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences m
· · · f nd that
Psychological behaviour (thoughts, feelings, and actions) of people that have contmwty m une a
may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment. ~e
above definitions indicate the commonality of characteristics and human tendencies amongst peop e
92 II Orga11i.satio11nl Bcltaviour

who display consistency in their behaviour over time. Ma~dis defi~itio~ sug~csts that people do
due lo biological and social pressures. 'lhus by understand mg certam d1mens1ons of personality ocha~t
p1!.'.'dicl human bcha,iour to a great extent. llf c,.
lhc tcm1 'rcri.onalitv' has been derived from the Latin terms persona which mean
th I
throui;h} Common usage'Iof the word ' personality signifies e ro ~ Wh'hth Stoc
.,
IC ~ person disp}a •~
public. Personality of an individual is unique, pe1sonal and the ~aJor determmant, of his behs ~'lit
.Because of diffcrcnccs in personality, individu als cliffer in their manner of responding to 1(jQ
situation. Some theory emphasize the need to recognize the person-situation interacting i.e., th~ffcr~
1t
learning aspects of personality. S<>c~
The most frequent used determination given by Gordon W. Allport, "the dynamic organ· .
'\\ithin which individual of those psycho-physical systems that determines to his unique adjustmtsaull\\
his environment" Personality is as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and in;nis~
with others. Personality is the set of distinctive traits and dimensions that can be used to char~
Individuals.
Raymond Cattell defines personality as those aspects which makes a prediction of what ape
will do in a given situation. lSOn
In the words of Fred Luthans, "Personality means how people affect others and how they understana
and view themselves as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person-situation
interaction. How people affect others depends primarily upon their external appearance (height, weight,
racial features, color, and other physical aspects) and traits."
In the words ofHilgrad, Atkinson and Atkinson, "Personality may be understood as the characteristic
pattern of behaviour and modes of thinking that determine a person's adjustment to the environment.•
The most fundamental aspect is to define personality as the set of behaviours. Personali~
characterizes ways of behaving in which individuals ultimately acts; a way of adjusting to environment
and partly determines by situation within which that behaviour is occurring.

4.4 Features of Personality

Personality is a sum of physical, mental and social qualities in integrated manner. On the basis
of definitions it may be said that there are two main approaches to the study of personality: (i) the
psychological and (ii) the sociological. The psychological approach considers personality as a certain
style peculiar to the individual The characteristics of personality are as follows:
1. Personality is something which is unique in each individual: Personality refers to internal
as
well as external qualities, some of which are quite general. But it is unique to each individual: 11
is not possible for any other individual to reproduce or imitate the qualities of the personality
of the individual.
2. Personality refers particularly to persistent qualities of an individual: Every individual ha;
certain feeling as well as other permanent traits and qualities. Personality is mainly composed
of the persistent or permanent qualities that exhibit themselves in form of social behaviour an
attempt to make adjustment with the environment.
3. Personality represents a dynamic orientation of organism to environment: Personality
 ?._if::_l1::.:_td1vidual Bthav(our and Persona
lity II 93
_ _ _ _ _ _Po...;u.;,:.n:.:d:_at:.::10:::n~o
__ __ __ __ __ __ _ _

ment. We do
represents the pr~ccss of leaml_ngy.all It takes place In reference to the environ not
acquire all the traits ot personalit at once.
not an •· d Id Ual
4. Personality. is greult atly influenced by social interactions: Personality Is n IV
f ' ] . t ' . In other words It means that wh we come in
-m crac t1on en
quality. It. 1s a res o soc1a .
uire cert
•
ain qualities while we exhibit ce .
h oth er me mb ers of the soc tety , we acq rtain
contact Wit
thes e com e to form pers ona Hty .
others. All . .on:
... .., .spos1U
sati on of persistent dynamic and Md aJ prcu1
alit r rcp rfse nts a uni que org ani ov
5• pcrson • • • •
put toge_ther. 1l1ey are, In fact, integrated into one. Thi
s
ln pers~nali_ty van ~us qua ht1e s are not
man to man.
gra tl~ 1s not hm g but a_r esu lt of org anisation which may be different from
inte behaviour
particular individual may differ from the
The behaV1our of a pers~n directed to one suitable environment This suitabilit 15 •
t 1s why ; we put the con dition of
of another person. Tha Y
concern ed wit h ind ivid ual spe cifi city .

