STATISTICS

Statistics
In the singular sense
statistics is a science that deals with techniques for collecting, presenting,
analyzing, and drawing conclusions from data.

In the plural sense

statistics are numerical descriptions by which we enhance the
understanding of data.
Variables
Quantitative Variables If the measurements will only be numerical values.

575cm
560cm
Example: Weight and height 130cm

Qualitative Variables If the measurements will only be categories.

Example: civil status, sex, degree program, class rank

Variables
Continuous Variables one that can take on an infinite number of values or
one that has underlying continuity

Example: Weight, height, and temperature

Discrete Variables one that can have only a finite number of values
between any two values or can take on only
designated values. A discrete variable is typically
restricted to whole countable number

Example: Class attendance from day to day, number of

people per municipality
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale is the process of classifying different objects into categories
based upon some defined characteristics
Example:
Gender: Male or Female
Civil Status: Single, Married, Widow/er, Divorce/ Separated

Ordinal Scale numbers are assigned to the categories. In this case, however,
the numbers are assigned according to the amount of the
characteristic possessed

Example: 1- Very Unsatisfied

1- Good 2- Somewhat Unsatistified
2- Fair 3- Nuetral
3- Poor 4-Somewhat Satisfied
5- Very Satisfied

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Scales of Measurement
Interval Scale
is that the differences between the various levels of the
categories on any part of the scale reflect equal differences in the
characteristic measured. That is, an equal unit is established in
the characteristic measured.

Example: Achievement Test Score, Grade Point Average

Ratio Scale is a known or "true" zero point which reflects an absence of the
characteristic measured

Example: Height, Width, Area and Length

Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
the variable indicates the presence or absence of a particular
Discrete dichotomy characteristic (use of a "1" for presence of the characteristic, "0"
Examples: for absence).

a.1 marital status - single, married

a.2 correctness of response - correct, incorrect

Continuous dichotomy the available data also describe an individual or score in a two-
category classification, but the variable is assumed to have
underlying continuity, and is assumed to be normally distributed.

Example:
We might only have data on whether a child's IQ is greater than or equal to 100 ("1"), or less
than 100 ("0"). Yet IQ is a variable that has underlying continuity and is normally distributed

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Population Vs Sample
Statistic- measure or
characteristic of the sample

Select a sample from

the population

Generalize conclusions from

the sample to the population

Parameter- measure or
Population characteristic of the Sample
population

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Basic Sampling Techniques
Simple Random Sampling
- Consists of n individuals from the population
chosen in such a way that every set of n individuals
has the same chance to be selected.

- Most commonly used method is drawing name

from a hat or Lottery Method

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Basic Sampling Techniques

Systematic Sampling
- When a listing of the members of a population is readily
available and the population can also be taken to be
homogeneous with respect to the characteristic under
study.

- In doing systematic random sampling in a population of

size N using a sample size n, the sampling interval k is
given by
𝑵
𝒌=
𝒏

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Basic Sampling Techniques
Cluster Sampling
- When the selection of individual members of a
large population is impractical. In this case, it is
possible to randomly select clusters, or groups of
members, from a large population of clusters.

- However, should only be used if the clusters are

homogeneous among themselves but heterogeneous
within with respect to the characteristic under study.
Basic Sampling Techniques
Stratified Sampling

- When the population is heterogeneous, and often it

consists of several homogeneous subpopulations

- Subdivide the population into at least two different

subgroups that share the same characteristics, then
draw a sample from each subgroup (or stratum)
Basic Sampling Techniques
Stratified Sampling
- Proportional Allocation: sample units are allocated according to relative sizes of strata
𝑵𝒉
𝒏𝒉 = 𝒏( )
𝑵

Where:
nh= Sample size for hth stratum
Nh= Population size for hth stratum
N = Size of entire population
n = Size of entire sample
Summation Notation
Many of the computations required in statistics will involve adding up a set of scores. Because this
procedure is used so frequently, there is a special notation used to refer to the sum of a set of scores.

Σ The Greek letter sigma, or Σ, is used to stand

for summation
ΣX means "add all
the scores for
variable X"

N where: i is the index of the

 Xi  X1  X2  ...  X N
summation
Xi is the summand
1 is the lower limit of
i 1 the summation
N is the upper limit of the
summation
Summation Notation
When there are two variables X and Y, ΣX indicates the sum of the Xs, and ΣY refers to the sum of the Ys.
Example: i X Y
1 3 10
2 1 4
3 7 6
4 3 5
5 2 9
X = 16 Y = 34

When two variables (X and Y) are multiplied together, the product is represented by the expression XY. The
expression ΣXY means "sum the products of X and Y."
Note: ΣXY  ΣXΣY
i X Y XY
23  (9)(8)
1 2 4 8
23  72
2 3 1 3
3 4 3 12 ΣXY is the "total of the
X = 9 Y = 8 XY = 23 products" while ΣXΣY is the
"product of the totals."
Summation Notation
The squared value of a score is represented by the symbol X2. The expression ΣX2 means "sum of the
squared scores."
Note: ΣX2  (ΣX)2; (ΣX)2 means "squared total."
Example:
i X X2 30  (10)2
1 3 9
2 1 1 30  100
3 4 16
4 2 4
X = 10 X2 = 30

When two variables (X and Y) are added together, the sum is represented by the expression X + Y. The
expression Σ(X + Y) means "sum the sums of X and Y." This is equivalent to the expression ΣX +
ΣY.
Example: i X Y X+Y
1 2 4 6
2 3 1 4
Note: Σ(X + Y) = ΣX + ΣY
3 4 3 7
17 = 9 + 8
X = 9 Y = 8 (X+Y) = 17
17 = 17

The summation of the sum is the sum of the summations.

Summation Notation
When a constant value, C, is added to every score, it is necessary to use parentheses to represent the sum
of these new scores, Σ(X + C).
Example: (C= 4)
i X X+4
1 1 5
2 4 8
3 6 10
(X+4) = 23

If a constant value, C, is multiplied to every score, the sum is represented by the expression ΣCX.

Example: (C = 2) i X 2X
1 1 2 Note: Σ2X = 2ΣX
2 3 6 18 = 2(9)
3 5 10 18 = 18
X = 9 2X = 18
In general: ΣCX = CΣX.
Summation Notation N
If a constant value, C, is to be added n times, the expression is  C and this is just equal to NC.
i1
Example: (C = 4, N = 10)
10

 4  4  4  4  ...  4  10 (4)  40
i 1
10 4s

Note: Relating no. 5 and no. 7, we have:

N N N

 (Xi  C)   Xi   C  X  NC
i 1 i 1 i 1

Example: (See no. 5)

3 3 3

 (Xi  4)   Xi   4  11  3(4)  11  12  23
i 1 i 1 i 1
Summation Notation
If a and b are constants, then
N N N

 (aXi  bYi )  a  Xi  b Yi
i 1 i 1 i 1

Example: (a = 5, b = 10)

I X Y 5X 10Y 5X + 10Y
1 2 4 10 40 50
2 3 1 15 10 25
3 4 3 20 30 50
X = 9 Y=8 (5X+10Y) = 125

Σ(5X + 10Y) = 5ΣX + 10ΣY

125 = 5(9) + 10(8)
125 = 45 + 80
125 = 125