4.5 Personality Traits ber of situations.

ona lity trai ts are the cha rac teri stic s of an individual when exhibited in large num t
pers
ts in an ind ivid ual are, mo re con sistence the individual is and more frequen
More predominant the trai personality structure is personality trai
ts. A
situ atio ns. The imp orta nt--p art of
occurrences in diverse ears constantly in a variety ofsituations.
u~n g attr ib~ tes of a pe~ son ~ha t app
personality trait is an end onality.
to per son alit y form atio n try to ide ntity a configuration of traits to assess pers
Trait approaches iveness,
g cha rac teri stic s tha t des crib e an ind ividual's behaviour, such as shyness, aggress
These are endurin exhibited
s, lazi nes s, am biti on, loya lty, and tim idity. These characteristics when they are
submissivenes y concern was
ber of situ atio ns are call ed per son ality traits. The most widely known earl
in a large num e there are so
Allp ort and Ray mo nd Cat tle. Eff orts to isolate traits have been hindered becaus
Gordon gested that everyone
y. In one stud y, 17,9 53 ind ivid ual trai ts were identified. Gordon Allport's sug
man common traits include
called personality disposition. Allport
has a common set of personality traits, ion, personality disposition vary from one
and eth nic pro pen sitie s. By def init
social, political, religious y outgoing and friendly but uninterested
in
exa mp le one per son may be ver
person to another. For st also
be wit hdr aw n but fasc ina ted by pol itics. Raymond Cattle another psychologi
politics. Others may erized
ew ork for und ers tan din g per son ality. All people can be described and charact
advocated a trait fram reflect people's
ific sets of per son alit y trai ts; sur face and sources traits. Surface traits
along two spec often people
con sist ent beh avi our s. Sou rces trai ts are more difficult to discern , because
observance and ber of traits must
hid den . It is virt ual ly imp oss ible to predict behaviour when such a large num
keep them e thousands to a more
take n into acc oun t. As a resu lt, atte ntio n has been directed toward reducing thes
be
manageable member.

Raymond Cattle's Sixteen Primary Tra

its
I. Reserved Vs. Outgoing
2. Less Intelligent Vs. More Intelligen
t
Affected by feelings Vs. Emotion Stable
3.
4. Submissive Vs. Dominant
S. Serious Vs. Jockeying
 94 II Orgmii5atio11nl Bclu1viour

b.R.t.pcdicnt Vs. Conscic.ntious

7. Timid Vs . V,mturcwmll
8. Tou~h minded Vs. S,:mllfri!
9. J'rusti11g Vs. S115picio11s
10. Practical Vs. lmasinativc
11 Forthright Vs. Shrewd
n Self cwurcd v~. Apprchcmira
B . Corucrrative v~. lfrpcrimcntally
l -4 . Group dependant Vs. Self-dependent
15. Uncontrolled Vs. Controlled
16. Relaxed Vs. Tense.
Raymond Cattle isolated 171 traits but concluded that they were
superficial and lacking in descf
power. The result was the identification of 16 personality facto
rs, which he called the Source and p .1P1l'ft
traits. These 16 traits have been found to be generally steady
and constant sources of behaviour, a~
prediction of an individual's behaviour_in specific si~atio~s
situational relevance. The essence of trait approaches m OB
by weighing the characteristics for:
1s that employees posse ss stable persona1n,
characteristics that significantly influence their attitudes towa
rd and behaviour reaction to organisational
settings. People with particular traits tend to be relatively confi
dant in their attitudes and behaviour over
time and across situation. Of course, trait approaches recog
nize that all traits are not equally powerful
They tend to put them into three categories:
1. Cardinal traits are those so strong and generalized
that they influence every acts a person
performs.
2. Primary traits are generally consistent influence
on behaviour, but they may not show up in all
situation.
3. Secondary traits are attributes that do not from a vital part
of personality, but come into play
only in particular situation.
Mostly traits approaches have focused on the power of primary
traits to predict employee's behaviour.
Manager seems to have a strong belief in the power of traits to
predict behaviour. The best example is the
selection of employee on the basis of traits qualities of applic
ants. There are two problems is union traits
to explain behaviour in organisation. First, organisational
settings are strong in situation that has alarge
impact of employee's behaviour. Second, individuals are highl
y adaptive and traits change in complex
organisational situation. It has been found that effects of traits
are likely to be strongest in relatively weak
situations and weakest in selectively strong situation.
Organizational settings tend to be strong because they have
rules and other formal regulation th; 1
define acceptable behaviour and punish deviant behaviour; and
they have informal norms that prec~ e
appropriate behaviour. These form al and informal mechanism
s minimize the effects of personality trait~
since organ isational settings require conscientious, hard work
ing, persistent, confident, definable an
competitive behaviour in employees; which are typically, howe
ver these traits are essence of OB.
 ----
ty 11 9S

~8 Myers-BriggsTypo lnditolor (IJ.BTI)

4.6 0
f 111c most commonly u~ Persor:t 1ty tt 1 ni t ng of l q t n tJn t e of the
,:rt,i~ i! onhc 1 dividunls nrc dassificd Into followl i cat ti
'Cfi t C n
n!l~~ Vi~ionarr: Aptirson who bas bttn class, td \'1 ton ,y h tht M8 I tt ulu h an ric,..u•=
(a) : d hns 11 ,areal dtivc for new ideas and purpo~ An In ~,ffJ t l supt r
min , ~ d
stubhom. He di;plays trnits hke wotkln In q.,tndently nnd h , a high d tumln
• ,ft> the dcsi"'-.d "oals. which are often challenging
8 cl111.: ~ "
b Organizer. A person lhnv1ng sreat organlutlonat ability would be pro Uc I tut Uc llttd
( ) bclievcs in what he sees. Orgm\ters are generally successful business-per oru, per n, n lved
in basic engineeri"8 jobs, and persons who are Involved in a~scmblmg r,sources to run the
organizations.
{c) GoD'1.:.ptuliser~: Persons who take quick decisions, they are ingenious and good at many things
lbey are resourceful, problem solver and have a tendency to neglect work, which is o( n routine
nature.

tJ lhe Big five Traits Model

An individual's behavior towards others, attitude, characteristics, mindset make his personality.
Personality development is defined as a process of enhancing one's personality. Personality development
sessions guide an individual as to how he/she can develop his/her personality. Broadly then: are five
arameters which describe an individual's personality. These five dimensions are also called as '"Big
~ive• factors, and the model is referred to as Five Factor Model also abbreviated as FFM. The Five
factor Model was initially proposed by Costa & McCrae in the year 1992 and often describes the relation
between an individual's personality and various behaviours. The concept of the "Big Five" personality
traits is taken from psychology and includes five broad domains that describe personality. The Big Five
personality traits are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
These five factors are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits. They were
defined and described by several different researchers during multiple periods of research. Employees are
sometimes tested on the Big Five personality traits in collaborative situations to determine what strong
personality traits they can add to a group dynamic. Businesses need to understand their people as wdl
as their operations and processes. Understanding the personality components that drive the employee
behavior is a very useful informational data point for management.
1. Openness to Experience": Openness flashes the level of intellectual curiosity, creativity and
a preference for novelty and variety within a person. It can also be elaborated as the S(ope
to which an individual is imaginative or independent, and portrays a personal preference
for a variety of activities over a scheduled routine. Some debate may occur regarding how
to interpret the openness factor, which is also known as "intellect" rather than openness to
experience. It includes inventiveness or curiousness in contrast to consistency or cautiousness.
Appreciation for positive arts, emotions, inventions, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosit,, and
variety of experience is invited. It is basically the extent to which an individual is original. has
qt, II 01s1111i,nrio11nl lk1i,1riour

hnmcnsc interest~ and willllll!lY 1ekc! risk. Ope

nness to cxpcrlc~cc ln di vl du ~
to l:\pclicnci:' ,,c gcncrnlly vet y ,u;tivc, hl\vC
a tremendous inclmation towards creati!'n,
ats\hc\ks and listen tl) their hcin l i.e. follow thei
r inner feelings. Such. individuals are gty ~
t.,pm lo new lciwnlng's, skill sets ,md experiences.
People who scor~ high on opennes, aner~
broadminded and modctn ,n thd t outlook ns
compared to individuals who score lo:'qu~
same paromrtcr. su~h ,nJividuJls ~\re conscrV
'atlve, reluctant to changes and have a trad~
approach m · t·,f,c. ~~
ll11m..,
2. Con~dcntiou~ncss: It is the tendency •~
of being standardized, steady, self- disciplined .
dutifully, focu~ing on achieving go.ils,
and prioritizing planned instead of spon
bchavivr. It contra~ts c1lic1cnl or 01ganizcd ~ atti~
behavior with easy-going or careless behaVi
the kvd to which a person is careful, cautiou an~
s, and honest. As the name suggests, indi0
with a Conscientiousness pe1s?nil~l1ty
t• , 1·
lra1t 1s~en_ to_their , , ~· 1t,
conscience and act accordingly.~du,LS...,.
indhiduals are e.xtrcmely cautious and self
d1sc1plmed. They never perform any task
but think twice before acting. People with in hUcli
this personality trait are generally method
tend to become perfectionists in the long run ical~
. People who score high on conscientiousne
proactive, goal oriented and self disciplined. ssand
They strive hard to accomplish goals and objeC
within the stipulated time frame. Individuals U:'
who scoreless are little laid back and are not
goal oriented m~
3. E.xtraversion: Positive energy, positive
emotions, confidence, sociability and the
to explore stimulation in the organization tendency
with others, and talkativeness is extraversion.
contradicts outgoing or energetic behavio h
r with solitary or reserved behavior. Experienc
positive emotional states and feeling good abo ing
ut oneselfand the world around one is extraversi
Carl Jung popularized both the terms - "Ex on.
traversion" and "Introversion': Extraversion
to a state where individuals show more refers
concern towards what is happening outside.
individuals love interacting with people arou Such
nd and are generally talkative. They do not
spending time alone but love being the cen like
tre of attraction of parties and social gathe
Such individuals love going out, partying, rings.
meeting people and often get bored when
all by themselves. They admire the compan they are
y of others and hate staying alone. Introvers
on the other hand refers to a state when an ion,
individual is concerned only with his own life
nothing else. Such individuals do not both and
er about others and are seldom interested in
is happening around. They prefer staying what
back at home rather than going out and spen
time with friends. Such individuals speak less ding
and enjoy their own company. You would neve
find them in meetings, clubs, parties or soci r
al get-togethers. They generally do not have
friends and tend to rely on few trusted ones. many
4. Agreeableness: Agreeableness is the tend
ency of being compassionate and cooperative
of suspicious and antagonistic towards each instead
other. It is a method of measuring one's trust
and helpful nature, and whether a person has ing
a bad temper or not. It distinguishes friendline
or compassionate with analytical or detached ss
nature. In simple words, it is the tendency 10
get along well with others. Agreeableness is
a personality trait which teaches individuals
adjusting in almost all situations. Such indi to_be
viduals do not crib and fuce changes with a
They accommodate themselves to all situ smilt
ations and are friendly and kind hearted.
who score high on agreeableness are ready Peop ile
to help others and flash their trillion dollar
sm e
 f-ouhdtdlbft of lndividual Bthaviour and Pmotiality II 97
.,----- hencvcr a problem ari~es. Individuals who score tow on agreeublenw on the 0U1er h:111d find
;ifficultics in adjusting with othtrs end are little unfriendly
E.iuotional Stnbllity: It contrttdicts sensitive or nervoui nature with secure or confidmt one.
5· Being bias towards c..~crie.ncing u"pleasant emotions easily, ltke nnj!er, antiety, depression,
t"JatiYity and vuh1erability. Neurotidsm credits the degree of emotional stabUity and 1mpube
~~:trol. and is frequently known by its low pole, emotional stability. Neurotici!m Is a trait where
. dividuals are prone to negative thoughts such as anxiety, anger, envy, guilt and ao on. Such
:dhiduals are often in n state of depression and do not how lo enjoy life. They always look at
the negative sides oflife and find extremely difficult to cope up with stress.

_ factors Influencing Personalily/Determinonts of Personality

48 . g indhidual differences to a jigsaw puzzlt leaves an important question unanswered: what
Coi:::urces of the structure and their interrelationships. In other words, oow the personality
are tured~Personality structures can be under~tood from the standpoint of their clement determinants,
strU' and traits. Determinants of personality are factors that presumably play a role in shaping a person's
5
sta;:nality. Toe most widely studied phenomena are biological, social, and cultural factors:
pe 1. Biological Structures: One Biological factor is the extent to which personality traits are genetic,
that is, inherited from one's parents. Research suggests that genetics indeed may influence the
formation and development of human personality. Biological factors can also affect personality
indirectly. For example, physical characteristics such as height and build influence how we feel
about ourselves. These feelings; in turn, affect our personality. A person who is teased because
he is considerably shorter than his friends may feel defensive about his height and choose
activities.
(a) Heredity: It means the transmission of the qualities from ancestor to descendant through
a mechanism laying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ cells. Physical stature,
facial attractiveness, sex, temperament muscle composition, reflexes, etc. are inherited
from one's parents. However, the importance of heredity varies from one personality
trait to another. For example, heredity is generally more important in determining a
person's temperament than his values and ideals. Heredity is transmitted through genes,
which determine hormone balance, which later determine physique and subsequently
the personality. Heredity refers to acquiring from parents certain biological, physical
and psychological commonalities, which are further reflected in physical stature, facial
attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and even reflect. They often decide
energy level. These factors have a deciding influence on how a person in an organization
would display his reactions in a particular situation. Nature of health and psychological
makeup that an individual enjoys can be traced from the traits his parents possessed.
Parents prominently pass on shyness, fear and distress to the next generation. In good
organizations and particularly in defence services a detailed screening is carried out of the
candidates based on the background of the parents as it relates to physique, psychological
makeup, disability and transferable disease as it has far reaching impact on the general
health of the organization.
 Cb) Brtln: ilhcrc 111 ccncral fccllng that brnln plays an lmp11rta11t role In thed,..,,
~
111
•
oncfJ ptrronnlity However• 110 1.ont.luslve proof Is available so •for -about 1111e tiPr11.,..·-~~
rdttlon hip between the brain nnd pcucmnlity. ilh,,1
(c) Phytilcal 1catmcMAn lnJIVldual's cxh.nrnl appearanu! may liavc a tremcn,J,,,,, ti 1
his pcroonallty. Some JlCOJllc give rcl ntlvclyhigher wclghtagc to '.he physlcnl feat,,, 1,q\
Individual while defining hit pi.:uotrnlity. Su, I, fadott lnd wle J1,.1ghl, Weight, c,,1,,,,''r,r\
foaturc.1, etc. of the tndivii111nl Good phyek:1! Sl'Jl1,irar,, r. l.s an asset for the j,,1i ,/'~~
Perron and public rdatio111p111 ll,.11lor ly 111llcd ti, ,!i,,rl, JIC<iple sud, as, KYrnna~,· •~
J, •t (' . • re, r 11..
(han basketball. But hlologirid ddc, u1lr1n11l 1 l1avc II1w 11111 s. 1J<:1cntut1 t<,da i,,lf/
an early theory 611 ,,,,c~t, 1I th:11 pct1ow11lty Is directly correlated with a per/:I'~,~~
oo ms r,1
body shape. tr4
2' p~--vchotogieial
'I
Jla<:t<>r~: P~ycholo11lcal factors arc al6o lmport:it1t determinants of Pe
tr TSt11121..
P&ydhological factors include the following: ""II
(a) Emotional Makc•up or Temperament: Temperament ls the degree to whichonere$po
cmotioMlly. Emotional make - up reflects in individuals about the mental toughne,s lldi
concreteness' in behaviour. illd
(b) lntcr~t: The individual has so many interests, and all individuals differ in their inter
The organisation should provide opportunities like job rotation and special train~
programme to satisfy the interest of executives. ~
(c) Motives: Motives are the inner drives of the individuals. They represent the goal directtd
behaviour of individuals. A motive is a cognitive behaviour which operates in determinini
ones behaviour towards goals. Individuals differ in their variables which determine ~,
inner drives. The behaviour of an individual is to accomplish the goals various because of
ha inner drive.
3. Social Factors: Social factors also are a determinant of personality. Our early experiences wiili
our parents vastly influence our later lives. For example, children who suffer major traumas such
as the death of a parent may experience emotional repercussion throughout their lives. As child
grows, they tend to develop friendship groups at school and in their neighborhoods. The kinds
of people they interact with may influence their own behaviour. For instance, a child whoSt
own family is not reHgious but who develops close friendships with children whose families
are religious may develop strong religious beliefs. The influence of social factors does not stop
when a person reaches adulthood. Indeed, an increasing body of literature on socialization
suggests that social forces in the workplace affect people's personalities, perceptions, and
behaviours. Toe development of Individuals personality Is also influenced by his family ~d
other social groups. 'lhe infant acquires traits, custom quality and behaviour from his family,
comrnunity group and pattern of living. Social factors shape a person's personality through
the proct'sses of &oclallzallon and ldcnlllicallon. Socialization Is a process by which an Inf~
acquires from 1hc enormously wide range or bchavlournl potcntlolltles that are open to ht
al birth, tho~e behaviour patterns thnl are customa1 y and acceptable lo the family and soda1
groups. Soclallzallon proces11 6ta1 ls wllh lnlllal contact between mother and her new in· [ant·
Later on, other incmbers of the fomlly and social groups ln0ucnce the socln1lzat Ion Process.
 - - - - - - - - - - ~-- --- fo11ntltrrl(m '()' rntl,v dtutl lttlt ilVfo ,, rmd r~r,mrn
lity II 99

'Tht identifi cation Jlroocss oce:urs whr.n a person tries to Identify hlmstlf with romc
pt
whNll he foe ls ldrnl In fnmily. Generally a child In me fomlly trlc., to beh ve like ht 1
f th:r :~
mothi:1• 111c ldcnlifi cntlon process r.an be e,: mined from three different per pc uv"
Pint
idcntifil-ation can be viewed ns the slmllorlty of hchavtour (tn tuding fc Ung,1 and amtudt
'J)
motives
bct"·rcn the child nnd the model. Second, ldcntlHcatlon can be looked 09 the chdd,
the chfld
or Jc,lrcs to h~ Uke the model. lhlrd, lt con be viewed u the process through which
actuall)' takes on Lhc att ributes of the model.
.: Among the fnd or, that exert pressures on our personality form:itaon
4 Cultural Fadon
· culture. Culture e~tablishes th~ non~1s, attitudes, ond value that are passed from one
gener
, o( the
u::
to the next and create co11s1stenc1cs over time. Cultural factors are characteristic
y began
broadci~socio-cultural cnviron~1~nt th.it influen ces personality. Psychologists recentl
respect for
to investigate these factors., but 1t ts clear that motives, acceptable behaviours, and
authority vary from one country to another. Cultural factors also jnfluence social
dynamics.
ans,
1he English and Germans, for example, stand farther apart when talking than do Americ
values. A
whereas Arabs, Japanese, and Mexicans stand closer together. Finally, culture instills
where.u those
strong sense of competitiveness may characterize people from some cultures.'
from other cultures may be more comfortable with cooperation.
~
s. Situational Factors: An individual's personality may change in different situations. The deman
we should
of different situations may call for different aspects of one's personality. Therefore,
can be made
not look at the personality factor in isolation. Although certain generalizations
influenced
about personality, there exist significant individual differences which are further
research of
by situational factors. A good example of situational influences appears in the
r room.
Stanley Milgram. Milgram asked to administer an electric shock to a person in anothe
the subject to
As the shocks becam e stronger, the other person began to scream in air and beg
the subjects
stop. The experimenter, however, ordered the subject to continue. More than half
and possibly
were willing, when ordered, to administer a shock clearly labeled as dangerous
personality
life threatening. The results of this and follow-up studies indicate that people have
from people
characteristics that are revealed only in specific situations. Real-life examples range
to those who
who spontaneously perform heroic acts without thinking of their persona welfare
, research
engage in unethical or illegal behaviour when under extreme pressure. As with culture
nal factors
into the situational determinants of personality is still in its infancy. The situatio
s personality,
influence the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individual'
The varying
although generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations.
should not,
demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one's personality. We
ns ~eem
therefore, look at personality patterns in isolation. The more interesting is that .situatiostra
con ms a
to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behaviour. Some situation
lot of behaviour: other situation constrain relatively few.
environment.
6. Environment: Every individual is born and brought up in a particular
· ment leaves an 1mpnn
EnVIron · · t on th e person a1·1ty of an m· d1·V1·dual · It is commonly . seen
.
enterin g mto
• his· 1a
th at a doctors son preferring , pro1ess
c th ers ·
c 1on an d a ch1.ld of a soldier
· · d·t·1 ns of the society. more would . f
c
De1ence Services. More advanced the soc10-econom1c con 1 0 0
of view
the children be forward thinking. Environment should be viewed from the pomt
l 00 I\ o,:,:aul(nl/nnnl Bihnvit,ur ~
~

nm mSi etMr.s an d,•a1ue 1111i.t tre obsrrvcd \\nt\ the nttitudc displayed by the s . ' \
~ unll ' fonnu\9\e ' the rulturc of the society
• f h. h h ocia1
rom w_ ic t e organl 1.ati &rriu
~: :: ::o u~ e rrquircmcntl>, 1l1c cul
tural ba,~rouncl i,s tmpor~ant ~o evaJu;
ln childhooa, pnrents, uncles, tunts and t:' dr!~\
even neighbours behaviour as copied
i1: therefore ncccssnry to display an bPtr~\
ideal bd,aviour on the part of all the
,.. w'th •he children adults : ~ ~
llamily moulds clmractcr of children
dirrct contn"'' 1 'l through hri ~
enforcements, Tt\\'1lrds and punish ments. Othe1 influences 1t.ke fi rst bor
:'1~
• ·
role ..:,
will have different p~rsonality t1.>.its firs n and later
t born child would generally be cornrn
child would b~ more rcspomive and andin rir~
pass on sobering effect on younge
ls therefore important to study ear r bro th t P'\
ly conditions under which the child
norms followed in the family and has been e~a/s,
the existence of cultural value system
factors hnv~ amarked intlucnce on the in the soc' rout~
personality of an individual.
iety.All \
1.9 Personality Attributes Influencing Organizational
Behaviour
The historical theory ~d research
on. per~on~l~ty disc~ssed are impor
complexities involved m understan tant in th~t they highll&ht
dmg m~V1dual d~ffe~ences as
understanding bow they occur. The well ~s vanous approaches
most direct apphcah.ons ~f pe.rso
organi~ation behaviour, howeve.r, nahty theory for the field~
~ave been through the .identifica
have direct relevance for organizat tion and description of trait II.
ion. Three of these traits are locus _control ,
Machiavellianism. These are the ma authoritarianism, .
in attributes influence behavioural
pattern: t.;
l. Locus of Control: Locus of con
trol is the extent to which a person
behaviour has a direct impact on the believes that his or he
consequences of the behaviour. Som
can control what happens to the e people belleve lhci
m - that if they work hard, for ins
These people called internals have tan ce, they will be succes.1fd,
what is termed as internal locus
people with an external locus of con of control. Externals ix
trol tend to think that what happen
by fate or luck. They seem little s to them is determin~
or no connection between their
events-like attribution theory concep behaviour and subsequm
ts focus on people's internal pattern
them. Locus of control concepts has s of what happens to
some significant managerial implica
likely to want a voice in how they per tions. Internals m
form their jobs because believe tha
them will depend on how well the t what will happens to
y control their environment. Extern
less inclined to participate in decisio als, in contrast, may ix
n making.
Internal Locus of Control:
(i) A person with a strong interna
l locus of control has more control
He believes that he controls events con over his own beha~or.
cerning his own life and his internal
what happens in a given situation. traits dete~nune
He believes that he is the master of
(ii) These people are more active his own density.
in seeking more information to mak
at retaining the information and are less e dec isio ns. They are better
satisfied with the amount of information
(iii) Internals are more active soc they possess,
ially.
(iv) Internals prefer skill achievem
ent outcomes.
(v) Internals are more likely to use
personally persuasive rewards and
likely to use coercion. power bases and Jess
 f1'und,111on oJ lnd,vidual lltl1avlour and PtrJonal
II
~lhc~c people nre more 1ndepcn
ity l O1

(vi) dent nnd \cu ausccp\iblc to lnflu

'The tntcrnnls prefer participative management cnce of oth ers.
(vii)
iii) }lcscn1 l:h has shown lltnt il\tcrna\ly orie •
(v 11101 c rnpMly \n their careers. nted pcop\c hold Jobs of higher StatuS; advance
(i~) 1111,rnnls toke more resr,onslblHty for their
hcn\ th
thcit indllcnts of sickness cmd of nhscntet\sm o.rennd have better health habits M, a result
lower.
,~ten l a
. I Luc.us ul Cun trol:
(l} rcopk ,, h,1 rate high In cx\crnallty C\te
less satlsfiecl with their Jobs , have higher nbsentett
rote~. nrc more nllcnnted from the work settlng sm
internals. 'lhcy generally prefer directive manngem and nre less invo lved on ,ob than are
ent.
(ii) Unlike the internals, these people pret
er chance oriented awards.
(iii) A pcrs~n ,~itl~ a strong •~xtemal locus of
control' feels that outside forces are affecting the
tYCnls m h1~ hfc o.nd he 1s at the mercy ol
destiny, chance or other people. He believes that
everything will happen by the will of God and
nothing or nobody can stop it External
lo(,.us of control refer
(iv) Unlike, the internals, the externals are
more interested in job security and not in
advancement of careers.
(v) Whereas the internals prefer intrinsic
rewards e.g. feeling of and he is at the mercy
achievement, externals are more interested in extrinsic awards, desti of
ny, chance or other people.
From the above mentioned traits of internals cont
rols it can be concluded that internals would
be better on sophisticated tasks, which include
most managerial and professional jobs or any
other jobs which require complex information
processing and learning. In addition. they are
suited to jobs requiring initiative and independ
ence of action. As against this, externals would
do well on jobs that are well structured and rout
ine and in which success depends heaYily on
coupling with the directions given by others. Loc
us of control in a human being plays a vital
role in determining behavioural pattern. The indi
viduals have been identified on the basis of
locus of control and then placed on appropriate
place to get effectiveness in task.
2. Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is the
extent to which a person believes that power and
status difference should exist within a social
system like an organization . The stronger the
belie( the more authoritarian the individual is
said to be. The literature on authoritarianism
holds several helpful implications for manager
s. Subordinates who are highly authoritarian
may be more willing to accept a directive style
of supervision; they are also-less likely to argue
with a manager's suggestions. Researchers have
also found some interesting thing between
the authoritarian personalities. In particular,
highly authoritarian people are more likely
to obey orders from someone with authority
without raising any serious objections, even if
they recognize potential dangers or pitfalls. Aut
horitarians tend to place high moral value on
believe and are strongly oriented towards con
formity to rules and regulation. They naturally
prefer stable and structured work environments
which are governed by clear rules procedures.
Similarly, authoritarian are likely to prefer auto
cratic or directivity leadership and would exhi.bit
high respect for individual in positions of auth
ority.
102 11 1Bthm'IOUT
~
3_ Madtlan~llianism: Machiavellianism is another importan! personapty trait. This co
named after Machia\·ellt I sixteenth-century author. In his book, The Prmct: Mi!~ -
~ e d how the nobilil)' could more easily g~ ~d use power. The ter~ Macluav~'ti
is now used to describe beha,iour directed ~t g~g power and controlling the ~
otlter. The follov.ing are the feature ofMach1avelliarusm: f.f
(i) mdMduals who are high on Machiavellianism tend to be rational and none-mo&, .
~
may be willing to lie to attain their personal goals, put little weight on loya1ty
friendship, and enjoy manipulating others' behaviour. ~
(ii) Individuals who are low on Machiavellianism are more emotional, are less ~
lie to succeed, value loyalty and friendship highly, and get little personal pl~e fr lo
mawpwating others. ~
(w1 Tue personality characteristics of Machiavellianism on how to gain and use of ~
An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, .
belie\·es that ends can justify means. ~
(iv) It hzs been found that high Machs flourish: (1) when they interact face-to-face 't'~
others rather than indirectly; (2) when the situation has a minimum number of rules ind
regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation; and (3) when emotional involveJneA
\.\-ith details irrelevant to winning distract, low Mach's.
(v) The high Machs do not easily swayed by sense of friendship, trust and loyalty. Tuey~
especially successful in exploiting structured situations and vulnerable people.
(vi) The high Machs have high self-confidence and high self esteem. They are cool and
calculating and have not hesitations using others or taking advantage of others in order to
serve their own goals.
Shcmld we conclude that high Machs make good employees? That answer depends on the
type of job and whether you consider ethical implications in evaluating performance. In jobs
that require bargaining skills (such, as labor negotiation) or that offer substantial rewards for
winning (as in commissioned sales), high Machs will be productive. But if ends can't justify the
means, if there are absolute standards of behaviour, or if the three situational factors noted in
the preceding paragraph are not in evidence; the ability to predict a high Mach's performanet
will be severely curtailed.
4. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem: People differ in the degree to which theylike or dislike themselv~
This trait is called Self-esteem. The research on self-esteem offers some interesting insights
into organizational behaviour. For example, self-esteem is directly related to expectations for
success. High Self-esteems believes that they possess the ability they need in order to succeed
at work Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and more likely
to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self-esteem. A personality trait that has
. recently received increased attention is called self-monitoring. It refers to an individual's ability
to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring
show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behaviour to external situational factors. ~ey
are highly sensitive to external uses and can behave differently in different situation. Higb
self-monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona
 rwndat f1fl dvfou, a d Ptr,oru l,t, II l OJ

d their private self low telf monitors cannot d gu se thenuclv-a In that W-a'f Tuey tend to
:splay their true dispositions and attitude1 In evtry sltu3tlon, hence. there ls high beluvioura.l
C'On~isting between who they are and \\-'iut they do
r;, T)Tc: "A" and Trre "B" pe;rronality: Undemnndlng personality traits b lmportant in tht
• -orkpla{ e. il)1pe A and 'lype Bare two contrasting personality theories that explain how certain
;mploree characteristics can sffect workplace behavior.
(a) 1)'Pc A Personality: People with 'fype A personality trait! are aggressive. ambitious,
controlling, highly competitive, preoccupied with status, workaholic., hostile. and hck
patience. People having 1ype A personality are always moving. walking and eating rapidly.
They feel impatient with the speed the events take place. They always strive to do two or
three thing at any one time and cannot cope with leisure. They are generally obsessed with
work involved with numbers.
(b) 'l)rpe B Personality: People with lype B personality traits are relaxed, less stressed,
flexible, emotional and expressive, and have a laid-back attitude. People possessing Type B
personality never suffer from sense of urgency and take thing as it comes coolly. They do
not discuss achievement and leave it to the superiors to identify it. People having B type
of personality play for fun and relaxation rather than to show off. These people have the
tendency to relax without guilt.
From the above mentioned personality traits, it becomes very clear that understanding of
personality is immense help in the selection of right kinds of people for different jobs. Analysis
of an individual's personality will reveal his strong and weak points. A person may be unfit for
one job but may be fit for another job. Understanding the personality will also help in designing
the training programmes for the personnel in the organization. Personality has a great influence
on work performance. Personality is the major determinant of the person holding the key job.
Basis for Comparison Type A Personality Type B Personality
Type A personality is one which is Type Bpersonality is one which is less
Meaning stress prone, in a hurry, impatient and stress prone patient, relaxed and easy
fast in whatever they do. going.
Nature Sensitive and proactive Reflective and innovative
Patience level Low High
Temperament Short-tempered Even-tempered
Competition Highly-competitive Less-competitive
Multitasking Does several things at a time. Does one thing at a time.
Stress level High Low

iune constraints Encounters pressure because of time Is not affected by time constraints.
..__ constraints
. While it is generally correct to conclude that managers in organisation are ris~ aversive, _there are
still individual differences' on this dimension. As a result, it makes sense to recogmze these ilil!ere~ces
and even to consider aligning risk-taking prosperity with specific job demands. For inS tance, a high nsk-
 I 04. II Orga11isntio11nl &IJ1avio11r
takihg prorcnsity mar fond to more effective ~erform
ance for a stock trade_r j_n a brokerage firlll
thal t-rnc of ,;0 b cfomands npid decision making.
On the other hand, a w1llmgness to take . be
:i
1
pro\'e' a" ' major obstndc to an a:count~nt who per,'
orms au d'itmg
· ac t'tVl't'ies. Th 1 t
e a ter job rnighrisk.
t be
filledlbr somt-one with a low nsk-taking propensity.
,

Review Questions
L What is Personality? :&.-plain the factors that influ
ence the behaviour of individual in organiZat
2. What is personality? How do you determine the
personality of a person? ifJt~
3. What is the relevancy of traits from the point
of view of Organizational Behaviour?
4. How do the situational factors influence persona
lity of an individual? Discuss.
s. What are the Machiavellianism personality traits? Dis~~ss the
traits of High Machs and Low Mac~
6. \Vhat are the features of Type A and Type B
personahttes?
7. What are the major personalities attributes ·
that influences personality? Discuss in brief.
8. What is Locus of Control? How does the locu
s of control influence the personality of an indiv
9. fu..-plain the personality traits that have relev iduaJ?
ance from the point ofview ofOrganisational Beha
I0. What do you mean by personality? Discuss vio11t
the features of personality.
11. How the biological factors affecting the
personality of an individual? Discuss.
l2. Discuss the Allport trait theory whe
re he mentions that common traits that are used
one personality with another. to compare
13. Elaborate the Myer's and Briggs Type Indi
cator
14. What are various personality traits that are
generally found in each individual?
15. What are various factors that shape individu
als personality?
16. How an employee likely to behave who has
external Locus of control, Low Mach and Low
esteem score? Self•
17. What are the traits found in Type A and
Type B Personality? Differentiate between them
18. Discuss the Five Big Personality Traits. And .
also discuss their relevance in personality form
19. Write short notes on the following: ation.
(a) Type A and B personality.
(b) Authoritarianism.
(c) MBTI model.

Cose Study
Donna is a 51-year-old divorced mother of Dut
ch descent. She has two children, ages 10 and 12.
is not an outwardly demonstrable mother. How Donna
ever, she takes pride in making sure her child
the right thing at all times, as it causes her distr ren do
ess if people think poorly of her or her children.
is highly organized. She believes efficiency is ~on~;
a sign of responsibility. She detests surprises and
contemplate how best to plan, whether for vaca like~
tions or what her children will wear to school
each ay.
 ___________ _Fi_ou_,_,d_at....:io....:":..:o!..
if::.'"d1vldual
:.: Behaviour and Personality II 1OS

·I ~
°
to focus on the present andften copes with stress by using caffeine and nicotine. She smow
Sile ~ 1Js Jck of ogarcttcs each day. Donna seems to have some nnrclsslstlc traits. Narcissists tend to be
,t Je~t.• Pand vain- Donna is obsessed With appearances nnd does not want herself end her children to
rgousucal1h.it is why she plan~ everything ~th rrgard to her children. Donna also exhibits trait£ of an
Jt,ok bad, . personality. She 1s obsessed w1th mnking sure her child1en do the right thing at all times.
,.nal retentive ars to have a compulsive seeking of order. Donna ls also a perectionlst and has a persistent
ai:r
J'.}sO she sure everything goes according to plan and when it does not she gets upset. Whenever
need to ni : set she copes by using cafleine or smoking cigarettes. Each day she smokes a least a pack
ponna gets p she seemingly gets stressed out frequently and has a highly addictive personality. She ~
of dgarettesl s~na mother: seemingly believing that her actions are for their own good but she comes off
bta ov~ ,
nil d00 d non-demonstrative as a mom.
,scold an
t'on·
aues 1 ~ the traits of Dona according to the Trait theory of Organisational Behaviour.
1
1. ExP the learning and trait approach from the above case study.
2. Compare

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